Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents

I- Theories of Cognitive Development

Cognition is the process of learning in the broadest sense that includes perception,
memory, judgment and thinking. It is both a mental activity and behavior that provides
an understanding of the world arising from biological, experiential, motivational and
social influences.

A. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

According to Jean Piaget, children actively seek out information and such information is
in turn adapted to the children’s acquired knowledge and conceptions about the world. It
is from their experiences that children construct their understanding of reality, and
children also have the ability to organize this knowledge into an increasingly complex
structure called schemata.
The following are basic concepts in Piaget’s theory:
 Schema (plural = schemata). It is an organized unit of knowledge. The child
uses this to be able to understand a situation or an experience and which will
serve as basis for organizing actions to respond to the environment. Schemata
are modified by organization and adaptation.
 Organization. The predisposition to combine simple physical or psychological
structures into more complex systems. Structures are viewed from larger
dimensions and not on limited parameters.
 Adaptation. It is the process of adjusting one’s thinking according to
environmental demands. It involves the process of assimilation and
accommodation that are essentially complementary.
 Assimilation. The process of making use of an existing schemata to a new
experience.
 Accommodation. The process of modifying an existing schema to make it work
in a new experience.
According to Jean Piaget, children actively seek out information and such information is
in turn adapted to the children’s acquired knowledge and conceptions about the world.
It is from their experiences that children construct their understanding of reality, and
they also have the ability to organize this knowledge into an increasingly complex
structure called schemata.
a. Sensorimotor Stage
 This is where the child is able to use internal representation of external events
without simply relying on reflexes. In this stage, infants construct an
understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing
and hearing) with physical, motoric actions.

b. Preoperational Stage
The time where the development of symbolic function happens. It is the ability to
use symbols such as words, images, gestures, to represent real objects and
events. This is reflected in the use of language in creative writing, in imaginative
play and even in an increase in deferred imitation.

c. Concrete Operational Stage

Children are able to perform tasks that they were unable to do and master in the
preceding stage, like conversation, classification and part-whole relations. They
are already capable of inductive logic and deductive logic and reversibility.

d. Formal Operational Stage

This is the stage when children can use abstract reasoning and can be flexible
whenever they consider varied solutions to the problem. However, not all
children, or even adults, attain this stage.

B. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural theory asserts that complex forms of thinking have their
origins in social interactions rather than in the child’s private explorations.
It emphasizes the need for social interaction in facilitating the child’s development.
Children’s learning of new cognitive skills is guided by an adult for a more skilled child,
such as older siblings, who structures the child’s learning experience called
“scaffolding”.
 Scaffolding is a process that involves the adult’s ability of gaining and keeping
the child’s attention, model the best strategy, and adapt the whole process to the
child’s development level or Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
 ZPD signifies tasks that are too hard for the child to do alone but that he can
manage with guidance.

Concepts in SC Theory
 Egocentric Speech is the transition from the social activity of children to a more
individualized activity which involves thinking until they are able to overcome
difficulties.
  Inner Speech is an egocentric speech that has been internalized and which
develops intellectual capacities.

C. Information-processing Theory
The information-processing approach takes the human mind as a system that
processes information. This views development according to cognitive competencies as
derived from changes in the processes and strategies applied in the process. There are
basic concepts to consider namely micro genetic analysis which means a detailed
examination of how a child solves a problem or a particular learning situation; and
metacognition which is the individual’s knowledge and control of cognitive activities.
The following are essential assumptions in this approach:
1. Thinking is information processing. Mental activity or thinking is putting into the
mind whatever information there is to process in ways or means that can render the
information understandable, functional and usable.
2. Mechanisms of change are important to describe. Mechanisms like encoding,
strategy construction, automatization, and generalization all together help in
instituting change in the children’s cognitive skills. Constantly used cognitive skills
eventually become routine.
3. The cognitive system is self-modifying. The child is able to modify his responses
to new situations or problems by using the acquired knowledge and strategies from
solving earlier problems.
4. Careful task analysis is crucial. The child’s cognitive performance is dependent of
the problem or situation and the ability to handle such according to his level of
development. A careful task analysis is needed to appraise the child’s actual
performance and how the performance vary according to age.
D. Biocultural Theories
 Nativism. It views humans as endowed with genetic traits seen in all members of
the species, regardless of differences in their environments. Peculiarities in
behavior can be identifies early in life, developed in all individuals in every
culture, but do not exist in other species.
 Ethology. It points to genetically survival behaviors assumed to have evolved
through natural selection. Nature has equipped birds with nest-building genes
which is imperative for survival.
 Sociobiology. It focuses on the study of society using the methods and
concepts of biological science. It emphasizes genes that aid group survival.
 Ecological Theory. It is the brainchild of Bronfenbrenner which explains
development in terms of relationships between people and their environments or
contexts.
  Macrosystem (cultural context). It contains the values and beliefs of the
culture in which a child is growing up. For example, is a society’s beliefs
about the importance of education.
 Exosystem (socioeconomic context). These are the cultural institutions
which have indirect influence on the child’s development. For example, is
the institutional acknowledgement of the duty of the government to provide
basic services to the people.
 Microsystem (immediate context). It includes those unites that have
direct influence on the children. For example, are families, schools,
religious institution and neighborhoods.
 Mesosystem. It consists of the interconnections between the three
components.

II – Individual Differences: Theories of Intelligence that Influence Individual

Differences

A. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence by Sternberg

Sternberg has developed a theory of successful intelligence as an extension of his
triarchic theory which points to 3 major components of intelligent behavior namely
information processing skills which are required to encode, combine and compare
varying kinds of information; experiences with a given task from which an individual can
automize information over repeated experiences in doing a task; and the ability to adjust
one’s behavior to the demands of a context which accepts the view that people function
according to different situations and try to adapt to the demands of a situation by
selecting and shaping other situations as necessary to meet their own needs. The
following are abilities necessary in molding an individual’s environment:
1. Analytical abilities. It refers to the power to apply logical reasoning to arrive at the
best answer to a question.
2. Creative abilities. It involves imagining and devising new ways of addressing issues
and concerns including present demands.
3. Practical abilities. It involves the use of tacit knowledge or common sense. These
are day-to-day activities people use in the process of social and professional
interaction within the family and in the workplace.

B. The Gender-schema Theory

This theory has evolved from the social learning approach and is a variation of the
cognitive developmental theory. It postulates an organizational pattern of behavior that
enables children to sort out perceive information. The organized information revolves
around what the society defines and classifies in terms of accepted behavior patterns
and individual differences and the principle of gender. For example, boys do a different
set of tasks more complicated that of girls. Girls also go for ribbons and laces while
boys are interested in balls and cars. Children develop a self-concept that fits this
schema adapting for themselves the society’s notion of male and female, better known
as society’s gender schema.

C. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

The theory of Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner proposed that there are eight
intelligences that asserts that people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have
many kinds of intelligence. While a person might be particularly strong in a strong in a
specific area, he most likely possesses a range of other and many abilities. For
example, an individual might be strong in verbal intelligence, likewise in musical and
possibly naturalistic intelligences.

Multiple Intelligences Description

1. Linguistic. The ability to use language effectively. There are people who are
proficient in the use of the language, can speak and write, and possess knowledge
about grammar and therefore are better off in oral and written communication.
They have greater linguistic intelligence.
2. Logical- Mathematical. Facility with numbers and logical problem solving. This
intelligence affords individuals to learn the science of numbers more easily and
come up with logical solutions to different problem.
3. Visual – Spatial. The ability to appreciate works of art like paintings and
sculptures.
4. Bodily Kinesthetic. The ability to move in a coordinated way usually common
among athletes and those involved in athletics.
5. Musical. The ability to appreciate and produce music. This intelligence is seen
among musicians, singers, composers, and conductors who have an ear for
rhythm and melody.
6. Interpersonal. Sensitivity to the behavior, moods and needs of others. People
who have this intelligence are called “Helping professionals”. Examples are
counselors, social workers, ministers and the like.
7. Intrapersonal. The ability to understand oneself. This intelligence is manifested by
people who are able to identify their strengths. They are good at choosing their
goals in life.
8. Naturalist. The ability to be attached to the natural worlds, being able to
discriminate between the flora and fauna, patterns and designs of human artifacts.
D. Achievement Motivation and Intellectual Performance

Achievement motivation comes in various manifestations such as a tendency to strive

for successful performance, to evaluate performance against specific standards of
excellence, and to experience pleasure out of a successful performance. This academic
motivation impacts on the children’s performance along with the experiences in the
family, school, peers and community.
Achievement motivation and intellectual performance vary according to the child’s idea
or concept of himself, as a person or a learner. This is referred to as self-esteem. The
child’s self-esteem index is influenced by his negative feelings about learning tasks
which consequently affects his learning capacity in some areas. If this happens, the
learner gets distracted from the task and the learning process is not successful.
Intelligence is the capacity to think and understand. It includes the combination of
various separate abilities that includes verbal communication, abstract thinking, logical
reasoning and the use of common sense.
The following are different conceptual approaches to intelligence that have emerged
over the years:

1. Psychometric Approach. It refers to measurement of hidden intelligence or

mental characteristics. Through the analysis of results of intelligence tests the
structure of human intelligence is caused by one factor or a combination of
factors.
2. Factor Analysis and General Intelligence. Factor analysis establishes the
relation of different measures of intelligence. It will reveal a different common
factor given a particular situation.
3. Cognitive Approach. It aims at describing the specific components of a given
intellectual task and spell out the mental activities/operations to be able to perform
the task.
4. Implicit Theory Approach. It asserts that intelligence is that which is used every
day. A person manifests practical intelligence by trying to analyze situations, solve
problems, and interpret information by being conscious of the implications of his
actions on others.
III – Factors Affecting Development
A. Universal Changes
Are changes that all individuals undergo as biological organism. We all go
through the processes of growth and maturation as we age. Every organism is
subject to a genetically programmed maturing process. All physical changes that
happen from infancy to adulthood are programmed and are part of the plan for
the physical body.

B. Group-specific Changes
These are changes manifested and observed from members growing up together
in a particular group and hence influenced heavily by the dominant culture. This
includes a system of meaning, customs, language, values, attitudes, traits, laws,
beliefs, moral guidelines and physical artifacts like tools, works of arts and
dwellings.

C. Individual Changes
These are changes typical of particular individuals and which result from unique,
unshared events. Every individual is unique, a product of a unique combination of
genes which sets him apart from anyone. This is attributed to genetic differences.
For example, body build and type, skin color, and facial contours represent
categories of individual differences. There are also characteristics unique to
individuals such as intelligence and personality, which constitute another class of
individual differences.

IV – Exceptional Development
Every child is unique to himself in personality traits, in cognitive abilities, in physical
stature, in emotional stability and others. Among children, these differences are highly
noticeable. Even in the aspect of learning, some children learn faster compared with
others.

A. The Intellectually Gifted

An IQ score above 130 signals intellectual giftedness, whereas a score below 70 in
intelligence testing indicates mental retardation visibly demonstrated by the child’s
inability to cope with appropriate activities of everyday life. Bright or intellectually gifted
students are usually far ahead of their age-mates not only in intellect but in social and
physical aspects as well. They are able to learn faster and more efficiently and process
information at a rapid pace among the rest. It is important to ascertain the particular
inclination of the gifted child whatever educational alternatives or enrichment programs
he or she may be put through.

B. Children with Intellectual Deficits

1. Down Syndrome. It is characterized by a distinct physical appearance and physical
and mental retardation. The most common characteristics are almond- shaped eyes,
folded eyelids and short stature. Children with down syndrome are susceptible to
respiratorial infections, heart infections, heart disorders, leukemia and pneumonia.
2. Turner Syndrome. A chromosome abnormality found in females in which secondary
sex characteristics are developed only with the administration of female hormones.
Any abnormality in the internal reproductive organs cause permanent sterility.
3. Klinefelter’s Syndrome. A form of chromosome abnormality characterized by
feminine physical characteristics like breast development and rounded, broad hipped
figure. When a male inherits an extra X chromosome, it results in the XXY pattern,
making him sterile. Similar to a triple X female, an individual with this type of
syndrome is sometimes mentally retarded and has verbal language deficits and
reading problems.
4. Pervasive Developmental Disorders. A collection of disorders characterized by
gross deficits in many areas of cognitive, emotional and social development. These
result from severs and pervasive impairment of social interaction and communication
skills. Such disorders are often referred to as psychoses which broadly are
disturbances in which the person’s functioning is so maladaptive that he may seem
to be out of touch of reality. Often observed among children.
5. Autistic Disorders. A pervasive developmental disorder known as infantile or
childhood autism which is characterized by the inability of the child to communicate
and interact socially. They have a specific language deficiency and they engage in
repetitive behaviors.
6. Asperger’s Syndrome. A developmental disorder which has many symptoms
similar to autism but it is mild since people with this syndrome manifest a higher
mental functioning. They do not suffer from delayed speech but may have difficulty
with understanding the abstract forms of spoken language such as humor or irony.

Cognition is more than just learning information. Instead, it's the ability to think about
new information, process it and speak about it. In addition, cognition involves the
application of this new information to other, previously acquired information. As children
mature, for example, they develop the ability to think on higher levels. They can process
information more skillfully and make connections to other information more easily. In
other words, their thinking skills get progressively better. Children should be able to
improve their ability to focus, to remember information and think more critically as they
age. Cognitive skills allow children to understand the relationships between ideas, to
grasp the process of cause and effect and to improve their analytical skills. All in all,
cognitive skill development not only can benefit your child in the classroom but outside
of class as well.

Social & Emotional Development

I- Theories of Socioemotional Development

B. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development

Erikson views achievement of a healthy personality through successful resolution of

crisis at each of the eight stages of development where each crisis consists of a pair of
opposing possibilities, such as trust versus mistrust or integrity versus despair. Each
stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. If the stage is
managed well, there is a certain virtue or psychological strength to gain. But if one does
not do so well in a stage, he may develop maladaptation (too much of the positive, or
too trusting) or malignancies (too much of the negative, or too mistrusting). Bandura
argues that reinforcement is not always a prerequisite to learning. Learning may also
occur as a result of watching someone else perform an action and experience
reinforcement or punishment. This kind of learning called observational learning or
modeling involves a wide range of behaviors.

B. Albert Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory

There is also a thing called intrinsic reinforcement which are within an individual such as
the joy and pleasure felt after having accomplished a task. Whatever a person learns
from observing others as they perform tasks is influenced by processes such as
attention and memory.

C. Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is a type of social intelligence that affords the individual the ability
to monitor his own and others’ emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the
information to guide his thinking and actions. There are three components of emotional
quotient (EQ) namely the awareness of one’s own emotions, the ability to express one’s
own emotions appropriately, and the capacity to channel emotions into the pursuit of
worthwhile objectives. Goleman claims that one does not achieve intellectual potential
in the absence of emotional intelligence. A study revealed that children’s ability to
exercise control over their emotions in early childhood is strongly related to measures of
academic achievement in high school.
The following are major qualities that make up emotional intelligence:
 Self-awareness. The ability to recognize a feeling as it happens is the keystone of
emotional intelligence.
 Mood management. The ability to change mood from good to bad and vice versa.
 Self-motivation. Trying to feel more enthusiastic and developing more zeal and
confidence to arrive at concrete achievement.
 Impulse control. The essence of emotional self-regulation is the ability to delay
impulse in the service of a goal.
 People skills. The ability to feel for another person, whether in job, in romance and
friendship and in the family.

II- Socialization & the Development of Identity & Social Relations.

Socialization is the process by which parents and others set the child’s standards of
behaviors, attitudes, skills and motives to conform closely to what the society deems
appropriate to his role in society.

A. Development of Identity
James Marcia has identified two elements that are crucial to forming identity namely
crisis (a period of conscious decision-making), and commitment (a personal investment
in an occupation or a system of beliefs).
Categories of Identity Formation
1. Identity Achievement. Crisis leading to commitment
2. Foreclosure. Commitment without crisis
3. Identity Diffusion. No Commitment
4. Moratorium (in crisis)

Before adolescence, children’s identities are reflective of the conscious but simple
identification with parents. When they reach the period of adolescence, they move
beyond from what they were able to organize by way of identity, putting together all
elements to create a new whole that will bear new sets of interest, values and choices.
This is the process called identity formation.
B. The Process of Identity Consolidation.
At the stage and process of identity formation, adolescents act and behave in a manner
distinctly their own which when put together will manifest and inner sense of self.
Identity helps direct the adolescent’s commitment to occupation, political and gender
roles and values. When individuals develop a sense of self thereby being able to
identify what is common to oneself to that of others, they understand their uniqueness,
decide for themselves, rely on personal judgments and evaluate themselves in terms of
concrete accomplishments. They can also become intimate with others without fear of
blurring their personal boundaries.

C. Gender Differences in Identity Formation

Gender-based behaviors are influenced by both biological and psychological factors.

Gender-schema Theory suggests that children need only basic information about
gender in order to develop naïve mental schemas that help them organize their
experiences and form rules concerning gender.

The following are important concepts to consider in identity formation concerning

gender:
 Gender Typing. It is the process by which children acquire the motives, values
and behaviors viewed as appropriate for males and females within a culture.
 Gender-based beliefs. These are ideas and expectations about what is
appropriate behavior for males and females.
 Gender stereotypes. These are beliefs and characteristics typified in the
behavior of males and females and which are deemed appropriate and therefore
acceptable.
 Gender roles. These are composites of behaviors typical of the male or female
in a given culture.
 Gender identity. It is the perception of oneself as either feminine or masculine.

There are differences evident in males and females. However, it should be remembered
that the overlap between the distribution is always greater than the differences between
them.
Such differences have no direct explanation why they exist. What is clear is that, boys
and girls have different opportunities and experiences as they grow older, which are
responsible for diverse outcomes in terms of behavior patterns.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg opines that child’s cognitive capabilities determine the growth of his moral
reasoning. Further, moral development builds on concepts acquired in various stages,
such that the attainment in each stage becomes a product of the previous stages.

III – Theories of Development of Moral Reasoning, Attitudes & Beliefs

A. Kohlberg’s Moral Dilemma

The husband (Heinz) needs a particular expensive medicine for his dying wife.
However, the pharmacist who discovered and has the control of the supply of the
medicine refuses to give him the medicine because the money he has is not enough.
Heinz promised to pay the rest later. He must now decide whether to steal or not to
steal the medicine to save his wife, that is whether to obey the rules and laws of society
or to violate them to respond to the needs of his wife. He now decides on what opinions
to take. Whatever options he takes will depend on his moral values.

Level/Stage Age Range Description

Obedience/Punishment
Self-Interest
Conformity and Interpersonal
Accord
Authority and Social Order
Social Contract
Universal Principles
Infancy No difference between doing the right thing and
avoiding punishment
Pre-school Interest shifts to rewards rather than punishment -
effort is made to secure greatest benefit for
oneself
School-age The "good boy/girl" level. Effort is made to secure
approval and maintain friendly relations with
others
School-age Orientation toward fixed rules. The purpose of
morality is maintaining the social order.
Interpersonal accord is expanded to include the
entire society
Teens Mutual benefit, reciprocity. Morally right and
legally right are not always the same. Utilitarian
rules that make life better for everyone
Adulthood Morality is based on principles that transcend
mutual benefit
B. Elliot Turiel’s Moral Rules
Turiel asserted that even very young children can distinguish moral rules from what are
dictated by conventions and are acceptable ways of doing things. This is seen in
standards of dressing and even in speech. Moral rules manifest a concern for the
welfare of others and are not influenced by opinion. Moral acts such as hurting
someone or hitting them as part of a game cannot be legitimized actions. The young
children, however, were less clear about acts leading to psychological harm, such as
name-calling as part of the game.

C. Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development

Giligan found out in her study that most females think of morality more personally than
males do. They usually are more ethical than men. To them, morality is to be treated in
terms of their responsibility to others rather than as the rights of individuals.
She maintained that females are more compassionate by nature and more careful and
fair in their actions. They also tend to see themselves in terms of their relationships with
others.
On the contrary, males have the tendency to view themselves as distinct and separate
from others. It means that there is a need for rules to regulate the conduct of human
behavior and actions of other people. It also means that men tend to think that they are
not responsible for the actions of other people.

Sex is therefore a differentiating factor, although any attempt to chart moral

development as a single sequence is bound to present only half the picture.

IV – Factors Affecting Development

A. Parenting
It is primarily learned and picked up form how individuals are parented. It is more
a matter of who one is than what one does, passed on from one generation to
the next. Study the following diagram according to demandingness (the degree to
which parents hold high expectations for their children’s behavior and supervise
their activities) and responsiveness (the level of sensitivity, support and
involvement of parents in their children’s behaviors and activities).

B. Role Models
The role modeling parents provide influence both their sons and daughters’
perception of men and women. Children of working mothers have more
 egalitarian views of gender roles, and children in middle class families whose
mothers are employed have higher educational and occupational goals.
More than the status of the mothers whether working outside the home or as
homemakers, children’s development are influenced to a greater degree by
individual differences among mothers.
Mothers who have a sense of satisfaction and self-efficacy in their roles, whether
employed outside or as a homemaker, show more positive relations with their
husbands and children.

C. Peer Groups and Interactions

Peer groups have always been a source of affection, sympathy and
understanding. It is a place for experimentation and a supportive setting for the
achievement of autonomy and independence from parents. Peers influence
acquisition of knowledge behaviors. Peer interaction is a good avenue for
developing personal and group relationships including the sense of belonging.
Birth order interactions and variations in sibling relations are proven to be related.
Eldest children are usually expected to help the younger children and assume
their responsibility. This leads to nurturant behavior toward younger siblings.

V- Exceptional Development

There are gifted children who have special skills and innate creativity, leadership and
intelligence. There are also children with learning disabilities who manifest a
discrepancy between expected and actual performance. These children perform
academic tasks poorly which may be attributed to a neurological dysfunction.

A. Juvenile Delinquency
This is divided into two namely the offender (the young person who is truant, disregards
house rules, engages in activities not allowed for his age or has likely done something
that can be classified as a crime for his being a minor); and the actual juvenile
delinquent who commit crimes (robbery, murder or rape) above the legal age.

B. Psychological Disorders
Behaviors that a child fails to control to be able to suit the demands of a given
environment are termed under-controlled disorders. They can be either be conduct
disorder (manifests in repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior where a young
person transgresses on the basic rights of others or violates social norms and rules), or
ADHD (a persistent pattern of inattention and hyperactivity observed in children.)

There is also a term called over controlled disorders which have adverse effect on the
child himself. The child with this disorder is characterized as withdrawn, passive,
disinterested in things and in people. Relationship with people in his environment is
restrained and overly controlled, thus making him feel sad, fearful and worried. Among
these disorders are anxiety disorder and depression.

Positive social and emotional development is important. This development influences a

child’s self-confidence, empathy, the ability to develop meaningful and lasting
friendships and partnerships, and a sense of importance and value to those around
him/her.
Parents and caregivers play the biggest role in social/emotional development because
they offer the most consistent relationships for their child.
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A
teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It comes from the Greek word “tera” which
means “monster.”
Below are clusters of hazards to prenatal development:
1. Prescription and nonprescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of a prescription
drug that can be harmful for the child in the mother’s womb. In 1961, there was a
tragedy known as thalidomide tragedy. Many pregnant women took thalidomide, a
tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning sickness that gave rise to several deformed
babies. On the other hand, nonprescription drugs include diet pills, aspirin and
coffee that can cause abnormalities to the embryo inside the mother’s womb.
Furthermore, cocaine exposure during prenatal development is associated with
reduced birthweight, length and head circumference, impaired motor development,
impaired information processing and poor attention skills. For these reasons,
pregnant women are prohibited from drinking coffee or soft drinks, taking medicines
and smoking.

2. Psychoactive drugs. These include substances that are addictive such as nicotine,
caffeine and illegal drugs such as marijuana, cocaine and heroin. Research found
that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee were more likely to have
preterm deliveries and newborns with lower birth weights compared to their
counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee. Additionally, heavy drinking of
alcohol by pregnant women results to the so called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of mother who drink
alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities include facial deformities and
defective limbs, face and heart. Most of these children are below average in
intelligence and some are mentally retarded. Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher
among smoking mothers. There are also higher incidents of preterm births and lower
birthweights among children with smoking mothers. On the average, maternal heroin
addicts deliver smaller than average size babies with more incidence of toxemia,
premature separation of placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging after birth and
breech deliveries.

3. Environmental hazards. These include radiation in jobsite and x- rays,

environmental pollutants, toxic wastes and prolonged exposure to heat in saunas an
bath tubs. Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among
offspring of fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their jobs. Radiation from x-
rays can also affect the developing embryo and fetus with the most dangerous time
being the first several weeks after conception when women do not know yet that
they are pregnant. Toxic wastes such as carbon monoxide, mercury and lead
 caused defects the child’s mental development. An incident of exposure of children
to toys and things with high lead content produced by China has caused an uproar
among American families. Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot
tubs also raises the mother’s body temperature creating fever that endangers the
fetus. The high temperature due to fever may also interfere with cell division and
may cause birth defects or even fetal death if the fever occurs repeatedly for
prolonged periods of time.

4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German measles), syphilis, genital

herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age (too early or too late, beyond
30).

a. A rubella in 1964-65 caused 30,000 prenatal and neonatal deaths, and more
than 20,000 affected infants were born with malformations, including mental
retardation, blindness, deafness and heart problems.
b. Syphilis damages organs after they have been formed. These damages
include eye lesions which can cause blindness and skin lesions. When
syphilis is present at birth, other problems involving the central nervous
systems and gastrointestinal tract, can develop.
c. About one-third of babies delivered through a herpes- infected birth canal
die, another one-fourth become brain- damaged. A mother can infect her
child with syphilis during gestation, during delivery and after birth through
breastfeeding.
d. Maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may result to inadequate growth of
the fetus. If the fetus does not receive enough nourishment, the rate of cell
division is seriously hampered. Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers
because it can reduce the risk of having a baby with a serious birth defect of
the brain and spinal cord called the “neural tube” which many result to spina
bifida or a spine that is not closed, the exposed nerves are damaged,
leaving the child with varying degrees of paralysis and sometimes mental
retardation.
e. Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to premature
birth and reduced birth weight. Other studies have shown that increased
stress during pregnancy is related to ADHD and even schizophrenia later in
life.
f. As maternal age increases, the risks for numerical chromosomal
abnormalities increase. The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent
mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties. A baby
with down syndrome rarely is born to mother under the age of 30 but the risk
increases after the mother reaches 30 or before the age of 18.
5. Paternal factors. Father’s exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides and
petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or
diseases such as childhood cancer. The father who smokes may also affect the
fetus as the mother inhales the smoke from the cigarette. Older fathers may also
place their offspring at risk for certain defects.

Currently, most childbearing women have access to a large amount of information about
a healthy pregnancy and birth. The childbirth educator's role is to help families make
sense of that information. In childbirth classes, the educator provides information and
resources to help women make optimal choices for themselves and their baby.
Information about environmental hazards that could potentially pose a threat to families
can be incorporated into a course curriculum or into alternative resources. Childbearing
families can learn that this information is important to health, and that excellent and
easily accessible resources are available. Just as the childbirth educator uses evidence-
based sources to introduce information related to obstetric practices, she can do the
same to guide families about environmental hazards. Hazardous chemicals have been
found in cord blood, placenta, meconium, and breastmilk samples. These chemicals
include commonly known hazards such as lead, mercury, and environmental tobacco
smoke, as well as some pesticides, solvents, products containing chlorine, and other
chemicals referred to as “persistent organic pollutants.” The fetus is particularly
vulnerable to environmental chemicals that can disrupt the developmental process at
critical times during gestation. Childbirth educators are encouraged to inform
themselves in order to inform childbearing families to take preventive action and explore
alternative behaviors to reduce exposure to environmental hazards.
Most of what is presented in print about the development of the child and adolescent
are products of research. It might not be interesting how the concepts or theories are
arrived at, but certainly facts and proofs derived from research studies help in better
understanding of development among children and adolescents, especially to the
would-be teachers. Research is a reliable means for teachers to learn about child and
adolescent development. When conducted in an appropriate and accurate manner, it
becomes a strong basis for making decisions about the things to do to become an
effective teacher.
Research gives teachers and policy-makers important knowledge to use in the decision-
making for the benefit of learners and their families. Well-informed teachers are able to
use and integrate the most authoritative research findings. Research enables teachers
to come up with informed decisions related to educational policies, curriculum, effective
teaching-learning process, and even those involving research. It helps the teacher gain
more knowledge about how to fit her teaching style with the developmental levels of the
learners.
Research is a systematic and logical process, thus, it is important to adhere to the
scientific method as follows, suggested by Dewey:
1. Identify and define the problem.
2. Determine the hypothesis.
3. Collect and analyze data.
4. Formulate conclusions.
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis.

These steps are simple and comprehensive even to the elementary graders. For a
teacher- researcher to use them effectively, these steps of scientific method to use in
research much be crafted simply and clearly, without vagueness and loftiness of words
or thoughts, in order to arrive at an answer that shall be clearly congruent to the
problems or the questions asked.
Research Designs
Researches that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us with
valuable information. In order to conduct quality research, it is important to know each
research design in order to hit the target objectives correctly and to arrive at the
answers that your research seeks.
The following are the most common research designs used for child and adolescent
researches:
Research Design Description
1. Case Study An in-depth look at an
individual.
2. Correlational A research design that
Study determines associations.
3. Experimental A research design that
determines cause-and effect
relationships. It involves
manipulating one variable to
determine if changes in one
variable cause changes in
another variable. This method
relies on controlled methods,
random assignment and the
manipulation of variables to
test a hypothesis.
4. Naturalistic It focuses on children’s
Observation experiences in natural settings.
It does not involve any
intervention or manipulation on
the part of the researcher. It
involves observing subjects in
their natural environment.
5. Longitudinal It follows through a single
Strengths Weaknesses
It provides information Need to exercise
about an individual’s caution when
fears, hopes, generalizing from the
fantasies, traumatic information; the subject
experiences, of a case study is
upbringing, family unique with a genetic
relationships, health make-up and
and anything that experiences no one
helps a psychologist else shares; involves
understand a person’s judgments of unknown
development. reliability; psychologists
cannot check and
compare with other
subjects.
Useful because the Because correlational
more research does not
strongly two events involve the
are manipulation of factors,
correlated, the more it is not a dependable
we can predict one way to isolate cause.
from the other.
The only true reliable It is limited to what is
method of observable, testable
establishing cause and manipulatable.
and effect. Subjects may change
their behavior or
respond in a specific
manner simple
because of awareness
ofnbeing observed.
Experimentation with
humans is subject to a
number of external
influences that may
dilute the study results.
It allows the It can be difficult to
researcher to directly determine the exact
observe the subject in cause if a behavior and
the natural setting. the experimenter
cannot control outside
variables.
It allows them to It is expensive and
 group over a period of time.
The same individuals are
studied over a period of time,
usually several years or more.
6. Cross-sectional Individual of different ages are
compared at one time.
7. Sequential It is combined cross- sectional
and longitudinal approaches to
learn about lifespan
development. It starts with a
cross-sectional study that
includes individuals of different
ages. A number of months or
years after the initial
assessment, the same
individuals are tested again in
the longitudinal aspect of the
design. At this later time, a
new group of subjects is
assessed at each grade level.
Action Research A reflective process of
progressive problem- solving
led by individuals working with
others in teams to improve the
way they address issues and
solve problems. It stems from
the researchers’ own
questions about and
reflections on their everyday
classroom practice.
record and monitor time- consuming. The
developmental trends. longer the study lasts,
the more subjects drop
out. They may also bias
the outcome of a study
as to remaining in it or
dropping out of it.
It allows them to It gives no information
record and monitor about how individuals
developmental trends. change or about the
The researcher does stability of their
not have to wait for characteristics.
the individuals to grow
up or become older.
It allows them to It is complex,
record and monitor expensive and time-
developmental trends. consuming.
It provides information
that is impossible to
obtain from cross
sectional or
longitudinal
approaches alone.
It uses different Typically takes place in
methods, and get the one organization only
best out of the at a particular time and
different methods could not be interpreted
employed, if used within different
well. Stakeholders are organizations in the
included throughout same way.
and the research is
more likely to make a
difference.
Data-gathering Techniques
Any research is only as good as the data that drives it, so choosing the right technique
of data collection can make all the difference.

Below are some of the most common data gathering techniques:

1. Observation. It can be made in either laboratories or materialistic settings. In
naturalistic observation, behavior is observed in the real world like classrooms,
home, or in the community.
2. Physiological Measures. Certain indicators of children’s development such as
heart rate, hormonal levels, bone growth, body weight and brain activity are
measured.
3. Standardized Tests. These are prepared tests that assess individuals’
performance in different domains. These are administered in a consistent
manner.
4. Interviews and Questionnaires. Involve asking the participants to provide
information about themselves based on the interview or questionnaire given by
the researcher. Gathering of data may be conducted through a printed
questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail, in person or online. Information is
obtained by utilizing standardized procedures so that every participant is asked
the same questions in the same manner. It entails asking participants for
information in some structured format.
5. Life History Records. These are records of information about a lifetime
chronology of events and activities. they often involve a combination of data
records on education, work, family and residence. These include public records
or historical documents or interviews with respondents.

Ethical Principles
To serve the genuine purpose of research, teacher-researchers are subject to ethical
principles, thus, the existence of the ethical standards as a guide. These ethical
standards strive to protect the subjects of the study and to maintain the integrity of the
research. There are a number of ethical standards for research on children that are
provided by official institutions such as the American Educational Research.

The following are basic guidelines for ethics provided by the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC):
1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or psychologically.
2. Children and their families have the right to full information about the research in
which they may participate, including possible risks and benefits. Their decision
 to participate must be based on the informed consent with the research
respondents and/or participants.
3. Children’s questions about the research should be answered in a truthful manner
and in ways that children can understand. Researchers must be honest and clear
in their communications and intent.
4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through research with
children should remain confidential. Researchers should not disclose personal
information or the identity of participants in written or oral reports and
discussions.

Impact of Research Involvement to Teachers

Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and nothing to lose
when they get involved in the research process.

The following are proven claims from different research studies:

1. Teachers who have been involved in research may become more reflective,
more critical and more analytical in their teaching, and more open and committed
to professional development.
2. Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more deliberate in
their decision-making and actions in the classroom.
3. Teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong learning,
reflective and mindful teaching, and self-transformation.
4. Engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and
reconstructing what it means to be a teacher, and consequently, the way
teachers relate to children and students.
5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and prospective
teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected to learning to inquire.

Research makes teachers experience how it is to become a learner again. After all,
learning never stops, and the best teachers are the ones who never stop learning.