03-02-2022

Nonconventional Manufacturing Processes

Course Code: MF F318
II-Sem 2021-2022

Course Instructure
Dr. Divyansh Patel
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
333031 (Rajasthan) INDIA 1

Outline of the Lecture

1 Course plan and Introduction to the course

2 Mechanical energy based machining processes

3 Thermal energy based machining processes

4 Chemical and electrochemical processes

5 FIBM and Nano-finishing

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Course plan
Course No. : MF F318
Course Title : Nonconventional manufacturing processes
Instructor-in-Charge : Divyansh Patel
Tutorial Instructure : T Lachana Dora
This course is designed to enrich theoretical and analytical knowledge about nonconventional metal cutting techniques,
Micro-manufacturing, Additive manufacturing, Reverse engineering, and characterization. The course include
understanding of important factors such as what is the principle, working and applications of advanced machining
processes and micromanufacturing. In addition, characterization of micro-manufactured features, methods of additive
manufacturing and reverse engineering & Rapid prototyping would be explored briefly to comprehend the knowledge of
Advanced manufacturing processes.
Components Duration Weightage Date Remarks
(minutes) (Marks)

Mid Semester Test 90 50 09/03-16/03 CB

Quiz 20 20 11/02, 14/04 OB
Project - 20 22/04 PPT and Product
Term paper 15 40 01/05 Presentation+Report
Comprehensive Examination 180 70 10/05 FN CB

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Term paper topics (40 marks)

SN Project SN
G1 Smart machining G11 Industry 4.0 for aerospace industry
G2 Additive manufacturing of Bio-medical implants G12 Digital twin concepts for manufacturing industry
G3 Additive manufacturing in Cancer treatment G13 Nature inspired heat exchanger technology
G4 Additive manufacturing in aerospace/aircraft industries G14 IOT in manufacturing industries
G5 Machine learning in Manufacturing G15 Biomimetics/nature inspired surfaces (BM/AS)
G6 Machine learning in additive manufacturing G16 Nature inspired self cleaning surfaces
G7 Machine learning in advanced machining G17 3D Bioprinting Technology
G8 AI/ML in quality, inspection and monitoring G18 4D Printing Technology
G9 DL/ML in automotive industries
G10 Industry 4.0 in automotive industry

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Term paper Guidelines (40 Marks)

Introduction to
Research Results and
the technology
elaboration discussion
(What?)

Significance,
Applications, Use Technical details Conclusion
case (Why?)

Literature
review/ Process Research
parameters opportunities
Published data

5 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Term paper template and guidelines

Template
Machine learning in machining

A Project Report Submitted

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
for the Course

Term paper report: Nonconventional Manufacturing Processes

By
Name 1
Max. 4 students can make a group. Name 2
Report should be a standard document with less than 10% Name 3

similarity index.
Times new roman font, Font size - 12, 1.5 spacing, 15-20 pages.
References cited in the running text should be put in the Reference
Section.
The report should to be submitted in .DOCX format only.
Explain figures and schematic diagrams appropriately. Submitted to
Follow the template provided for report writing. Course Instructure
Nonconventional Manufacturing Processes: MF F318
Jan – May, 2022
BITS-Pilani

Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Pilani

(Rajasthan), INDIA
6 Department ofMay
Mechanical
04, 2022Engineering, BITS Pilani

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3D printing project (20 Marks)

Project guidelines:
1. A new product is to be developed with some functionality
which could be manufactured through 3D printer.
❑ Product with no earlier existence
❑ Product with better design and aesthetics
❑ Product with better/added functionality
2. Max Product dimension: 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm
3. Product approval should taken on 15th Feb (from atleast 3
ideas)
4. PPT should be made according to following subheadings:
Introduction, Comparison, research gap, objective, Novelty,
methodology, Modelling and assembly, deliverables and
Conclusion
5. Final presentations should be submitted by 22nd April,
2022.
6. Best 5 products will be printed in lab.

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Syllabus

1. Mechanism and mechanics of cutting, Process parameter analysis, Process

capabilities, Applications and limitations of various non-traditional processes
(AJM, AFM, WJM, USM, MAF, MRF, EDM, WEDM, USM, PAM, LBM, EBM, FIBM,
ECM, ECG, ESD etc.)
2. Introduction to micro and nano fabrication
3. Micro-forming and Micro Joining
4. Characterization of micromachined structures
5. Additive manufacturing (Algorithm, technologies and processes such as SLA,
FDM, SLS, LOM, DMLS, LENS etc.
6. Rapid tooling and Reverse Engineering

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NMP course-plan
T Th F
T Th F
Introduction to
Week 1 18 20 21 Week 9 22 24 25 Characterization
NCM
Term paper ms

Week 2 27 28 AJM, AWJM, USM Week 10

Micro-joining

Week 3 1 3 EDM, WEDM, LBM Week 11 5 7 8

Feb April
Micro-forming
Week 4 8 10 11 ECM, CHM, ECG Week 12 12 14 15
Quiz Additive
Quiz
Week 13 manufacturing
Week 5 EBM, FIBM, PAM 19 21 22
15 18
Project
Project
Reverse Engineering
Week 6 Week 14 26 28 29
22 24 25 Nano-finishing

Week 15 3
Final report and
Rapid prototyping
Week 7 1 3 4 Micro- presentation

March manufacturing
March 9-16, Mid Sem May 07, Comprehensive

• Hassan Abdel-Gawad El-Hofy - Advanced Machining Processes (2005)

• V K Jain - Advanced machining processes 2004 Allied Publishers
• Manufacturing Science by Gosh and Malik
• Manufacturing Processes by Kalpakjian

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Manufacturing Processes

Conventional Advanced

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MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

MRPs

Traditional Advanced

Metal Cutting: Relative Motion

between workpiece & cutting edge
Cutting Finishing of tool.

Bonded Loose Cutting Tools:

Circular Other/Prismati 1. Single Point tool
Abrasive Abrasive
Shape c Shape 2. Multiple Points tool

• Lapping
• Turning • Milling • Grinding • Polishing
• Drilling • Planning • Honing
• Boring • Shaping • Coated
• Gear Cutting Abrasive
• Broaching 12
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Classification of advanced manufacturing processes

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

CLASSIFICATION of machining Methods BASED ON THE KIND OF ENERGY USED : MACHANICAL,

THERMOELECTRIC, ELECTROCHEMICAL & CHEMICAL, BIOCHEMICAL

Traditional Advanced

Turning Mechanical Thermal Chemical

Milling AJM EDM ECMM

Drilling USM EBM PCMM

Grinding AWJM LBM

AFM, MAF,
MRAFF, MPF
PAM

HYBRID

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ECSM ECG EDG ELID, etc
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Existence of Advanced Machining Processes

• Technologically advanced industries such as aeronautics, nuclear reactors,
automobiles, biomedical etc. have been demanding materials like high
strength temperature resistant (HSTR) alloys having high “strength to
weight” ratio.
• Scientists in material science are developing materials having higher
strength, hardness, toughness and other diverse properties.
• This also needs development of improved cutting tool materials so that
the productivity is not hampered.
• It is well established fact that during conventional machining processes
an increase in hardness of workpiece results in a decrease in economic
cutting speed.
• It is no longer possible to find tool materials which are sufficiently hard
and strong to cut (at economic speeds) materials like titanium, stainless
steels, nimonics and similar other HSTR alloys, fibre-reinforced
composites, stellites (Cobalt based alloys), ceramics, and difficult-to-
machine alloys.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Need of Non-Traditional Machining (NTM)

• Engineering Materials having much superior properties (ultra high strength,
hardness, very high temperature resistance)

• Limitations of conventional machining methods (workpiece hardness, surface

roughness, 3D parts, complex geometries)

• Product requirements (complex shapes, machining in inaccessible areas, low

tolerances (say, 10 μm), better surface integrity (no surface defects, etc.), High
surface finish (Ra =>nm), miniaturization of products, high MRR)

• High production rate while processing difficult –to-machine materials

• Low cost of production

• Precision and ultra-precision machining (nm range machining)

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Process requirements
• Requires much superior quality of tool materials
• Require optimum material removal rate
• Requires material removal in the form of atoms and / or molecules

Possible approaches

Modification of the Development of new

traditional approaches processes – NTM
(Ex. hot machining etc.) (Ex. USM, AJM, EDM)

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Non Traditional Machining

• Performance is independent of strength barrier

• Performance depends on thermal, electrical, magnetic or/and chemical
properties of workpiece materials
• Use different kinds of energy in direct form
• In general, low MRR but better quality products
• Comparatively high initial investment cost of machine tools and high–
operating cost

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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CLASSIFICATION OF MICROMACHINING AND NANOFINING

PROCESSES
ME F416

Advanced Machining Processes

Machining and μ-machining μ-/nano finishing

AFM
Mechanical Beam energy Chemical & electro-
μ-machining MAF
based μ-machining chemical μ-machining
MRAFF
EBM PCMM
USM MFP
LBM ECMM EEM
AJM
EDM MRF
AWJM
IBM

WJM PBM

Hybrid μ-/nano machining

ECSM EDG ELID CMP Etc. 19

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Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

• Material removal: impingement of the fine abrasive particles

• The abrasive particles are typically of 0.025mm diameter and the air discharges at a
pressure of several atmosphere.

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Abrasive Jet Machining

https://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=VrlCH1FZSJM&ab_channe
l=ADTWlearn

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Mechanism of material removal

Air + Abrasive particles
(Velocity 300-500 m/s)

Nozzle
Abrasive Wear particle
particle
Nozzle tip Nozzle diam.
distance ≈1mm
(≈0.3 to 0.5 mm)
(NTD)

Cavity
Work piece
Feed
(a) (b) Work piece (c)
• Flaring of the Jet → Cavity dimension change with a change in NTD.
• Abrasive particles repeatedly hit on the work surface.
• Brittle fracture separates out tiny particle (wear particles) to produce a cavity.
• Cavity width ≥ Nozzle inner diam. (Depends on NTD).
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• Cavity Depth → Feed rate, pressure (or velocity of the jet). 23 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

AJM: Mechanism

• Abrasive particle impinges on the work surface at a high velocity and this impact
causes a tiny brittle fracture and the following air or gas carries away the dislodged
small work piece particle.
• Material removal mechanism is erosion or chipping

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AJM: Material Removal Rate

• The process is more suitable when the work material is brittle and fragile.

• A model for the material removal rate (MRR) is available from Sarkar and Pandey,
1980.

• The MRR (Q) is given as

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AJM: Characteristics and Parameters

• The process characteristics can be evaluated by judging

1. the MRR,
2. the geometry of the cut,
3. the roughness of the surface produced, and
4. the rate of nozzle wear.

• The major parameters which control these quantities are:

1. The abrasive (composition, strength, size and mass flow rate).
2. The gas (composition, pressure and velocity).
3. The nozzle (geometry, material, distance from and inclination to the work
surface).

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AJM: Parameters
• The nozzle tip distance (NTD) or the stand off distance
✓ Responses: the MRR, the shape and size of the cavity produced

As the NTD increases,

the MRR increases
(increase in particle

MRRv
velocity due to their
acceleration)

Further increase in the

NTD, reduces the MRR
(the velocity reduces Nozzle tip distance
due to the drag of the
atmosphere) 27
27 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Fishbone diagram for Jet Machining (AJM)

Mixing Chamber
Nozzle Workpiece Parameters
Length of
Diameter Type Chamber Hardness
of Nozzle
Cross-section
of Nozzle Bore diameter
Process operation
Nozzle Geometric
Type Details • Machining Rate
• Depth of Cut
Flowability
Coherency • Kerf Quality
Traverse
Volume fraction
Mixing Ratio Speed
Pressure
Type Type
Size Pressure
Stand Off
Distance (SOD)
Abrasive
Carrier Medium Process Parameters
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AJM: Parameters
The Abrasives
• Types: (1) Al2O3 and (2) SiC (range: diameter 10-50 µm)

• Cutting action: sharp edged abrasives for good wear of surfaces

• Reuse of the abrasives: normally not recommended due to decrease in cutting

capacity and clogging of the nozzle orifices
• Mass flow rate of abrasives: depends on pressure and the flow rate of the gas

Mixing ratio (mass Abrasive mass flow

fraction of the abrasive rate:
in the jet):
an optimum value MRR increases with
increase in it

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AJM: Parameters

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑀=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠

• An increase in the value of M increases MRRv but a large value

of ‘M’ may decrease the jet velocity and sometimes may block
the nozzle
• Thus, an optimum value of mixing ratio has been observed that
gives maximum MRRv.
• In place of ‘M’, the mass ratio (α) may be easier to determine:

𝑀ሶ (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠)

α=
𝑀ሶ 𝑎 + 𝑐 (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠)

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AJM: Parameters

• The Gas
✓ Pressure: 0.2-1.0 N/mm2
✓ The composition of gas and a high velocity
has a significant impact on the MRR at
constant mixing ratio.
• The Nozzle
✓ Controls the process characteristics
✓ Nozzle material: high wear resistance (WC:
12-30 hrs or Sapphire: 300 hrs)
✓ Cross-sectional area: orifice can be either
circular or rectangular (0.05- 0.2 mm2)
✓ Nozzle Pressure
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Applications and Characteristics

1. Drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces,

deburring, polishing, and radiusing
2. Deburring of cross holes, slots, and threads in small
precision parts that require a burr-free finish, such as
hydraulic valves, aircraft fuel systems, and medical
appliances
3. Machining intricate shapes or holes in sensitive,
brittle, thin, or difficult-to-machine materials
4. Insulation stripping and wire cleaning without
affecting the conductor
5. Micro-deburring of hypodermic needles
6. Frosting glass and trimming of circuit boards, hybrid
circuit resistors, capacitors, silicon, and gallium
7. Removal of films and delicate cleaning of irregular
surfaces because
the abrasive stream is able to follow contours
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Advantages and disadvantages

• Because AJM is a cool machining process, it is best • The removal rate is slow.
suited for machining brittle and heat-sensitive
materials like glass, quartz, sapphire, and ceramics. • Stray cutting can’t be avoided (low accuracy of ± 0.1 mm)

• The process is used for machining superalloys and • The tapering effect may occur especially when drilling in
refractory materials. metals.

• It is not reactive with any workpiece material. • The abrasive may get impeded in the work surface.

• No tool changes are required. • Suitable dust-collecting systems should be provided.

• Intricate parts of sharp corners can be machined. • Soft materials can’t be machined by the process.

• The machined materials do not experience • Silica dust may be a health hazard.
hardening. • Ordinary shop air should be filtered to remove moisture
• No initial hole is required for starting the operation and oil.
as required by wire EDM.
• Material utilization is high.
• It can machine thin materials.

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WATER FALLING FROM A WATER TAP LEADING TO

A CRATER FORMATION

Elements of AWJM

•%CONCENTRATION OF SAND
•PRESSURE OF WATER JET
*DIAMETER OF THE JET
*DISTANCE BETWEEN
WP SURFACE & NOZZLE TIP

ABRASIVE PARTICLES WITH HIGH K.E.

HOW TO CUT COAL MINES?
FEAR OF FIRE
HIT THE WORPIECE
HOW TO CUT ASBESTOS SHEETS?
REMOVE MATERIAL BY
SHEARING ACTION AND DEFORMATION
FEAR OF CANCER 34
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Water Jet Machining

The key element in water jet machining (WJM) is a water jet,

which travels at velocities as high as 900 m/s (approximately
Mach 3). When the stream strikes a workpiece surface, the
erosive force of water removes the material rapidly. The water, in Jet velocities range between 540 to 1400 m/s
this case, acts like a saw and cuts a narrow groove in the
workpiece material. 35
35 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Water Jet Machining

• Hydraulic pump. The hydraulic pump is powered from a 30-
kilowatt (kW) electric motor and supplies oil at pressures as high as
117 bars in order to drive a reciprocating plunger pump termed an
intensifier.
• Intensifier. The intensifier accepts the water at low pressure
(typically 4 bar) and expels it, through an accumulator, at higher
pressures of 3800 bar. The intensifier converts the energy from the
low-pressure hydraulic fluid into ultrahigh-pressure water. The
hydraulic system provides fluid power to a reciprocating piston in the
intensifier center section.
• Accumulator. The accumulator maintains the continuous flow of
the high-pressure water and eliminates pressure fluctuations.
• High-pressure tubing. High-pressure tubing transports
pressurized water to the cutting head. Typical tube diameters are 6
to 14 mm.
• Jet cutting nozzle. The nozzle provides a coherent water jet
stream for optimum cutting of low-density, soft material that is
considered unmachinable by conventional methods.
• Catcher. The catcher acts as a reservoir for collecting the machining
debris entrained in the water jet.
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Water Jet Machining: Applications

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Elements of abrasive water Jet Machine

Injection and suspension jets

• Water delivery
• Abrasive hopper and feeder
• Intensifier
• Filters
• Mixing chamber
• Cutting nozzles
• Catcher

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Abrasive Water Jet machining (AWJM)

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmHv42wda9k&ab_channel=ADTWlearn
39 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

High pressure intensifier

High pressure pump

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Qfdn00AFv
s&ab_channel=PerformanceWaterjet
How an intensifier pump works
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbyjRT_xkpc&ab_channel=Performanc
eWaterjet
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qF4e5
WQeoNg&ab_channel=ShuttleWaterJet 40
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Nozzle of ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING

High pressure
water tube

Abrasive port

orifice

Water jet

Mixing tube

Abrasive-waterjet
A water jet and a stream of abrasives coming from two different directions,
mix up and pass through the abrasive jet nozzle.
Here, a part of the momentum of water jet is transferred to the abrasives.
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ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING: Parts

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ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING: Parts

PC and Controller

Pump Assembly
Pump
Nozzle and Abrasive hopper

3 Stage Pump
Assembly
Catcher tank
Nozzel and abrasive feed

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Principle of AWJM

▪ Finnie I. ▪ Hutching I. M. ▪ Bitter J. G. A.

1. Micro cutting 1.Cutting deformation 1.Cutting wear

2. Lateral cutting 2.Ploughing deformation 2.Deformation wear

Schematic of the flow of jet

impingement in the creation of a
channel

Momber Andreas W. and Radovan, “Principle of Abrasive water Jet Machining, Springer 1998 44 44
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AWJM: Charactersitics

• The pressure at which water jet operates is about 400 MPa

which is sufficient to produce a jet speed as high as about
900 m/s.
• Water-abrasive mixture jet exiting from the nozzle at such a
high velocity is fully capable to cut ceramics, composites,
rocks, metals, etc.
• An abrasive water jet cuts through 356.6-mm-thick slabs of
concrete or 76.6-mm-thick tool steel plates at 38 mm/min in a
single pass.
• The produced surface roughness ranges between 3.8 and 6.4 µm,
while tolerances of ± 0.13 mm.
• During machining of glass a cutting rate of 16.4 mm3/min is
achieved, which is 4 to 6 times that for metals. Surface roughness
depends on the workpiece material, grit size, and type of
abrasives.
• Carrier liquid consisting of water with anticorrosive additives has a
much greater density than air. This contributes to higher
acceleration of the grains with a consequent higher grain speed
and increased metal removal rate.

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Abrasive Water Jet machining (AWJM)

• Surface roughness depends on the workpiece material, grit size, and type of abrasives.
• A material with a high removal rate produces large surface roughness.
• For this reason, fine grains are used for machining soft metals to obtain the same roughness as hard ones.
• The decrease of surface roughness, at a smaller grain size, is related to the reduced depth of cut and the
undeformed chip cross section.
• In addition the larger the number of grains per unit slurry volume, the more that fall on a unit surface
area.
• A carrier liquid consisting of water with anticorrosive additives has a much greater density than air.
• This contributes to higher acceleration of the grains with a consequent higher grain speed and increased
metal removal rate.
• With multiple-axis and robot-controlled machines, complex three-dimensional parts can be machined to
finish dimensions.
• The optimum level of abrasives in the jet stream is controlled automatically in modern AWJM systems.

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AWJM: Effect of process parameters

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AWJM: Effect of process parameters

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AWJM: Effect of process parameters

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AWJM: Applications
Application
• Peening
• Cutting
• Pocket Milling
• Drilling
• Turning
• Nuclear Plant Dismantling
Materials
• Steels
• Non-ferrous alloys
• Ti alloys, Ni- alloys
• Polymers
• Honeycombs
• Metal Matrix Composite
• Ceramic Matrix Composite
• Concrete
• Stone – Granite
• Reinforced plastics
• Metal Polymer Laminates
• Glass Fibre Metal Laminates
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Ice Jet Machining

In ice jet machining (IJM), the abrasives are replaced by ice

particles that form the ice jet. Since the hardness of the ice
particles are less than that of the abrasives, lower material
removal rates are expected, compared to AWJM. However,
the cost reduction and the good environmental impacts
make IJM even better.

IJM is used in the food, electronic, medical, and space

industries where contamination is impossible.

Ice particles are produced using either stream freezing (<500 μm) or
ice particles supply (>500 μm) into the stream. In the latter case ice
cubes, supplied from an icemaker, are fed to a grinder.

Solid CO2 is added to prevent the crushed ice from melting as

shown in Fig. 2.28. The crushed ice is then fed through the
machining nozzle. Prior to the nozzle
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Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

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Ultrasonic machining process

• Mechanical type NTM process

• Employed to machine hard and or brittle materials

(both electrically conductive and non-conductive)

• Material is removed by the abrasive grains which

are driven into the work surface by a tool Three particles are thrown with force F1,
F2 and F3 (F3 > F2 > F1) then it will
oscillating normal to the work surface at high penetrate deeper in the wall (l3 > l2 > l1)
frequency

• In USM, the throwing force is contributed by the

tool oscillating at ultrasonic frequency

Ref : Jain, V. K., advanced Machining process, Allied Publishers, Delhi, 2002. 53 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

USM: Abrasive Slurry

• The most common abrasives: B4C, SiC, Al2O3, Diamond and Boron silicarbide

• B4C is the best and most efficient; but expensive

• SiC is used on glass, germanium and most ceramics

• Cutting time with SiC is about 20-40% more than that with B4C.

• Diamond dust is used only for cutting diamond and rubies.

• Fluid: water (the most commonly used), benzene, glycerol and oils

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Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

• Basic USM process involves –
The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures
✓ A shaped tool – the hard and brittle work surface, resulting in
❖ Hardness >40 RC the removal of the work material
❖ Material: ductile and tough
❖ Amplitude: very low
❖ Frequency: high
✓ Slurry – Fed continuously

• The tool is gradually fed with a

uniform force.

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Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jh8852sfhpw&ab_channel=ManuelSantos
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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF WORKING OF A USM SYSTEM

https://www.altrasonic.com/
https://www.bjultrasonic.com/

https://se.dmgmori.com/

Main elements and material removal mechanism of USM

Mechanism of material removal

Brittle fracture dislodging by abrasive

Main elements of USM machine

Source: Advanced machining processes by Hassan El-Hofy

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Mechanical Amplification
• The elongation obtained at the resonance frequency fr using
a magnetostrictor of length l = 0.5l is usually 0.001 to 0.1
µm, which is too small for practical machining applications.
• The vibration amplitude is increased by fitting an amplifier
(acoustic horn) into the output end of the magnetostrictor.
• Larger amplitudes, typically 40 to 50 µm, are found to be
suitable for practical applications.
• Depending on the final amplitude required, the amplitude
amplification can be achieved by one or more acoustic horns
• In order to have the maximum amplitude of vibration
(resonance) the length of the concentrator is made multiples
of one-half the wavelength of sound l in the concentrator
(horn) material.
• The choice of the shape of the acoustic horn controls the
final amplitude. Five acoustic horns (cylindrical, stepped,
exponential, hyperbolic cosine, and conical horns) have been
reported by Youssef (1976)
59

USM: Mechanics
• Possible reasons for material removal in an USM process are –
✓ The hammering of the abrasive particles on the work surface by the tool.
✓ The impact of free abrasive particles on the work surface.
✓ The erosion due to cavitation.
✓ The chemical action associated with the fluid used.

• USM material removal model: proposed by M. C. Shaw and well accepted

• Assumptions:
✓ The Q is proportional to the volume of the work material per impact.
✓ The Q is proportional to the no. of particles making impact per cycle.
✓ The Q is proportional to the frequency (no. of cycles per unit time).
✓ All impacts are identical.
✓ All abrasive grains are identical and spherical in shape.
60
60 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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REMOVAL OF MATERIAL IN 3-MODES AS PROPOSED BY LCHIDA ET. AL.

Illustration of the modes of material removal in USM

1. Mechanical abrasion by localized direct
hammering of the abrasive grains stuck between
the vibrating tool and adjacent work surface.
2. The microchipping by free impacts of particles
that fly across the machining gap and strike the
workpiece at random locations.
3. The work surface erosion by cavitation in the
slurry stream.

Impact force due to cavitation Small scale

collapse removal action by
exciting abrasive
Erosion Colliding or sliding of (Mode-C)
(Mode- A) Abrasive (Mode- B)
Size Ø 0.5 – 5 µm 0.3 – 1.5 µm 40 – 60 nm
Depth 0.05 – 1.0 0.01 – 0.3 µm 3 – 6 nm
µm
Shape Round marks Irregular shape marks Nanoscale
(wedge shaped pits marks
or scratches)

Ref: Material removal mechanism in non-contact ultrasonic abrasive machining, Y. Ichida et. al. / wear 258 (2005, 107-114)

MECHANICS OF CUTTING
❑ Material removal by ‘throwing’ and hammering’
ANALYSIS OF MRR IN USM ( M. C. SHAW’S MODEL) actions are considered.

❑ Other modes of material removal (cavitation, and

chemical action) are neglected.

❑ Radius of the crater formed due to fracture = ‘r’.

Here crater is assumed to be hemi-spherical.

❑ Radius of the crater ‘r’

r2 = R2 – (R-h)2
= R2-R2+2Rh-h2
2r ≈ 2Rh
(‘h’<< d, Hence neglecting h2)

❑ Now, volume of material removed / (grit – cycle),

(vg)
Vg = ½ (4/3 πr3)
≡ 2/3 π (2Rh)3/2
◼ Abrasive grains are spherical in shape: ‘d’ (=2R) = k1 (hd)3/2 mm3/grit-cycle
◼ Volume of the material chipped off from workpiece is equal to
half the volume of a sphere of diam. = 2r, (note: 2r ≠ d) (K1 const. In grit-cycle and h & d mm)
Where, ‘h’ is depth of penetration.
Ref : Jain, V. K., advanced Machining process, Allied Publishers, Delhi, 2002.

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ANALYSIS OF MRR IN USM ( M. C. SHAW’S MODEL)

Let ‘N’ be no. Impacts / cycle
‘N’ is an inverse function of x-sectional area of the grit
(d2 or d`2) HOW TO KNOW DEPTH OF
d' PENETRATION ‘h’ ?
N = K2/d2
d

K2 is a constant of proportionality THROWING HAMMERING

MODEL MODEL
◼ Is every grit active? (That is, does every grit hits the workpiece and
removes material?)
◼ Let ‘K’ be the probability that a grit under the tool is active
Vc (MR / CYCLE) = K x Vg x No. of impacts
= K K1 K2 (h d)3/2 / d2 = K K1 K2 √(h3/d)

Where f is frequency of tool vibration

Ref : Jain, V. K., advanced Machining process, Allied Publishers, Delhi, 2002.

ANALYSIS OF MRR IN USM ( M. C. SHAW’S MODEL)

∆T = Duration of impact
HAMMERING MODEL
Fimax = Maximum value of impact force,

TOOL MEAN POSITION Fi Force will vary with the depth of penetration by the grit
TOP MOST POSITION OF TOOL
OF TOOL (exposed contact area between the grain and
workpiece, and grain and tool)

ABRASIVE
◼ Mode of tool vibration assumed

BOTTOM MOST WORKPIECE

POSITION OF TOOL
t

A grain hammering workpiece

∆T
❑ It is assumed that the grain is hammered into the workpiece (gap T
between the bottom face of the tool & top face of the workpiece ◼ Nature of variation of force Fi as
< grit size) triangular
Fimax
❑ Mean speed of the tool → low
❑ Mean static feed force applied to the tool (F) = mean force of Fi
tool on the grit

Ref : Jain, V. K., advanced Machining process, Allied Publishers, Delhi, 2002.

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ANALYSIS OF MRR IN USM ( M. C. SHAW’S MODEL)

HAMMERING MODEL
◼ Due to this force, the abrasive will partly
1 𝑇 penetrate in the tool (hth) And partly in
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝐹𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 Mean force on the grit the workpiece (hwh) .
𝑇 0
◼ Total indentation (hh) Is given by the
1 1 Nature of variation of Fi sum of the penetration in the tool and the
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≈ . 𝐹𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 . ∆𝑇. assumed to be triangular workpiece, as follows
2 𝑇
hh = hth + hwh
◼ VARIOUS TOOL POSITIONS DURING A CYCLE

◼ Movement from A → B is due to impact on the abrasive

particle. As the tool touches the abrasive, it experiences
the resistance to move

Ref : Jain, V. K., advanced Machining process, Allied Publishers, Delhi, 2002.

ANALYSIS OF MRR IN USM ( M. C. SHAW’S MODEL)

Max. Stress developed in the w/p

HAMMERING MODEL 𝐹𝑖Max
(𝜎𝑤 ) = A
Average velocity during the quarter cycle 𝑁 𝜋𝑑ℎ𝑤ℎ
OB: Max. Stress developed in the tool
Approx. Area of
(a/2) / (T/4) = 2a/T contact per grit
𝐹𝑖Max ℎ𝑤ℎ
a/2 is amplitude of oscillations 𝜎𝑇 = = 𝜎 B
𝑁 𝜋𝑑ℎ𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑡ℎ 𝑤
If ∆T be the time required to travel from A to B (≈
hh), then Substitute the value of Fimax in eq. (A)
∆T ≈ hh /(2a/t) 4𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑎 1
= (Hth + hwh)t/(2a) (𝜎𝑤 ) = .
(ℎ𝑡ℎ + ℎ𝑤ℎ ) 𝑁𝜋𝑑ℎ𝑤ℎ

Let Favg be the average force acting during [assumption ➔ number of grits acting is inversely
one cycle, then proportional to the square of the diameter for a given area
of tool face]
1 (ℎ𝑡ℎ + ℎ𝑤ℎ ) 𝑇 1
F𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐹𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 𝐾2
2 𝑎 2 𝑇 𝑁∝ =
𝑑2 𝑑2

4F𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑎 𝐹𝑖max K2 ➔ const. of proportionality

OR, 𝐹𝑖max = (ℎ𝑡ℎ + ℎ𝑤ℎ ) Maximum force/grit =
𝑁
Ref : Jain, V. K., advanced Machining process, Allied Publishers, Delhi, 2002.

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ANALYSIS OF MRR IN USM ( M. C. SHAW’S MODEL)

HAMMERING MODEL

4𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑎𝑑 1
OR, (𝜎𝑤 ) = .
(ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑤 )𝐾2 𝜋ℎ𝑤 2 =
4𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔𝑎𝑑
ℎ𝑤
𝜋𝐾2 𝐻𝑤 (𝜆 + 1)
4𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑎𝑑
OR, (𝜎𝑤 ) =
2 ( ℎ𝑡 + 1)
𝜋𝐾2 ℎ𝑤
ℎ𝑤 Substitute the value of hw in the equation
for volumetric material removal rate to get
this can be simplified as
2 =
4𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑎𝑑
ℎ𝑤
𝜎𝑤 𝜋𝐾2 (𝜆 + 1)
3
4𝐹𝑎 4 1
Assumption: Flow stress 𝑀𝑅𝑅𝑉 = 𝐾𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑑4. 𝑓
WHERE, λ = ℎ𝑡 /ℎ𝑤 = 𝜎𝑤 /𝜎𝑡 𝜋𝐾2 𝐻𝑤 (𝜆 + 1)
σ ∝ 1/h
❑ Stress σw can be replaced by brinnel hardned
number (H). both are the same (➔ σw = Hw).
Above equation can now be simplified as
67
Ref : Jain, V. K., advanced Machining process, Allied Publishers, Delhi, 2002.

THROWING MODEL

Throwing
Fth

Tool
Grit

Workpiec
e
68

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THROWING MODEL

◼ A GRAIN IS THROWN ON TO THE WORKPIECE BY THE TOOL

◼ THE TOOL DISPLACEMENT (OR VIBRATION (Y) FROM THE MEAN
POSITION (t = 0) AT TIME t
Y = a/2 sin (π2ft)

VEL. OF TOOL = dY/dt = Ý = πaf cos (π2ft)

MAX. VELOCITY, Ý max = πaf

t=0
( for cos (π2ft) = 1)
(ASSUMING THAT THE GRIT ALSO LEAVES THE
TOOL AT THIS MAXIMUM VELOCITY, Ý max) Tool vibration

a/2
t
K.E. (= ½mv2) = ½(π/6 d3 ρa) π2a2f2 (2)

ρa =density of the grit, π/6 d3 =Vol. of the grit

m v2 69

FULL K.E. IS ABSORBED BY THE WORKPIECE BEFORE THE PARTICLE

COMES TO REST. IT WILL RESULT IN PENETRATION ‘hthw’ INTO THE
WORK PIECE . THEN THE AVERAGE WORK DONE IS GIVEN BY,

Ẁ = ½ Fhthw F
h
(ASSUMING THAT THE FORCE VARIATION DURING PENETRATION IS TRIANGULAR
IN NATURE)
AVG. CONTACT STRESS (σw) ON THE WORK SURFACE = BRITTLE FRECTURE
HARDNESS (H)

σw = F/ πhthwd [?] (πr2 = 2πRhthw = πhthwd)

F = πhdH ( Substituting, σw = H)
IT IS KNOWN THAT K.E. OF A PARTICLE = WORK DONE

K.E. (= ½mv2) = ½(π/6 d3 ρa) π2a2f2 = ½ πHhd. hthw

m v2 F
a
hthw =  afd …… (3) THIS VALUE OF ‘hthw’ FROM EQ. (3) CAN BE
SUBSTITUTED IN THE EQ. (1) DERIVED FOR
6H EVALUATION OF MRRVth BY THE THROWING MODEL .

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USM: Parameters

• The important parameters which affect the process are the:

1. Frequency,
2. Amplitude,
3. Static loading (feed force),
4. Hardness ratio of the tool and the workpiece,
5. Grain size,
6. Concentration of the abrasive in the slurry

71
71 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Working of Ultrasonic transducers

◼ Transducer is an electronic device converts energy from one form to another
◼ In broad categories: Microphones, transmitters, antenna, pressure sensors etc.
◼ US transducer converts electrical energy of high frequency into mechanical
vibrations.

Joule Effect

Villari Effect Electro-magneto mechanical Piezoelectric crystals change size

device: A two step conversion and shape when voltage is applied

72

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Working principle of Magnetostrictor transducer

Relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and ϵm
❑ Transducer has a high-frequency winding wound on a
magnetostrictor core and a special polarizing winding
around an armature
❑ A magnetic field undergoing ultrasonic frequencies
causes corresponding changes in a ferromagnetic
object placed within its region of influence
❑ This effect is used to oscillate the USM tool (at 16 -20kHz)

Magnetostrictor excited by a variable magnetic field without

magnetizing (Kaczmarek, 1976)

The coefficient of magnetostriction elongation ϵm is

where, Δl is the incremental length of the magnetostrictor

core and l is the original length of the magnetostrictor core

Source: Advanced machining processes by Hassan El-Hofy

Working principle of Magnetostrictor transducer

❑ The elongation is independent of the sign of the magnetic field.
❑ The variation of the magnetic field intensity changes in elongation at double the frequency (2f ).
❑ Changes in elongation are not sinusoidal (full wave rectified) as is the case for the field intensity

The maximum elongation Amax in the magnetostrictor of length l

Magnetizing the transducer with a direct current
equal to half of the wavelength l will occur at a distance of l/4
from the center
where Cs = speed of sound in the magnetostrictor material (m/s)
f = frequency of the changes in the magnetic field (1/s).

λ/2

sinusoidal
changes in
elongation

Variation in a wave of elongation along the length of the

Magnetostriction due to a variable magnetic field after polarization magnetostrictor (Kaczmarek, 1976)
(Kaczmarek, 1976) Source: Advanced machining processes by Hassan El-Hofy

37

Working principle of Magnetostrictor transducer
Wavelength of oscillations in terms of E and P
where E is Young’s modulus (Mpa) and P is the
density of the magnetostrictor material (kg/m3).
The elongation obtained at the resonance
frequency fr using a magnetostrictor of length l = 0.5l is
usually 0.001 to 0.1 µm
03-02-2022
For maximum amplification and good efficiency:
Magnetostrictor must be designed to operate at resonance
where its natural frequency must be equal to the frequency
of the magnetic field. The resonance frequency fr becomes:
Since the magnetostrictor material converts the magnetic
energy to a mechanical one, a higher coefficient of
magnetomechanical coupling, Km, is essential
where, Ew is the mechanical energy and Em is the magnetic
energy.
Source: Advanced machining processes by Hassan El-Hofy
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Nonconventional Manufacturing Process

Course Code: MF F318

PREPARED BY
Dr. Divyansh Singh Patel
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
333031 (Rajasthan) INDIA 1

2
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Why Electrochemical Machining?

Features with tight dimensional tolerance can be machined
using Electrochemical Machining (ECM) / Electrochemical
Micromachining (ECMM) and therefore, the process has
emerged as an ideal option for micromachining.

Roughness of the surface machined using ECM is generally

less than that of Abrasive jet machining processes and EDM.
This makes ECM and its variants as the most suitable option for
operations requiring high surface finish.

Power required for removing a unit volume of material per unit

time in ECM is less than that of EBM, AJM, LBM, AWJM, and
WJM. This suggests that machining using ECM process offers
economic advantage.

Although EDM is more conservative in power consumption,

but requires frequent tool change (due to rapid tool wear) which
also adds in its total machining cost. Fig 1. Comparison between different machining
processes in terms of machining tolerance, generated
surface roughness and specific power consumption [1].

4 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

• Principle: electrolysis
• Electricity conduction – in a metal: free
electrons; but in a solution: ions
• Electrodes – work-piece (+) and Tool (-)
• Dissolution rate: more where the gap is less
and vice versa
• Current density: inversely proportional to
the gap 1000 amps, 8-20 volts and gap 0.1-0.2 mm

• Electrolyte: so chosen that the anode is

dissolved but there is no deposition on the
cathode.
• Workpiece: hardness has no effect, low
machinability and complex shape
• Tool: Practically no tool wear; high pressure
on tool (-ve)
Approx. MRR - 1600 mm3/sec
3 kWh electricity is needed to remove 1600 mm3/sec of
metal, which is almost 30 times the energy required in
conventional machining
5
5 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani
https://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=electrochemical_machining

ECM: Principle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1n
X7WVIN7U&t=2s&ab_channel=ADT
Wlearn

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=12-IOyuPJZo&ab_channel=RUSNANOOJSC 6 6 Pilani
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS

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Variants of electrochemical machining

HAZ
Contact less machining
Residual stresses
Atomic scale material dissolution
Re-solidified edges
No HAZ
Tool wear
Mechanical properties unchanged
Feature resolution

Variants of ECM/ECMM
(a) (b) (c)
Electro stream drilling Wire electrochemical machining Shape tube EC machining

Accurate, high aspect ratio Intricate shapes and micro channels Turbulated cooling holes with
and curved holes can be can be fabricated with low power high aspect ratio in turbine
drilled easily. input. blades can be fabricated
Fig. 6. Variants of ECM (a) Electro stream drilling, (b) Wire electrochemical machining, and (c) Shape tube EC machining
8 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Hybrid Variants of ECM/ECMM

Schematic diagram showing the classification of ECMM based hybrid processes [2].

9 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Hybrid Variants of ECM/ECMM

Laser assisted Abrasive assisted

jet jet
electrochemical electrochemical
micromachining micromachining

Ultrasonic Spark assisted

assisted chemical
electrochemical engraving
micromachining

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram showing the classification of Assisted ECMM based hybrid processes [2].
10 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Hybrid Variants of ECM/ECMM

Laser-jet Electrochemical
electrochemical discharge
micromachining micromachining

Mechano-
Combined
electrochemical
electrochemical
micromachining
micro grinding

Schematic diagram showing the classification of Assisted ECMM based hybrid processes [2].

11 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Hybrid Variants of ECM/ECMM

Hybridizations
Electrochemical Turning Electrochemical Grinding EC spark machining

Grinding of carbide cutting tools

Precise micro tools and micro Very fine micro features on
inserts, super alloy turbine blades,
features from very hard non conducting materials
fragile aerospace honeycomb
materials can be fabricated. can be made.
12 metals.

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Electrochemical Machining setup

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9K9cZe
O33rk&ab_channel=PEMTecSNC

13
13 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Principle of Electrochemical Machining

14
14 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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 10-02-2022

Fundamentals of anodic dissolution in ECM

During electrolysis, positive metal ions leave the

workpiece and electrons leave the tool to reach their
respective opposite ends. Reactions taking place at anode
and cathode are shown :

Anode: 𝑀 → 𝑀𝑛+ + 𝑛𝑒 −
𝑛
Cathode: 𝑛𝐻 + + 𝑛𝑒 − → 𝐻2
2
where, n is the number of valence electrons.

The anodic reaction leads to the formation of metal anions

compounds (heavier than other ions) and losing H+ ions (which
reduces the electrolyte conductivity) but cathodic reaction leads
to electron interaction. Schematic diagram showing the movement of electrons and ionic
species during electrolysis and dissolution of anode material [1].

Hydrolysis of water generates H + and OH-. As machining

progress, the conductivity continues to decrease and pH
increases. In practice, metal hydroxide and metal chloride
would form and get precipitated as sludge when aqueous NaCl
is used as an electrolyte for machining steel.
15 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Voltage drop in gap between electrodes

1. Electrode Potential Anode Potential
2. Overvoltage due to activation polarization
Activation overpotential overvoltage Anode
The electrode potential acts as a barrier to faster rate
Ohmic overvoltage overvoltage
of reaction. So, additional energy has to be supplied
to get required MRR Concentration polarization overvoltage
Voltage

3. Concentration polarization
Ohmic voltage
The ions migrate towards the electrodes of opposite V - ΔV
polarities causing concentration near the electrodes.
4. Ohmic Overvoltage Concentration polarization overvoltage
The film of sloid materials forming on the electrode Ohmic overvoltage
surface offer an extra resistance to passage of current. Anode
overvoltage Activation overpotential overvoltage
5. Ohmic resistance of electrolyte (R) : is main voltage
Cathode Potential
drop and is the only part of the circuit within the electrolyte
which obeys ohm’s law.

If the total overvoltage at the anode and cathode is ΔV and the applied voltage is V, the current I is then
given by:
I= Applied current
𝑉 − Δ𝑉 𝑉 = Applied voltage
𝐼= Δ𝑉 = Total overvoltage at cathode and anode
𝑅
16 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Electrochemical aspects of ECMM

➢ The amount of, is proportional to chemical change produced by
an electrical current, i.e. the amount of material dissolved or
deposited to the quantity of current
A B
➢ The amount of different substances dissolved or deposited by
the same quantity of electricity are proportional to their
chemical equivalent weights.
m ∝ 𝑖𝑡ε (Faraday's law)

➢ If two electrodes are immersed, a potential deference will exist

since the potential difference of A and B with respect to A
common electrolyte
Electrode emf
Reduction Potential Fe2+ + 2e- ⇌ Fe → +0.409 volts potential Electrode
difference potential
Oxidation Potential Cu ⇌ Cu2+ + 2e- → +0.304 volts Electrode for A
potential
Fe2+ + Cu ⇌ Fe + Cu2+ → 0.713 volts (EMF of cell {Ecell}) for B
Electrolyte

17
17 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Electrolyte conductivity
• Increases with increase in electrolyte temperature
• Increases by increasing concentration 𝑚
• The formation of precipitates reduces the 𝑘0 = 𝐹 ෍ 𝑧𝑖 𝑢𝑖 𝑐𝑖
electrolyte conductivity.
• The evolution of hydrogen bubbles at the cathode 𝑧𝑖 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦𝑖=1
𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑜𝑛
reduces the electrolyte conductivity 𝑢𝑖 = mobility of the ion
• Bubble concentration tend to increase along the 𝑐𝑖 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
direction of electrolyte flow
F = 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
• Overall conductivity and current density vary along
the SAI direction which results the variation in Not considered parameters
equilibrium gap • Bubble
• Sludge
• Temperature
1969 Hopenfield et. al proposed
𝑘 = 𝑘0 1 + αΔ𝑇 (1 −αv)n
𝑘0 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒lectrolyte
α = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Δ𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
α𝑣 = Void fraction of bubble
n = exponent (1.5 to 2)
http://ztopics.com/Conductivity%20%28electrolytic%29/
18 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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ECM: Mechanics
Electrolysis process is based on the two laws proposed by faradays –
1. m α I (mass deposited/dissolved is proportional to current passed)
2. Mass deposited/dissolved of different substances at same current are proportional to their gram
equivalent
mαIεt

At anode –
Fe Fe++ +2e
At cathode –
2H2O+ 2 e H2 + 2(OH)—
In electrolyte –
Fe++ +2(OH)— Fe(OH)2

19 19 Pilani
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS

ECM: Parameters
The important parameters which affect the process are :
Alloy composition –
Volumetric material removal rate –
Charge required to remove all the ith element in volume v -
Q = AI/ρZF
Where,
A is gram atomic weight
I is current (amperes)
ρ is density of anode (g/cm3)
Z is valency of cation
F is Faraday Constant (96500
C)

20 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Principle of Electrochemical Machining (ECM) process

1. The amount of chemical change produced by an electric current, that is, the amount of any material dissolved or
deposited, is proportional to the quantity of charge passed.
2. The amounts of different substances dissolved or deposited by the same quantity of electricity are proportional
to their chemical equivalent weights.

𝑚 ∝𝑄 𝑚 ∝𝜀 𝑚 = weight (in grams)

𝑚 ∝ 𝑄𝜀 𝑄 = Total charge
𝑚ሶ = Mass removal rate
𝐼𝑡𝜀
𝑚= 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 = Volume removal rate
𝐹 𝜀 = gram equivalent weight of the metal
𝐼 𝐴 𝐼 = Current (Amperes)
𝑚ሶ = 𝑔/𝑠 𝐴 = gram atomic weight of the metallic ion
𝐹 𝑍
𝑍 = Valency of the cations
𝐹 = Faraday Constant (96500
𝐼 𝐴
𝑚ሶ 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠 Columbs/mole)
𝐹𝜌 𝑍 𝜌 = Density
21 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM

κ = Conductivity of electrolyte
f = feed rate y
κ𝐴 For no feed (f = 0)
𝐼=𝑉 𝑦
Wor
κ∗𝑉 𝑦 2 = 𝑦02 + 2λ𝑡
𝐽= k y
𝑦
To
Rate at which the IEG changes
𝑑𝑦 ol
For constant feed ( 𝑑𝑡 = 0)
𝑑𝑦 𝐴𝐽
= −𝑓 λ
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑍𝐹 𝑦𝑒 =
𝑓
𝑦 𝑡
𝑑𝑦 κ𝐴𝑉 1 𝑦ത = 𝑡ҧ =
= −𝑓 𝑦𝑒 𝑦𝑒 /𝑓
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑍𝐹 𝑦
𝑑𝑦ത 1
= −1
𝑑 𝑡ҧ 𝑦ത
𝑑𝑦 λ 𝑦ത0 − 1
= −𝑓 𝑡ҧ = 𝑦ത0 − 𝑦ത + 𝑙𝑛
Source: Manufacturing Science Ghosh and Malik
𝑑𝑡 𝑦 𝑦ത − 1
22 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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PROCESS PARAMETERS

23 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

General comparison between ECM and EMM

Major characteristics Electrochemical Electrochemical
machining (ECM) micro-machining
(EMM)
Voltage 10–30 V <10 V
Current 150–10000 A <1 A
Current density 20–200 A/cm2 75–100 A/cm2
Power supply-DC Continuous/pulsed Pulsed
Frequency Hz–kHz range kHz–MHz range
Electrolyte flow 10–60 m/s <3 m/s
Electrolyte type Salt solution Natural salt or dilute acid
Electrolyte temperature 24–65°C 37–50°C
Electrolyte concentration >20 g/l <20 g/l
Size of the tool Large to medium Micro
Inter-electrode gap 100–600µm 5–50 µm
Operation Maskless
Mask/maskless
Machining rate 0.2–10 mm/min 5 µm/min
Side gap >20 µm <10 µm
Accuracy ±0.1 mm ± 0.02–0.1 mm
Surface finish Good, 0.1–1.5 µm Excellent, 0.05–0.4 µm
Problems due to waste
disposal/toxicity Low Low to moderate

Ref:B. Bhattacharya, JU
24 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Fabrication of Turbine Blades and Finishing of Turbulated Turbine Cooling holes

Nimonic Super
Alloy Turbine
blade

Turbine blade
cooling holes

Turbulated cooling holes

Turbine blade cooling
IIT K
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddccvUhOzD4&list=PLK8OfUy5nOAfYJZhuvxTlPmrg3O-
RKvxt&ab_channel=PennStateMechanicalEngineering 25
25 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Parts Made by Electrochemical Machining

Figure 27.7 Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made
of nickel alloy of 360 HB. Note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin slots
on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. 26
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. 26 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Knee Implants

Figure 27.8 (a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants
(top pieces) with an ultra-high molecular-weight polyethylene insert (bottom
pieces). (b) Cross-section of the ECM process as applies to the metal implant.
Source: Courtesy of Biomet, Inc.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
27 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Present State of Research

Micro Electrochemical Milling

• Layer-by-layer machining is applied with dilute and less
toxic electrolyte, 0.1 M H2SO4.
• Micro structures with good surface quality (R, 0.28 µm)

Three steps Machining-

Rough cut- the cylinder & the hemisphere with 100 µm
diameter on the cylinder.
Finish cut with very fast feedrate - the hemisphere with 60
Micro hemisphere on the top of µm diameter.
cylinder

Dissolution can be localized by not only short pulses but dissolution time.
After machining a work piece a little larger than the final shape in the rough cut,
the finish cut should be applied at high speed with short pulse on-time.

28
28 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Multiple Disk-type Electrodes

Disk-type electrodes can be applied to machine micro structures without taper.

Application of multiple electrodes increases productivity of micro ECM.
For the multiple machining without taper, multiple disk-type electrodes are
machined by Reverse EDM.

Dual disk-type electrodes

(WC, 45µm disk dia. and 20 µm Dual micro columns
neck dia.)

29
29 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Milling of 3D structure with plane surfaces

Regular 3D structure with planes which was machined layer by layer using a flat tip
electrode with diameter of 10 µm on a 300 µm thick nickel base superalloy (GH3030)
plate. Pulses with 4.5 V and 90 ns pulse on-time were applied in 0.2 M H2SO4.

EMM processing can achieve a good surface quality and machining precision by using
the type of flat tip electrode.

30
30 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Wire Electrochemical Machining

• A micro wire is used as a tool electrode in Wire ECM.

• Wire is not worn out, thinner wire can be used and
wire feeding is not necessary.
• Applied to the fabrication of micro grooves.

Wire ECM

Figs. Image of (a) multi-layered 3D microelectrodes [2], (b) square micropillar shaped surface textures [3], (c)
micro spur gear [4], (d) 3D hollow microstructure [5], (e) serpentine micro channel for microfluidic applications
[4], and (f) fingerprint-like coil spring [6]. 31 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Wire Electrochemical Machining

Figs. Optical image of (a) an array of linear and equally spaced kerfs, (b)
circular kerf profile, and (c) rectangular spiral profile machined on SS304
workpiece of thickness 100 µm.

Figs. Images of (a) multi-stepped turning, (b) taper turning, (c) threading,
(d) micro grooving, (e) indexed cutting, and (f) micro turning.
32 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Electrochemical
Grinding

Source: Nanofinishing Science and Technology: Basic and Advanced Finishing and
Polishing Processes, by Vijay Kumar Jain

Introduction
• The process requires an abrasive laden grinding wheel,
which is bonded with an electrically conductive material.
• The grinding wheel is connected to negative terminal
(cathode) and workpiece to positive terminal (anode) of a
DC power source. Tool and workpiece are separated by a
gap of few tens of micrometres.
• In this gap, electrolyte is supplied through a jet, which is
recycled after removing debris and reaction products
(chips and precipitates formed during EC dissolution)
through a filter.
• Redox reactions take place between the tool and
workpiece, and simultaneously active abrasive particles in
the machining zone start removing metal from the
workpiece through erosion.
• In general, only 5-10% material removal takes place by
mechanical action, while EC dissolution is responsible for
90-95% of the material removal. https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/new-applications-for-electrochemical-grinding

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Introduction
• Developed in the 1930s, it became popular in the US in the 1950s
for grinding carbide cutting tools. Disposable inserts
can reduce
grinding costs and
minimize
machining
• At the time, the only other way to grind carbide was with an downtime.
expensive, natural diamond grinding wheel.

• ECG has the ability to grind difficult-to-cut materials such as

carbides, and this process became popular for producing cutting
tools.

• But as disposable tooling inserts and molded near-net tool shapes

were developed, ECG dropped off in popularity.

• Now, it’s mostly known in applications that work with challenging

materials and thin-walled, fragile workpieces, including tubing
cutoff, medical devices and parts for aircraft engines.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Principle of ECG

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Types of ECG

Variants of ECG, (a) Belt type EC grinding, (b) EC-cut-off grinding, (c) EC grinding boring
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Parameters of ECG

Variation of surface
roughness with (a) increasing
applied voltage, (b) feed rate
and (c) depth of cut

Contribution of mechanical and EC material removal

in ECG while using AL O wheel.
2 3

(From Kuppuswamy, G., Tribol. Int., 9, 29–32, 1979.)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Material removal rate

Variation of MRR on varying

(a) applied voltage, (b) feed
rate and (c) depth of cut
Mechanical material removal rate

Mechanical material removal rate

Variation of mechanical material

removal rate with (d) Grinding force
and, (e) Current density.

Current density Grinding force

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Advantages and Limitations

1. ECG provides a burr free machined surface.
2. ECG results in a stress free ground surface, hence small and 1. A material which is electrochemically reactive
delicate products can be ground effectively. can only be ground by ECG.
3. Hard-to-grind materials can be comparatively easily ground 2. ECG performs effectively only when
through ECG process workpiece is electrically conductive.
4. In grinding process, the required intense specific cutting energy
3. Generated overcut due to un-controlled ECM
leads to very high temperature rise. EC ground parts are without
by the side face of the wheel limits the ECG
metallurgical damage.
process hence the accuracy is affected[25].
5. Life of grinding wheel is higher as compared to conventional
4. Maintaining least IEG for ECG to happen
grinding wheel; hence cost of production is lower.
requires very precise control during the feed.
6. Surface finish and tolerance precision are higher than
conventional grinding.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Electrolytic in-process dressing grinding

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Electrolytic in-process dressing grinding

• The ELID is a hybrid process in which electrolytic anodic dissolution is employed for
dressing of the metal bonded grinding wheel and mechanical grinding is subjected to the
material removal from the workpiece (electrically conducting as well as non-conducting,
both).
• The ELID grinding process also forms an electrolytic cell where anodic dissolution is
confined to the surface of a metal bonded grinding wheel.
• In ELID grinding process, EC dissolution takes place on metal bonded grinding wheel and
material is removed through erosion from the workpiece, whereas in ECG, EC dissolution
takes place on (only electrically conducting) workpiece.
• In general, ELID process is preferred over a normal grinding process in which, wheel
loading and wheel wear rate are higher due to mechanical properties of the workpiece.
• The ELID system consists of a metal bonded grinding wheel, an electrode which covers
1/6th to 1/4th of the periphery of the wheel, a DC (pulse or continuous) power supply and
electrolyte as a conductive medium between the electrodes
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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CHEMICAL
MACHINING

Introduction
• Chemical machining (CHM) is the
controlled chemical dissolution (CD)
of the workpiece material by contact
with a strong reagent.
• Special coatings called maskants
protect areas from which the metal is
not to be removed.
• The process is used to produce
pockets and contours and to remove
materials from parts having a high
strength-to-weight ratio.
• Very delicate and thin machining
can be obtained

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Chemical Machining Video

Link Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Steps in CHM:
1. Preparing and precleaning the workpiece
surface.
2. Masking using readily strippable mask, which
is chemically impregnable and adherent
enough to stand chemical abrasion during
etching.
3. Scribing of the mask, which is guided by
templates to expose the areas that receive
CHM.
4. The workpiece is then etched and rinsed, and
the mask is removed before the part is
finished.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Schematic Diagram of CHM

Maskant: a layer of chemical resistant material that does not allow the chemical to
react with the workpiece
Etching: a chemical that is used to react with the workpiece surface and dissolve it.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Etch Factor
1. When the mask is used, the machining action
proceeds both inwardly from the mask opening and
laterally beneath the mask thus creating the etch
factor.
2. The etch factor is the ratio of the undercut d to the
depth of etch T
3. Thus, etch factor = d/T
4. This ratio must be considered when scribing the
mask using templates. A typical etch factor of 1:1
occurs at a cut depth of 1.27 mm. Deeper cuts can
reduce this ratio to 1:3. The radii of the fillet
produced will be approximately equal to the depth
of etch.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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CHM different application

Machining tapers and

Contour Cuts by CHM steps by CHM.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

General Process Description

• The depth of the etch is controlled by the time of immersion.
• Agitation of the workpiece and fluid is usual; however, excessive solution
flow may result in channeling, grooves, or ridges.
• Typical reagent temperatures range from 37 to 85°C. Faster etching rates
occur at higher temperatures, but must be controlled within ±5°C of the
desired temperature in order to attain uniform machining.
• After rinsing the chemicals from the workpiece, the demasking is
accomplished by hand stripping, mechanical brushing, or chemical
stripping. Some chemicals leave a film of smut on the machined surface,
which can be removed by other chemicals or frequently by brushing.
• CHM will not eliminate surface irregularities, dents, scratches, or waviness.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Maskants Etchants
Tooling
in CHM
Scribing Accessories
templates

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Maskants
Maskants are used to protect parts of the Methods of applying
workpiece where CD action is not needed. Maskants
General Properties of Maskants:
1. Be tough enough to withstand handling
Photo resist
2. Adhere well to the workpiece surface Cut and Peel Screen resist
maskants
3. Scribe easily.
4. Be inert to the chemical reagent used.
5. Be able to withstand the heat generated by
etching.
6. Be removed easily and inexpensively after
etching.

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Maskants

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Etchants
Etchants are acid or alkaline solutions maintained within a controlled range
of chemical composition and temperature.
Their main technical goals are to achieve the following:
1. Good surface finish
2. Uniformity of metal removal
3. Control of selective and intergranular attack
4. Control of hydrogen absorption in the case of titanium alloys
5. Maintenance of personal safety
6. Best price and reliability for the materials to be used in the construction
of the process tank
7. Maintenance of air quality and avoidance of possible environmental
problems.
8. Low cost per unit weight dissolved
9. Ability to regenerate the etchant solution and/or readily neutralize and
dispose of its waste products

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Scribing templates
Scribing templates are used to define the areas for exposure to the chemical machining action.
The most common workpiece scribing method is to cut the mask with a sharp knife followed by careful peeling
of the mask from the selected areas.
Layout lines or simple templates of metal or fiberglass guide the scribing process. The etch factor allowance
must be included in any method used for the scribing operation.

Accessories
Accessories include tanks, hooks, brackets, racks, and fixtures. These are used for single- or-multiple-piece
handling into and out of the etchants and rinses.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Process Parameters
CHM process parameters include These parameters will have direct
• Reagent solution type impacts on the workpiece regarding the
• Concentration of reagent following:
1. Etch factor (d/T )
• Properties and mixing,
2. Etching and machining rate
• Operating temperature and circulation 3. Production tolerance
• Type of maskant and its application 4. Surface finish

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Material Removal Rate

• The material removal or etch rate depends upon
the chemical and metallurgical uniformity of the
workpiece and the uniformity of the solution
temperature.
• As shown in Figures, castings, having the
largest grain size, show the roughest surface
together with the lowest machining rate.
• Generally, the high etch rate is accompanied by
a low surface roughness and, hence, narrow
machining tolerances.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Accuracy & Surface Finish

• In CHM, the metal is dissolved by the CD action. This
Surface roughness of the machined
machining phase takes place both at the individual grain
surface is affected by:
surfaces as well as at the grain boundaries.
• Every material has a basic surface finish that results
from CHM for a certain period of time. While surface Machining Rate
imperfections will not be eliminated by CHM, any prior (slow rate will produce
similar surface)
surface irregularities, waviness, dents, or scratches will
be slightly altered and reproduced in the machined Orientation of areas being
surface. etched w.r.t grain direction
• CHM can affect the mechanical properties of the in workpiece
machined parts when the surface layers have different
Initial workpiece
mechanical properties from those of the base metal. The roughness (increases with
removal of such layers results in a change in the average metal ion concentration)
mechanical properties of the finished parts.

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Advantages
1. Weight reduction is possible on complex contours.
2. Simultaneous material removal, from all surfaces, improves productivity and
reduces wrapping.
3. No burrs are formed.
4. No stress is introduced to the workpiece, which minimizes the part distortion and
makes machining of delicate parts possible.
5. A continuous taper on contoured sections is achievable.
6. The capital cost of equipment, used for machining large components, is relatively
low.
7. Design changes can be implemented quickly.
8. A less skilled operator is needed
9. Tooling costs are minor.
10. The good surface quality in addition to the absence of burrs eliminates the need for
finishing operations.
11. Multiple parts having fine details can be machined by the gang method.
12. Decorative finishes and extensive thin-web areas are possible.
13. There are low scrap rates (3 percent).
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Limitations
1. Only shallow cuts are practical: up to 12.27 mm for sheets and plates, 3.83
mm on extrusions, and 6.39 mm on forgings.
2. Handling and disposal of chemicals can be troublesome.
3. Hand masking, scribing, and stripping can be time-consuming, repetitive,
and tedious.
4. Surface imperfections are reproduced in the machined parts.
5. Metallurgical homogeneous surfaces are required for best results.
6. Deep narrow cuts are difficult to produce.
7. Fillet radii are fixed by the depth of cut.
8. Porous castings yield uneven etched surfaces.
9. Welded areas frequently etch at rates that differ from the base metal.
10. Material removal from one side of residually stressed material can result in a
considerable distortion.
11. The absence of residual stresses on the chemically machined surfaces can
produce unfavorable fatigue strength.
12. Hydrogen pickup and intergranular attack are a problem with some
materials.
13. Scribing accuracy is limited and complex designs become expensive.
14. Steep tapers are not practical.
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Applications

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Applications
Used extensively to etch preformed aerospace parts to obtain
maximum strength to weight ratios:
1. Integrally stiffened Titanium engine ducts
2. Spray etching a rotating tube for cruise missile launch tubes
3. Thinning and sizing of a delta booster tank bulkhead
4. Chemical sizing of engine cowl inlet duct skins
5. Undercut on clad aluminum
6. Removing the alpha case from a Titanium casting
7. Elimination of decarburized layer from low-alloy steel
forgings
8. Elimination of recast layers from EDM
9. Removal of sharp burrs from conventionally machined parts
of complex shapes
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Photochemical Machining
• Photochemical milling (PCM) is a variation
of chemical milling (CHM) where the
chemically resistant mask (Photo-resistant
maskant) is applied to the workpiece by
photographic techniques.
• The process is sometimes called
photochemical blanking (PCB) since flat,
thin gauge complex parts can be machined
to high precision in thicknesses ranging
from 0.013 to 1.5 mm.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

PCM Flow Diagram

Part drawing/ CAD data Metal selected and cleaned

Photographic Processing Photoresist coating

Photo tool Photoresist stencil on metal Sensitized metal

Etching

Photoresist stripping

Finished part

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Photochemical Machining
Link

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Applications
• Aluminum, copper, zinc, steel, lead, nickel, titanium,
molybdenum, zirconium, glass, ceramics, and some plastics
are photochemically machined.
• Very high tempered or brittle materials are excellent
candidates for photochemical machining because traditional
machining causes breakage or stress-concentration points.
• The process also works well on springy materials, which are
difficult to punch. PCM lends itself for decorative and
graphics industries where signs and labels are produced.
• Etching fold lines to flat components for fabrication of boxes
and enclosures.
• Products made by photochemical machining are generally
found in the electronic, automotive, aerospace,
telecommunication, computer, medical, and other industries.
• Typical components include filters and screens, gaskets, lead
frames, contacts, connectors, probes, and flat springs.

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Advantages
• A relatively low cost per unit, especially at low production volumes
of complex designs because the tooling used is very inexpensive
compared to shearing punches and dies.
• Lead times are often small compared to that required by processes
that require hard tooling.
• Some design changes require simple alterations to the
photochemical machining process, such as the time of etch or the
type of etchant, which change features such as the hole size and
depth of etch.
• Final parts are produced in the same manner as the prototypes.
• The process is burr-free.
• It does not change the hardness, grain structure, or ductility of
metals, while metal shearing imparts stresses in the components and
laser machining creates a heat-affected zone.
• Because tooling is made by photographic techniques, patterns can
be reproduced easily.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Electropolishing
Mechanical Polishing-
• Mechanical polishing entails using abrasive particles adhered
to the resilient wheels of wood, felt, leather, canvas, or fabric
to produce smooth surfaces. The process is used to impart a
high-grade finish to a surface for the sake of good
appearance.
• However, mechanical polishing leaves a layer of disturbed To overcome these drawbacks of Mechanical
structure since the surface does not have the same properties polishing, non-conventional Electropolishing
of the bulk metal. has been introduced
• The mechanically polished surface yields an abundance of
scratches, strains, metal debris, and embedded abrasives,
which reduce the mechanical strength.
• Further finishing by lapping or buffing, while decreasing the
surface roughness, never completely removes the debris and
the damaged layer caused by the previous mechanical
polishing.
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Electropolishing Schematic
• This process is basically the opposite of electroplating
where the part to be finished is the anode instead of the
cathode.
• Electropolishing is a diffusion-controlled process, which
takes place at the limiting current of the anodic dissolution
of the metal.
• A direct current is accordingly introduced into the part,
which is hung from the central electrode and is surrounded
by cathodes that are negatively charged.
• The electropolishing medium is a liquid mixture of several
acids and insoluble salts.
• During electropolishing the anodic surface is subjected to
the combined effects of oxygen evolution that occurs with
electrochemical metal removal and saturation of the surface
with dissolved metal.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Electropolishing Schematic
• A film of varying thickness is normally formed over the
micro-depressions and is thinnest over micro-surface
projections. The electrical resistance is minimum at the
peaks of the surface irregularities resulting in the highest
rate of anodic dissolution process.
• Under such conditions, electropolishing selectively
removes microscopic peaks faster than the rate of attack on
the corresponding valleys.
• The basic surface of the metal becomes bright, clean, and
microscopically smooth.
• The produced surface possesses the true properties of the
bulk metal and the true crystalline structure of the metal
without the distortion produced by the cold working that
always accompanies mechanical finishing processes.

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Electropolishing
Link

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Process Parameters
EP is affected by many parameters that have a direct
impact on the produced surface quality and process
productivity. These include
1. Workpiece material and condition
2. Original surface roughness
3. Current density
4. Applied voltage
5. Acid type, temperature, and agitation

During EP it is recommended that you use a

proper electrolyte, maintain its temperature
and chemical composition, and supply a
ripple-free DC power at the correct voltage.

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Application
• Preparing surfaces for electroplating, which creates an opportunity for the
best possible adherence.
• Producing the ultimate finish for clean-room tables, chairs, and waste
containers.
• Polishing light fixtures of electrical conduits; outlet boxes; and medical,
surgical, and food processing equipment.
• Deburring and breaking sharp edges resulted from hand filing and honing
and grinding of cutting tools.
• Metallographic examination & Micromachining of metals and alloys.
• Removing scale or distortions caused by annealing, nitriding, carburizing,
welding, or soldering.
• Removing skin that remains on metals after casting or forging, which allows
for subsequent machining operations with less effort, time, and tool wear.
• Removing hardened and stressed surface layers, which improve the surface
life of a part.
• Smoothing of the surface to increase reflectivity and thus creating a bright
appearance.
• Removing burrs, occlusions, and other metalworking marks, which makes it
easier to clean the surface and avoid microbiological contaminants.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Limitations
• The process cannot smear over and cover up defects such as seams
and nonmetallic inclusions in the metal.
• Multiphase alloys in which one phase is relatively resistant to
anodic dissolution are usually not amenable to electropolishing.
• Rough scratches are not removed even by a considerable amount
of electropolishing.
• Metals containing a high percentage of silicon, lead, and sulfur
can be troublesome.
• Electropolishing is more suitable for removing small scratches and
imperfections than for smoothing out any type of surface
waviness.
• The base metal condition affects the electropolishing.
• Nonmetallic inclusions, improper annealing, over-pickling, heat
scale, large grain size, directional roll marks, and improper cold
reduction leads to poor electropolished surfaces.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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 10-02-2022

THANKS

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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