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Introduction to Additive Manufacturing

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Industry 4.0

Aulbur, W., & Singh, H. V. (2014). Next Gen Manufacturing: Industry 4.0. A look at the changing landscapes in manufacturing. Confed. Indian Ind, 2014, 1-23.
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Pillars of Industry 4.0

Butt, J. (2020). Exploring the interrelationship between additive manufacturing and Industry 4.0. Designs, 4(2), 13.
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Industry 4.0: characteristics

Butt, J. (2020). Exploring the interrelationship between additive manufacturing and Industry 4.0. Designs, 4(2), 13.
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Inter-relationship between Industry 4.0 and AM

Butt, J. (2020). Exploring the interrelationship between additive manufacturing and Industry 4.0. Designs, 4(2), 13.
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Demand of AM

Fig. Additive manufacturing market size and forecast to 2020 Fig. Distribution of AM revenues over business sectors

Verhoef et. al. (2018). The effect of additive manufacturing on global energy demand: An assessment using a bottom-up approach. Energy Policy, 112, 349-360. 6

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Need of AM

Additive Manufacturing (AM)

Process can address such issues

Let us explore the AM process!!

Fig. Three axis model of manufacturing products
#Conner et. al., (2014). Making sense of 3-D printing: Creating a map of AM products and services. Additive Manufacturing, 1, 64-76. 7

Additive Manufacturing
Definition
Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to
build up a component in layers by depositing material.
(from the International Committee F42 for Additive Manufacturing Technologies, ASTM)

Also known as:

• 3D Printing (3DP)
• Rapid Prototyping (RP)
• Direct Digital Manufacturing (DDM)
• Layered manufacturing (LM) and
• Additive fabrication (AF)

However, the AM is more accurate

As it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from
subtractive manufacturing
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Basic attributes of AM

o Fully automatic operation

o Digital to physical

o No part-specific tooling

Principle of AM
3D Sculpture puzzle: to create the sculpture.

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Principle...

• Layer by layer manufacturing

• Each layer must have a finite thickness

“Thinner each layer is, the closer the final part will be to the original”

CAD image of a teacup Thick layer Thin layer

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Inspiration for AM

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Nature analogy

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Prehistory
Layered Additive Structures have been around for awhile – The oldest pyramid (the Step
Pyramid of King Zoser) was built during the Third Dynasty (ca. 2800 B.C.) at Saqqara .

Fig. The Step Pyramid of King Zoser

https://www.etltravel.com/zoser-pyramids-egypt/zoser-step-pyramid-cairo/ 14

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History (Early patents)

NAME TITLE FILED COUNTRY
Housholder Molding process Dec 1979 U.S.

Murutani Optical molding method May 1984 Japan

Masters Computer automated manufacturing process and system July 1984 U.S.
André et al. Apparatus for making a model of an industrial part July 1984 France
Hull Apparatus for making three-dimensional objects by stereolithography Aug 1984 U.S.
Pomerantz et al. Three-dimensional mapping and modelling apparatus Jun 1986 Israel
Feygin Apparatus and method for forming an integral object from laminations Jun 1986 U.S.
Deckard Method and apparatus for producing parts by selective sintering Oct 1986 U.S.
Method and apparatus for producing three-dimensional objects by photosolidification;
Fudim Feb 1987 U.S.
radiating an uncured photopolymer
Arcella et al. Casting shapes Mar 1987 U.S.
Crump Apparatus and method for creating three-dimensional objects Oct 1989 U.S.
Helinski Method and means for constructing three-dimensional articles by particle deposition Nov 1989 U.S.
Marcus Gas phase selective beam deposition: three dimensional, computer-controlled Dec 1989 U.S.
Sachs et al. Three-dimensional printing Dec 1989 U.S.
Levent et al. Method and apparatus for fabricating three dimensional articles by thermal spray deposition Dec 1990 U.S.
Penn System, method, and process for making three dimensional objects Jun 1992 U.S.
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Selective Laser Sintering by UT

A modern manufacturing technology that was created in the 1980s at The University of Texas at Austin's
Mechanical Engineering Department (UT ME).

From L-R: Carl

Deckard, Joe Beaman,
and Paul Forderhase

Fig. Plastic powder and first SLS part Fig. Early stages of the SLS machine (called Betsy)
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Selective Laser Sintering…

Fig. BAMBI
Machine for SLS

Fig. SLS parts of

plastics developed
using BAMBI
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3D Printer by MIT

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3D Printer by MIT…..

Fig. A 3D printed model

Fig. First 3D printer v1.1 at MIT
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Process characteristics

Differentiation of AM machines Responses in AM Process

• Materials that can be used
Final Product
• Creation of layers • Accuracy
• Material properties and
• Bonding of the layers
• Mechanical properties
• Layer deposition pattern
Process
• Speed
• Post-processing requirements
• Size of the AM machine and
• Overall cost of the machine and
process

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Additive vs Subtractive manufacturing

Property SM AM
Material Metals and alloys All engineering
materials
Speed Multi-stage and Single stage and
slow fast
Part • Limited • More
Complexity flexibility flexibility
• Needs more • Easy to
process manufacture
planning
Part Low Higher
Quantity
Cost High Low

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Additive vs Subtractive manufacturing

Deep cavity: Difficult
to machine

Sharpe internal features:

need a tool radius

Undercut: 3-axis
machining is required

Cup base: can not be machined

(fixture requirement)
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AM Attributes
Table: Achievable tolerances of select traditional and AM processes*

Thompson et. al. (2016). Design for Additive Manufacturing: Trends, opportunities, considerations, and constraints. CIRP annals, 65(2), 737-760.
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AM Attributes

Fig. Conventional vs Additive manufacturing Fig. Scope of customization in AM*

Thompson et. al. (2016). Design for Additive Manufacturing: Trends, opportunities, considerations, and constraints. CIRP annals, 65(2), 737-760.
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Tradition vs AM supply chain

Thomas, DS., & Gilbert, SW. (2014). Costs and cost effectiveness of additive manufacturing. NIST Special Publication, 1176, 12.
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Social Impact of AM
Energy
Dimension Time
Dimension

Final Product
Processing Material Scrap
Material Time
Dimension Process Waste

These include:
Energy • Customized healthcare products
Wastage • Reduced raw material usage
• Reduced energy consumption
(environmental sustainability)
• On-demand manufacturing
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Advantages
1. Complexity is Free 2. Variety is Free

3. No Assembly Required

4. Zero Lead Time 5. Zero Constraints

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Advantages
6. Zero Skill Manufacturing 7. Compact & Portable Manufacturing

8. Less Waste By-product

10. Precise Replication

9. Infinite Shades of Materials

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Disadvantages
• Limited Materials
• Restricted Build Size
• Post Processing
• Large Volumes
• Part Structure
• Reduction in Manufacturing Jobs
• Design Inaccuracies
• Copyright Issues

https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-3d-printing/pros-and-cons 29

Applications

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Application (Medical)

A 3D model of a complex anaplastology case

Fig. A titanium acetabular cup produced. Inset shows close up of highly complex surface
Ben Deighton, Rethinking objects and form are key to 3D printing revolution, Techanology News, March 2013.
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Application (Automobile)

(Image: Dane Boysen, Adapted from Koren, Y., et al. CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology 62.2 (2013):719–729.) (Image: Business Wire)
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Future: Home manufacturing

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Manufacturing: Needs of Industries

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Paradigm shift in Manufacturing

A B

Bi, Z. (2011). Revisiting system paradigms from the viewpoint of manufacturing sustainability. Sustainability, 3(9), 1323-1340. 35

Concepts of CAD/CAM

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Computer Aided Engineering (CAE)

Automation

CAE CAD CAM

Design formalizes ideas Fabrication of the developed models
through computer modeling into real-world objects

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Concepts of Reverse Engineering

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Reverse Engineering (RE)

Physical Geometric Segmentation

Processing of CAD model
Model information
point cloud
and surface
generation CAM
collection fitting

CAD
Scanning

Contact scanning Non-contact scanning

(touch probe) (Optical scanning device)

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AM: Process Chain

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Steps

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Step 1: Conceptualization and CAD

• AM technology would not exist if it were not for 3D CAD

• Unlike most other CAD/CAM technologies, there is little or no intervention

between the design and manufacturing stages for AM.

• Creation of the 3D source data –

 A design expert via a user interface
 Software as part of an automated optimization algorithm
 3D scanning of an existing physical part
 Some combination of all of these

• Most modern solid modeling CAD tools can now create files without gaps (e.g.,
“water tight”), resulting in geometrically unambiguous representations of a part.

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

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Step 2: Conversion to STL/AMF

• Nearly every AM technology uses the STL file format.

• The term STL was derived from STereoLithograhy (3D Systems, 1990s).

• A de facto standard to describe a CAD model in terms of its geometry alone.

• Approximates the surfaces of the model with a series of triangular facets by

removing any construction data, modeling history, etc.
• The minimum size of these triangles
can be set within most CAD software

• The objective is to ensure the

models created do not show any
obvious triangles on the surface.
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Step 2: Conversion to STL/AMF

• The triangle size: the minimum distance between the plane represented by the
triangle and the surface it is supposed to represent.

• Ensure: the minimum triangle offset is smaller than the resolution of the AM
machine.
• STL files are an unordered collection of triangle vertices and surface normal
vectors.
• Limitations of the STL file: units, color, material, or other feature information are
absent
• An international ASTM/ISO standard format: AMF file format
• AMF: Includes dimensions, color, material, and many other useful features.
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Step 2: Conversion to STL/AMF

• Defect: complex and highly discontinuous geometry may result in triangle

vertices that do not align correctly.

• This may result in gaps in the surface.

• AM machines response: in some cases the gaps are bridged.

• This bridge may not represent the desired surface, however, it may be possible
that additional, unwanted material may be included in the part.

• Most errors can be detected and rectified automatically, however, sometimes

manual interventions are needed.

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Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation

• Once the STL file is ready (created and repaired), send to the target AM machine.
• First task: verify that the part is correct
• Visualization tool: AM system software allows user to view and manipulate the
part
• Reposition of the part or even change the orientation to allow it to be built at a
specific location within the machine.
• Copy function or completely different STL files: to build more than one part in an
AM machine at a time
• STL files scaling: to accommodate AM parts which are slightly larger or slightly
smaller than the original to account for process shrinkage or coatings

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Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation

• 3D embossed characters: for identification and to add text and simple features to
STL formatted data

• Segmentation of too large parts

• Merging of multiple files

• All AM machines will not have all the functions

• Manipulation software: purchased or freely downloaded to manipulate the STL

file before building the part.

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Step 4: Machine Setup

• Setup parameters: specific to machine or process

• Some machines are only designed to

 Run a few specific materials
 Give the user few options to vary layer thickness or other build parameters

• Other machines are designed to

• run with a variety of materials and
• may also have some parameters that require optimization to suit the type of part
that is to be built,
• or permit parts to be built quicker but with poorer resolution.

• In the more complex cases: default settings or save files from previously defined
setups to speed up the machine setup process and avoid mistakes
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Step 5: Build
• First few stages are semi-automated: may require considerable manual control,
interaction, and decision making.

• This stage is the computer-controlled building phase.

• All AM machines will have a similar sequence of layering –

 A height adjustable platform or deposition head
 Material deposition/spreading mechanisms, and
 Layer cross-section formation

• Some machines will combine the step 2 and 3

• Repetition of laying process as long as no errors are detected during the build

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Step 6: Removal and Cleanup

• AM part should be ready for use with minimal manual intervention.
• In some cases, parts will require a significant amount of post-processing

• For metal supports, a wire EDM machine, bandsaw, and/or milling equipment
may be required to remove the part from the baseplate and the supports from
the part.
• In all cases, the part must be either separated from a build platform or removed
from excess build material surrounding the part.

• Some AM processes use additional material other than that used to make the
part itself (secondary support materials).

• The cleanup stage may also be considered as the initial part of the post-
processing stage.
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

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Step 7: Post-Processing
Post-processing: refers to the (usually manual) stages of finishing the parts for
application purposes.

• Application specific stage (minimum/no post-processing/ good precision and

finish)

• May require –
 Machining (abrasive finishing - polishing and sandpapering and milling etc.)
 Chemical treatment
 thermal treatment
 Infiltration and/or surface coatings for fragile components

• Mostly, done manually; however, use of power tools, CNC milling, and additional
equipment, like polishing tubs or drying and baking ovens
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Step 8: Application
• Following post-processing, parts are ready for use.
• Issues in application –
 May not behave according to standard material specifications
 Failure due to small voids trapped inside them
 Degradation of material during build
 Inadequate bonding, linking, or crystallization of materials
 Anisotropic (different properties in different direction)
 Rapid cooling results in different microstructures
• Show different behaviors (better or worse) than conventional processes
• A designer should be aware of the differences and account during design stage
• Understanding recent advancements in materials and processes offers the best
approach for how to use AM for their needs
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

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AM: Application Levels

Technology: the science of the technical process (Scientific approach)

Application: use of the technology to benefit from it (Practical Approach)

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Main application levels

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 54

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Application Levels – Direct Processes

Scaled assembly of a roof construction of

a convertible passenger car

Cut-away demonstrating part of a

combustion engine unit

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 55

Application Levels – Direct Processes

Adjustable air outlet grill for a

passenger car: laser stereolithography

Housing for a re-designed mobile

phone: FDM

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 56

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Application Levels – Direct Processes

Three-unit dental bridge: SLM

Aircraft engine cover hinge: SLM (Bottom)

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 57

Application Levels – Direct Processes

Steel mold for blow molding.

Direct metal laser sintering

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 58

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Application Levels – Direct Processes

Rubber boot sole mold: laser sintering

Mold insert; stereolithography

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 59

Application Levels – Direct Processes

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 60

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Application Levels – Indirect Processes

Lighter “Bruce”; AM master: stereolithography

Triangle-shaped gasket for car mirror fixation

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 61

Application Levels – Indirect Processes

Mold obtained from an AM master

Rigid mold made from aluminum filled epoxy

Stereolithographic

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 62

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Application Levels – Indirect Processes

Combustion engine housing; AM master (left): laser

sintering

Air intake manifold: laser sintering

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 63

Gebhardt, Understanding Additive Manufacturing, Hanser Publishers 2011. 64

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AM: Processes and Relevant Physics

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General integration of an AM machine

Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010. 66

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Classification of AM Processes
• A popular approaches of classification –
• Baseline technology – lasers, printer, extrusion etc.
• Group processes together according to the type of raw material input

• Problems:
 Odd combinations of processes
(like Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and 3D Printing)

 Similar processes but separated

(like Stereolithography and material jetting with photopolymers).

• Thus, these approaches seems inappropriate to cover all processes

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Classification of AM Processes

Classification as per the ASTM – Vat photopolymerization

• Machine architecture and Powder bed fusion

AM Processes

• Materials transformation physics Material extrusion

Material jetting

Binder jetting

Sheet lamination

Directed energy deposition

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

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Vat Photopolymerization Process

An additive manufacturing process in which liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively

cured by light activated polymerization

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Powder bed fusion

An additive manufacturing process in which thermal energy selectively fuses regions of
a powder bed.
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• Selective Laser Melting
(SLM)/ Direct Metal
• Laser Sintering (DMLS)
• Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
• Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)

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Material extrusion - FDM

An additive manufacturing process in which material is selectively dispensed through a
nozzle or orifice.

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Material jetting
An additive manufacturing process in which droplets of build material are selectively
deposited

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Binder jetting
An additive manufacturing process in which a liquid bonding agent is selectively
deposited to join powder materials.

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Sheet lamination
An additive manufacturing process in which sheets of material are bonded to form an
object.

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Directed energy deposition

An additive manufacturing process in which focused thermal energy is used to fuse
materials by melting as they are being deposited.

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Thank you

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AM: Materials and Properties

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Need for appropriate materials

• Ability to produce the feedstock in a form amenable to the specific AM process
• Suitable processing of the material by AM
• Capability to be acceptably post-processed to enhance geometry and properties
such as –
 Microstructure
 Reduce porosity
 Finish surfaces
 Reduce roughness and
 Meet geometric tolerance
• Manifestation of necessary performance characteristics in service

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Materials used in AM
Most frequently used materials: Polymers, Metals & Alloys, Ceramics and Composites

AM Processes Materials Remarks

Material extrusion Amorphous polymers Large viscous softening temperature range

Powder bed fusion • Semicrystalline A very small softening temperature range

• Metals & alloys with a dramatic change in viscosity
• Ceramics
Vat polymerization Photosensitive thermosets Mixing of ceramic particles possible

Material jetting Photosensitive thermoset Mixing of ceramic particles possible

Binder jetting Almost all in powder form Binder + Powder

Sheet lamination Almost all in sheet form Binder + Sheet

Directed energy deposition Metals & alloys, Ceramics Powder/wire form

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Current commercial materials used in AM

Semicrystalline

Bourell et al (2017). Materials for additive manufacturing. CIRP Annals, 66(2), 659-681. 4

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Polymers Materials for AM

Over view

Tan et al. (2020). Recent progress on polymer materials for additive manufacturing. Advanced Functional Materials, 30(43), 2003062. 6

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Dynamic DSC curve of a polymer and parameters

• polymers are preheated to a bed
temperature (Tb) as close to Tm
(semicrystalline) and Tg (amorphous)

• Semicrystalline polymer, Tb <Tm,

onset (powder caking)

• Preheating serves to reduce the

temperature gradient between its
sintered and unsintered regions

• Mitigating the non-uniform

shrinkage of sintered parts

Tan et al. (2020). Recent progress on polymer materials for additive manufacturing. Advanced Functional Materials, 30(43), 2003062. 7

Thermoplastic polymers
• Soften or melt upon heating, and solidify upon cooling

• Allows to be remolded and recycled

Classification –
• Amorphous: (ex. polystyrene (PS) and polycarbonate (PC))
 Randomly ordered molecular structures that impart flexibility to the material
 Slowly soften and transform into a glassy state above Tg
 Do not have a defined Tm
• Semicrystalline: (ex. polyamides (PAs))
 Show both Tm and Tg that correspond to crystalline and amorphous regions,
respectively.
 Viscosity rapidly decreases as it changes from solid to viscous liquid phase
when heated above its Tm
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Photopolymers

 Polymerization: process of linking small molecules (monomers) into larger

molecules (polymers)

 Polymer structures:

 Thermoplastic polymers: a linear or branched molecular structure that allows

them to melt and solidify repeatedly.

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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Photopolymer
• Mostly used by the VP and MJ • Form cross-linked chemical networks
• Liquid pre-polymers • Undergo irreversible hardening
• Activated upon irradiation

Converts the physical energy (incident light)

Photoinitiators into chemical energy (reactive intermediates)

Main constituent; reacts with photoinitiater

Liquid monomers to form polymer

Ensure safe processing and protect

Photopolymer Stabilizers products against aging and weathering.

Provides rigid plastic flexibility.to the

Flexibilizers polymer

Reactive diluents Added to adjust the viscosity of the

mixtures to an acceptable level

Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010. 10

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Photopolymer Chemistry

UV radiation
Chemical Liquid
transformation Monomers
VP Resin Reactive Polymer
(Photoinitiators) Photoinitiators Chains

 Subsequently, cross-links forms (creation of strong covalent bonds between polymer chains)

 Types of photopolymer chemistry

o Free-radical photopolymerization—acrylate
o Cationic photopolymerization—epoxy and vinylether
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

Photopolymer Chemistry
 Free-radical photopolymerization
o For every two photons (from the laser), one radical will be produced.
o That radical can easily lead to the polymerization of over 1,000 monomers

P–I: Photoinitiator
I●: a free radical
M: monomer.

 Termination of the polymerization

o Recombination (two polymer chains merge by joining two radicals)
o Disproportionation (cancelation of one radical by another, without joining)
o Occlusion (free radicals become “trapped” within a solidified polymer)
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

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Key properties of photosensitive resign

Tan et al. (2020). Recent progress on polymer materials for additive manufacturing. Advanced Functional Materials, 30(43), 2003062. 13

Key properties of thermoplastic powder

Tan et al. (2020). Recent progress on polymer materials for additive manufacturing. Advanced Functional Materials, 30(43), 2003062. 14

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Overview of polymer powders for SLS

Polyamideimide (PAI)
Polybutylene (PB-1)
Polyethersulfone (PES),
Polyimide (PI),
Poly(phenyl sulfone (PPSU),
Polysulfone (PSU),
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE),
Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA),
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC),
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN), and
Syndiotactic polystyrene (sPS)

Tan et al. (2020). Recent progress on polymer materials for additive manufacturing. Advanced Functional Materials, 30(43), 2003062. 15

Key properties of a filament and their influences on FDM

Tan et al. (2020). Recent progress on polymer materials for additive manufacturing. Advanced Functional Materials, 30(43), 2003062. 16

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Overview of polymer filaments for FDM

Tan et al. (2020). Recent progress on polymer materials for additive manufacturing. Advanced Functional Materials, 30(43), 2003062. 17

Ceramic Materials for AM

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Ceramics
• Ceramic components take key positions in numerous applications due to outstanding
properties such as –
 high temperature strength
 Corrosion resistance
 high hardness
 extreme values of Young’s modulus, and
 the widespread electrical properties covering the whole spectra of electrical
conducting phenomena

• Application fields of ceramic components are – catalyst supports, glow plugs, lambda
probes, braking discs or diesel particle traps in the automotive industry, filtering membranes
for waste water treatment, thread guides in the textile industry, bearings, cutting tools, seals
in mechanical engineering or housings for electronic components, and actors or sensors in
the electronic industry, medical products, implants, customized products, or design
components
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Ceramics
• Ceramics, due to their combination of high melting point and low toughness, are
difficult to process directly in AM
• In most cases, attempts to direct process ceramics have resulted in thermally
induced cracking
• Approaches to mitigate cracking include process optimization, adding auxiliary
devices (ultrasonic, thermal, magnetic) and a doping toughening approach
• Despite the differences in chemical composition, component structure and size,
or property spectra, ceramic components have one thing in common—all ceramic
components are made using a powder technological route.
• This material-specific law is also valid for additive manufacturing (AM)
processes—and it makes the AM of ceramics different from the AM processes for
metals or polymers.

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Different form of Ceramics

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AM methods for ceramics

• There are two strategies to fabricate ceramic materials using 3D AM technologies –

• Direct methods:
 ceramic material in the powder, resin, preceramic, or molten form is directly
deposited on a platform layer by layer to form 3D part
 Usually developed parts are in green form
 Subsequent debound, decompose, and/or sintered in a thermal oven or furnace

• Indirect methods:
 Used to fabricate permanent or sacrificial molds/templates for casting of
ceramic slurry
 3D AM is able to make very complex molds, which conventional methods are
unable to do.

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Processing methods
Indirect AM methods

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Processing methods
Direct AM methods

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Metallic Materials for AM

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Metals
• Common commercially available alloys are – pure titanium, Ti6Al4V, 316L stainless
steel, 17-4PH stainless steel and 18Ni300 maraging steel, AlSi10Mg, CoCrMo, and
nickel based superalloys - Inconel 718 and Inconel 625.

• Several factors contribute to metal AM –

 When fusion is involved, the metals generally must be weldable and castable to be successfully
processed in AM.
 The small, moving melt pool is significantly smaller than the dimensions of the final part (typically
on the order of 102–104 times smaller).
 This local hot zone in direct contact with a large and colder area leads to large thermal gradients
causing significant thermal residual stresses and non-equilibrium micro-structures.
 For powdered feedstock, particles should preferably be spherical with a certain size distribution,
which is different for PBF and DED.
 The latter tends to be less sensitive to the dimensional qualities of the feedstock.
 A wire is also a suitable precursor material for certain DED processes, creating a larger melt pool
than powder based DED allowing a higher production rate.
26

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 21-Feb-22

AM processes for metals

27

Different phases of metals used in AM

28

14
 21-Feb-22

Application areas

29

Issues in metal AM
Affinity for atmosphere constituents

(a) Large dark grey oxide particles and small TiN particles indicated by
the arrows, trapped inside 18Ni300 SLM part (b) Fracture surface of a
DED Inconel 718 part having an Al2O3 particle inclusion

High reflectivity and thermal conductivity

Absorption of several pure

metals at room temperature,
for different wavelengths

30

15
 21-Feb-22

Issues in metal AM
Residual stress

2D map of the vertical residual

stresses at midheight of a 100
mm high Inconel 718 pillar
structure made by LENS

Microstructure

(a) The columnar microstructure in

SLM of Ti6Al4V [300] and (b) the
visible melt pools in SLM of 316L.

31

Multi-material System for AM

32

16
 21-Feb-22

Need of Multi-material systems

• Improving the mechanical properties of the resulting parts

• Providing additional functionality in the resulting part

• Improving the performance of the AM process

Vaezi, M et al. (2013). Multiple material additive manufacturing–Part 1: a review. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 8(1), 19-50.
33

Multi-material systems
• MM Systems include those produced from (Gibson et al. 2010) –
 Discrete multiple materials
 Composite materials and
 Porous materials suitable for secondary material infiltration

• However, the below cases do not fall in MM systems (Vaezi et al. 2013) as in these
processes the compositional variation cannot be freely controlled by computer and
program –
 Raw materials are pre-mixed or composited before the AM or
 Second materials is integrated by infiltration or coating or other non-AM post
processing methods

Vaezi, M et al. (2013). Multiple material additive manufacturing–Part 1: a review. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 8(1), 19-50.
34

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 21-Feb-22

Multi-material systems

(a) Different material systems: single-material, multi-material and FGAM prints

(b-c) nerve guidance conduit (d) MM chess parts

To achieve this, different materials or chemicals

need to be physically delivered to any spatial
location in 3D during the additive manufacturing.

Multi-material PLGA/collagen scaffold

35

AM Processes for MM systems

Pei, E., Loh, G. H., Harrison, D., de Amorim Almeida, H., Verona, M. D. M., & Paz, R. (2017). A study of 4D printing and functionally graded additive manufacturing. Assembly Automation. 36

18
 21-Feb-22

AM vs conventional processes of MM systems –

• Enhance the performance of AM parts by adding more complexity and
functionality

• Possible to improve part performance by varying material compositions or type

within the layers

• Offers a whole new paradigm and range of opportunities for design, functionality,
and cost effective high value products.

37

Composite materials
Definition:
• A material which is composed of two or more materials at a microscopic scale and
have chemically distinct phases
• Heterogeneous at a microscopic scale but statically homogeneous at macroscopic
scale
• Constituent materials have significantly different properties.

Classification of certain materials as a composite:

1. Combination of materials should result in significant property changes
2. Content of the constituents is generally more than 10%
3. In general, property of one constituent is much greater ( ≥ 5) than the other

38

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 21-Feb-22

Composite materials
What are the constituents in a composite material?
• Reinforcement: discontinuous stronger harder
• Matrix: Continuous

39

Functionally graded materials (FGM) systems

• Under the adverse atmospheric conditions (such as travel of a space plane in
atmosphere), failure occurs in conventional composite materials as they are unable to
meet the required performance criteria

• Naotake proposed a new class of

composite materials functionally
graded materials (FGMs)

• Based on the observations of

naturally grown materials and
structures, such as bone, wood,
teeth and fish scales etc.

Pei, E., Loh, G. H., Harrison, D., de Amorim Almeida, H., Verona, M. D. M., & Paz, R. (2017). A study of 4D printing and functionally graded additive manufacturing. Assembly Automation.
40

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 21-Feb-22

Functionally graded materials (FGM) systems

• In contrast with conventional single-material and multi-material AM which focuses
on shape-centric prototyping, FGAM focuses on material-centric fabrication by
highlighting the structure-property relationship.

• FGMs are characterized by gradual transitions in either compositions/constituents or

microstructures (e.g., grain size, texture, porosity, etc.), along at least one direction,
leading to functional changes associated with at least one property

• This process is characterized by simultaneous synthesis and densification of three-

dimensional objects that are driven by the pre-determined organisation of the
deposited material as opposed to only its shape and form.

Pei, E., Loh, G. H., Harrison, D., de Amorim Almeida, H., Verona, M. D. M., & Paz, R. (2017). A study of 4D printing and functionally graded additive manufacturing. Assembly Automation.
41

Functionally graded materials (FGM) systems

(a) Discontinuous FGM

(b) continuous FGM

(c), (d) and (e) schematic

diagrams showing
discontinuous FGMs that
contain interfaces with gradual
change in composition, grain
orientation and volume
fractions of two types of
second-phase particles,

(f), (g) and (h) schematic

diagrams showing continuous
FGMs in absence of interfaces
and with gradual change in
grain size, fiber orientation and
volume fraction of second-
phase particles

Liu,et al. Functional gradients and heterogeneities in biological materials: design principles, functions, and bioinspired applications, Prog. Mater. Sci. 88 (2017) 467–498. 42

21
 21-Feb-22

FGAM
The potential microstructural gradient compositions achievable by FGAM can be
characterized into 3 types –

• variable densification within a homogeneous composition

• Heterogeneous composition through simultaneously combining two or more

materials through a gradual transition; and

• using a combination of variable densification within a heterogeneous

composition

Loh, G. H., Pei, E., Harrison, D., & Monzón, M. D. (2018). An overview of functionally graded additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 23, 34-44. 43

Homogeneous compositions
Single-material FGAM

Varied densification
FGAM concrete by
Keating mimicking the
radial density gradient
of a palm tree

Loh, G. H., Pei, E., Harrison, D., & Monzón, M. D. (2018). An overview of functionally graded additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 23, 34-44. 44

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Heterogeneous compositions
Multi-material FGAM

Loh, G. H., Pei, E., Harrison, D., & Monzón, M. D. (2018). An overview of functionally graded additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 23, 34-44. 45

Traditional vs FGAM composites

Thermal conductivity

Elastic modulus

Thermal Elastic
conductivity modulus

Loh, G. H., Pei, E., Harrison, D., & Monzón, M. D. (2018). An overview of functionally graded additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 23, 34-44. 46

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 21-Feb-22

Multi-material FGAM

Demonstrates a smooth and

seamless transition between
materials from 0% at one end to
100% to the other end in Multi-
material FGAM.

The continuous variation within

the 3D space can be achieved by
controlling the ratios in which two
or more materials that are mixed
during the deposition and before
curing.

Loh, G. H., Pei, E., Harrison, D., & Monzón, M. D. (2018). An overview of functionally graded additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 23, 34-44. 47

Multi-material FGAM
The design of heterogeneous
compositional gradients can be divided
into 4 types –

• A transition between 2 materials

• 3 materials or above

• Switched composition between

different locations, or

• A combination of density and

compositional gradation
Combination of density and compositional gradation within
a heterogeneous material.

Loh, G. H., Pei, E., Harrison, D., & Monzón, M. D. (2018). An overview of functionally graded additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 23, 34-44. 48

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 21-Feb-22

FGAM process flow from design to manufacturing

Loh, G. H., Pei, E., Harrison, D., & Monzón, M. D. (2018). An overview of functionally graded additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 23, 34-44. 49

Thank you

25
 03-Mar-22

Solidification and Structure-Property Relationship

in Additive Manufacturing

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Metals solidification in AM

• Basics of Solidification

• Effect of solidification on equilibrium structure

• Structure-property correlation

1
 03-Mar-22

Metals solidification in AM
• During the last decade, solidification modeling has exhibited –
 a sustained development effort
 supported by academic as well as industrial research

• Driving force: the promise of predictive capabilities that will allow process and
material improvement, as well as shorter lead times

• Most significant recent progress: has been incorporation of transformation kinetics,

for both the solid/liquid and the solid/solid transformation, in the macro-transport
models.

• Results of these efforts: publications and commercial software, ease in prediction of

defects, microstructure length scale and composition, and mechanical properties

Metals solidification in AM
• In the AM processes that are based on metallic raw materials (powder/wire etc),
melting and solidification occurs to achieve semifinished or finished shape.

• Solidification of a metal can be divided into the following steps:

 Formation of a stable nucleus
 Growth of a stable nucleus.

(a)Formation of stable nuclei (b) Growth of crystals (c) Grain structure

4

2
 03-Mar-22

Solidification length scales

• Macroscale (100–10−3 m): elements
include shrinkage cavity, cold shuts,
misruns, macrosegregation, cracks, surface
roughness (finish), and casting dimensions.

• Mesoscale (10−4 m): microstructure

features at grain level, without resolving
the grain boundary.

• Microscale (10−6 –10−5 m): complex

morphology of the solidification grain.

• The Nanoscale (10−9 m): atomic

morphology of the S/L interface (nucleation
and growth kinetics)

Space scales and methods in materials simulation

3
 03-Mar-22

Analysis of solidification
Simplifying assumptions:
a. Pure metal
b. Constant pressure
c. Flat solid/liquid interface, i.e., the radius of
curvature of the interface is r =∞
d. No thermal gradient in the liquid.

For constant pressure, the Gibbs free energy

equation:

G=H−TS
where H = E + P · v is the enthalpy.
Variation of the free energy of the liquid and solid with
temperature

Non-Equilibrium Solidification
• Some transformations do not cause changes in composition, such as the
solidification of a pure metal, (Congruent transformation)

• Some other do, such as the solidification of an alloy into a solid solution
(Incongruent transformations)
• Congruent transformations are cooling rate insensitive and incongruent
transformations are cooling rate sensitive – they rely on inter-diffusion to proceed.
• Solidification under a fast cooling rate, where diffusion is insufficient to
homogenise the composition simultaneously during the process is known as the
non-equilibrium solidification.
• A common consequence of non-equilibrium solidification is coring.

4
 03-Mar-22

Solidification of eutectic systems (equilibrium condition)

• The Pb-Sn system is characteristic of a

valley in the middle.
• Such system is known as the Eutectic
system.
• The central point is the Eutectic point
and the transformation though this
point is called Eutectic reaction:
L α+β
• Pb has a fcc structure and Sn has a
tetragonal structure.
• The System has three phases: L, α and
β.

Solidification of eutectic systems

10

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 03-Mar-22

Solidification of eutectic systems

11

Solidification of eutectic systems

12

6
 03-Mar-22

Coring phenomena (Non-Equilibrium Solidification)

• Alloy Co starts solidification at T1.
• The first solid formed has composition Cs1.
• On further cooling to T2, an outer shell of composition
Cs2 is formed surrounding Cs1.
• Due to inadequate diffusion on fast cooling, a
composition difference is created.
• The average composition of the solid composite at T2
is, thus, somewhere between Cs1 and Cs2: Cs2*.
• The same situation continues throughout the process.
• Under equilibrium condition solidification completes at
T3.
• However, under nonequilibrium condition, the average
composition of solid at T3 is Cs3* <Co, indicating that
solidification is not completed yet.
• Solidification actually ends when the average
composition of solid equals Co, i.e., at T4.

13

Coring phenomena – grain formation

14

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 03-Mar-22

Coring in Eutectic Systems

15

Effect of Coring (Constitutional Supercooling)

16

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 03-Mar-22

Effect of Coring (Structure formation)

• A consequence of constitutional supercooling
and destabilisation of solid-liquid interface is
the formation of dendritic structure.

• In such structure, gaps between dendrites

and between dentitic fingers are regions rich
of low-melting temperature phases and
impurities.

• Dendritic branches themselves are often

cored, too.

• This often require post-processing i.e. heat

treatment to homogenise the structure.
17

Properties of materials

Anandh Subramaniam, Lecture notes on ‘Structure of Materials’, IIT Kanpur

18

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 03-Mar-22

Properties (influencing parameters)

Anandh Subramaniam, Lecture notes on ‘Structure of Materials’, IIT Kanpur

19

Properties (influencing parameters)

Anandh Subramaniam, Lecture notes on ‘Structure of Materials’, IIT Kanpur 20

10
 03-Mar-22

Properties (influencing parameters)

Clemens, H., Mayer, S., & Scheu, C. (2017). Microstructure and properties of engineering materials. Neutrons and synchrotron radiation in engineering
materials science: From fundamentals to applications, 1-20.
Anandh Subramaniam, Lecture notes on ‘Structure of Materials’, IIT Kanpur 21

Properties (influencing parameters)

Influence of atomic arrangement and microstructure on the properties of engineering
metallic materials.

Clemens, H., Mayer, S., & Scheu, C. (2017). Microstructure and properties of engineering materials. Neutrons and synchrotron radiation in engineering
materials science: From fundamentals to applications, 1-20.
22

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Properties (influencing parameters)

Clemens, H., Mayer, S., & Scheu, C. (2017). Microstructure and properties of engineering materials. Neutrons and synchrotron radiation in engineering materials science: From fundamentals to applications, 1-20. 23

Properties (influencing parameters)

Clemens, H., Mayer, S., & Scheu, C. (2017). Microstructure and properties of engineering materials. Neutrons and synchrotron radiation in engineering materials science: From fundamentals to applications, 1-20. 24

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 03-Mar-22

Thank you

13
 03-Mar-22

Modelling of Additive Manufacturing Processes

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Scope of discussion

• All AM processes that utilize metallic feed stock

• Energy sources: laser, electron beam or electric arc

• Processes: PBF & DED

1
 03-Mar-22

Heat source characteristics

• Energy absorption by the feedstock materials affects –
• Temperature profiles
• Deposit geometry where
• Solidification f = distribution factor
P = total power of the heat source
• Microstructure and properties of the part
rb = radius of the heat source and
r = radial distance of any point from the axis of the
• Energy absorption depends on the heat source heat source.
characteristics.

• Important properties of heat source (For lasers,

electron beams and plasma arcs) –
• Arc radius and
• Power density distribution

• power density distributions of these heat sources often

follow the following axisymmetric Gaussian profiles.

DebRoy, T. et. Al., (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic components–process, structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 92, 112-224. 3

Interaction between heat source and feedstock materials

Interaction of heat in (a) DED and (b) PFB processes
The heat source in DED process can be represented
by the following volumetric heat source with a
modified Gaussian distribution –

where np is the fraction of energy absorbed by the

powder during flight, nl refers to the absorption
coefficient of the deposit, and tl is the layer thickness

The heat absorbed by the particles in-flight depends on –

• their density and thermo-physical properties, shape and size distribution,
• free flight duration through the beam, and
• gas velocity.

The extent of energy absorbed by the deposit surface also depends on beam characteristics,
deposit geometry and the shielding gas.
DebRoy, T. et. Al., (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic components–process, structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 92, 112-224. 4

2
 03-Mar-22

Boundary conditions
• In AM processing, the target material undergoes rapid –
 heating,
 melting,
 solidification, and
 cooling

• The melt pool shape changes drastically due to –

 coalescence and
 movement induced by surface tension

• Dimensions of the molten pool and hence the consolidated build depend on –
 amount of heat supplied by the heat source
 heat transfer and flow of molten metal within the liquid pool

• Heat transfer and fluid flow govern –

 molten pool shape, size and final microstructures
 properties of the component using non-dimensional numbers
5

Principles of heat and mass transfer and fluid flow

• The convective flow (as shown in Fig) –
 mixes the liquid metal from different regions and
 enhances the transport of heat within the
molten pool

• The circulation pattern has a major effect on –

 Temperature distribution in the liquid alloy,
Jidong Zhao's Computational Granular Mechanics Lab
 Heating and cooling rates
 Solidification pattern and Heat transfer and molten pool dynamics
 Microstructure and properties of the build

• Therefore, the accurate calculations of 3D

temperature fields require fully-coupled solution of
both heat transfer and fluid flow equations.

Marangoni Flow: the surface tension gradient on the top

surface of the molten pool resulting from the spatial
variation of temperature; drives connective flow in melt pool
6

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 03-Mar-22

Principles of heat and mass transfer and fluid flow

The 3D transient temperature fields in the parts are commonly obtained by solving the following
equations of conservation of mass, momentum and energy –

The solutions of these equations provide

• transient temperature fields in the
entire build and
• velocity fields within the liquid region,
• cooling rates,
• solidification parameters which are
the most important parameters that
determine the structure and
properties of parts.

where
q = the density, ui and uj = the velocity components along the i and j directions, respectively, xi = distance along the i direction, t =
the time, m = the dynamic viscosity, Sj = a source term for the momentum equation, h = sensible heat, Cp = specific heat, k =
thermal conductivity, and DH = latent heat content

DebRoy, T. et. Al., (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic components–process, structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 92, 112-224. 7

Boundary conditions
The Marangoni shear stress on the surface of the
molten pool can be expressed as:

where, T = temperature, c = surface tension, τM =

Marangoni stress, r = radial distance from the axis of the
heat source, ui = velocity component in the i direction
and xk = distance along k direction which is the vertical
direction. Surface tension of Fe-S alloys as a function of
temperature and composition

• The surface tension of metals and alloys depends on temperature and composition.
• Concentrations of surface active elements in alloys, i.e., elements that have a
tendency to migrate to surface of liquid, affect surface tension of alloys significantly.
DebRoy, T. et. Al., (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic components–process, structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 92, 112-224. 8

4
 03-Mar-22

Boundary conditions
• The velocity component perpendicular to the free surface and all velocity
components at the solid-liquid interface are taken as zero.

• Heat exchange boundary condition: heat exchange between the top surface of the
build and the surroundings involves consideration of both convective and radiative
heat transfer –

where σSB is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 Wm2 K4), ε is the emissivity, Ta is the ambient temperature
and hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient.

• For other walls, convective and radiative heat transfer boundary condition with the
surroundings.

DebRoy, T. et. Al., (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic components–process, structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 92, 112-224. 9

Boundary conditions (temperature and velocity fields)

Control volumes
or cells

Temperature dependent
thermo-physical
properties to each cell

Computational domain

• Properties of cells – change with time as temperature or new materials are added
• Additions of mass simulation –
 changing properties of existing cells
 adding new cells with appropriate thermo-physical properties
DebRoy, T. et. Al., (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic components–process, structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 92, 112-224. 10

5
 03-Mar-22

Measurement of the temperature field

• In AM, measurement of the temperature field is difficult because –
 heat source moves rapidly and
 temperature field is highly transient

Most commonly used methods for

temperature measurement

Thermocouples Infrared thermography

• thin to avoid significant errors in • measures temperature distribution on the
measurements surface of the build
• measure temperatures locally • provides only the surface temperatures
• multiple thermocouples also unable to • unable to provide a 3D transient
provide a complete temperature field temperature distribution

DebRoy, T. et. Al., (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic components–process, structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 92, 112-224. 11

Measurement of the temperature field

Alternative way: a computational model Experimental data (T-t) at
multiple monitoring locations

Input Computational Model Prediction of

parameters model validation results

10th layer
1st layer

Fig. Temperature distribution during the deposition of IN 718 powder

Fig. (c) pool shape and size at 10th layer and (d) circulation of molten metal on IN 718 substrate (300 W laser power and 15 mm/s scanning speed)
inside the pool driven by the surface tension gradient.

DebRoy, T. et. Al., (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic components–process, structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 92, 112-224. 12

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 03-Mar-22

Non-dimensional numbers
• Used to understand the effects of various AM process variables and material properties on –
 Microstructure
 properties and
 Defects

• Beneficial because –
 reduce the total numbers of variables to be studied and
 provide important understanding that a single process variable is unable to provide

• Commonly used non-dimensional numbers in AM are –

Peclet number (Pe): relative importance of heat transfer by convection and conduction in molten pool
where U is the characteristic velocity, α is the thermal diffusivity of the alloy and L
𝑈𝐿 is the characteristic length (pool length).
𝑃𝑒 =
𝛼 A high value of Peclet number (Pe>>1): convective heat transfer is the
main mechanism of heat transfer within the molten pool.
13

Non-dimensional numbers
Marangoni number (Ma): represents the ratio of the surface tension force to viscous force and is a
measure of the strength of the convective flow of liquid metal within the molten pool.
where µ is the viscosity, α is the thermal diffusivity of the alloy, L is the characteristic
𝑑𝛾 𝐿∆𝑇 length of the molten pool (width of the molten pool), ΔT is the difference between the
𝑀𝑎 = − maximum temperature inside the pool and the solidus temperature of an alloy, and
𝑑𝑇 𝜇𝛼 dγ/dT is the sensitivity of surface tension with respect to temperature.

Fourier number (Fo): is used to obtain a relative measure of heat dissipation rate to heat storage
rate during AM processing

𝛼τ 𝛼 where , α, τ and L refer to thermal diffusivity, characteristic time scale and length,
𝐹0 = = respectively. The characteristic time can be expressed as L/v, where v is scanning speed.
𝐿 𝑣𝐿
Higher Fo means faster dissipation of heat which helps in faster
cooling of the build and more refined microstructure.
14

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 03-Mar-22

Non-dimensional numbers

Thermal strain parameter (ε*): represents the effects of common process parameters and
material properties on the susceptibility of a component to thermal distortion.

where β is the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion, ΔT is the maximum rise in

temperature during the process, E is the elastic modulus and I is the moment of inertia
of the substrate, the product, EI, is the flexural rigidity of the structure, t is the
characteristic time, H is the heat input per unit length, Fo is the Fourier number and ρ is
the density of the alloy powder.

Heat input (Q*): is used as a measure of the energy deposited per unit length of the deposit
where P and v refer to the laser power and the scanning speed, respectively. PR and vR
represent the reference laser power and scanning speed, respectively.

Higher heat input per unit length reduces cooling rate and makes the
microstructure coarser. For most alloys the hardness decreases with
higher heat input.

15

Non-dimensional numbers

16

8
 03-Mar-22

Process stability
• Rapid production of AM parts is often achieved by increasing the scanning speed.

• As a result, the molten pool becomes elongated and depending on the scanning
speed

• Liquid pool may become unstable due to break-up of the single molten pool into
isolated puddles of liquid resulting in a discontinuity of the deposited geometry and
non-uniform deposit thickness.

• The origin of the defects is often caused by –

 the Kelvin-Helmholtz hydrodynamic instability or
 the Plateau Raleigh capillary instability

17

Process stability
Effect of scanning speed on humping in DED-GMA
Kelvin Helmholtz hydrodynamic instability
• A continuous increase in the scanning speed may
result in a bead-like appearance, commonly known
as humping
• Humping is caused by the hydrodynamic instability
of the molten pool known as Kelvin-Helmholtz (KH)
instability.
• The velocity of the liquid metal at the top of the
molten pool is lower than the shielding gas velocity.
• This difference in velocities may result in
hydrodynamic instability of the liquid metal surface.
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, L is the
• KH instability occurs when Richardson number, Ri characteristic length which can be taken as the one half of the
(ratio of buoyancy force to shear force)< 0.25. layer thickness, and Ug and Ul are the velocities of the shielding
gas and the liquid metal in the molten pool, respectively.

The main factors for the KH instability are layer thickness and velocities of shielding gas and molten
metal, the latter being affected by the thermo-physical properties of the alloy and the AM variables.
18

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 03-Mar-22

Process stability
Plateau Raleigh capillary instability
• During AM, the deposited material sometimes tends to
form half-cylindrical shape.
• This phenomenon depends on variables such as the
scanning speed and the surface tension, viscosity and
density of the alloy
• At very high scanning speeds, the molten pool tends to
elongate, becomes unstable and separates in small
spherical balls to maintain the uniform capillary
pressure inside the pool.
where L and D are the length of the molten pool and
• This phenomenon is called ‘balling effect’. width of the deposit, respectively.
• Maximum allowable length of the molten pool that
prevents this instability can be obtained from the The small spherical balls formed due to the
following relation based on Plateau Raleigh capillary balling effect are accumulated at the sides of
instability : the deposit and result in rough surfaces.
19

Modelling of Defects
Loss of alloying elements The Langmuir equation in which the Porosity and lack of fusion defects
vapor flux, Ji, of element i is
calculated as:

where Pi and Mi are the equilibrium vapor

Measured chemical composition along the build
height for a Ti-6Al-4V sample fabricated by PBF-EB
pressure and molecular weight of element
i, respectively, T is temperature and λC is a
positive fraction accounting for the
condensation of some vaporized atoms.
The ‘‘lack of fusion index” (LF) correlate well with the
extent of voids:
LF = Molten pool depth/Layer thickness

Surface roughness Stair case effect

Balling effect
The average surface roughness (Ra) –

fn = height of a peak/depth of a
valley and N = measured locations
along the profile length L.
20

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 03-Mar-22

Modelling of Defects
Residual stresses and distortion
• The standard approach:
 sequentially-coupled heat conduction analysis in transient mode
 elastic-plastic small displacement analysis
• Another approach: Fully-coupled analysis to solve heat conduction and stress equilibrium equations
simultaneously (require much more computational resources)

For the solution of stress equilibrium equations, the stress-strain constitutive behavior is considered in
an incremental manner to account for steep temperature gradient, sharp change in thermal strains and
consequent stresses as:

Where
dε the total incremental strain that is composed of elastic (dεE), plastic (dεP), thermal (dεTh) and
other volumetric (dεV) strain increments, and
DEP and DE are the elastic-plastic and elastic stiffness matrices, respectively.

21

Solidification structure Normal solidification velocity

During solidification, the structure is dominated by –
• Base metal: near the melt pool boundary
• Competitive growth: further away from the melt boundary
Growth velocity Vhkl of the dendrite tip
The direction of heat flow
can be given by – The secondary dendrite arm spacing –

where, T = temperature, i, j and where tf is local solidification time, εC is

k are unit vectors in the cooling rate, and a, b and n are material
scanning, width and vertical specific constants
directions, respectively.
The temperature gradient, G

The θ between heat flow

and scanning direction –

Fig. Schematic representation of the angular Effect of temperature gradient G and growth rate R on the
relationships morphology and size of solidification microstructure
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Case study
(Modelling of PBF and DED Process)

23

Modelling of PBF and DED

Fig. Representation of FEM

Tan et. al. (2020), Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 15:1, 87-105, DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2019.1677345 24

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Models

Tan et. al. (2020), Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 15:1, 87-105, DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2019.1677345 25

Coupling of models

Schoinochoritis et. al. (2017). Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 231(1), 96-117.
26

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PBF Process

Fig. Meshing
Fig. Basic physics

(a) Powder stacking

strategy, (b) laser
irradiation region
and (c) meshing of a
simulation model
considering powder
arrangements.

Schoinochoritis et. al. (2017). Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 231(1), 96-117. 27

Simulation results (PBF)

Liquid metal time

Liquid metal time

Fig. Temperature variation Fig. Melt pool characteristics

Fig. Melt pool dimensions change with beam power (a) 20 W (b) 40 W (c) 60 Wand (d) 80 W.
Schoinochoritis et. al. (2017). Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 231(1), 96-117.
28

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Case study
(Modelling of Direct Energy Deposition)

29

DED Process

Schematic diagram of powder source

Wang et. al. (2020). Multi-physics modeling and Gaussian process regression analysis of cladding track geometry for direct energy deposition. Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 127, 105950.
30

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DED Process (Single cladding track formation)

powder particles heat substrate

Cladding track formation process (X-Y cs)

the cladding track formation process in longitude the cladding track morphology (top view).
cross section (X-Z plane)

Wang et. al. (2020). Multi-physics modeling and Gaussian process regression analysis of cladding track geometry for direct energy deposition. Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 127, 105950.
31

Case study
(Modelling of droplet-based Printing process)

Tofan, T., Kruggel-Emden, H., Turla, V., & Jasevičius, R. (2021). Numerical Modeling of the Motion and Interaction of a Droplet of an
Inkjet Printing Process with a Flat Surface. Applied Sciences, 11(2), 527.

Park, C. Y., & Zohdi, T. I. (2019). Numerical modeling of thermo-mechanically induced stress in substrates for droplet-based additive
manufacturing processes. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 141(6).

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DED Process

(a) 2D axisymmetric model of nozzle and (b) boundary conditions

Luo et. al. (2012). Modeling and characterization of metal droplets generation by using a pneumatic drop-on-demand generator. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 212(3), 718-726.
33

DED Process

Evolution of droplet generation by the pulsed pneumatic pressure

Fig. The comparison

between simulation
and measurement
flying distance

Luo et. al. (2012). Modeling and characterization of metal droplets generation by using a pneumatic drop-on-demand generator. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 212(3), 718-726. 34

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DED Process

Breakup of metal jet with the increase of pressure

Fig. Droplets generation using nozzles with different diameters

Luo et. al. (2012). Modeling and characterization of metal droplets generation by using a pneumatic drop-on-demand generator. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 212(3), 718-726. 35

DED Process

Fig. The pressure and velocity disturbance in the jet and droplets
Luo et. al. (2012). Modeling and characterization of metal droplets generation by using a pneumatic drop-on-demand generator. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 212(3), 718-726. 36

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Thank you

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