Communication Quarterly

ISSN: 0146-3373 (Print) 1746-4102 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcqu20

Organizational Citizenship Behavior,

Organizational Communication, and Burnout:
The Buffering Role of Perceived Organizational
Support and Psychological Contracts

Lori A. Brown & Michael E. Roloff

To cite this article: Lori A. Brown & Michael E. Roloff (2015) Organizational Citizenship
Behavior, Organizational Communication, and Burnout: The Buffering Role of Perceived
Organizational Support and Psychological Contracts, Communication Quarterly, 63:4, 384-404,
DOI: 10.1080/01463373.2015.1058287

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2015.1058287

Published online: 17 Aug 2015.

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 Communication Quarterly
Vol. 63, No. 4, September–October 2015, pp. 384–404

Organizational Citizenship Behavior,

Organizational Communication, and
Burnout: The Buffering Role of
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Perceived Organizational Support

and Psychological Contracts
Lori A. Brown & Michael E. Roloff

This study investigated the communicative role of perceived organizational support

and psychological contracts in fulfilling exchange relationships and buffering burnout
in employees contributing extra role time organizational citizenship behaviors
(ERT-OCB). The lens of social information processing positioned burnout as a job
attitude subject to the influence of the organization’s communication environment that
informs employees as to the value they and their extra role time contributions hold
with the organization. Participants (N ¼ d461), high school teachers coaching
debate teams from 46 states, completed questionnaires. Findings showed that both
organizational support and psychological contract fulfillment buffered the positive
relationship between ERT-OCB and burnout.

Keywords: Burnout; Debate; Extra Role Time; Forensics; Organizational Citizenship

Behavior; Organizational Communication; Organizational Support; Psychological
Contract

“Time is at once the most valuable and the most perishable of all our possession”.
–John Randolph (1773–1833), United States Congressman

Lori A. Brown (Ph.D., Northwestern University, 2007) is an Associate Professor in the Department of Infor-
mation Systems at California State University, Long Beach. Michael E. Roloff (Ph.D., Michigan State, 1975)
is a Professor in the Department of Communication at Northwestern University. Correspondence: Lori A.
Brown, California State University, Long Beach, Department of Information Systems, 1250 Bellflower
Boulevard, Long Beach, CA 90840. E-mail: lori.brown@csulb.edu

ISSN 0146-3373 print/1746-4102 online # 2015 Eastern Communication Association

DOI: 10.1080/01463373.2015.1058287
 Communication Quarterly 385
Time is precious. A devotion of one’s time is a contribution of a valued commodity
worthy of return. Foundational theories of social and economic types of relational
exchange discuss such return in terms of obligations for repayment, rates of exchange,
gratitude, and power (Blau, 1964; Homans, 1961). In the workplace, organizations and
employees typically form exchange relationships such that employees exchange time
dedicated to organizational and job-related tasks for formal organizational rewards
such as salary and benefits, which demonstrate their value to the organization.
Not all workplace relations adhere to such formal exchange. When workplace
relations are such that time committed to work is not all reciprocated with formal
rewards, employees may look to less direct organizational communication to confirm,
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in more informal exchange, that they and their contributions are valued. One way this
may occur is when employees go the extra mile for their organization, contributing
to the organization time and effort above and beyond the call of duty. This effort is
typically considered discretionary and less likely to be rewarded in the context of
the organization’s formal reward structure. These extra contributions are considered
organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) (Konovsky & Pugh, 1994; Organ, 1988)
and the employees who perform them “good soldiers” (Organ, 1988). Although OCB’s
can be extra-role, or outside the job description, most citizenship behaviors are not
strictly extra-role but rather discretionary amounts of “in-role” behavior. That is, they
are types of behaviors in the realm for which employees are compensated to perform,
but contributed at levels not specifically required or expected.
A specific form of OCB, individual initiative, involves “task-related behaviors at
a level so far beyond minimally required or generally expected levels that it takes on
a voluntary flavor” (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000, p. 524). Validated
measures of individual initiative OCB have an “in-role flavor” to them (Organ, 1988,
p. 104). More recent measures specifically look at in-role behavior beyond what is
deemed to be required, such as bringing things home to work on, checking e-mail
from home, staying late, or working weekends (Bolino & Turnley, 2005).
The present research examines workplace relations in which time committed to
in-role work is not fully reciprocated with formal rewards and posits this phenom-
enon’s implications for both the organization and the employee in terms of rewards
and costs, specifically costs to employee well-being. We further investigate how
employees may look to organizational communication to confirm through social
exchange that they and their extra contributions are valued in the organization
and the implications of such communication for employee well-being.
Organizational citizenship behavior has been studied for years. A number of
studies have sought to identify the antecedents of citizenship behavior (Bourdage,
Lee, Lee, & Shin, 2012; Kim, Van Dyne, Kamdar, & Johnson, 2013; LePine, Erez,
& Johnson, 2002; Organ & Ryan, 1995; Ueda & Ohzono, 2013) and the implications
of such behavior for effective organizational functioning and success (Dekas, Bauer,
Welle, Kurkoski, & Sullivan, 2013; Podsakoff, Blume, Whiting, & Podsakoff, 2009;
Podsakoff, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Maynes, & Spoelma, 2014; Podsakoff & MacKenzie,
1994, 1997; Podsakoff et al., 2000; Walz & Niehoff, 2000). Fewer studies have exam-
ined the “dark side” of OCB, which includes lower task performance, job satisfaction,
 386 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff
and presence of organizational politics (Bolino, Klotz, Turnley, & Harvey, 2013).
Generally, implications for the organization are positive. Consequently, it is no
surprise that organizations have become somewhat dependent upon OCB (Katz,
1964; Katz & Kahn, 1978; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983).
However, despite evidence that employers are increasingly asking their employees
to put forth more effort, work longer hours, and be more accessible (Bond, Galinsky, &
Swanberg, 1997; Hochschild, 1997; Taneja, 2013), the possible negative implications,
or the dark side, of OCB’s for employees have been less studied and usually focus upon
career implications (Bergeron, Shipp, Rosen, & Furst, 2013). In addition to the orga-
nizational implications, there are personal costs associated with OCB that could
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adversely affect the well-being of employees, namely, higher levels of role overload,
job stress, lack of sleep, intentions to quit, lower levels of innovation, and work-family
conflict (Barnes, Wagner, & Ghumman, 2012; Bolino & Turnley, 2005; Vigoda-Gadot,
2007). That is to say, the “good soldier syndrome” (Organ, 1988) can have deleterious
effects on employees. Nonetheless, exploration of the OCB-employee wellness
relationship has been minimal.
Furthermore, the OCB-employee wellness connection raises additional concerns
for organization-employee relationships. The “voluntary flavor” of individual
initiative OCB can complicate these relationships in terms of appropriate recipro-
cation for extra in-role time. In an absent or imprecise “quid pro quo” employment
exchange relationship, understandably, “good soldiers” may look to more of a social
exchange from the organization as reward and validation for their extra time and
efforts. If this exchange is not met, the cost of OCB may be high for employees.

Organizational Support and Commitment as Social Exchange

Organizational support and commitment to the employee may be the social
exchange “good soldier” employees are looking for. Research on organizational
support and psychological contracts have formed a significant literature involving
the employee’s perceptions of organizational support and commitment to fulfill
promises (see Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, & Rhoades, 2001; Eisenberger,
Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986; Guest & Conway, 2002; Rhoades & Eisenberger,
2002; Robinson, 1996; Rousseau, 1989; Rousseau & Parks, 1993; Rousseau & Tijoriwala,
1998; Shore & Wayne, 1993). These studies are often framed in terms of organiza-
tional outcomes. Dulac, Coyle-Shapiro, Henderson, and Wayne (2008) explored
organizational support, and psychological contract effects and strength, in relation
to social exchange relationships between organization and employee. Coyle-Shapiro
and Shore (2007) advised that psychological contract research should focus on the
positive effects of a well-functioning employee-employer relationship on employee
health. However, the influence support and psychological contract fulfillment may
have on the wellness of organizational “good soldiers” and their effectiveness
as social exchange mechanisms has not yet been fully explored.
The present study aims to extend the literatures on employee-organization
communication and relationships, citizenship behavior, and employee well-being in
 Communication Quarterly 387
several ways. First, we seek to expand the hypothesized adverse effects of individual
initiative OCB to worker burnout. By introducing a more specific conceptualization
of individual initiative OCB–“extra role time”– this study intends to link the amount
of employee commitment of extra time to in-role work tasks to worker burnout.
Second, we seek to confirm that employees who perform more extra role time
OCB will be more likely to expect higher levels of organizational return in the form
of an informal social exchange. Third, this study aims to substantiate that the OCB-
burnout relationship can be buffered through organizational fulfillment of social
exchange obligations induced by the employee’s extra efforts in alignment with
organizational support theory, namely, through the communication systems of
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perceived organizational support (POS) and psychological contract fulfillment

(PCT-F). The mechanism by which this takes place is posited as social information
processing.

Extra Role Time Organizational CItizenship Behavior (ERT-OCB)

Organ (1988) defined citizenship behaviors as “individual behavior that is discretion-
ary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the
aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization” (p. 8). However,
individual initiative OCB is a specific type of OCB in which employees “engage in
task-related behaviors at a level that is so far beyond what is minimally required
or generally expected that it takes on a voluntary flavor” (Podsakoff et al., 2000,
p. 524). The type of behavior itself may not be voluntary. As Organ (1988) indicated,
this dimension differs more in degree than in kind. Indeed, while many individual
initiative behaviors would be considered in-role, it is the “marked level or intensity”
of these behaviors that qualifies them as a type of citizenship (Organ, 1988).
This degree of behavior is the focus of ERT-OCB. Because the amount of time-to-
task can have implications for employees and organizations, the degree of devotion
of one’s time-to-task-related behavior warrants a distinction as a type of OCB worthy
of study. This OCB is not considered for the type of behavior but rather the amount
of time dedicated to extra-role or in-role behaviors that exceed minimal organiza-
tional requirements or general expectations.
ERT-OCB may have deleterious effects on employees. Working long hours is
a predictor of ill-health (Akerstedt et al., 2002; Halbesleben, 2009; Harrington,
1994; Sparks, Cooper, Fried, & Shirom, 1997), and the fatigue associated with extra
role hours is associated with increased risk for injury, infection, and accidents (Rosa,
1995). ERT-OCB may hold similar wellness risks to employees in the form of worker
burnout, which includes physical and psychological dimensions.

Burnout
Burnout refers to a “wearing out” from the pressures of work (Freudenberger, 1974).
It is a chronic condition that results as day-to-day work stressors take their toll on
employees (Miller, 2000). There have been many definitions of burnout; however,
 388 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff
most definitions share a view of burnout as a state of fatigue and emotional exhaus-
tion that is the end result of a gradual process of disillusionment.
Today, the most commonly accepted definition of burnout is the three component
conceptualization used by Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter (2001) consisting of
emotional exhaustion (feeling that one’s emotional resources are used up), deperso-
nalization (felt distance from others), and diminished personal accomplishment
(decline in feelings of job competence and achievement). According to Freudenber-
ger and Richelson (1980), burnout is the high cost of high achievement and thus
tends to afflict people with high goals and expectations when entering such social
service professions as teaching (Maslach & Pines, 1977), where idealistic goals can
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spur an increase in commitment beyond that prescribed by the letter of the employ-
ment contract. In describing people prone to burnout, Freudenberger and Richelson
asserted, “Initially, they are full of good intentions, and they give it their all and more,
in order to attain a hoped for good sense of self (p. 179).” This “giving it their all” often
translates into excessive workloads (Schaufeli, Maslach, & Marek, 1991). Reasonably,
employees with high goals and expectations are likely candidates to contribute ERT-
OCB to the organization.
“Giving it their all” may not be the only factor in burnout related to ERT-OCB.
A gradual disillusionment may occur when this well-intentioned extra contribution
is not reciprocated by the organization with the social support that fosters the “hoped
for good sense of self.” This disillusionment could cause the worker to feel his or her
efforts are not appreciated or valued. Both the strain of giving it their all and the
gradual disillusionment that accompanies lack of reciprocity may well contribute
to a vulnerability to burnout.

Communication and Burnout

Communication provides a critical role in many models of burnout. One theoretical
framework particularly useful in considering the role of communication in the
burnout process is social information processing (SIP) theory (Salancik &
Pfeffer, 1978).

Social information processing

Salancik and Pfeffer (1978) proposed that job attitudes can be best understood in
terms of the “informational and social environment within which behavior occurs
and to which it adapts” (p. 226). Perceptions of the workplace and job attitudes
are a function of the communication environment in which workers are imbedded
rather than as a function of the objective characteristics of jobs and needs of employ-
ees. The conceptualization of burnout as a job attitude that could be influenced by
the communication of salient others makes the SIP applicable to its study (see Miller,
Ellis, Zook, & Lyles, 1990). Particularly, the organization, as personified by the
employee, is a salient source of information regarding the value an employee and
his or her efforts hold within the organizational context.
 Communication Quarterly 389
Prior research supports the efficacy of this conceptualization. Social information
processing theory has already extended to the area of stress, anxiety, and burnout
by suggesting that information received about the work environment can have
a substantial impact on the degree to which workers are anxious about organizational
events (see Miller & Monge, 1985; Miller et al., 1990; Zalesny & Farace, 1987). Thus,
the SIP approach posits that workplace communication can provide information that
aids employees in interpreting and dealing with stressful situations (Miller et al.,
1990). Allen (1992) found that the perceived communication relationship with top
management personifying the organization was a strong predictor of perceptions
of organizational support and employee value. The present research further suggests
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workplace communication can provide information that aids employees in

interpreting their value to the organization and, in doing so, have the potential to
reduce stress from ERT-OCB, fulfill the social exchange begun by ERT-OCB, and
avoid or offset the process of burnout.

Social Support as Messages of Value

The effects of social support on stress and burnout have received extensive attention
in scholarship (Boren, 2014; Halbesleben, 2006; Miller et al., 1990). Social support
appears to have a positive effect on employee well-being (Baran, Shanock, & Miller,
2012). Several studies have associated perceived social support from co-workers or
supervisors from a variety of work environments with lower reported levels of the
burnout components (Burke, Greenglass, & Schwarzer, 1996; Constable & Russell,
1986; Jackson, Turner, & Brief, 1987; Lewin & Sager, 2008; Sochos, Bowers, &
Kinman, 2012). Pines, Aronson, and Kafry (1981) found that employees are able
to withstand great amounts of work stress if they feel that their work is valued
and appreciated by others. However, in the absence of feedback affirming that
work, the stressors experienced can overwhelm. Though workplace social support
has been studied through supportive conversations with co-workers, supervisors,
and even top management in the organizational setting (see Allen & Brady, 1997;
Kahn, Schneider, Jenkins-Henkelman, & Moyle, 2006), perceived support stemming
from the organization overall as a communication variable informing employee value
has been largely unexplored with regard to burnout.

Perceived organizational support

Organizational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986) supposes that, to determine
the organization’s readiness to reward increased work effort and to meet socioemo-
tional needs, employees develop global beliefs concerning the extent to which the
organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. According
to organizational support theory, employees tend to assign an organization human-
like characteristics (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Perceived organizational support (POS)
is developed when, on the basis of the organization’s personification, employees view
their favorable or unfavorable treatment as an indication that the organization favors
 390 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff
or disfavors them or finds their efforts important to organizational goals (Allen,
1995). Organizational support theory also addresses the psychological processes
underlying consequences of POS. One consequence is that POS should strengthen
employees’ beliefs that the organization recognizes and rewards increased performance.
Additionally, favorable opportunities for rewards serve to communicate a positive
valuation of employees’ contributions and thus contribute to POS. Thus, POS can serve
as a communicator variable to help employees interpret their organizational value.

Psychological contract
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Rousseau (1989) defined the psychological contract as an individual’s belief

regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that
focal person and another party. A psychological contract emerges when one party
believes that a promise of future return has been made, a contribution has been
given, and, thus, an obligation has been created to provide future benefits (Robinson
& Rousseau, 1994). As beliefs in reciprocal and promised obligations, psychological
contracts can, when violated, generate distrust, dissatisfaction, and possibly the
dissolution of the relationship (Argyris, 1960; Rousseau, 1989). Robbins, Ford, and
Tetrick (2012) found that psychological contract breach contributed to the prediction
of strain-related indicators of employee health. Returns on such promises may
become particularly important to employees who rely upon them to help fulfill the
social exchange obligation created by ERT contributions and who are looking to
organizational messages that inform as to their value as an employee.
As Blau (1964) differentiated economic from social exchange based upon the
nature of future return for contributions, Rousseau and Parks (1993) distinguished
psychological contracts that parallel these exchange relationships. We suggest that
psychological contracts function as elements of a social, rather than economic,
exchange relationship when the employee’s contribution is discretionary. In this
respect, discretionary fulfillment of a psychological contract functions as a communi-
cation variable representing the organization’s commitment to fulfill their promises,
regardless of formal exchange agreements. This commitment sends a message to the
employee that the organization values him or her and the extra role-time work and
can serve to decrease an employee’s uncertainty regarding the unknown value they hold.
It is the fulfillment of the promise serving as social support through an enduring
relationship with the organization that can help buffer burnout amongst ERT-OCB
employees. When promises are not fulfilled, the message from the organization is that
the employee is not valued enough to follow through on promises made to him or her.

Hypotheses
Collectively, these findings from the literature lead to three hypotheses:
H1: The amount of extra role time spent on the job will be positively related to the
extent to which the employee believes his or her employer is obligated to provide
reciprocation based on an implicit or explicit promise or understanding
(psychological contract).
 Communication Quarterly 391
H2: The amount of extra role time spent on the job will be positively related to
burnout, but this relationship will be of greater magnitude among those who
report that they receive very little organizational support than among those
who report they receive a high degree of organizational support.
H3: The amount of extra role time spent on the job will be positively related to
burnout, but this relationship will be of greater magnitude among those who
believe the organization did not live up to their psychological contract than
among those who believed the organization lived up to their contract.

Method
Sample and Procedure
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Participants for this study were high school teachers who also coach their school’s
speech and debate team. In total, 461 participants from 46 states and the District
of Columbia completed the online questionnaire. Of the 461 respondents, 208 were
men (45%) and 253 were women (55%). The participants reported teaching at both
public (89%) and private (11%) high schools in urban (23%), suburban (56%), and
rural (21%) locations. Participants reported teaching 1–5 years (30%), 6–10 years (22%),
11–15 years (16%), 16–20 years (8%), or >20 years (24%). Reported years coaching
forensics were similar at 1–5 years (34%), 6–10 years (24%), 11–15 years (15%),
16–20 years (8%), or >20 years (19%).
A website was created and customized for this study instrument. Participant
recruitment was linked to affiliation with coaching high school speech and debate.
Potential participants were notified through an advertisement in the National
Forensic League’s (NFL) journal, the Rostrum. An email was sent to coaches who
had email addresses posted online. Additionally, the study’s website was linked to
the NFL’s official website. A snowball technique also provided participants an opport-
unity to notify other forensic coaches of the study directly from the survey website.
The significance of this sample for the present study is substantial. American second-
ary school teachers spend 1,051 hours per 36-week school year teaching and another 327
hours of required work time at school (OECD, 2011). When hours spent on work at
home and outside the classroom for general teaching assignments are added, the total
is 1,998 hours on teaching work per year. This is more than the average full time worker’s
1,932 hours over 48 weeks (Fleck, 2009). Teachers who take on extra role activities into
personal evening and weekend time, such as coaching forensics, are investing their
personal resources into extra role time behavior. The extent of this time spent as juxta-
posed with formal compensation exchange warrants this behavior as potential ERT-OCB.
According to forensics research, forensics coaches “give it their all.” Studies
describe high goals and expectations, rigorous and extended schedules, health risks,
and reported burnout amongst college forensics coaches (Dickmeyer, 2002; Gill,
1990; Klopf & Rives, 1965; Leland, 2004). This makes this group interesting and
worthwhile to study in terms of role time, burnout, and support. This study also
answers a longstanding call for scholarly attention to burnout amongst forensics
coaches that builds upon the anecdotal reports and specifically defines, operationa-
lizes, and measures it (Preston, 1995; Richardson, 2005).
 392 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff
Only data from coaches who worked full time as a high school teacher and also
elected to coach their school’s forensics team were used. Participants reported con-
tributing an average of 15.5 hours per school week to coaching responsibilities above
and beyond their expected classroom time, and an average of 15 weekends per school
year at speech and debate tournaments lasting an average of 12–15 hours per day,
often overnight (approximately 825 hours). Forty-six in the sample (10%) reported
that they received no financial compensation for their coaching. Of those who were
compensated, the average reported stipend was between $500 and $2,000 per year for
coaching, which relates to an approximate average of $0.61–$2.43 per hour of work
contributions reported, not including any overnight (out of town) tournament
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hours or summer work that are also reported and add significantly to total hours.
Compensation was measured with a scale of seven ranges $0, $500–2,000, $3,000–
5,000, $6,000–10,000, $11,000–15,000, $16,000–20,000, and >$20,000. According
to the conceptualization of individual initiative OCB (Podsakoff et al., 2000) and
previous measures employed in the OCB literature (Bolino & Turnley, 2005),
we believe that these behaviors fit under the umbrella of compensation for their
in-role nature but go beyond reasonable expectations to qualify as ERT-OCB.

Measures
As a part of a larger study, participants completed an online questionnaire. Scale
scores were computed by averaging together the appropriate items for all multi-item
scales. All descriptive statistics, reliability coefficients, and inter-scale correlations are
presented in Table 1.

Burnout
Burnout was measured using a scale adapted for this study from Maslach and
Jackson’s (1986) Maslach Burnout Inventory. Twenty-two items from the MBI were

Table 1 Scale Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities and Correlations

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Gender 0.55 0.50 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.03
Years Coaching 2.52 1.49 0.04 0.17*** 0.10* 0.11* 0.12* 0.16***
Compensated 0.90 0.30 0.08 0.14** 0.09* 0.11* 0.07
ERT-OCB 3.41 0.96 0.70 0.18*** 0.07 0.01 0.20*
PCT-0 3.59 0.87 0.81 0.15*** 0.19*** 0.05
POS 4.56 1.16 0.97 0.56*** 0.40***
PCT-F 2.80 0.94 0.84 0.23***
Burnout 2.98 0.93 0.93
Note. N ¼ 461.
a
Gender: 0 ¼ male, 1 ¼ female.
b
Compensation: 0 ¼ uncompensated, 1 ¼ compensated
Reliability coefficients for multi-item scales reported along diagonal.
*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001.
 Communication Quarterly 393
augmented with six additional items from the Teacher Attitude Survey (TAS) (Farber,
1984). Respondents indicated the frequency of agreement with each statement on
a seven-point Likert-type scale (0 ¼ never, 6 ¼ every day).

Perceived organizational support

Prior studies surveying many occupations and organizations provided evidence for the
high internal reliability and unidimensionality of the Survey of Perceived Organizational
Support (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Shore & Tetrick, 1991; Shore & Wayne, 1993). We used
the 36-item version, including, “The school values my contributions to the school’s
well-being” and “Even if I did the best job possible, the organization would fail to notice
(reversed).” Respondents indicated the extent of agreement with each statement
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on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree, 7 ¼ strongly agree).

Psychological contract obligation (PCT-O)

Measurement scale of potential promises of support for our particular sample
population was constructed following models of previous psychological contract
measurements (Robinson, 1996; Rousseau & Tijoriwala, 1998), and based upon focus
groups, interviews, and fundamental pre-testing of proposed items. Respondents
measured the extent of perceived organizational obligation to provide reciprocation
based on an implicit or explicit promise or understanding (psychological contract) on
a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ not at all obligated, 5 ¼ very obligated). There were eight
items including “increased funding for speech and debate program,” and “equitable
treatment compared to other coaches on campus.”

Psychological contract fulfillment (PCT-F)

The eight items from PCT-O scale were duplicated for this scale. Respondents indi-
cated the extent of perceived fulfillment for each item promised by the organization
on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ not at all fulfilled, 5 ¼ very well fulfilled). Both the
PCT-O and the PCT-F are available from the authors on request.

Extra role time OCB (ERT-OCB)

A three-item scale was constructed from extra role time behaviors adapted for our
particular sample population based upon focus groups, interviews, and fundamental
pre-testing of proposed items with teacher-coaches. Respondents reported the (a)
weekends spent on coaching activities, (b) evening hours spent on coaching activities
during the school week, and (c) total extra role time hours spent coaching per week.
With one exception, the alphas for the aforementioned scales are above 0.80.
Only the alpha for ERT-OCB is modest, 0.70.

Results
Preliminary Analyses
Prior to testing our hypotheses, we conducted three preliminary analyses based
on the correlations among the variables used when testing the hypotheses. Table 1
contains the bivariate correlations.
 394 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff
First, we tested several assumptions upon which our hypotheses were based. Two
of our hypotheses assume that ERT-OCB will be positively associated with burnout.
ERT-OCB was significantly positively related to burnout. Additionally, we reasoned
that burnout would be negatively related to POS and PCT-F. We also found support
for this reasoning. Burnout was significantly negatively related to POS and PCT-F.
Second, because we used a correlational design, it is important that we control for
variables that might confound our results. We chose three. Some research has found
gender differences with regard to worker burnout, and we felt it was important to
control for it (Purvanova & Muros, 2010). In addition, years worked in a position
are related to burnout, so we controlled for years spent coaching (Brewer & Shapard,
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2004). Finally, because receiving a stipend for coaching could carry with it
expectations for additional time coaching, we controlled for whether subjects
received financial compensation or not. No statistically significant relationships were
found between gender and the variables contained in our hypotheses. Years coaching
was significantly related to burnout, PCT-O, and PCT-F. Being compensated was
positively related to feelings of POS, PCT-O, and PCT-F. However, the correlation
between being compensated and burnout was not statistically significant.
Finally, we examined the degree to which our predictor measure and moderators
were intercorrelated. ERT-OCB was significantly and positively related to PCT-O but
not significantly related to either POS or PCT-F. POS was significantly and positively
related to PCT-O and PCT-F. PCT-O was positively related to PCT-F. Although
some statistically significant correlations were found, most were of modest size.
However, the scale score correlation between POS and PCT-F is relatively high
(0.56). To control for the correlation between the two moderators, when testing
hypotheses using one, we will include the other as a covariate.

Analytic Overview
H1 was tested with hierarchical multiple regression. On Step 1, PCT-O was regressed
against the three covariates, and on Step 2, it was regressed against extra-time spent
on the job. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were tested using moderated regression. Both
moderated regression analyses were conducted with the PROCESS macro for SPSS
(Hayes, 2014). When testing H2, on the first step of the regression, the covariates
were entered, on the second step, extra-time spent on the job and POS were entered,
and on the last step, the interaction term of extra-time spent on the job and POS was
entered. The same procedure was used when testing H3 except that PCT-F was
substituted for POS. If the increment of variance accounted for by the interaction
was statistically significant, we then examined the relationship between extra-time
spent on the job and burnout at the 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th percentile of
the moderator (POS for H2 and PCT-F for H3). By using percentiles, we assure that
the relationships are tested within the actual range of the moderator (Hayes, 2014).
The standardized regression coefficients (β) will be reported for additive models, and
as is conventional, all statistics associated with the moderated regressions will be
unstandardized regression coefficients (B).
 Communication Quarterly 395
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis 1
H1 predicted that the amount of extra-role time spent on the job would be positively
related to PCT-O. The results are in Table 2. When entered on the first step, the
covariates accounted for a statistically significant increment of variance in PCT-O,
but statistically significant relationships were only found with years coaching and
being compensated. On the second step, extra-time spent on the job also accounted
for a statistically significant increment of variance and as predicted, the standardized
coefficient is positive. H1 is confirmed.
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Hypothesis 2
H2 predicted the amount of extra-role time spent on the job would be positively
related to burnout, but this relationship would be of greater magnitude among those
who reported that they receive very little organizational support than among those
who reported they receive a high degree of organizational support. Table 3 contains
the results of the moderated regression analysis. When entered on the first step, the
covariates accounted for a statistically significant increment of variance in burnout,
and a statistically significant negative relationship was found with years coaching and
PCT-F and a positive one with compensation. On the second step, extra-time spent
on the job and POS also accounted for a statistically significant increment of
variance, and statistically significant relationships were found between burnout
and both predictors. As predicted, the interaction of extra-time and POS accounted
for a significant increment of variance when entered on the third step and
the unstandardized coefficient for the interaction term was statistically significant.

Table 2 Multiple Regression of POS-O on Gender, Years Coaching, Compensated and

ERT-OCB
Variables Β R2 R2Δ

Step 1: 0.03** 0.03**

Gender 0.05
Years Coaching 0.09*
Compensated 0.14**
Step 2: 0.06*** 0.02***
Gender 0.05
Years Coaching 0.07
Compensated 0.13**
ERT-OCB 0.16***
Note. N ¼ 461.
All coefficients are standardized
a
Gender: 0 ¼ male, 1 ¼ female.
b
Compensation: 0 ¼ uncompensated, 1 ¼ compensated
*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001.
 396 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff

Table 3 Moderated Regression of Burnout on Gender, Years Coaching, Compensated,

PCT-F, ERT-OCB, POS, and the Interaction of ERT-OCB and POS
Variables B R2 R2Δ

Step 1: 0.08*** 0.08***

Gender 0.09
Years Coaching 0.09**
Compensated 0.31*
PCT-F 0.21***
Step 2: 0.22*** 0.14***
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Gender 0.08
Years Coaching 0.10***
Compensated 0.30*
PCT-F 0.00
ERT-OCB 0.18***
POS 0.31***
Step 3: 0.24*** 0.02***
Gender 0.07
Years Coaching 0.09***
Compensated 0.33*
PCT-F 0.00
ERT-OCB 0.79***
POS 0.16
ERT-OCB by POS 0.13***
Conditional effects of ERT-OCB on burnout at percentiles of POS
Percentile B
10th 0.40***
25th 0.29***
50th 0.18***
75th 0.08
90th 0.00
Note. N ¼ 461.
All coefficients are unstandardized
a
Gender: 0 ¼ male, 1 ¼ female.
b
Compensation: 0 ¼ uncompensated, 1 ¼ compensated
*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001.

Consistent with H2, the positive relationship between extra-time and burnout
decreased in magnitude from the 10th percentile to the 90th percentile, and the
relationship was no longer statistically significant after the 50th percentile. Thus,
H2 is confirmed.

Hypothesis 3
H3 predicted the amount of extra-role time spent on the job would be positively
related to burnout, but this relationship would be of greater magnitude among those
 Communication Quarterly 397
who believe the organization did not live up to their psychological contract than
among those who believed the organization lived up to their contract. The results
are in Table 4. As before, when entered on the first step, the covariates accounted
for a statistically significant increment of variance in burnout and a statistically
significant negative relationship was found with years coaching and POS and
a positive one with compensation. On the second step, extra-time spent on the job
and PCT-F also accounted for a statistically significant increment of variance and

Table 4 Moderated Regression of Burnout on Gender, Years Coaching, Compensated,

POS, ERT-OCB, PCT-F, and the Interaction of ERT-OCB and PCT-F
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Variables B R2 R2Δ

Step 1: 0.19*** 0.19***

Gender 0.08
Years Coaching 0.08**
Compensated 0.35**
POS 0.32***
Step 2: 0.22*** 0.03***
Gender 0.08
Years Coaching 0.10***
Compensated 0.30*
POS 0.31***
ERT-OCB 0.18***
PCT-F 0.00
Step 3: 0.23*** 0.01*
Gender 0.08
Years Coaching 0.09***
Compensated 0.33*
POS 0.30***
ERT-OCB 0.42***
PCT-F 0.29*
ERT-OCB by PCT-F 0.08*
Conditional effects of ERT-OCB on burnout at percentiles of PCT-F
Percentile B
10th 0.29***
25th 0.24***
50th 0.18***
75th 0.13**
90th 0.04
Note. N ¼ 461.
All coefficients are unstandardized
a
Gender: 0 ¼ male, 1 ¼ female.
b
Compensation: 0 ¼ uncompensated, 1 ¼ compensated
*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p < 0.001.
 398 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff
statistically significant relationships were found between burnout and both predic-
tors. As predicted, the interaction of extra-time and POS accounted for a significant
increment of variance when entered on the third step and the unstandardized
coefficient for the interaction term was statistically significant. Consistent with H2,
the positive relationship between extra-time and burnout decreased in size from
the 10th to the 90th percentile and was no longer statistically significant after the
75th. Thus, H3 is confirmed.

Discussion
Substantive Implications
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These results are noteworthy both substantively and in terms of their broader
implications for understanding workplace relationships. Substantively, it appears
from our hypothesis testing that, as expected, employees who perform higher levels
of ERT-OCB tend to believe their employer is obligated to provide more social
reciprocation in the form of support based on an implicit or explicit promise or
understanding (psychological contract). Furthermore, our testing confirms these
“good soldiers” are prone to burnout regardless of whether or not they are monet-
arily compensated for the extra role time or the amount they are paid. However, it
appears that burnout is not inevitable. Our results indicate organizations can buffer
the burnout process by rewarding their hardest working employees with little more
than creating an environment that communicates their value and significance as
human beings and employees and demonstrates gratitude for their extra time and
effort. Moreover, this need not always include the often-prohibitive economic
exchanges of pay increases, promotions, or additional formal benefits. Our results
indicate this can be accomplished by the organization supporting them emotionally
and keeping promises made to them. As the levels of perceived organizational
support and psychological contract fulfillment rose, extra role time played a weaker
role in predicting burnout. The relationship between extra role time citizenship
behaviors (ERT-OCB) and burnout was fragile. Indeed, in accord with social
information processing theory, burnout does appear to be a job attitude that can
be influenced by the communication of the organization.

Theoretical Implications
Social exchange theory
Organization-employee relationships are often studied as “quid pro quo” economic
exchange relationships. Notwithstanding the usefulness of this literature, this
conceptualization does not fully depict the complex exchange relationship that can
emerge when employees contribute ERT-OCB. As ERT-OCB pushes the boundaries
of the organization-employee relationship, a need develops for theoretical research
that stretches with it to develop explanatory hypotheses. As such, this study extends
social exchange theory to the inclusion of social rewards to fulfill an employment
exchange. The utility of this approach is born out with the results of our study.
 Communication Quarterly 399
A purely economic exchange as in the yearly stipend an employee received (or did
not receive) for coaching did not impact burnout. However, the exchange of social
rewards did. It may be the case that when an employee contributes OCB at the level
that it takes on a voluntary flavor, the personal motivations behind the OCB (i.e.,
building a winning team, commitment to students) and the reward received from
the behavior itself (awards, good sense of self, student growth, camaraderie) could
generate more of a communal-like relationship between the employee and the
organization. As such, an ongoing relationship with the organization that communi-
cates a high value to the person and his or her contribution through support and
respect for promises over the course of employment may be necessary to prevent
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burnout more so than strictly economic quid pro quo.

Organizational citizenship behavior. This study contributes to the OCB literature

by extending study of the personal effects of OCB on employees to include burnout.
Focusing on the amount of time dedicated to individual initiative OCB demonstrated
to be a key tool in the association between citizenship behavior and employee well-
being. We introduced ERT-OCB as a tool for studying employees who contribute
extraordinary amounts of time to their jobs beyond organizational requirements
regardless of the type of behavior. As our results indicate, time devoted to task related
behavior does matter considerably in the progression of burnout.

Burnout
Certainly, as considered in this article, the impact of social support upon burnout has
been well studied. Yet, the more inclusive measure of organizational support—POS
—has not been thoroughly explored for its relationship to burnout nor have
psychological contracts. The results of our study show promise for the utility of these
measures and their theoretical underpinnings in the study of worker burnout.

Perceived organizational support and psychological contracts

This research uncovers further significance and utility of these two well-studied
organizational constructs. Developing rationales for their role as social exchange
components operating as moderators to the burnout process positions them in
a unique organizational framework for study. Additionally, their conceptualization
as organizational communication variables expands their functioning as instruments
germane to organizational communication research.

Limitations and Future Research

Although we believe our findings are important and encouraging, we acknowledge
several limitations arising from our methods, sample, and measures. Our study
is cross sectional. Future research would benefit from a longitudinal design that
could measure ERT-OCB and its relationship to burnout as they progress over time.
Additionally, our population was a purposive sample of teachers, a population
 400 L. A. Brown & M. E. Roloff
already reputed for extra role time and burnout. The results of a similar study may
not show such robust findings in other samples. Moreover, our sample shows
a predominant mid-level burnout. Perhaps those who are the most burned out are
too exhausted to be in the sample or have quit coaching. Their absence could have
influence upon our results. The effect sizes establishing POS and PCT-F as buffering
agents of burnout were small, leaving significant room for further investigation of
other defenses to burnout for “good soldiers.”
The study limitations endorse a measure of caution when considering our results;
however, we believe our study suggests several opportunities for future research.
Organizations need their employees to engage in OCB. There is valuable knowledge
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to be gained by finding ways to keep the most dedicated of employees from burning
out. Dedicating extra role time OCB would seem to be just one characteristic of
employees so committed to their jobs. Future research might examine additional
antecedents for such commitment, such as organizational or professional identity.
Drawing upon these results, additional social means for buffering deleterious effects
of such commitment would seem to be an area of importance for both organizations
and employees. Perhaps individual differences or additional organizational factors
influence the OCB-employee well-being relationship. Finally, the role of communi-
cation in the aforementioned processes is an area that had not been studied broadly.
Future explorations into the role communication plays in influencing job attitudes
seem prudent. Further research into the roles of perceived organizational support
and psychological contracts as communication variables appears promising for
organizational communication research.

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