THEORY OF LEARNING ACCORDING TO THE FLOW OF

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN THE

LEARNING AND LEARNING PROCESS

Adhy Setyo Herlambang1, Sulaiman2, Emma Wulan Rossanti3

Fakultas Psikologi
Universitas Semarang
Jl. Soekarno Hatta, Tlogosari Kulon, Kec. Pedurungan, Kota Semarang, Jawa
Tengah 59160
adhy.setyo98@gmail.com

Abstract

The theory that underlies education can be divided into two, namely inductive-
oriented theory of association means that the building of science in the
development of education is based on the unit-unit of knowledge, attitudes, and
skills into a more universal unit, the flaw in this theory is the flow of behaviorism
or better known as the Stimulus-Response (S-R) flow that assumes that education
is directed at the creation of new behaviors in learners through stimulus response
given during the learning process. Then the second is field theory which is
precisely different from the theory of association, this theory is more deductive
meaning knowledge is obtained from a to discover the truths of the units that exist
in learning. This theory has two traditions namely cognitivism and humanism.

Keywords: theory of learning, the flow of cognitive psychology, implications

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INTRODUCTION

Education is a human effort to cultivate and develop the potentials of

carrying both physical and spiritual following the values that exist in society and
culture. So that the progress of a nation is inseparable from the educator factor
because education has an important role in the effort to improve human resources
(HR) which is an important element in the development of a nation. Schools as
the only formal educational institutions organized by the government play an
important role in realizing national educational goals. One way to achieve this
goal is through interactions in the learning process in schools that are conducted
consciously, systematically, and directed towards changes in the behavior of
learners as expected.
To educate the nation's life, the improvement of the quality of education is
very important for sustainable development in all aspects of human life. The
national education system must always be developed by the needs and
developments that occur at the local, national, and global levels. In the era of
autonomy and decentralization, the national education system is required to make
various changes, adjustments, and reforms to realize an autonomous and
democratic education, which pays attention to diversity and encourages
community participation, without losing national insight.
Inline over time, the curriculum continues to undergo several updates to
keep up with the times, especially in the face of the global era. In the global era,
students can compete with other countries. By the time they graduated from
school the science he got was instantly usable and not outdated.
Education must continuously adapt and adapt to the development of
modern science and advanced technological innovations so that it remains
relevant and contextual to the changing times. Education is tasked to prepare
students to achieve advanced civilization through the realization of a conducive
learning atmosphere, interesting learning activities and enlightenment, and a
creative educational process. Thus, learners can learn continuously to believe and
fear and be moral, able to explore science and master technology, have ethics and

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tough personalities, and rich aesthetic expression in responding to changes and
development of society in the perspective of global competition, without losing it
as a sovereign nation (Renstra Depdiknas:11).
Policies aimed at increasing education participation rates demand
curriculum development that can minimize dropout rates and repeat classes, open
education, and polyvalenlintas types, levels, and pathways of education with a
distance learning system. The development of a curriculum oriented to the quality
of education is characterized by the implementation of effective learning
processes, assessment of learning outcomes and empowerment of learners, and the
implementation of education supported by the availability of adequate educational
facilities and infrastructure and by the level of development and growth.
The issues that will be discussed in this paper are:
1. What does cognitive theory look like?
2. Who are the figures of cognitive theory?
3.
4. What are the principles of cognitive learning?
5. What are the implications of cognitive theory in learning?

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METHOD

In his thoughts on cognitive development, Piaget explains the mechanisms

and processes of human cognitive development from infancy, childhood to
becoming a reasoned and thinking adult human being. He concluded that
organisms are not passive agents in genetic development. Active genetic
development occurs due to adaptation to the environment and its interaction with
the environment.
To understand Piaget development theory, several concepts need to be
understood first, namely as follows:
1. Schema
According to Santrock (in Juwantara, 2019: 28-30) when the child
seeks to build an understanding of the world, the developing brain creates a
scheme. This is an act or mental representation that organizes knowledge. In
Piaget's theory, the behavioral scheme (physical activity) of the baby's
features, and the mental scheme (cognitive activity), develop in childhood.
The baby scheme is composed of simple actions that can be performed on
objects such as grasping, sucking, and looking.
2. Assimilation
Assimilation is the Piaget concept of the incorporation of new
information into existing knowledge (schemes). Originality is a cognitive
process in which a person integrates new perceptions, concepts, or experiences
into a scheme or pattern that is already in his or her mind. Assimilation does
not lead to schematic changes but develops schemes only.
3. Accommodation
According to Surna, (in Juwantara, 2019: 28-30) accommodation is a
Piaget concept of grouping isolated behaviors into higher cognitive system
settings with better function. Accommodation is the formation of a new
scheme or changing the old scheme, this happens because, in the face of new
stimuli/ experiences, one cannot assimilate the new experience with the

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 scheme that he has had, this happens because of the new experience does not
match the existing scheme.
4. Organization
The organization in Piaget's theory is the grouping of isolated
behaviors and thoughts into its higher systems. It points to the tendency of all
species to systematize and organize their processes in a coherent system, both
physically and psychologically. An example is that babies combine the ability
to see and touch.
5. Equilibration
Equilibrium is a mechanism for explaining how children move from
one stage of thought to the next. This shift occurs because the child
experiences cognitive conflict (disequilibrium), in trying to understand the
world. In his theory of development, Piaget asserts that learning will be more
successful if adjusted to the stage of cognitive development of learners. With
this understanding, it is very important to provide opportunities for students to
experiment with groups of friends and be helped by questions from educators.
Educators play an important role in the process by providing stimulation to
students to actively interact with the environment and to search and discover
things from the environment.

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DISCUSSION

Understanding Cognitive Theory

Puspo Nugroho (in Zahrotul Badi'ah, 2021: 79) suggests the origin of the
word "cognitive" is "cognition" with the same meaning in the word "knowing",
meaning to know. In general the word cognitive is defined by the use of
knowledge, structuring, and acquisition. According to Wundt cognitive is an
active and creative process that aims to build structure through experiences.
Wundt believes that the mind is the creation of active and creative students who
are then stored in memory.
Cognitive Theory Figures
1. J. S. Brunner Learning Theory
Brunner's cognition theory (in Zahrotul Badi'ah, 2021: 79) emphasizes
the way individuals organize what has been experienced and learned so that
individuals can discover and develop their concepts, theories, and principles
through examples found in life. The knowledge an individual acquires is more
meaningful to him, easier to remember, and easier to use in problem-solving.
The rationale of this theory considers that humans as processors, thinkers, and
creators of information. Bruner states that learning is an active process that
allows humans to discover new things. Principles of learning according to J. S.
Bruner:
a) Pre-operational phase (5-6 years) or pre-school period
At this stage, the individual has not been able to make a firm distinction
between his feelings and personal motives and the reality of the outside
world. This stage is also called the enactive stage, a person performs
activities in his efforts to understand the surrounding environment or the
surrounding world using motor knowledge, for example through bites,
touches, handles, and so on.
b) Concrete operation phase
In the face of a problem, an individual can only solve the problem that he
or she directly faces in real-time. Individuals have not been able to solve

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 problems they have not faced in real or concrete or that have never been
experienced before.
c) Formal operating phase
At this stage, the child has been able to operate based on possible
hypotheses and again limited by what took place before. This stage is also
called the symbolic stage, one has been able to have abstract ideas or ideas
that are strongly influenced by his ability to speak and logic. According to
Brunner, several things need to be considered in the learner process so that
knowledge can be easy:
 Knowledge Structure, in order for the learning process to run
effectively, the structure of knowledge must be adjusted to the
characteristics and level of development of the child. Learning
readiness consists of readiness in the form of simple skills that
allow a person to master higher skills.
 Intuition, according to S. Nasution thought intuition could only
take place if one understood the broad science of the field and
understood its structure.
 Motivation is a situation that is contained in a person who
encourages to do activities to achieve a certain goal.
2. Piaget Learning Theory
Jean Piaget's cognitive theory (in Aenon Jariah 2021: 4) is still
discussed and referred to in the field of education. This theory began to be
talked about again around the early 1960s. The definition of cognition
includes aspects of the intellectual structure used to know something. Piaget
states that cognitive development is not only the maturity of the organism, not
just the environmental influence but the result of traction between the two.
According to Piaget cognitive development has four aspects. that is:
a) Maturity as a result of the development of neural makeup.
b) Experience, which is the reciprocal relationship between organisms and
their world.
c) Social traction, the influences gained in relation to the social environment.

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d) Ekullibrasi, the ability or system of regulating in the organism so that he is
always able to maintain balance and self-adjustment to his environment.
The system that governs from the inside has two factors, namely scheme
and adaptation. The scheme relates to the regular behavior patterns
observed by the organism which are accumulations from simple to
complex behaviors, while adaptation is a function of adjustment to the
environment consisting of the process of assimilation and accommodation.

Piaget suggests the staging in the intellectual development of children

divided into four periods, namely:
 Sensorimotor stage (age 0-2 years)
The main characteristic of the child's development is
experiencing his world through his movements and senses and
experiencing the permanence of objects. The earliest stage of cognitive
development occurs at the time the baby is born until about 2 years
old. This stage is called the sensorimotor stage by Piaget. At the
sensorimotor stage, the child's intelligence is based more on the child's
sensory actions towards his environment, such as seeing, fingering,
hearing, burning, and others.
At the sensorimotor stage, the child's idea of an object develops
from the "have no idea" period to "already having an idea". The idea of
objects is very related to the child's concept of space and time that has
not been well accommodated. The structure of space and time is
unclear and still fragmented, yet it can be systematized and logically
sorted. Hera Lestari Mikarsa, et al (2007: 6.8) suggests that the
achievements achieved in this period are the development of language,
relationships about objects, frame of mind, formation of understanding,
and the introduction of causal relationships.
According to Piaget, this sensorimotor development
mechanism uses the process of assimilation and accommodation. The
stages of cognitive development of the child are slowly developed

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 through the process of assimilation and accommodation of the child
schemes due to input, stimulation, or contact with new experiences and
situations.
 Pre-operational stage (2-7 years old)
A key feature of pre-operational development is the use of
symbols or sign languages and intuitive concepts. The term operation
here is a logical thought process and is a sensorimotor activity. In this
stage the child is very egocentric, they are difficult to accept the
opinions of others. Suciati, et al (2004: 4.6) suggests "that in the pre-
operational stage the child has been able to use his shadow or
imagination through the use of sensory observation and imagine it".
Hera Lestari Mikarsa suggests that this operational stage can be
distinguished into two parts. First, the pre-conceptual stage (2-4 years),
which is characterized by a transductive way of thinking (concluding)
about something special based on a special thing. Second, the intuitive
stage (4-7 years), this stage is characterized by the dominance of
egocentric observations (not yet understanding the way others view the
same object).
 Concrete surgery stage (age 7-11/ 12 years)
The main characteristic of its development, the child begins to
think logically about concrete events. The concrete stage of the
operation is characterized by the development of a system of thought
based on a logical system of certain rules. The child has developed
logical operations. The operation is reversible, meaning it can be
understood in two directions, which is a thought that can be restored to
its original state again. The concrete operating stage can be
characterized by the presence of an operating system based on what
looks real or concrete. Hera Lestari Mikarsa suggests that in this period
children begin to conserve certain knowledge.
 Formal operating stage (age 11/ 12 years and above)

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 The main characteristics of its development are hypothetical, abstract,
and logical. The formal stage of surgery is the last in cognitive
development according to Piaget. At this stage, a teenager can already
think logically, think with formal theoretical thinking based on
propositions and hypotheses, and can conclude apart from what can be
observed at that time. Abstract ways of thinking are beginning to be
understood. Suciati says "that a child's cognitive abilities move from a
process based on concrete operations to a symbolic process based on
logic".

Piaget concluded from his research that organisms are not passive
agents in genetic development. Genetic change is not an event leading to the
survival of an organism, but rather an adaptation to its environment and the
presence of traction between the organism and its environment. Hera Lestari
Mikarsa stated that at the formal operating stage the ability to operate the
rules of formal logic is no longer bound by concrete objects.

Principles of Cognitive Learning

In understanding the concept of cognitive learning, there are three main principles
of learning put forward by Piaget, namely as follows:
1. Active Learning
The learning process is active because knowledge is formed from within the
subject of learning. To help the child's cognitive development, he needs to
create a learning condition that allows the child to learn on his own, such as
conducting his experiments, manipulating symbols, asking questions, and
searching for answers himself, or comparing his discoveries to the inventions
of his friends.
2. Learning Through Social Interaction
In learning, it is necessary to have an atmosphere that allows interactions
between subjects. According to Piaget, studying with peers and older people
will help their cognitive development. Because, without togetherness,

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 cognitive will develop with egocentric properties. And with togetherness,
children's cognitive treasures will be more diverse.
3. Learn through own experience
According to Mashudi (in Juwantara, 2019: 30-31) by utilizing real
experience, one's cognitive development will be better than just using
language to communicate. Language is very important to communicate.
However, if not followed by application and experience then one's cognitive
development will tend to lead to verbalism (much memorization).

Implications of Cognitive Theory in Learning

1. According to Piaget related to learning, Piaget gives two senses of
learning, namely in a narrow sense and in a broad sense. Learning in a
narrow sense is learning that only emphasizes the acquisition of new
information and addition. For example, the child learns the name of the
nation's capital or memorizes the numbers. Learning in a broad sense is
learning to acquire and find more general thought structures that can be used
in a variety of situations. For example: in memorizing the nation's capital, a
child also understands the relationship between those cities and the state. For
Piaget, learning always contains elements of formation and understanding.
The implications for the teaching and learning process include:
a. Pressure on Pupils
For Piaget, knowledge is self-formed by the student in dealing with the
environment or object he is studying. So here, the pressure is more on the
more active pupils and not the always-active teachers.
b. Learning Methods
Piaget's theory of knowledge emphasizes the importance of the activities of a
student who is active in constructing knowledge. Only with the activeness of
processing materials, actively asking questions, and digesting materials
critically, students will be able to master the material better.
c. The Role of the Teacher

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 The role of teachers here is more as a mentor or facilitator and not a transfer of
science. Science cannot be transferred from teacher to student without the
activeness of the student himself. According to Piaget, the presentation of
finished knowledge then the student is told to memorize, is not a good
presentation because the student becomes passive.
d. Class Model
Piaget emphasizes the form of a personal class. There, each student can learn
on his own and actively shape his knowledge. This model inspired many of
the openings of private schools today. Piaget's models can also be applied in
large classes. But what needs to be considered is the preservation of freedom
for every student to express his or her ideas and to always be creative.

In addition, according to Santrock (2008:61) states that there are several

teaching strategies for applying Piaget theory in learning by:
a. Use a constructivist approach
In line with the constructivist view, Piaget emphasizes that children will learn
better if they are active and find their solutions.
b. Facilitate them to learn
Effective teachers should design situations that make students learn by acting.
c. Consider the child's knowledge and level of thinking
Pupils do not come to school with empty heads. They have a lot of ideas
about the physical world and nature.
d. Use continuous assessment
The meanings compiled by individuals cannot be measured by standardized
tests. Mathematical and language assessments (which assess progress and
final results), individual meetings where pupils discuss their thinking
strategies, and spoken and written explanations by pupils about their reasoning
can be used as tools to evaluate their progress.
e. Improve students' intellectual abilities

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 According to Piaget the level of intellectual ability development of students
develops naturally. Children should not be pressured and pressured to
overachieve early in their development before they are ready.
f. The teacher emphasizes that students explore and find their conclusions.
Teachers observe more students' interests and natural participation in their
activities to determine what lessons are given.

Based on the explanation of the implications of Piaget's theory in learning,

a teacher should be able to use the theory to be implemented in the learning
process of learners. For example, there is a constructivist approach so that
teachers can give assignments to students to learn and make summaries of lessons
that come. Students can search theories for upcoming lessons in libraries, the
internet, and others. With the activities of students to learn, the results will be
better.
The theories described above about the implications of Piaget's theory in
learning will make students play more role in learning. With many roles of
students in learning, the learning outcomes will be better and students will better
understand the materials studied. If the student already understands the material
he has studied then he will pass in tests and exams.
2. Santrock (2008:64) menyatakan bahwa cara memakai teori
Vygotsky adalah sebagai berikut:
a. Gunakan zone of proximal development. Mengajar harus dimulai pada batas
atas zona, di mana murid mampu untuk mencapai tujuan dengan kerja sama
erat dengan pengajar. Dengan petunjuk dan latihan yang terus menerus, murid
akan mengorganisasikan dan menguasai urutan tindakan yang dibutuhkan
untuk melakukan suatu keahlian yang diharapkan.
b. Gunakan teknik scaffolding. Cari kesempatan untuk menggunakan teknik
ini ketika murid membutuhkan bantuan untuk aktivitas yang merupakan
inisiatifnya sendiri.

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c. Gunakan kawan sesama murid yang lebih ahli sebagai guru. Vygotsky
mengatakan bahwa Murid juga bisa mendapat manfaat dari bantuan dan
petunjuk dari temannya yang lebih ahli.
d. Dorong pembelajaran kolaboratif dan sadari bahwa pembelajaran
melibatkan suatu komunitas orang yang belajar. Baik itu anak maupun
orang dewasa melakukan aktivitas belajar secara kolaboratif.
e. Pertimbangkan konteks kultural dalam pembelajaran. Fungsi penting dari
pendidikan adalah membimbing murid dalam mempelajari keahlian yang
penting bagi kultur tempat mereka berada.
f. Pantau dan dorong anak-anak dalam menggunakan private speech.
Perhatikan perubahan perkembangan dari berbicara dengan diri sendiri
pada masa awal sekolah dasar. Pada masa sekolah dasar, dorong murid
untuk menginternalisasikan dan mengatur sendiri, pembicaraan mereka
dengan dirinya sendiri.
g. Nilai ZPDnya, bukan IQ. Vygotsky mengatakan bahwa penilaian harus
difokuskan untuk mengetahui ZPD si murid. Pembimbing memberi murid
tugas dengan tingkat kesulitan yang bervariasi untuk menentukan level
terbaik untuk memulai pelajaran. ZPD adalah pengukur potensi belajar.
ZPD menekankan bahwa pembelajaran bersifat interpersonal.

Ormrod (2009 : 271) menyatakan bahwa Implikasi teori psikologi kognitif

dalam proses pembelajaran adalah :

a. Dorong siswa untuk berpikir tentang materi pelajaran dengan cara yang
akan membantu mereka mengingatnya. Contoh ketika mengenalkan
konsep mamalia, minta siswa untuk memberikan banyak contoh.
b. Bantu siswa mengindentifikasi hal-hal yang paling penting bagi mereka
untuk dipelajari. Contoh berikan pertanyaan kepada siswa yang harus
mereka coba jawab sementara mereka membaca buku teks mereka.
Masukkan pertanyaan yang meminta mereka menerapkan apa yang
mereka baca dalam kehidupan mereka sendiri.

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c. Berikan pengalaman yang akan membantu siswa memahami topik-topik
yang mereka pelajari. Ketika mempelajari The Scarlett Letter karya
Nathaniel Hawthorne, bagilah siswa dalam kelompok-kelompok kecil
untuk membahas kemungkinan alasan Pendeta Arthur Dimmesdale
menolak mengakui bahwa ia adalah ayah bayi Hester Prynne.
d. Kaitkan ide-ide baru dengan hal-hal yang telah diketahui dan diyakini
siswa tentang dunia. Contoh Ketika mengenalkan kosa kata debut kepada
siswa-siswa MeksikoAmerika, kaitkan dengan quinceanera, sebuah pesta
“memperkenalkan kepada masyarakat (coming-out party)” yang dilakukan
banyak keluarga MeksikoAmerika untuk anak-anak perempuan mereka
yang menginjak usia 15 tahun.
e. Pertimbangkan kelebihan dan keterbatasan dalam kemampuan pemrosesan
kognitif siswa pada tingkat usia berbeda. Contoh Ketika mengajarkan
anak-anak TK keterampilan hitung dasar, bantulah rentang perhatian
mereka yang pendek dengan memberikan penjelasan verbal yang singkat
dan libatkan anak-anak dalam beragam aktivitas berhitung aktif dan
langsung.
f. Rencanakan kegiatan-kegiatan kelas yang membuat siswa secara aktif
berpikir dan menggunakan mata pelajaran di kelas. Contoh untuk
membantu siswa memahami garis lintang dan garis bujur, minta mereka
menelusuri jalur sebuah angin topan dengan menggunakan koordinat garis
lintang dan garis bujur yang diperoleh dari internet.
Kesimpulan :
Bedasarkan uraian sebagaimana dikemukakan di atas, dapat ditarik
beberapa catatan penting, yaitu :
Jean Piaget mengemukakan sebuah teori utama mengenai perkembangan
kognitif anak-anak yang melibatkan proses penting berikut : skema, asimilasi
dan akomodasi, organisasi, serta ekuilibrasi. Dalam teorinya, perkembangan
kognitif terungkap dalam empat tahapan : sensorimotori (0-2 tahun),
praoperasional (2-7 tahun), operasional konkret (7-11 tahun), dan operasional
formal (11 tahun ke atas).

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 Lev Vygotsky mengemukakan sebuah teori penting lainnya mengenai
perkembangan kognitif. Pandangan Vygotsky menekankan bahwa
keteranpilan kognitif harus diinterpretasikan berdasarkan perkembangan,
dijembatani oleh bahasa, serta berkaitan dengan hubungan sosial dan budaya.
Zona perkembangan proksimal (ZPD) adalah istilah yang dipakai oleh
Vygotsky untuk kisaran tugas yang sulit untuk dikuasai oleh anak secara
mandiri, tapi dapat dipelajari dengan bimbingan dan bantuan orang dewasa
dan anak yang lebih terampil. Scaffolding dan dialog adalah konsep penting
dalam teori Vygotsky. Ia juga meyakini bahwa bahasa memainkan peran
penting dalam mengarahkan kognisi.
Teori kognitif yang digagas oleh Piaget dan Vygotsky bisa diaplikasikan
ke dalam proses pembelajaran. Teori kognitif dari keduanya berimplikasi
pada beberapa aspek pembelajaran yaitu:aspek tujuan pembelajaran, aspek
lingkungan ,aspek penggunaan media, aspek kultur, aspek tingkatan
pembelajaran dan aspek model pembelajaran.

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REFERENCES

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