What is Ethics?
Anthropocentric Epoch
• The term philosophy comes from two
Greek words "philos" which means
"love," and "sophia" which means
"wisdom." Etymologically, philosophy
means "love of wisdom," thus, a
philosopher is a "lover of wisdom."
• Wisdom here does not mean wisdom
of your learnings by reading books or
becoming a topnotcher in the exam,
rather it refers to holistic
understanding of human existence,
on how you ought to live and process
your daily experience to reflect and
discover the meaning of life
Stages of Development in
Philosophical Study
The development in the study of
Philosophy can be divided basically
into Three Major Epochs:
1. Cosmocentric Epoch
- ANCIENT EPOCH
- The focus of their thought is to study
the origin / the “primordial stuff” of
the universe.
- THALES
- ANAXIMANDER
- PLATO, etc.
2. Theocentric Epoch
- MEDIEVAL EPOCH
- The focus of their thought is to know
what/who controls everything or
whether there is God or there is no
God.
- ST. AUGUSTINE THOMAS
AQUINAS, etc.
3.
- MODERN EPOCH
- The focus of man’s thought
is directed towards himself,
asking “who am I?” “What
am I here for?” “How should
I behave with others?”
- RENE DESCARTES
- FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE
- I. KANT, Etc.
Moral Philosophy 
- Moral philosophy is the
branch of philosophy that
contemplates what is right
and wrong. It explores the
nature of morality and
examines how people
should live their lives in
relation to others.
Ethics Defined
Ethics is the science of the morality of
human conduct.
 Human conduct is free,
knowing, deliberate human
activity. Such activity is either in
agreement and disagreement
with the dictates of human
reason. Now the relation
(agreement or disagreement) of
human activity with the dictates
of reason is called MORALITY.
 Ethics deals with the morality of
human conduct.
 The term ETHICS is derived
from the Greek word “ethos,”
which means “a characteristic
way of acting.”
ETHICS is the practical science of
the Morality of Human Conduct
A. Ethics is a science.
 A science is a relatively
complete and systematically
arranged body of connected
data together with the causes or
reasons by which these data
are known to be true.
 it is a complete and
systematically arranged body of
data which relate to the morality
of human conduct; and it
presents the reasons which
show these data to be true.
C. Ethics is a science of human
conduct.
 By human conduct we mean
only such human activity as is
deliberate and free.
 A deliberate and free act, as act
performed with advertence and
motive, an act determined
(chosen and given existence)
by the free will is called a
human act.
 Acts performed by human
beings without advertence, or
without the exercise of free
choices, are called acts of
man.
Human Acts
Actions done Consciously and freely
by the agent or by man
Essential Qualities of Human Acts:
1. Knowledge of the act
2. Freedom
3. Voluntariness
Human Acts vs. Acts of Man
Acts of Man
Actions beyond one’s
consciousness; not
dependent on the intellect &
the will
Essential Qualities of Acts of
Man:
1. Done without knowledge
2. Without consent
3. Involuntary
ETHICS is the practical science of
the Morality of Human Conduct
 Ethics is a science of human
conduct.
 The constituents of the Human
Act are knowledge, freedom
and voluntariness.
D. Ethics is the science of the
morality of human conduct.
 Human conduct is free,
knowing, deliberate human
activity. Such activity is either in
agreement and disagreement
with the dictates of human
reason. Now the relation
(agreement or disagreement) of
human activity with the dictates
of reason is called MORALITY.
  Ethics studies human activity to
determine what it must be to
stand in harmony with the
dictates of reason. Hence,
Ethics deals with the morality
of human conduct.
E. The term ETHICS is derived
from the Greek word ethos,
which means “a
characteristic way of acting.”
 Now the characteristic mark of
human conduct is found in the
free and deliberate use of the
will: in a word, this characteristic
is found in human acts. Thus
we perceive that the name
ETHICS is suitably employed to
designate the science of human
acts, of human conduct.
 MORALITY is derived from the
Latin word mos, moris which
means “character, behavior,
morals, custom, or habit.”
 Thus we understand ETHICS
as the same as MORAL
PHILOSOPHY or MORAL
SCIENCE.
Ethics & Moral Philosophy
(Difference) Morality and Ethics
according to M. Velasquez:
 Morality pertains to standards of
right and wrong, usually
inherited from a community.
But… Ethics studies standards of right
and wrong, the act of making a
decision, the nature of the agent who
makes the decision.
Branches of Moral Philosophy
1. Meta-Ethics – concerning the
theoretical meaning and
reference of moral propositions,
and how their truth values (if
any) can be determined.
 It answers the questions: What
is morality? What is justice? Is
there truth? How can I justify my
belief as better than the beliefs
held by others?
2. Normative Ethics – concerning
the practical means of
determining a moral course of
action.
 Answers the question: What we
ought to do?
3. Applied Ethics – concerning
what a person is obligated (or
permitted) to do in a special
situation or a particular domain
of action; looks at controversial
topics like war, animal rights
and capital punishment.
 Answers the question: should
we lie to help a friend or co-
worker?
Importance of Ethics
Basic principles of ethics can help us
lead a more fulfilling life whether on a
personal or professional level.
However, our commitment to act in
accordance with ethical principles is
often challenged, perhaps because of
pressures or being confronted by a
moral dilemma that poses us a
seemingly equally important values
and you are left unable to decide on
the matter.
Knowing the principles in ethics and
morality will give you enough tools in
critical decision making in most aspect
of your lives. In addition, ethics is
important because of the following:
1. It satisfies basic human
needs – viz., being fair, honest
and ethical. Every employee
desires to himself and to work
for an organization that is fair
and ethical in its practices.
2. It creates credibility – an
organization driven by moral
values is respected in the
society. A company known to
have a good corporate
governance and social
responsibility initiatives will have
a good impression to people.
3. It unites people and leaders –
an organization driven by moral
values is revered by its
employees. This reflects
behaviors of people within the
organization.
4. It improves decision-making
– decisions are driven by
values. Man’s destiny is the
result of all decisions he takes
in life, and it is all founded on
the values he has.
5. It secures the society – ethics
often succeeds because there
is a law safeguarding the
society. At the times the law is
not helping a great deal, ethics
can. Ethics tries to create a
sense of right and wrong in the
organizations specially when
the law fails, ethics may stop
the organization from harming
the society or the environment.
For example, the Code of Ethics
is used to determine discipline
procedures and the acceptable
behavior for all people in an
organization.
Why Should Students Study Ethics?
1. Ethics allows you to live an
authentic and meaningful life.
2. Ethics make you more
successful.
3. Ethics allows you to cultivate
inner peace.
4. Ethics provides for a stable
society.
5. Ethics may help out in the
afterlife.
Four Postulates of Actions in Ethics
1. That there are actions which are
right or wrong and good or bad;
2. That there are actions which
man is obligated and not
obligated to do;
3. That man is responsible for his
actions; and
4. That right actions are
rewardable and wrong actions
punishable.
Man as the Sole Moral Agent
Man is the only moral being by virtue of the
following reasons:
1. Man is a being of action.
Man acts and knows his act. Because he
knows his acts, he knows he is responsible for
his actions.
2. Man has intellect.

His intellect enables him to know, to know

what is right or wrong and good or bad
actions.

3. Man has will.  

Man is free to act or not to act. Man's will

equips man with the power to choose either
good or bad and right or wrong actions. It is
his will that enables him to enjoy freedom to
act or not to act and freedom to choose what
course of action to perform.

People who are not capable of rationality are

not moral agents.

Rational being is the only moral agent

A. Man as an animal

Brutes do acquire knowledge through the

senses. Their senses, undoubtedly, are their
indispensable medium of knowledge. As an
animal, man also acquires knowledge through
his senses.
By appetency, we mean the drive to seek or
to strive for something. Brutes are driven to
seek for something out of their instincts.
Instincts are natural biological drives of
animals. Thus man, being an animal is also
subject of these drives.
B. Man as a rational animal
It is being rational that makes man a man. It is
only in this context that man is to be
understood as a moral being or agent. Being
rational, man’s knowledge does not stop in
the senses since his sensual knowledge
(perception) is further processed by his
intellect in the form of abstraction.
INTELLECT and WILL
INTELLECT and WILL are correlative faculties
that are intrinsically endowed in man as the
moral agent.
To understand the difference between the
two, let's consider another diagram:
 Because man is a moral being, man
possesses intellect and will. Through
his intellect, man knows and can
know right or wrong actions.
 Through his will man can choose
between good or bad actions.
 Man's intellect makes him capable of
understanding right or wrong actions;
 When man is in possession of truth,
then, he can practice what he knows
(wisdom) while his exercise of good
makes him virtous (Roman's "vir"
which means "man,") thus, the term
virtus means "what is proper to man.“
(Pagpapakatao)
  Man is will-bound to choose what is • Moral standards are the sum of
right and what is good - which is the combined norms and values.
moral imperative demanded in ethics.
Norms + values = moral standards
Intellect Description • On the other hand, values are
understood as enduring beliefs or
Wisdom Highest goal statements about what is good and
desirable or not for example, we may
Truth Goal say helping the poor is good or
cheating during exams is bad.
Thinking Function

Knowing Purpose

Moral and Non-Moral Standards

• One culture may impose its own

cultural standards and others which
may result in clash in cultural values
Non-Moral Standards
and beliefs when this happens as we
may already know violence and crime • Refer to rules that are
may ensue such as religious violence unrelated to moral or ethical consider
and ethnic cleansing. ations. Either these standards are not
necessarily linked to morality or by
• So how can we address this cultural
nature lack ethical sense. Basic
conundrum/problem? This is where
examples of non-moral standards
the importance of understanding the
include rules of etiquette, fashion
difference between moral standards
standards, rules in games, and various
and non-moral ones comes in.
house rules.
Moral Standards

• Moral standards are norms that

individuals or groups have about the
kinds of actions believed to be
morally right or wrong, as well as the
values placed and what we believe to
be morally good or morally bad.
• Moral standards normally promote
the good that is the welfare and well-
being of humans as well as animals in
the environment.
• Moral standards therefore prescribe
what the humans ought to do in
terms of rights and obligations.
six (6) characteristics of moral standards
a. Moral standards involve
serious wrong or significant
benefits.
b. Moral standards ought to be
preferred to other values.
c. Moral standards are not
established by authority
figures.
d. Moral standards have the
trait of universalizability.
 e. Moral standards are based on
impartial considerations.
f. Moral standards are
associated with special
emotions and vocabulary.
Rules - Meaning and Importance of Rules
 ETIQUETTE—standards by which we
judge manners to be good or bad;
normally dictated by a socio-
economic elite
 LEGAL—standards by which we judge
legal right and wrong; in a democracy,
formulated by representative of the
people
 LANGUAGE—standards by which we
judge what is grammatically right or
wrong; evolve through use
 AESTHETICS—standards by which
judge good and bad art; usually
dictated by a small circle of art
connoisseurs
• ATHLETIC—standards by which we
judge how good or bad a game is
played; usually formulated by
governing bodies.
1. Rules are instructions that tell you
what you are allowed to do
and what you are not allowed
to do.
2. A rule is a statement telling people
what they should do in order
to achieve success or a
benefit of some kind.
3. Rules are statements that describe the
way things usually happen in
a particular situation.
4. Rules tell you the normal state of
affairs.
5. Rule influence or restrict actions in a
way that is not good for a
person.
6. Rules tell us something that is true or
should happen and then the
authority has officially
decided that it is true.
7. Rules are principles or regulations
governing conduct, action,
procedure, arrangement, etc.
Ethical Dilemma
• A dilemma is a situation where a
person is forced to choose between
two or more conflicting options,
neither of which is acceptable.
• The key here is that the person has
choices to make that will all have
results he/she does not want.
• *If a person is in a difficult situation
but is not forced to choose between
two or more options, then that
person is not in a dilemma. The least
that we can say is that that person is
just experiencing a problematic or
distressful situation.
• When dilemmas involve human
actions which have moral
implications, they are called ethical
or moral dilemmas.
• Moral dilemmas, therefore, are
situations where persons, who are
called “moral agents”, are forced to
choose between two or more
conflicting options, neither of which
resolves the situation in a morally
acceptable manner.
three conditions that must be present for
situations to be considered moral dilemmas
1. the person or the agent of a moral
action is obliged to make a decision
about which course of action is best.
2. there must be different courses of
action to choose from.
 3. no matter what course of action is  Equal treatment of all rivals or
taken, some moral principles are disputants; thus, the mediator or
always compromised. judge must practice fairness.

 In some competitions, a rule states:

“Entries had to be submitted under a
How to solve an ethical dilemma?
pseudonym to ensure impartiality in
A. Refute the paradox (dilemma): The the judging process."
situation must be carefully analyzed.
 Every stakeholder’s interests or
B. Value theory approach: Choose the people, thus in making every moral
alternative that offers the greater decision, each stakeholder interest
good or the lesser evil. should be considered.

C. Find alternative solutions: In some  One must not be arbitrary.

cases, the problem can be
 Every person should be. treated the
reconsidered, and new alternative
same way unless there is good reason
solutions may arise.
not to do so.
Critical Thinking
Foundation of Moral Principle
Critical thinking plays a large role in ethics
• The word principle came from the
because it is the process by which we
Latin word, “princeps,” which means
determine for ourselves whether or not
“a source or beginning. “A principle is,
something is right or wrong. 
that on which something is based,
• Critical thinking is a form of analysis founded, originated or initiated.
and determination of fact vs. fiction,
• A foundational moral principle is,
identifying the unknown, coming to
therefore, the universal norm upon
an understanding, etc. By taking the
which all other principles on the
path of a critical thinker, a person
rightness or wrongness of an action
develops a mental process of
are based. It is the source of morality.
evaluation which helps to determine
their ethical standards. • Where is this foundational moral
principle? It is contained in the
• By incorporating the critical thinking
natural law.
process into their mindset, it enables
them to more effectively make
decisions based upon truths and
What is natural law?
verified information, rather than
unknowns and variables.   “It is the law written in the hearts of
men.” (Romans 2:15)
By eliminating the variables, you bring to view
the plain truths which exist and make a  For theists, it is “man’s share in the
decision based upon that. Having a critical Eternal Law of God…” (A. Panizo)
approach to ethical analysis is very important
and remains one of the principle factors.  St. Thomas defines it as “the light of
natural reason, whereby we discern
Reason and Impartiality what is good and what is evil… an
imprint on us of the divine light…” (A.
Panizo)
  It is the law that says: “Do good and
avoid evil.”
 To “do good and avoid evil” is the
very foundation of moral principle
that entails man’s responsibility:
freedom.
Formation of the Will:
What is freedom?
 Freedom is human’s greatest quality
and it is a reflection of our Creator.
 Freedom is the power rooted in
reason and will, to act or not to act, to
do this or that and so to perform
deliberate actions on one’s own
responsibility.
Providers of Moral Behavior
 “Having freedom means having
responsibility. Every action you
choose further determines our
character.”
 To the degree that a person reaches
higher level of freedom, he becomes
capable of higher levels of morality.
 External Freedom is a freedom from
factors outside ourselves that limit or
destroy our free will. Internal
Freedom is a freedom from interior
factors that limit our free will.
 True Freedom is always oriented
toward the good. We should not
understand freedom as the possibility
of doing evil.
Elements of Moral Agent
Training of the Intellect:
 To seek the purpose
 To grasp universal truths
 To understand and reason out truths
and moral precepts and relate them
to life
 To make judgments based on an
objective standard of morality
 To analyze the cause and effect of
decisions and behavior
 To solve problems critically and
rationally
 To love the Supreme Being and
neighbor
 To choose the higher good/universal
truths and moral values
 To act upon a decision
 To take the rational and logical
consequences of a decision and act
 To make responsible use of freedom
 To exercise self-discipline and control
the emotions
 To persevere, sustain and commit
 To change and improve
 To practice virtues and good moral
habits
1. Culture
• Culture is derived from Latin word
“cultus” which means “care” – a care
and attention provided to a human
person as he grows into a mature
person.
• According to a theorist, Allan G.
Johnson, culture is the sum of
symbols, ideas, forms of experience,
and material products associated with
a social system.
• It is a dynamic medium through which
societies create a collective way of life
reflected in such things as belief,
values, music, literary, arts, dance,
science, religion, ritual, technology,
and others.
• It is a social heritage of a society
transmitted from one generation to
the next through language.

Two types of culture that influences the
person’s moral behavior
a. Material Culture – refers to the concrete
and tangible things that man creates and
uses. This includes dwelling units, tools,
weapons, clothings, books, machines,
artifacts, relics, fossils, etc.
b. Non-Material Culture – refers things or
intangible objects that a person uses,
follows, professes and other things that
he strives to conform with. It includes
knowledge, laws, lifestyle, teachings,
ideas, customs, moral behavior, mores,
values, language, sanctions, etc.
Providers of Moral Behavior in a Culture
a. The Family– is said to be the smallest
unit of society that plays a vital role in
the development of personality and
values formation of children. Children
are taught to follow and observe the
family’s norms, values, beliefs and
appropriate social behavior, etc...
Without all of this, the family is in
disarray.
b. The School– helps preserve,
perpetuate, modify and integrate the
conditions of human life by promoting
teachings and learnings. Through
education, knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and values are acquired,
shared and transmitted to other
members of society.
c. The Church – also plays a very
significant role in the lives of the
members. The church promotes
interaction among its members in
order to foster unity and group
solidarity. Through preaching,
listening and watching church
activities, the individual is able to
understand the meaning of his
existence.
d. The Government – exists for the
benefit of the people. It promotes
economic and socio-cultural well-
being of the people. It administers
justice, fairness; promotes progress
and development, security and
protection.
e. The Workplace – in the contemporary
world, high technology and
computerization have important roles
in the conduct of employees and
workers in the workplace. Advance
highly technical work has changed the
life of the workers. It has made their
work increasingly easy and reliable.
The advancement and increase of computing
technologies has changed the behaviors of
most people, too, especially students or out
of school youths who spend more time in
internet cafés or in their gadgets to play
online games than in their lessons or
household chores.
f. The Mass Media. The mass media as
agents of socialization are impersonal
communication aimed at a vast
audience. Mass media arise as
communication technology (first the
newspapers and then radio,
television, films, and the Internet)
spreads information on a mass scale.
The mass media have an enormous effect on
our attitudes and behavior, and on shaping
people's opinions about issues as well as what
they buy.
Universal Values
A value is universal when it has the same
value for all, same worth for all or for almost
all people.
Spheres of human value encompass morality, • Lastly, another prominent figure in
aesthetic preference, human traits, human the world of philosophy is Plato.
endeavor, and social order. Plato’s writings such as Apology
demonstrate dramatic accounts of the
It is clear that certain values are found across
events leading to his death, as well as
a great diversity of human cultures, such as
illustrating matters of concerns,
primary attribute of physical attractiveness
ethical living, and clarity of thought
(e.g. youthfulness, symmetry).
and expression.
Relativism concerning morals is known as
• “Apology” means “legal defense of
moral relativism, a philosophical stance
trial.” Plato offers to discuss about the
opposed to the existence of universal moral
defense of philosophy as a way of life.
values.
A soul is part of life, whereas, the
The claim for universal values can be soul determines the things we do
understood in two different ways: every day.

• First, it could be that something has a
universal value when everybody finds
it valuable.
• Second, something could have
universal value when all people have
reason to believe it has value.
• In the “Republic,” he argued that the
soul is divided in three parts, and
each part is a kind of desire.
Respectively, these desires are
rational, appetitive, or spirited. To be
virtuous one must understand what
is the beneficial.

Development of Moral Character

1. Aristotle (Nichomachean Ethics)

Nichomachean Ethics is a remarkable

work written in 350 B.C by Aristotle.
His work was focused on the
importance of development and
behavior among virtuous characters.

He introduced the word

“Eudaimonia,” which is relative to the
how a moral character develops. It is
an end in itself. Aristotle argued that
eudaimonia was known as a goal of a
healthy life, not as an instrument.

2. Confucius (Analects)

• He spoke more on the kindness of

human rather than spiritual concepts.
In another words, Confucius argued
that things must be clear to one’s
mind in order to function properly in
an environment.

3. Plato (in Apology, Phaedo, Republic)