Network Analysis and Synthesis

About the Authors
S P Ghosh obtained his BE (Hons) in Electrical Engineering from National Insti-

tute of Technology, Durgapur, and received a Master of Electrical Engineering
degree from Jadavpur University with specialization in High Voltage Engineer-
ing. He joined College of Engineering and Management, Kolaghat, as a lecturer
in 2002. Presently, he is working as an Assistant Professor in the department of
Electrical Engineering at College of Engineering and Management, Kolaghat.
He has published several papers in national and international conferences. He is
also pursuing his PhD at Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur.
His areas of interest include Power Systems, Electrical Machines, and Artificial
Neural Networks.
A K Chakraborty received his BEE (Hons) from Jadavpur University, MTech

in Power System Engineering from IIT Kharagpur and PhD (Engineering)
from Jadavpur University. He joined College of Engineering and Management,
Kolaghat, in 1998 as Assistant Professor and was elevated to the rank of Profes-
sor in the Electrical Engineering Department. He served as HOD from 2002 to
2005 in the same department. Presently, he is working as Professor and Head of
the Department of Electrical Engineering. He also worked as a Lecturer in NIT
Silchar for five years. He served industries, namely, CESC Ltd. and Tinplate Com-
pany of India Ltd (a Tata Enterprise) for over fourteen years before joining this
institute. He is a Fellow of Institute of Engineers (India), Chartered Engineer,
Member IET (UK) and Life Member of ISTE. He has published several technical
papers in national and international conferences and also in reputed journals. He has guided several MTech
and PhD scholars. His research interests are in the field of Power System Protection, Economic Operation of
Power Systems, Deregulated Power System, and HVDC.
S P Ghosh
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Management
Kolaghat, West Bengal
A K Chakraborty
Professor and Head
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Management
Kolaghat, West Bengal
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To my family
My Wife, Lipika
Daughter, Adrita
S P Ghosh
To my family
Wife, Indira
Daughters, Amrita and Ananya
A K Chakraborty
Contents
Foreword xv
Preface xvii
1. Introduction to Different Types of Systems 1–22
Introduction 1
1.1 Concepts of Signals and Systems 1
1.2 Different Types of Signals 2
1.3 Different Types of Systems 6
1.4 Interconnection of Systems 10
Solved Problems 11
Summary 17
Short-Answer Questions 18
Exercises 20
Questions 20
Multiple-Choice Questions 20
Answers 22
2 Introduction to Circuit-Theory Concepts 23–102
Introduction 23
2.1 Some Basic Terminologies of Electric Circuits 23
2.2 Different Notations 26
2.3 Basic Circuit Elements 27
2.4 Passive Circuit Elements 28
2.5 Types of Electrical Energy Sources 39
2.6 Fundamental Laws 41
2.7 Source Transformation 43
2.8 Network Analysis Techniques 48
2.9 Duality 50
2.10 Star-Delta Conversion Technique 52
Solved Problems 55
Summary 79
Exercises 89
Questions 92
Answers 102
3 Network Topology (Graph Theory) 103–154
Introduction 103
3.1 Graph of a Network 103
3.2 Terminology 104
3.3 Concept of a Tree 105
viii
Contents
3.4 Incidence Matrix [Aa] 107
3.5 Tie-Set Matrix and Loop Currents 110
3.6 Cut-Set Matrix and Node-Pair Potential 112
3.7 Formulation of Network Equilibrium Equations 115
3.8 Generalized Equations in Matrix Forms for Circuits having Sources 116
Solved Problems 118
Summary 147
Exercises 150
Questions 151
Answers 154
4 Network Theorems 155–230
Introduction 155
4.1 Network Theorems 155
4.2 Substitution Theorem 156
4.3 Superposition Theorem 156
4.4 Reciprocity Theorem 159
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem 160
4.6 Norton’s Theorem 161
4.7 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 166
4.8 Tellegen’s Theorem 170
4.9 Millman’s Theorem 172
4.10 Compensation Theorem 175
Solved Problems 177
Summary 217
Exercises 220
Questions 224
Answers 230
5 Laplace Transform and Its Applications 231–326
Introduction 231
5.1 Advantages of Laplace-Transform Method 231
5.2 Definition of Laplace Transform 232
5.3 Concept of Complex Frequency 232
5.4 Basic Theorems of Laplace Transform 233
5.5 Region of Convergence (ROC) 237
5.6 Laplace Transform of some Basic Functions 238
5.7 Laplace Transform Table 242
5.8 Other Important Laplace Transforms 243
5.9 Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions 244
5.10 Inverse Laplace Transform 244
5.11 Applications of Laplace Transform 248
5.12 Transient Analysis of Electric Circuits using Laplace Transform 250
5.13 Response with Pulse Input Voltage 268
5.14 Steps for Circuit Analysis using Laplace Transform Method 271
5.15 Concept of Convolution Theorem 271
ix
Contents
Solved Problems 273
Summary 303
Exercises 309
Questions 312
Answers 325
6 Two-Port Network 327–412
Introduction 327
6.1 Relationships of Two-Port Variables 327
6.2 Conditions for Reciprocity and Symmetry 334
6.3 Interrelationships between Two-Port Parameters 338
6.4 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 339
6.5 Two-Port Network Functions 344
6.6 Transfer Functions of Terminated Two-Port Networks 345
6.7 Application of Network Parameters to the Analysis of Typical Two-Port Networks 348
6.8 Some Special Two-Port Networks 351
6.9 Image Parameters of a Two-Port Network 354
Solved Problems 359
Summary 398
Exercises 402
Questions 405
Answers 412
7 Fourier Series and Fourier Transform 413–472

Part I: Fourier Series 413
Introduction 413
7.1 Definition of Fourier Series 414
7.2 Dirichlet’s Conditions 414
7.3 Convergence of Fourier Series 414
7.4 Fourier Analysis 415
7.5 Waveform Symmetry 419
7.6 Truncating Fourier Series 422
7.7 Steady-State Response of Network to Periodic Signals 424
7.8 Steps for Application of Fourier Series to Circuit Analysis 424
7.9 Power Spectrum 425
Part II: Fourier Transform 425
Introduction 425
7.10 Definition of Fourier Transform 425
7.11 Convergence of Fourier Transform 426
7.12 Fourier Transform of Some Functions 427
7.13 Properties of Fourier Transforms 429
7.14 Energy Density and Parseval’s Theorem 432
7.15 Comparison between Fourier Transform and Laplace Transform 433
7.16 Steps for Application of Fourier Transform to Circuit Analysis 434
Solved Problems 434
x
Contents
Summary 460
Exercises 467
Questions 469
Answers 472
8 Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis 473–542
Introduction 473
8.1 Advantages of using Alternating Currents in Electrical Engineering 473
8.2 Basics of Sinusoids 474
8.3 Terminologies 474
8.4 Some Values of Alternating Quantities 476
8.5 Complex Number Systems 479
8.6 Phasor Representation 480
8.7 The j Operator 484
8.8 Phasor Diagrams 484
8.9 Circuit Response to Sinusoids 484
8.10 Kirchhoff’s Laws in Phasor Domain 485
8.11 Voltage and Current Phasors in Single-Element Circuits 485
8.12 Phasor Analysis of R-L Series Circuit 488
8.13 Phasor Analysis of RC Series Circuit 490
8.14 Phasor Analysis of RLC Series Circuit 492
8.15 Steps for Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis (Phasor Approach to Circuit Analysis) 494
8.16 Concept of Reactance, Impedance, Susceptance and Admittance as Phasors 494
8.17 AC Power Analysis 496
8.18 Power Calculations in Different Electrical Elements 498
8.19 Sinusoidal Steady-State Response of Parallel AC Circuits 503
8.20 Sinusoidal Steady-State Response of Series–Parallel AC Circuits 507
Solved Problems 507
Summary 527
Questions 534
Exercises 535
Answers 542
9 Magnetically Coupled Circuits 543–590
Introduction 543
9.1 Self-Inductance 543
9.2 Coupled Inductor 544
9.3 Mutual Inductance 544
9.4 Mutual Inductance between Two Coupled Inductors 545
9.5 Dot Convention 546
9.6 Determination of Coefficient of Coupling from Energy Calculations in Coupled Circuits 548
9.7 Inductive Coupling 549
9.8 Linear Transformer 551
(conductively Equivalent Circuit of a Magnetically Coupled Circuit) 552

9.10 Ideal Transformer 553
xi
Contents
9.11 Tuned Coupled Circuits 555
Solved Problems 560
Summary 579
Exercises 585
Questions 587
Multiple Choice Questions 588
Answers 590
10 Three Phase Circuits 591–633
Introduction 591
10.1 Advantages of Polyphase Systems 591
10.2 Some Terminologies 592
10.3 Generation of Balanced Three-Phase Supply 593
10.4 Phase Sequence 594
10.5 Interconnection of Three-Phase Systems 595
10.6 Measurement of Power in Three-Phase Circuits 599
10.7 Conversion of Balanced Three-Phase System from Star to Delta 604
10.8 Analysis of Balanced Parallel Load 605
10.9 Analysis of Unbalanced Load Circuits 606
Solved Problems 610
Summary 625
Exercises 628
Questions 629
Answers 633
11 Resonance 634–685
Introduction 634
11.1 Series Resonance or Voltage Resonance 634
11.2 Parallel Resonance or Current Resonance or Anti-Resonance 641
11.3 Relation between Damping Ratio and Quality Factor 645
11.4 A More Realistic Parallel Resonant Circuit 646
11.5 Universal Resonance Curve 652
11.6 Applications of Resonance 653
Solved Problems 654
Summary 671
Exercise 678
Questions 679
Answers 685
12 Network Functions and Their Time-Domain and
Frequency-Domain Response 686–754
Introduction 656
12.1 Terminal and Terminal Pairs 686
12.2 Network Functions for a One-Port Network 687
12.3 Network Functions for Two-Port Networks 687
12.4 Poles and Zeros of Network Functions 688
xii
Contents
12.5 Pole Zero Diagram 689
12.6 Significance of Poles and Zeros 689
12.7 Natural Response and Natural Frequencies 690
12.8 Relation between Pole Position, Natural Response and Stability 691
12.9 Restriction on the Location of the Poles and Zeros in the s-Plane 692
12.10 Necessary Conditions for Driving Point Functions
(Restriction on Pole-Zero Locations in the s-Plane for Driving Point Functions) 693
12.11 Necessary Conditions for Transfer Functions
(Restriction on Pole-Zero Locations in the s-Plane for Transfer Functions) 697
12.12 Time Domain Behaviour from Pole–Zero Plot 697
12.13 Frequency Domain Behaviour from Pole–Zero Plot 699
Solved Problems 715
Summary 743
Exercises 747
Questions 749
Answers 754
13 Elements of Realizability and Network Synthesis 755–860
Part I: Elements of Realizability 755
Introduction 755
13.1 Elements of Realizability Theory 755
13.2 Hurwitz Polynomial 757
13.3 Positive Real Functions 759
Part II: Synthesis of Driving Point Functions 767
Introduction 767
13.4 Basic Synthesis Procedure 767
13.5 Methods of Synthesis 770
13.6 Driving Point Synthesis of One-Port Networks with Two Types of Elements 771
13.7 Synthesis of RLC Driving point Functions 792
Solved Problems 803
Summary 851
Exercises 855
Questions 857
Answers 860
14 Operational Amplifier and Active Filter 861–892
Introduction 861
14.1 Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) 861
14.2 Filter 862
14.3 Advantages of Active Filters over Passive Filters 862
14.4 Application of Active Filters 863
14.5 Types of Active Filters 863
14.6 Low-Pass-Active Filter 864
14.7 High-Pass-Active-Filter 867
14.8 Band-Pass Active Filter 869
14.9 Band-Reject (Notch) Active Filter 876
14.10 Filter Approximation 878
14.11 All-Pass Active Filter 884
xiii
Contents
Summary 885
Exercises 889
Questions 889
Answers 892
15 Introduction To Software SPICE 895–922
Introduction 893
15.1 Types of Spice 893
15.2 Execution of SPICE (How Spice Works) 894
15.3 Types of Analysis 894
15.4 Model Statements 895
15.5 DC Circuit Analysis 903
15.6 Transient Analysis 903
15.7 AC Circuit Analysis 905
15.8 Fourier Analysis and Harmonic Decomposition using SPICE 905
15.9 Harmonic Recomposition 906
15.10 DC Sensitivity Analysis 906
Solved Problems 906
Summary 921
Questions 922
16 Indefinite Admittance Matrix (IAM) 923–930
16.1 Definition of Indefinite Admittance Matrix (IAM) 923
16.2 Properties of IAM 924
16.3 Applications of IAM 927
Exercises 931
17 Symmetrical Components 931–948
Introduction 933
17.1 Advantages of Symmetrical Component Method 933
17.2 a Operator 933
17.3 Symmetrical Components of an Unbalanced Three-Phase System 934
17.4 Component Synthesis (Evaluation of the Components) 935
17.5 Component Analysis 935
17.6 Graphical Method of Determining Sequence Components 935
17.7 Symmetrical Components of Current Phasors 936
17.8 Absence of Zero Sequence Components of Voltage and Current 936
17.9 Three-Phase Power in terms of Symmetrical Components 937
17.10 Sequence Impedances and Sequence Networks 938
17.11 Solution of 3-Phase Unbalanced Loads supplied from Unbalanced Supply 939
17.12 Solution of 3-Phase Unbalanced Loads supplied from Balanced Supply 941
Solved Problems 941
Summary 947
Exercises 948
Questions 949
Answers 950
Appendix A, B, C
Foreword
There is no necessity to emphasize that all engineering systems use electric circuits as components. Again,
the knowledge of circuit theory is very much essential to understand the operation of these systems. Circuit
Theory and Networks is an important subject which is common to almost all core and modern engineering
branches. Having a clear idea of the basic concepts is very much essential to both students, who are pursuing
their engineering courses, and the practicing engineers, who run plants and systems in a day-to-day way.
The book Network Analysis and Synthesis written by S P Ghosh and A K Chakraborty is the result of their
long association with teaching and plant-operation experiences. The book consists of 17 chapters which are
nicely written, starting from the fundamentals. Every chapter contains live examples and worked-out prob-
lems of standard universities, UPSC, IETE, AMIE and GATE examinations. The book has been written with
an up-to-date approach to accommodate the students of present standards and also to overcome the difficul-
ties of teachers.
I am sure this book will be an asset not only to the teachers and students but also to practicing engineers
and technicians who are engaged in system operations.
I wish the publication all success.
S K Sen
BE Cal, Ph D (London), FIE, FNAE, DIC
FELLOW IMPERIAL COLLEGE (LONDON)
Former Minister-in-Charge, Power, Science Technology and
Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Govt. of West Bengal
Ex-Vice-Chancellor, Jadavpur University (Kolkata)
Ex-Prof. and Head, Electrical Engineering, B E College (Shibpur)
Hon. Member, Sikkim State Planning Commission
Hon. Advisor to the Chief Minister, Govt. of Sikkim, India
Preface
Brief Introduction to the Subject

Network analysis and Synthesis is a gateway course to all engineering subjects; Electrical Engineering, Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Computer Science and Engineering, Information Technology, Instrumentation Engineer-
ing in particular. Almost all engineering systems use electric circuits as components. Knowledge of Network Analysis
is very essential to understand the operation of these systems. Also, the subject of Network Analysis provides the back-
ground for understanding the behaviour of many other electrical and electronic devices. The present book has been writ-
ten to provide knowledge of network analysis and synthesis, starting from the fundamentals.
Objectives
This book has been written as per the syllabi of Network Analysis and Synthesis, or Circuit Theory and Networks, as it is
taught under different universities in India. This text works well in our self-paced course, where students must rely on it as
their primary learning resource. Nonetheless, completeness and clarity are equally advantageous when the book is used in
a more traditional classroom setting. Cognizance of the present standard of students and the difficulties of the teachers has
been given due thought. The conceptual examples and practice problems and a variety of conceptual and multiple choice
questions at the end of each chapter give students a chance to check and to enhance their conceptual understanding.
Scope
This book is mainly written for the engineering students of different universities all over India for the subject of network
analysis and synthesis. However, as this course mitigates a definite percentage in every competitive examination of engi-
neering professionals, viz., IES, UPSC, GATE, etc., we have written this book to help students see that a relatively small
number of basic concepts are applied to a wide variety of situations.
Salient Features
Some salient features of this book are
• Covers both network analysis and synthesis
• Rich pedagogy with large number of examples, solved problems, unsolved problems, MCQ's and short-answer type
questions and answers
• Contains large number of problems and questions from Indian universities, GATE, UPSC, AMIE, IETE and other
competitive examinations
• Discussion of the software packages PSPICE and MATLAB for solving network analysis problems
• Detailed coverage of different types of systems and networks
• Simple and student-friendly approach of writing
Organization
This book has a total of seventeen chapters. The first chapter provides information about the basic characteristics of dif-
ferent types of systems. The second chapter deals with the basic circuit components, laws and techniques for circuit analy-
sis. Chapter 3 discusses the application of graph-theory concepts in circuit analysis. In this chapter, the application of a
xviii
Preface
mathematical tool like graph theory has been presented with the help of a large number of practical examples. Chapter 4 is
devoted to various network theorems necessary for simplified analysis of electrical problems. For examination purposes,
this chapter is very important as several questions frequently are set from this chapter. Chapter 5 introduces a new method
of circuit analysis—Laplace Transform method. Starting from the very fundamental concept of Laplace transform, its
applications in various complicated circuit problems has been discussed in detail in this chapter. The sixth chapter deals
with the concept of two-port network which has a vast application in many fields like transmission lines, filters and attenu-
ators, and so on. Chapter 7 is divided into two parts. Part I presents the fundamentals of Fourier series and its application
for circuit analysis. Part II discusses Fourier transform and its applications. Chapter 8 discusses the method of studying
steady-state behaviour of electrical networks when sinusoidal excitations are applied. Chapter 9 deals with mutual induc-
tance and magnetically coupled circuits. The tenth chapter explains the different aspects of three-phase circuits. Chapter 11
discusses a very important practical phenomenon of electrical engineering, called resonance. In this chapter, starting from
the basic concept, the conditions of different circuits under resonance and its application have been discussed. In Chapter
12, the relations between the various voltages and currents in a circuit have been discussed in terms of network functions
and responses. Chapter 13 discusses a new concept in the subject, known as network synthesis which aims at determining a
suitable electrical network given some operating characteristics. Chapter 14 is devoted to operational amplifiers and active
filters. Chapter 15 deals with a software package for circuit analysis, termed as SPICE. Chapter 16 explains circuit analysis
with the help of a tool, called indefinite admittance matrix. However, it should be mentioned that this method was very
useful earlier; with the advancement of digital computers, this method is becoming obsolete. The last chapter, Chapter 17
aims at the discussion of symmetrical component method of unbalanced three-phase circuits.
Acknowledgements
Authors are indebted to Prof. Nirmal Chatterjee, Prof. Kalyan Dutta, Prof. C K Roy, Prof. A N Sanyal of Jadavpur
University for their encouragement. We are grateful to Prof. S N Bhadra, HOD, Department of Electrical Engineering,
College of Engineering and Management, Kolaghat, and Ex-Professor of IIT, Kharagpur, Prof. P B Duttagupta, IIT
Kharagpur, Prof. H P Bhowmik, Ex-Principal, Institute of Leather Technology and Dr Abhinandan De, Bengal Engi-
neering and Science University, Shibpur, for their constant inspiration and encouragement in the filed of academics. We
would also like to thank the reviewers for taking out time to review the book. Their names are given below.
Urmila Kar NSEC (Netaji Subhash Engineering College)

Garia, West Bengal
Tirtha Shankar Das Guru Nanak Institute of Technology
Kolkata, West Bengal
T L Singhal Chitkara Institute of Enginering
Punjab
Ashutosh Marathe Pune University
Pune, Maharashtra
Arvind Pachorie Government Engineering College
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh
A A Ansari Sagar Institute of Research and Technology
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Shashi Gandhar Bharati Vidyapeeth College of Engineering,
GGSIP University, New Delhi
Vinay Pathak Bhopal Institute of Technology
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Mahavir Singh Accurate Institute
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh
xix
Preface
Pranita Joshi Mumbai University
Mumbai, Maharashtra
A Subramanian V R S Engineering College
Villupuram, Tamil Nadu
R Joseph Xavier Ramakrishna Institute of Technology
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Vishwanath Hegde Malnad Engineering College
Hasan, Karnataka
K Amaresh KSRM Engineering College
Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh
B Venkata Prasanth NBKR Institute of Technology
Nellore, Andhra Pradesh
We are also thankful to the editorial and production staff of Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited for taking
interest in publishing this edition. Last but not the least, we acknowledge the support offered by our respective wives and
children without which this work would have not been successful.
Feedback
Criticism and suggestions for improvement shall be gratefully acknowledged. Readers may contact S P Ghosh at
ghosh_shankar@rediffmail.com and Dr A K Chakraborty at akcalll@yahoo.co.in.
S P Ghosh
A K Chakraborty
Visual Walkthrough
5 Laplace Transform
and Its Applications
Each
c
that g hapter be
i g
the c ves an id ins with
hapte e a abo an Intr Introduction
r. ut th o
e con duction Classical methods of solving differential equations become quite cumbersome when used for networks
involving higher order differential equations. In such cases, the Laplace transform method is used.
tents The classical methods consist of three steps:
of (i) determination of complementary function,
(ii) determination of particular integral, and
iii) determination of arbitrary constants.
But, these methods become difficult for the equations containing derivatives; and transform methods
prove to be superior.
The Laplace transform is an integral that transforms a time function into a new function of a
complex variable. The term Laplace comes from the name of the French mathematician Pierre Simon
Laplace (1749–1827). The transformation method is a very effective tool for solving integro-differential
equations.
Laplace transformation is also a very powerful tool for network analysis. Any linear circuit consisting
of linear circuit elements can be solved by the knowledge of Laplace transformation.
In this chapter, we will first discuss the basics of Laplace transformation and then apply this transform
method to study the transient behaviour of electric circuits.
603
5.1 ADVANTAGES OF LAPLACE-TRANSFORM METHOD
Three Phase Circuits
For a switch in the position 1, the wattmeter reading Laplace-transform methods offer the following advantages over the classical methods:
(
W1 = V12 I1 cos 30° + ) =V I L L (
cos 30° + ) 1.
2.
It gives complete solution.
Initial conditions are automatically considered in the transformed equations.
For a switch in the position 2, the wattmeter reading, 3. Much less time is involved in solving differential equations.
(
W2 = V13 I1 cos 30° − ) =V I L L (
cos 30° − ) 4. It gives systematic and routine solutions for differential equations.
( ) (
∴ W1 + W2 = VL I L cos 30 + ) +V IL L (
cos 30 − )= 3VL I L cos = total power of the load
Thus, the sum of the wattmeter readings gives the load power, same as in a two- 1 W i1
wattmeter method. Here, also, if the current coil is to be reversed to obtain one v3 v1
of the wattmeter readings then that reading should be treated as negative. R i3 i2
3
In case of a balanced delta-connected load, for a three-phase power measure-
R v2 in
ded tter
ment by one-wattmeter method, the resistance (say, R) of value equal to that of the 2
pressure coil of the wattmeter is connected in each of the remaining two phases,
ovi
pr
Fig. 10.19 One-wattmeter
as shown in Fig. 10.19. The pressure coil and the resistances form a balanced
be
are pic for
method for a balanced delta-
star-connection. connected load
es o .
Example 10.5 The power input to a three-phase induction motor is read by two wattmeters. The read-
mpl ch t rial
ings are 1000 W and 500 W. Find out the pf of the motor. If the line voltage is 400 V, find the line current.
d Exa fter ea xt mate
Solution Here, W1 1000 W; W2 500 W, VL 400 V
ke r a te
⬖ power factor of the motor,
Wor chapte g of the
⎡ (
3 W1 − W2 ) ⎤ ⎡ (
3 1000 − 500 ) ⎤⎥ = cos ⎡ tan 1 ⎤
each ndin
ersta
cos = cos ⎢ tan −1 ⎥ = cos ⎢ tan −1 ⎢
−1
⎥ = 0.5
⎢ W1 + W2 ⎥ ⎢ 1000 + 1500 ⎥ ⎣ 3⎦
und
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Line current is
P W1 + W2 1000 + 500
IL = = = = 4.33 A
3VL cos 3VL cos 3 × 400 × 0.5
W
1
10.6.2 Measurement of Reactive Power i1 V32 V2
(90 ␾) V1
V1
In case of a balanced three-phase load, the reactive N V2 I
␾ 1
I3
power can be measured using one wattmeter. 3 ␾
i3 V3
The connection is shown in Fig. 10.20. Here, the 2
V3 ␾
current coil of the wattmeter is connected in one line i2 I2 V2
and the pressure coil is connected across the other two Fig. 10.20 Measurement Fig. 10.21 Phasor
lines. of reactive power for a diagram for reactive
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 10.21. 3-phase balanced star- power measurement for
The wattmeter reading is connected load balanced 3-phase star-
connected load
(
W = V32 I1 cos 90° + ) =V IL p (
cos 90° + )
⇒ W = − 3V p I p sin
560
Network Analysis and Synthesis
When k ⴝ kC
• In this condition, the resistance which the secondary circuit couples into the primary at resonance is
equal to the primary resistance.
• The secondary current will be maximum.
• The curve of the secondary current will be broader and flat-topped.
Each • The curve of the primary current will have two peaks.
c
taken hapter co When k > kC
f n
all ov rom the tains a lar • The double peaks of the primary current become more prominent; the peaks being separated from each
er Ind quest ge nu other.
ia an io m
d oth n papers ber of solv
• The magnitude of the primary current at peaks becomes smaller as the value of k is increased.
• The curve of the secondary current will also have two peaks.
er co of dif ed pr
mpet
itive ferent uni oblems Solved Problems
exam v
inatio ersities Problem 9.1 Find the effective value of the inductance for the following connections:
ns. (a)
i
2H
i
(b)
i
1H
i
5H 10 H 2H 4H
(c) 1H 1H
i 5H i
2H 3H
2H
Fig. 9.33
Solution
(a) This is a series-aiding connection. The effective inductance is,
( )
⬗ Leq = L1 + L2 + 2 M = 5 + 10 + 2 × 2 = 19 H
(b) This is a series-opposing connection. The effective inductance is,
( )
⬗ Leq = L1 + L2 − 2 M = 2 + 4 − 2 × 1 = 4 H
(c) Since the coils are magnetically coupled in series aiding or they assist each other, therefore,
( ) (
effective inductance for the coil 1 is L1eff = L1 + M12 + M13 = 2 + 1 + 2 = 5 H )
( ) (
effective inductance for the coil 2 is L2 eff = L2 + M12 + M 23 = 3 + 1 + 1 = 5 H )
effective inductance for the coil 3 is L3eff = (L + M
3 13 ) = (5 + 2 + 1) = 8 H
+ M 23
Total effective inductance is
( ) (
Leff = L1eff + L2 eff + L3eff = L1 + L2 + L3 + 2 M12 + M 23 + M13 = 18 H )
527
Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis
Summary
1. For transmission and distribution, alternating current 11. The graphical representation of the phasors of sinusoi-
has a number of advantages over direct current. dal quantities taken all at the same frequency and with
2. A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of a sine or proper phase relationships with respect to each other
cosine function and in general can be written as is called a phasor diagram.
that
)
v (t = V m sin t . A shifted sinusoid can be written as
) )
12. Both KVL and KCL hold good in phasor domain, i.e.,
m ary the
v (t = V m sin( t +
sum d in
where, Vm is the amplitude, ␻ is V1 +V 2 +V 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ +V n = 0 and I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ + I n = 0 .
ns a covere
2 13. The voltage and current in different circuit elements
the angular frequency 2␲f
T
, T is the time period have definite phase relations. For a resistor, the voltage
tai
and current are always in phase, i.e., the phase angle is
on opics
er c
of the sinusoid and ␾ is the phase of the sinusoid.
zero. In a pure inductor, the current lags behind the
t
hapt portant
3. Use of sinusoids has several advantages like minimum
voltage by 900 and in a pure capacitor, the current
disturbance in electrical circuits, less interference to
leads the voltage by 900.
h c
nearby communication lines and less iron and copper
losses. 14. Impedance (Z) of any two-terminal network is the
Ea c eim
ratio of the phasor voltage (V) to the phasor current (I )
s th
give ter.
4. The value of an alternating quantity at any instant of
time is known as the instantaneous value.
V
(
i.e. Z = = R + jX = Z e
I
)j ∠Z
= Z ∠Z . The real part
chap
5. The maximum value of an alternating quantity attained of impedance Re[Z] R is called the resistance. The
in each cycle is known as the peak or maximum or crest
imaginary part of impedance Im[Z] X is called the
value.
reactance. Impedance, resistance and reactance are all
6. The average value of an alternating quantity over a measured by the same unit, ohm ( ).
given time interval is the summation of all instanta-
neous values divided by the number of values taken Z = R ; for aresistor
1
T
= j L ; for aninductor
over that interval. Mathematically, V av = ∫vdt , where
T 0 1
T is the time period of the quantity. = ; for a capacitor
j C
7. The rms or effective value of a continuous periodic
15. The reciprocal of the impedance Z is called admit-
function f(t) defined over the interval T1 t T2 is
tance. So, it is the ratio of the phasor current to the
T T phasor voltage, i.e. . The real part of admittance
1 2
()
⎡f t ⎤ dt or, f = 1 ⎡f t ⎤ dt()
2 2
T2 −T1 T∫ ⎣ T ∫0 ⎣
f rms = ⎦ R
rms ⎦ is called conductance, G = Re ⎡⎣Y ⎤⎦ = 2 . The
1
R +X 2
8. Form factor is the ratio of the rms value to the average imaginary part of admittance is called susceptance,
value for an alternating wave. X
B = Im ⎡⎣Y ⎤⎦ = 2 . Admittance, conductance and
R +X 2
( )
∴ form factor K f =
rms Value
average value
susceptance are all measured by the same unit, siemen (S).
16. Instantaneous power absorbed by an element is the
For a sinusoidal wave, its value is 1.11. product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) and the
9. Peak factor is the ratio of the peak value to the rms instantaneous current i(t), i.e., p(t) v(t) i(t) (in watts).
value for an alternating wave. 17. Average or real or active power (in watts) is the
average of the instantaneous power over a time
( )peak value maximum value
∴ peak factor K p = = T
rms value rms value 1
()
interval, i.e., P = ∫ p t dt . For the sinusoidal volt-
T 0
For a sinusoidal wave its value is 1.414.
10. A phasor is a complex quantity that represents both ()
age and current given as v t = V m cos t + v and ( )
the magnitude and phase angle of a sinusoid. For a
() ( )
sinusoid given as v t = V m cos t + , the corre-
) )
i (t = I m cos ( t + i , the average power is given as
sponding phasor is written as, v (t ) = V cos ( t+ ). 2

)
P = V m I m cos ( v − i = V rms I rms cos ( v − i .
1
)
m
744
( ) = K ( s − z )( s − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − z )
N s Hence, the magnitude and phase angle of the com-
()
F s = 1 2 n
plete frequency response may be written as
( ) ( s − p )( s − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − p )
D s 1 2 m s= j
( j − z )( j − z )( j − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( j − z ) ( ) = K Product
F j
of all zeros lines to j
Productt of all poles lines to j
=K 1 2 3 n
( j − p )( j − p )( j − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( j − p ) n
1 2 3 m
∏(j − zi ) r1r2 ⋅⋅⋅ rn
=K i =1
K
( )
2
If, j − z i = 2
+ j − = ri m
q1q2 ⋅⋅⋅ qm
zi zi
∏(j − pi )
⎛ − ⎞ i =1
( )
∠ j − z i = tan ⎜
⎝ −
−1 zi
⎟=
⎠
i and angle
Each zi
⬔F( j␻) (summation of angles of the vectors from
with chapter c ( )
2
and, j − pi = 2
+ j − = qi zeros to j␻-point) (summation of angles
pi pi
of the vectors from poles to j␻-point)
a o
writi nswers; w ntains a s
⎛ − ⎞ n m
( )
∠ j − pi = tan ⎜ −1 pi
⎟= (
= ∑ ∠ j − z i − ∑ ∠ j − pi ) ( )
⎝ −
i i
⎠ i =1 i =1
ng br
pi
ief an hich acts et of shor )=( )−( )

then the network function may be written as 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ ⋅⋅⋅ + n 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ n
d to-t a t- 15. The variation of magnitude and phase of a network
he-po s a guide answer q

( ) = K Product
F j
Productt of all poles lines to j function with frequency in logarithmic scale is known
as Bode plot.
int an to the uesti
swer on
s in e students s
Short-Answer Questions
xami for 1. What are the poles and zeros? What information At s pi, i 1,2,3...., m, the denominator polynomial
natio do they provide in respect of the network to which D(s) 0; these complex frequencies are known as the
ns. they relate?

We consider a network function given by the ratio of
poles of the network function F(s). At poles, the value of
the network function is infinity, i.e., Lim F(s) . s → Pi
two polynomials as • Significance of poles and zeros The values of poles
and zeros of F(s) and their locations in the s-plane com-
an s n + an−1s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1s + a0
()
F s =
bm s m + bm−1s m−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s 2 + b1s + b0
(1) pletely specify a network function. All the coefficients
of polynomials N(s) and D(s) are real, therefore the
poles and zeros must be either purely real, or appear
It is often convenient to factor the polynomials in the in complex conjugate pairs. In general for the poles,
numerator and denominator, and to write the transfer either pi ␴i , or else pi , pi 1 ␴ j␻i. The existence of
function in terms of those factors: a single complex pole without a corresponding conju-
N s ( ) = K ( s − z )( s − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − z ) gate pole would generate complex coefficients in the
()
F s = 1 2 n
(2) polynomial D(s). Similarly, the system zeros are either
D s ( ) ( s − p )( s − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − p ) 1 2 m real or appear in complex conjugate pairs.
where, the numerator and denominator polynomials, The poles and zeros are properties of the trans-
N(s)and D(s), have real coefficients defined by fer function, and therefore of the differential equa-
a tion describing the input–output system dynamics.
the system’s differential equation and K = n
bm Together with the gain constant K they completely
is a positive constant, known as scale factor. characterize the differential equation, and provide a
From Eq. (2), we can observe the following: complete description of the system.
At s zi,i 1,2,3....,n, the numerator polynomial N(s) 0; 2. What do you understand by driving point imped-
these complex frequencies are known as the zeros of ance of a two-port network? Enumerate important
the network function F(s). At zeros, the value of the net- properties of driving point impedance functions of
work function is zero, i.e., Lim F(s) 0. s →Z i
a two-port passive network.
467
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform
Exercises
Fourier Series 1F
1. Find the Fourier series expansion for the following v (t )
hat
ter t ut
functions and sketch the frequency spectrum. 10
t v(t )
2H
20
hap
,b
(a) f (t )
c
each roblems ents,
A 0 ␲ 2␲ 3␲
Fig. 7.63 (a) Fig. 7.63 (b)

of
t
end ng p ignm
t the practici ks, ass
T 0 T 2T
4. Find the Fourier series expansion for the waveforms
shown in Fig. 7.64.
n a
give wor
(b)
for
f (t)
⎡ ⎤
s is udents tutorial
T/2 1 1 1
[(a) v = −2 ⎢ sin x + sin2 x + sin3 x + sin 4 x + ⋅⋅⋅⎥
⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦
cis e t
V 4V 4V 4V
exer he s ting ns.
t of only t s in set questio
T T/2 0 T/2 T 2T t (b) v = 2 + cos x + cos 3 x + cos 5 x + ⋅⋅⋅ ]
(3 ) (5 )
2 2 2
(c) f (t) se
A s no t r
(a)
ache tion
v
help the te xamina

1 ␲
2␲ 4␲
x
s e
help es and
0 ␲ 3␲
2␲ ␻ ␲␻ 0 ␲␻ 2␲ ␻ t
␲
uiz z
Fig. 7.56
A ∞ A
(b) f (x ) q
[Ans: (a) f t = () +∑
2 n =1 n
sin n t V
T 2T ⎡ ⎤
4
)
(b) f (t = − 2 ⎢cos t + 2 cos 3 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎥
1 ␲ 0 ␲ 2␲ 3␲ x
⎣ 3 ⎦ Fig. 7.64
2 ∞ 5. A triangular wave increases linearly from 0 to Vm during
()
(c) f t =
1 1 1
+ sin t − ∑ 2 cos 2 n t ] the interval 0 to ␲. The wave has zero value during the
2 n =1 4 n − 1
interval ␲ to 2␲ and this cycle is repeated. Find the
2. A periodic waveform as shown in Fig. 7.62 feeds an RL Fourier series representation of the wave.
1
load with R 10 ohm and L H. Calculate the power V m 2V m ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
2 [v = − 2 ⎜ cos x + cos 5 x + ⋅⋅⋅⎟ +
at the fundamental frequency supplied to the load. 4 ⎝ 25 ⎠
f (t ) Vm ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
A ⎜⎝ sin x − 2 sin2 x + 3 sin3 x − 4 sin 4 x + ⋅⋅⋅⎟⎠ ]
⎦
t 6. A wave has a constant value Im during the interval −

2
0 T 2T 3
to and Im during the interval to . This cycle
Fig. 7.62 2 2 2
is repeated in the next intervals. Find the Fourier series
3. A waveform of the shape shown in Fig. 7.63 (a) is for the wave.
applied to the network shown in Fig. 7.63 (b). Cal-
⎡ 4I m ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞⎤
culate the power dissipated in a 20- resistor. Take ⎢i = cos − cos 3 + cos 5 − cos 7 + ⋅⋅⋅⎟ ⎥
␻ 1 rad/s. [1.17 W] ⎣ ⎝⎜ 3 5 7 ⎠⎦
405
Two-Port Network
I1 40 40 I2 24. A two-port network has

1 2 (i) at Port 1, driving point impedances of 60 and
50 with Port 2 open circuited and short circuited
20 V2
Ques V1 respectively.
t
each ions are g
(ii) at Port 2, driving point impedances of 80 and
1 2
Fig. 6.147 respectively.
c i
prepa hapter to ven at th ⎡ z 11 = z 22 = 60 ; z 12 = z 21 = 20 ; A = D = 3 ;
⎢
⎤
⎥
Find the image parameters of the network. Derive the
expressions used. [54.77 , 74.83 ]
re the h ee ⎢⎣ B = 160 ; C = 0.05 mho; Z 0 = 56.57 ; = 1.762 ⎥⎦
topic elp the nd of

. reade Questions
rs 1. (a) Consider a linear passive two-port network and 4. What are transmission parameters? Where are they
explain what are meant by i) open-circuit imped- most effectively used? Establish, for two-port networks,
ance parameters, and ii) short-circuit admittance the relationship between the transmission parameters
parameters. and the open-circuit impedance parameters.
(b) What are the open-circuit impedance parameters 5. (a) Two two-port networks are connected in parallel.
of a two-port network? How can the transmission Prove that the overall y-parameters are the sum of
parameters be obtained from open-circuit imped- corresponding individual y-parameters.
ance parameters? (b) Two two-port networks are connected in cascade.
(c) Establish for two-port networks, the relationship Prove that the overall transmission parameter
between the transmission parameters and the matrix is the product of individual transmission
open-circuit parameters. parameter matrices.
(d) Define z and y parameters of a typical four-termi- (c) Two two-port networks are connected in series.
nal network. Determine the relationship between Prove that the overall z-parameters are the sum of
the z and y parameters. corresponding individual z-parameters.
(e) Express h-parameters in terms of z-parameters for 6. (a) Define ‘transfer function’ and ‘driving point func-
a two-port network. tion’ of a two-port network.
(f ) Derive expressions for the y-parameters in terms of (b) Derive the expression of input impedance of a
ABCD parameters of a two-port network. two-port network terminated with a load-imped-
2. (a) What do you understand by a reciprocal network? ance ZL, in terms of its -parameters.
What is a symmetrical network? (c) Derive the expression of output impedance of a
(b) Write technical note on derivation of short-circuit two-port network terminated with a load-imped-
admittance parameter y12 of a symmetrical and ance ZL, in terms of its transmission parameters.
reciprocal two-port lattice network. 7. What is a gyrator? Mention some properties of an
(c) How will you find the ␲-equivalent of a given net- ideal gyrator. Show that a gyrator is a non-reciprocal
work when its y-parameters are known? device.
3. (a) Explain what are meant by the transmission (ABCD) 8. What is negative impedance converter (NIC)? Show
parameters of a two-port network. Derive the con- that an NIC is a non-reciprocal device.
ditions necessary to be satisfied for the network to 9. What are image parameters? Derive expression of
be i) reciprocal, and ii) symmetrical. image parameters in terms of (i) ABCD parameters
Or, (ii) open-circuit and short-circuit impedances.
Prove that for a reciprocal two-port network, T 10. What is a symmetrical network? Derive expressions for
(AD BC ) 1 characteristic impedance and propagation constant of
(b) Prove that for a symmetrical two-port network, a symmetrical networks in terms of short-circuit and
h (h11h22 h12h21) 1 open-circuit impedances.
225
Network Theorems
Prove that the load impedance which absorbs the 14. Derive the condition for maximum power transfer for
maximum power from a source is the conjugate of the (a) Load impedance with variable resistance and vari-
impedance of the source. able reactance
11. Prove the condition for maximum power transfer for (b) Load impedance with variable resistance and fixed
an ac circuit. reactance
12. A source with internal impedance RS jXS delivers 15. State and clearly prove with the help of a suitable
power to a variable load impedance RL j0. Show example the maximum power transfer theorem as
that the condition for maximum power in the load is applicable to RLC circuits excited from the sinusoidal
RL 2 = RS 2 + X S 2 . energy source. Hence explain clearly the concept and
13. State the maximum power transfer theorem and its significance in impedance matching.
verify that only 50% of the total power supplied by the 16. State and prove the following theorems:
ns
source can be transferred to the load. ( i) Tellegen’s theorem
estio re
Or, (ii) Millman’ theorems
State and explain the maximum power transfer theo- (iii) Compensation theorem
e q u a
hoic ions
rem. Derive the expression for efficiency for maximum
le c e quest d help
power transfer.
ultip s n
Multiple-Choice Questions
r, m The ons a ject
1. Which one of the following theorems is a manifesta- (i) voltage calculations (ii) bilateral elements
ch apte ovided. minati the sub
tion of the law of conservation of energy? (iii) power calculations (iv) passive elements
ach e pr exa n of
of e wers ar petitive hensio
(i) Tellegen’s Theorem 7. Thevenin’s theorem can be applied to calculate the
(ii) Reciprocity Theorem current in
nd e
he e ans mpr
(iii) Thevenin’s Theorem
com
(i) any load (ii) a passive load only
(iv) Norton’s Theorem
At t Q) with ifferent lear co

(iii) a linear load only (iv) a bilateral load only
2. Tellegen’s theorem is applicable to 8. Norton’s equivalent circuit consists of a
(i) circuits having passive elements
c
(MC from d have a
(i) voltage source in parallel with impedance
(ii) circuits having time-invariant elements only (ii) voltage source in series with impedance
(iii) circuits with linear elements only (iii) current source in parallel with impedance
n
take eader to
(iv) circuits with active or passive, linear or non-linear (iv) current source in series with impedance
and time-invariant or time-varying elements 9. The superposition theorem is applicable to
r
the atter.
3. In any lumped network with elements in b branches, (i) linear responses only
b (ii) linear and non-linear responses
∑ (t ) ⋅ i k (t ) = 0 , for all t, holds good according to
k =1
k
(i) Norton’s theorem (ii) Thevenin’s theorem 10.

(iii) linear, non-linear and time-variant responses
When a source is delivering maximum power to a
m
(iii) Millman’s theorem (iv) Tellegen’s theorem load, the efficiency of the circuit
(i) is always 50%
4. Millman’s theorem yields
(ii) depends on the circuit parameters
(i) equivalent voltage source
(iii) is always 75%
(ii) equivalent voltage or current source
(iv) none of these.
(iii) equivalent resistance
(iv) equivalent impedance 11. Maximum power transfer occurs at a
(i) 100% efficiency (ii) 50% efficiency
5. The superposition theorem is applicable to (iii) 25% efficiency (iv) 75% efficiency
(i) current only
12. Which of the following statements is true?
(ii) voltage only (i) A Norton’s equivalent is a series circuit.
(iii) both current and voltage (ii) A Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is a parallel circuit.
(iv) current, voltage and power (iii) R-L circuit is a dual pair.
6. Superposition theorem is not applicable for (iv) L-C circuit is a dual pair.
1 Introduction to Different
Types of Systems
Introduction
An electrical network is one of the many important physical systems. In order to understand the basic
characteristics of an electric network, we must first know the different concepts of systems. In this
chapter, different types of systems have been discussed.
1.1 CONCEPTS OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

1.1.1 Signal
A signal is defined as a function of one or more variables, which provides information on the nature of a
physical phenomenon.
When the function depends on a single variable, the signal is said to be one-dimensional. Example A
speech signal whose amplitude varies with time, depending on the spoken word and who speaks it.
When the function depends on two or more variables, the signal is said to be multidimensional. Example An
image (2-D signal).
1.1.2 Systems
A system is an entity that takes an input signal and produces an output signal. It is a combination and inter-
connection of several components to perform a desired task.
Input signals Output signals

x1(t ) y1(t )
x2(t) y2(t )
System
xn(t) yn(t )
Fig. 1.1 Block-diagram representation of a system

2
The system responds to one or more input quantities, called input signals or excitation, to produce one or
more output quantities, called output signals or response.
1.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SIGNALS

Signals can be classified into different categories, as given below.
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
2. Periodic and non-periodic signals
3. Odd and even signals
1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals x(t )

Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or more inde-
pendent variables. We classify signals as being either continuous-time
(functions of a real-valued variable) or discrete-time (functions of an inte-
ger-valued variable).
In other words, a continuous-time signal has a value defined for each point in
time and a discrete-time signal is defined only at discrete points in time.
To signify the difference, we (usually) use round parenthesis around the
argument for continuous time signals, e.g., x(t) and square brackets for dis-
time (t)
crete-time signals, e.g., x[n]. We will also use the notation xn for discrete-
Fig. 1.2(a) Continuous-time
time signals.
signal
The sequences of values of the discrete-time signal shown
in Fig. 1.2 (b) defined at discrete points in time are called sam- X [n]
ples, and the spacing between them is called the sample spac-
X [3]
ing. For equal sample spacing, the sequences of values are
X [ 2] X [1]
expressed as a function of the signed integer n as x[n], where n
is termed as a sequence of samples or sequence, in short. X [ 4] X [0] X [2]
3 1
1.2.2 Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals time
4 2 0 1 2 3 [n]
A signal f (t) is said to be periodic if X [ 1]
X [ 3]
f (t ) = f (t ± nT ) (1.1)
Fig. 1.2(b) Discrete-time signal
where n is a positive integer and ‘T’ is the period. Thus, a
periodic signal repeats itself every T seconds. Some periodic
signals are shown in Fig. 1.3.
v(t )
2T T 0 T 2T 3T 4T t
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.3 Periodic signals
3
Introduction to Different Types of Systems
A signal not satisfying the above condition of Eq. (1.1) is called a non-periodic signal. Examples of some
non-periodic signals are et, t, etc.
1.2.3 Odd and Even Signals

A signal f (t) is said to be odd if
() ( )
f t = − f −t (1.2)
Some examples of odd signals are sine functions, triangular functions and square function, as shown in Fig. 1.4.
v(t)
f (t )
V
T/2
t
−T − T/2 0 T/4 T 0 ωt
−V
Fig. 1.4 Odd signals
A signal f (t) is said to be even if

() ( )
f t = f −t (1.3)
Some examples of even signals are shown in Fig. 1.5.
f(t )
f (t)
V
− T/2 0 T/2 t
0 ωt
−V
Fig. 1.5 Even signals
Decomposition of a signal into odd and even components For any function f(t), let the odd com-
ponent be denoted by f0(t) and the even component by fe(t), so that,
() () ()
f t = f0 t + f e t (1.4)
∴ f ( −t ) = f ( −t ) + f ( −t ) = − f ( t ) + f ( t )
0 e 0 e (1.5)
[by Eq. (1.2) and (1.3)]
By addition and subtraction of Eqs (1.4) and (1.5), we get,
1
()
f e t = ⎡⎣ f t + f −t ⎤⎦
2
() ( ) (1.6)
1
()
f 0 t = ⎡⎣ f t − f −t ⎤⎦
2
() ( ) (1.7)
By these two equations, we can decompose a signal into its odd and even components.
4
Example 1.1 Decompose the following signal into its odd and even components.
Solution To find the even and odd components we need the folded signal, i.e. f ( t), as shown in Fig. 1.6 (b).
By point-by-point addition and subtraction, we get the even and odd components as shown in Fig. 1.6 (c)
and Fig. 1.6 (d).
f0(t )
fe(t ) 1/2
f (t ) f( t )
1 1
1/2 1
0 1 t
1/2
0 1 t −1 0 t 1 0 1 t
Fig. 1.6 (a) Signal of Fig. 1.6 (b) Folded Fig. 1.6 (c) Even component Fig. 1.6 (d) Odd component
Ex .1.1 signal of Fig. 1.6 (a) of signal of Fig. 1.6 (a) of signal of Fig 1.6 (a)
1.2.4 Some Standard Signals f (t)

There are some standard signals which can be generated easily in the
laboratory. Some of these standard signals are discussed below.
Sinusoidal Signal A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of a
t
sine or cosine function.
We consider a sinusoidal voltage, v t = Vm sin t () Fig. 1.7(a) sin t
where Vm is the amplitude,
t is the argument of the sinusoid,
2
is the angular frequency of the sinusoid in rad/s 2 f ,
T
and T is the time period of the sinusoid.
f (t )
As the sinusoid is periodic, it repeats itself; such that
⎛ 2 ⎞
() ( )
v t = v t + T = Vm sin ⎜ t +
⎝ ⎟⎠ = Vm sin t + = Vm sin t ( )
A shifted sinusoid can be written as, v t = Vm sin () ( t+ ) t
where is the phase of the sinusoid.

Thus, we see that, − sin t = sin ( t ± 180 ) Fig. 1.7 (b) cos t
− cos t = cos( t ± 180 ) f (t ) Ke

at
± cos t = sin ( t ± 90 )
K
t = cos( t ± 90 )
±
sin
0.37 K
Exponential Signal An exponential signal is a function of time defined as
0 τ 1/a t
()
f t = 0, t <0
Fig. 1.8 Exponential
= Ke − at , t ≥ 0 signal
5
where K and a are some real constants. The reciprocal of a has the dimension u(t )
⎛ 1⎞
of time and is known as time constant, ⎜ = ⎟ . This is the time to reach 1
⎝ a⎠
63.2% of the total change from the initial to final value. 0 t
Singularity Signals There are three singularity signals, namely, Fig. 1.9 (a) Unit step
function
a. Step signal,
b. Ramp signal, and Ku(t)
c. Impulse signal.
K
Step Signal This function is also known as Heaviside unit function. It is defined
as given below. 0 t
f (t ) = u(t ) = 1 for t > 0 Fig. 1.9 (b) Step funct-
ion of magnitude K
= 0 for t < 0
and is undefined at t 0. u(t − T )
A step function of magnitude K is defined as
1
f (t ) = Ku(t ) = K for t > 0
= 0 for t < 0
and is undefined at t 0. 0 T t
A shifted or delayed unit step function is defined as Fig. 1.9 (c) Shifted unit step
function
f (t ) = u(t − T ) = 1 for t > T
= 0 for t < T
and is undefined at t T. K
Another function, called gate function, can be obtained from step

function as follows.
Therefore, g(t) Ku(t − a) Ku(t − b) 0 a b
Fig. 1.9 (d) Gate function
Ramp Signal A unit ramp function is defined as
f (t ) = r (t ) = t for t ≥ 0
= 0 for t < 0
A ramp function of any slope K is defined as
f (t ) = Kr (t ) = Kt for t ≥ 0
= 0 for t < 0
A shifted unit ramp function is defined as
f (t ) = r (t − T ) = t for t ≥ T
= 0 for t < T
Impulse Signal This function is also known as Dirac Delta function, denoted by d(t). This is a function of a
real variable t, such that the function is zero everywhere except at the instant t 0. Physically, it is a very sharp
pulse of infinitesimally small width and very large magnitude, the area under the curve being unity.
6
r(t) Kr(t) r(t − T )
1 K 1
1 1 1
0 t 0 t 0 T t
Fig. 1.10 (a) Unit ramp function Fig. 1.10 (b) Ramp function Fig. 1.10 (c) Shifted unit ramp function
Consider a gate function as shown in Fig. 1.11. f (t )

The function is compressed along the time-axis δ (t )
3/a
and stretched along the y-axis, keeping the area under ∞
1 2/a
the pulse as unity. As a 0, the value of
a 1/a
and the resulting function is known as impulse.
It is defined as (t ) = 0 for t ≠ 0 0 a/3 a/2 a t 0 t
∞
Fig. 1.11(a) Generation of Fig. 1.11(b) Impulse
and ∫
−∞
(t )dt = 1 impulse function from gate signal
function
1 d
Also, (t ) = Lim ⎡⎣ u(t ) − u(t − a ) ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ u(t ) ⎤⎦
→0 a
a ⎯⎯ dt
1.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SYSTEMS

Systems can be classified from different points of view as given below.
1. Continuous and discrete-time systems
2. Fixed and time-varying systems
3. Linear and non-linear systems
4. Lumped and distributed systems
5. Instantaneous and dynamic systems
6. Active and passive systems
7. Causal and non-causal systems
8. Stable and unstable systems
9. Invertible and non-invertible systems
1.3.1 Continuous- and Discrete-Time Systems

A continuous-time system is a system which accepts only continuous-time signals to produce continuous-
time internal and output signals. On the other hand, a discrete-time system is a system that transforms dis-
crete-time input(s) into discrete-time output(s).
Examples
Continuous-Time Systems
(i) Atmospheric pressure as a function of altitude
(ii) Electric circuits composed of resistors, inductors, capacitors driven by continuous-time sources
7
Discrete-Time Systems
(i) Weekly stock market index
(ii) Balance in a bank account from month to month
1.3.2 Time-Invariant (Fixed) and Time-Varying Systems

A system is time-invariant or fixed if the behav-
Input x(t) Input x(t T)
iour and characteristics of the system do not
change with time. Otherwise, the system is
time-varying. time time
Mathematically, if the input x(t) gives the output 0 0 T
Output y(t) Output y(t T )
y(t) then the system is time-invariant if the input
x(t − T ) gives the output y(t − T ) for any delay
T. Hence, a time-shift of the input gives the same
time time
time-shift of the output. 0 0 T
Whether a system is time-invariant or time- Fig. 1.12 Time-invariant system
varying can be seen in the differential equation (or
difference equation) describing it. Time-invariant systems are modeled with constant-coefficient equations.
A constant-coefficient differential (or difference) equation means that the parameters of the system are not
changing over time and an input now will give the same result as the input later.
Example 1.2 A continuous-time system is modeled by the equation y(t) ⴝ tx(t) ⴙ 4, and a discrete-time
system is modeled by y(n) ⴝ x 2[n]. Are these systems time-invariant?
Solution For continuous-time system

For input x(t) x1(t), output y1(t) tx1(t) 4 (i)
For input x(t) x1(t − T ), output, y2(t) tx1(t − T ) 4 (ii)
From the condition of time-invariance, the output should be
y1(t − T ) (t − T) x1 (t − T) 4 (iii)
From equations (ii) and (iii), y2(t) y1(t − T)
Hence, the system is not time-invariant.
For discrete-time system
For input x1[n ], output y1[n] x12[n]
For input x1[n − n0], output x12[n − n0]
From the condition of time-invariance, the shifted output y1[n − n0] x12[n − n0]
Hence, the system is time-invariant.
1.3.3 Linear and Non-Linear Systems

A system, in continuous-time or discrete-time, is said to be linear, if it obeys the properties of superposition,
i.e. additivity and homogeneity (or scaling); while a system is non-linear that does not obey at least any one
of these properties.
8
The superposition principle says that the output to a linear combination of input signals is the same linear
combination of the corresponding output signals. Mathematically, the linearity condition is based on two
properties:
Additivity If the input signals x1(t) and x2(t) correspond to the output signals y1(t) and y2(t), respectively
then the input signal {x1(t) x2(t)} should correspond to the output signal {y1(t) y2(t)}.
Homogeneity If the input signal x1(t) corresponds to the output signal y1(t), then the input signal a1x1(t)
should correspond to the output signal a1y1(t) for any constants a1.
Combining these two properties, the condition for a linear system can be written as, if the input signals
x1(t) and x2(t) correspond to the output signals y1(t) and y2(t), respectively then the input signal a1x1(t) a2x2(t)
should correspond to the output signal a1y1(t) a2y2(t) for any constants a1 and a2.
Example 1.3 Check whether the systems with the input–output relationship given below are linear:
(a) y(t) ⴝ mx(t) ⴙ c, (b) y(t) ⴝ tx(t)
Solution
(a) For an input x1(t), output, y1(t) mx1(t) c
For an input x2(t), output, y2(t) mx2(t) c
For an input {x1(t) x2(t)}, output, y3(t) m{x1(t) x2(t)} c (i)
From the condition of linearity, the output should be
{ y1(t) y2(t)} m{x1(t) x2(t)} 2c (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we conclude that the system is non-linear.
(b) For an input x1(t), output, y1(t) tx1(t)
For an input x2(t), output, y2(t) tx2(t)
For an input {k1x1(t) k2x2(t)}, output, y3(t) t{k1x1(t) k2x2(t)} (i)
where k1 and k2 are any arbitrary constants.
{k1y1(t) k2y2(t)} k1tx1(t) k2tx2(t) t{k1x1(t) k2x2(t)} (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we conclude that the system is linear.
1.3.4 Lumped and Distributed Systems

All physical systems contain distributed parameters because of the physical size of the system components.
For example, the resistance of a resistor is distributed throughout its volume.
However, if the size of the system components is very small with respect to the wavelength of the highest
frequency present in the signals associated with it then the system components behave as if it all were occur-
ring at a point. This system is said to be a lumped-parameter system.
Distributed parameter systems are modeled
• by partial differential equations if they are continuous-time systems, and
• by partial difference equations if they are discrete-time systems.
Lumped parameter systems are modeled with ordinary differential or difference equations.
9
Example Consider an electric power system of frequency 50 Hz. The wavelength of the signal is
obtained as,
C 3 × 105
n =C ⇒ = = km = 6000 km
n 50
Thus, the electrical system inside a room can be treated as a lumped-parameter system, but will be treated
as distributed system for long-distance transmission lines.
1.3.5 Instantaneous (Static or Memoryless) and Dynamic Systems

An instantaneous or static or memoryless system is a system where the output at any specific time depends
on the input at that time only. On the other hand, a dynamic system is one whose output depends on the past
or future values of the input in addition to the present time.
A static system has no memory. Physically, it contains no energy-storage elements; while a dynamic
system has one or more energy-storage element(s).
Example An electrical circuit containing resistance R, has the v i relationship as, v(t) Ri(t), and so the
t
1
system is static. But an electrical circuit containing the capacitor C has the v i relationship as v (t ) = ∫ i(t )dt ,
and so, the system is a dynamic system. C0
1.3.6 Active and Passive Systems

A system having no source of energy is known as a passive system. Examples of passive systems are electric
circuits containing resistance, capacitance, inductance, diodes, etc.
A system having a source of energy together with other passive elements is known as an active system.
Examples of active systems are electric circuits containing voltage sources or current sources or op-amps.
1.3.7 Causal and Non-Causal Systems

A system is said to be causal if the output of the system depends only on Input x(t)
the input at the present time and/or in the past, but not the future value
of the input. Thus, a causal system is non-anticipative, i.e. output cannot
come before the input.
time
On the other hand, the output of a non-causal system depends on the 0
future values of the input.
Output y (t)
Example The moving-average system described by
1
y[ n] = {x[ n] + x[ n − 1] + x[ n − 2 ]}
3 time
is causal; but the moving-average system described by 0
1
y[ n] = {x[ n + 1] + x[ n] + x[ n − 1]} Output y (t)
3
is non-causal since the output depends on the future value of the input
x[n 1].
time
It is obvious that the idea of future inputs does not have any physical 0
meaning if we take time as our independent variable and for that reason all Fig. 1.13 (a) Causal systems
10
real-time systems are causal. However, for the case of image processing, the dependent variable may by the pixels
to the left and right (the ‘future’) of the current position on the image, and thus, we can have a non-causal system.
1.3.8 Stable and Unstable Systems

A stable system is one where the output does not diverge as long as the Input x(t )
input does not diverge. A bounded input produces a bounded output. For
this reason, this type of system is known as a bounded input–bounded
output (BIBO) stable system.
time
Mathematically, a stable system must have the following property: 0
If x(t) be the input and y(t) be the output then the output must satisfy Output y (t)
the condition
y (t ) ≤ M y < ∝; for all t
whenever the input satisfies the condition time
0
x (t ) ≤ M x < ∝; for all t Fig. 1.13 (b) Non-causal system
where Mx and My both represent a set of finite positive numbers.
If these conditions are not met, i.e. the output of the system grows without limit (diverges) from a bounded
input then the system is unstable.
1.3.9 Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems

A system is referred as an invertible system if x(t ) y(t ) w (t) = x (t)
System Inverse system
(i) distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs, and
Fig. 1.14 Invertible system
(ii) the input can be recovered from the output.
The property of invertibility is important in the design of communication systems. When a transmitted
signal propagates through a communication channel, it becomes distorted due to the physical characteristics
of the channel. An equalizer is connected in cascade with the channel in the receiver to compensate this dis-
tortion. By designing the equalizer to be inverse of the channel, the transmitted signal is restored.
1.4 INTERCONNECTION OF SYSTEMS

Most of the physical systems are built as interconnections of several subsystems. Different types of intercon-
nections are shown below.
Series or Cascade Interconnection The output of Input System 1 System 2 Output
the system 1 is the input to the system 2.
Fig. 1.15
Parallel Interconnection The same input signal is
applied to systems 1 and 2.
System 1
Input + Output
System 2
Fig. 1.16
11
Combination of Both Cascade and Parallel Interconnections
System 1 System 2
Input System 4 Output
System 3
Fig. 1.17
Feedback Interconnection The output of the system 2 is fed back and added to the external input to
produce the actual input to the system 1.
Input System 1 Output
System 2
Fig. 1.18
Solved Problems
Problem 1.1 Check whether the system defined by y(t) ⴝ sin[x( t)] is time-invariant.
Solution For input x(t) x1(t), output y1(t) sin[x1(t)] (i)
For input x(t) x1(t − T), output, y 2 (t) sin[x1(t − T )] (ii)
y1(t − T ) sin[x1(t − T )] (iii)
From equations (ii) and (iii), y2(t) y1(t − T )
Problem 1.2 Consider a system S with input x[n] and output y[n] related by,
y [n] ⴝ x[n]{g[n] ⴙ g[n − 1]}
(a) If g[n] 1, for all n, show that S is time-invariant.
(b) If g[n] n, show that S is not time-invariant.
(c) If g[n] 1 (−1)n, show that S is time-invariant.
Solution
(a) If g[n] 1, for all n then y[n] x[n]{1 1 1} 2x[n]
For input x[n] x1[n], output y1[n] 2x1[n] (i)
For input x[n] x1[n − n0], output, y2[n] 2x1[n − n0] (ii)
y1[n − n0] 2x1[n − n0] (iii)
From equations (ii) and (iii), y2[n] y1[n − n0]
12
(b) If g[n] n, then y[n] x[n]{n n − 1} (2n − 1) x[n]

For input x[n] x1[n], output y1[n] (2n − 1)x1[n] (i)
For input x[n] x1[n − n0], output, y2[n] (2n − 1)x1[n − n0] (ii)
y1[n − n0] {2(n − n0) − 1}x1[n − n0] (iii)
From equations (ii) and (iii), y2[n] y1[n − n0]
Hence, the system is not time-invariant.
(c) If g[n] 1 (−1)n, then y[n] x[n]{1 (−1)n 1 (−1)n−1} 2x[n]
This relation is same as that of Part (a). Hence the system is time-invariant.
Problem 1.3 Consider the systems S whose input and output are related by
y(t) ⴝ x 2(t)
Check whether S is linear.
Solution For an input x1(t), output, y1(t) x12(t)
For an input x2(t), output, y2(t) x22(t)
For an input {k1x1(t) k2x2(t)}, output, y3(t) [k1x1(t) k2 x2(t)]2 (i)
where, k1 and k2 are any arbitrary constants.
{k1y1(t) k2y2(t)} k1x12(t) k2x22(t) (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we conclude that the system is not linear.
Problem 1.4 Consider the following discrete-time systems with input-output relationships as given,
y[n] ⴝ Re{x[n]}
Check whether the system is linear.
Solution Let, the input be, x1[n] r[n] js[n]
Therefore, the output is, y1[n] Re{x1[n]} Re {r[n] js[n]} r[n]
Now we consider scaling of the input x1[n] by a complex number, say, (a jb) , i.e. the input is,
x2[n] (a jb)x1[n] (a jb){r[n] js[n]} {ar[n] − bs[n]} j{br[n] as[n]}
Corresponding output is, y2[n] Re{x2[n]} Re{ar[n] − bs[n]} j{br[n] as[n]} ar[n] − bs[n]
But the scaled output for linear system is, (a jb)y1[n] ar[n] jbr[n]
As the two outputs are not the same, the system is not linear.
Problem 1.5 Consider a discrete-time system whose output y[n] is the average of the three most recent
values of the input signal, x[n], given as
1
{
y [n] = x [n] + x [n −1] + x [n − 2 ]
2
}
Show that the system is BIBO stable.
Solution Let us assume that, x[n] < Mx < for all n,
1
3
{ 1
3
} 1
∴ y ⎡⎣ n ⎤⎦ = x ⎡⎣ n ⎤⎦ + x ⎡⎣ n − 1⎤⎦ + x ⎡⎣ n − 2 ⎤⎦ ≤ x ⎡⎣ n ⎤⎦ + x ⎡⎣ n − 1⎤⎦ + x ⎡⎣ n − 2 ⎤⎦ ≤ ⎡⎣ M x + M x + M x ⎤⎦ ≤ M x
3
13
Hence, the absolute value of the output signal y[n] is always less than the maximum absolute value of the
input signal x[n] for all n; which shows that the system is stable.
Problem 1.6 Determine whether the following continuous-time systems are stable:
(a) y(t) tx(t) (b) y(t) x (t) sin 100 t
Solution Here, let the input be bounded.
(a) y(t) tx(t)
As t , y(t) [since x(t) is multiplied by t]
Hence the system is unstable system.
(b) y(t) x(t) sin 100 t
Here x(t) is multiplied by sin 100 t. We know that the value of sine varies between −1 and 1.
Hence y(t) is bounded as long as x(t) is bounded. Hence the system is stable.
Problem 1.7 Determine whether the following continuous-time systems are causal or non-causal:
(a) y(t) x(t) cos(t 1) (b) y(t) x( t) (c) y(t) x( t)
t
dy ( t )
(d) +10 y ( t ) + 5 = x ( t ) (e) y ( t ) = ∫ x ( t )dt
dt −∞
Solution (a) y(t) x(t) cos(t 1)

Here, y(t) depends on the present input x(t). A cosine function can be evaluated at (t 1). Therefore, the
system is causal.
(b) y(t) x(2t)
Here, if t 5 then y(5) x(10)
Thus, the output y(t) depends on the future input. Therefore, the system is non-causal.
(c) y(t) x(−t)
Here, if t −3, then y(−3) x(3)
Thus, the output y(t) depends on the future input. Therefore, the system is non-causal.
( ) + 10 y t + 5 = x t
dy t
(d)
dt
() ()
Here, y(t) depends upon the present value of x(t). Therefore, the system is causal.
t
()
(e) y t = ∫ x t dt ()
−∞
Here, y(t) depends upon the present and the past values of x(t), but not on the future value. Therefore,
the system is causal.
Problem 1.8 Determine whether the following systems are invertible:
(a) y(t)
10 x(t) (b) y(t) x2(t) c) y(t) x(t n) (d) y(t) x(2t)
Solution
(a) y(t) 10x(t)
For this system, the inverse system will be w t = () 1
10
y t ()
14
1
x (t) y (t ) = 10x (t) w(t ) = y(t) = x(t )
10
Therefore, the system is an invertible system.

(b) y(t) x2(t)
Inverse system would be w t = y t = x t = ± x t
2
() () () ()
Here, two outputs are possible: x(t) or −x(t). This implies that there is no unique output for unique input.
Therefore, the system is a non-invertible system.
(c) y(t) x(t − n)
Here, output is the delayed input, by ‘n’ samples. Clearly, the system is invertible. There can be another
system for which the output is the advanced input by ‘n’ samples. The inverse system is w(t) y(t n).
(d) y(t) x(2t)
Here, the input is compressed by a factor 2. Hence, there can be another system which will expand the input
⎛ 1⎞
by the same factor. Hence the system is invertible. The inverse system is w (t ) = y ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠
Problem 1.9. Determine whether the following systems are static or dynamic:
d
(a) y(t) ex(t) (b) y ( t ) = x (t)
dt
Solution (a) y(t) ex(t)

Here, the output depends on present input only. Hence the system is a static system.
() d
(b) y t = x t
dt
()
Here, the output depends on differentiation of the input. Calculation of differentiation depends on the
present as well as past values. Therefore, the system is a dynamic system.
Problem 1.10 Express the following signals in terms of the standard signals:
a) f (t ) b) f(t ) c) f(t)
f (t)
Vm Vm
K 1
t t t
0 π 0 1 0 1 2 3 t
0 π
Fig. 1.20 Fig. 1.21
Solution
(a) Here, the signal can be expressed in terms of step signal as
⎛ T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
() ()
f t = Vm sin t u t + Vm sin ⎜ t − ⎟ u ⎜ t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
f (t )
= Vm sin t u t + Vm sin () (t − ) u(t − ) K
(b) Here, the signal starts with a straight line of slope K passing through the origin t
and then comes to zero at t 1. Hence the signal can be expressed in terms of 0 1
ramp and step signals as f (t) Kr(t) − Kr(t −1) − Ku(t −1) Fig. 1.22
15
(c) Here, the signal starts from the origin with a slope of 1. At f(t )
t 1, the slope becomes zero (parallel to time axis). At
t 2, the slope becomes −1 and again at t 3, the slope 1
becomes zero. Therefore, the signal can be written in terms
of the ramp signals as given below. t
0 1 2 3
f (t) r(t) − r(t − 1) − r(t − 2) r(t − 3)
Fig. 1.23
Problem 1.11 Determine the even and odd components of the
following signals:
(a) Unit step signal;
f (t )
1
f(t) f(t )
f (t ) 1 1/2
1 1 1
t t 1/2
0 1 1 0
t
t 1 1/2 1 0 1
0 1
Fig. 1.24 (a) Fig. 1.24 (b) Fig. 1.24 (c) Fig. 1.24 (d)
(f ) f(t) u(t) − r(t − 1) 2r(t − 2) − r(t − 3) u(t − 4) − 2u(t − 5)
Solution
(a) To find the even and odd components of a unit step signal, we need to find the folded signal, i.e. u(−t), as
shown in the figure below.
u(t ) u( t)
1 1
0 t 0 t
Fig. 1.25 (a) Unit step signal Fig. 1.25 (b) Folded signal
Now,
1
() () ( )
f e t = ⎡⎣ f t + f −t ⎤⎦
2
1
()
f 0 t = ⎡⎣ f t − f −t ⎤⎦
2
() ( )
By point-by-point addition and subtraction of the signals of Fig. 1.25 (a) and Fig. 1.25 (b), we get the
even and odd components, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1.25 (c) and Fig. 1.25 (d) below.
fe(t) f0(t)
1/2
1/2 0 t
1/2
0 t
Fig. 1.25 (c) Even component of unit step signal Fig. 1.25 (d) Odd component of unit step singal
16
(b) To find the even and odd components, we need the folded signal, i.e. f (−t), as shown in the
Fig. 1.26 (b)
f0(t)
fe(t )
f (t) f ( t) 12
12
1 1 1
t
0 1
t 12
t t
0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Fig. 1.26 (a) Signal Fig. 1.26 (b) Folded Fig. 1.26 (c) Even Fig. 1.26 (d) Odd component
signal component of signal of signal
By point-by-point addition and subtraction, we get the even and odd components as shown in
Fig. 1.26 (c) and Fig. 1.26 (d).
(c) The procedure is followed as mentioned below.
Fig. 1.27 (c) and Fig. 1.27 (d).
f0(t)
1
f (t ) f( t ) fe(t)
1 1/2
1
1/2 1
1 1 1 t
t t 1
0 1 0 1/2
t
1 1 1 0 1 1
Fig. 1.27 (a) Signal Fig. 1.27 (b) Folded Fig. 1.27 (c) Even Fig. 1.27 (d) Odd
signal component of the signal component of the signal
(d) To find the even and odd components we need the folded signal, i.e. f (−t), as shown in Fig. 1.28 (b).
Fig. 1.28 (c) and Fig. 1.28 (d).
f(t ) f( t )
fe(t ) f0(t )
1 1
1/2
1/2 1/2 1 1
1 1 t
0 t 0 1 t 1/2 1 0
1
1/2
1/2 1/2 t
1 0 1
(e) To find the even and odd components the signal and the folded signal, i.e. f (−t) are shown in
Fig. 1.29 (a) and Fig.1.29 (b), respectively.
17
fe(t ) f0(t )
f(t) f( t)
1/2 1/4
1/2
t
1/2 1/4 1 0 1
t t t
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1/4
Fig. 1.29 (c) and Fig. 1.29 (d).
(f) f (t) u(t) − r(t − 1) 2r(t − 2) − r(t − 3) u(t − 4) − 2u(t − 5)
fe(t)
f (t)
1
2
1/2
1
t t
0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 1.30 (a) Signal Fig. 1.30 (c) Even component of the signal
f( t) f0(t)
1
2 1/2
5 4 3 2 1
1 t
0 1 2 3 4 5
1/2
t 1
5 4 3 2 1 0
Fig. 1.30 (b) Folded signal Fig. 1.30 (d) Odd component of the
signal
Here, the signal is drawn as shown in Fig. 1.30 (a). The folded signal is shown in Fig. 1.30 (b).
The even component and the odd components of the signal are obtained by point-by-point addi-
tion and subtraction of signals of Fig. 1.30 (a) and Fig. 1.30 (b), respectively. These are shown in
Fig. 1.30 (c) and Fig. 1.30 (d).
Summary
1. A signal is defined as a function of one or more vari- 4. Systems can be classified from different points of view,
ables, which provides information on the nature of a such as continuous and discrete-time systems, fixed and
physical phenomenon. time-varying systems, linear and non-linear systems,
2. A system is an entity that takes an input signal and lumped and distributed systems, instantaneous and
produces an output signal. It is a combination and dynamic systems, active and passive systems, causal
interconnection of several components to perform a and non-causal systems, stable and unstable systems, and
desired task. invertible and non-invertible systems.
3. Signals can be classified into different categories, such 5. The principle of superposition is based upon two con-
as continuous-time and discrete-time signals, periodic ditions—additivity and homogeneity. The superposi-
and non-periodic signals, and odd and even signals. tion principle is applicable only for linear systems.
18
6. A causal system is a non-anticipative system where 7. A system where a bounded input produces a bounded
output cannot come before the input. Almost all phys- output is known as bounded input-bounded output
ical systems are causal. (BIBO) stable system.
1. What is a system? What are the different types of A function f(t) is said to be even if
systems? f(t) f(−t) (2)
A system is an entity that takes an input signal and pro- Some examples of even functions are shown in Fig. 1.33.
duces an output signal. It is a combination and intercon- f (t ) f(t )
nection of several components to perform a desired task.
V
Input signals Output signals
x1(t ) y1(t )
x2(t ) System y2(t) T/2 0 T/2 t 0 ωt
−V
xn(t ) yn(t)
Fig. 1.33 Even functions
Fig. 1.31 Block-diagram representation of a system For any function f(t), let the odd component be
The system responds to one or more input quantities, denoted by f0(t) and even component by fe(t), so that,
called input signals or excitation, to produce one or more f (t) f0(t) fe(t) (3)
output quantities, called output signals or response.
⬖ f (−t) f0(−t) fe( t) −f0(t) fe(t) (4)
Systems can be classified from different points of
view as given below. [by Eqs (1) and (2)]
1. Continuous and discrete-time systems By addition and subtraction of Eqs (3) and (4),
2. Fixed and time-varying systems we get
3. Linear and non-linear systems
4. Lumped and distributed systems
)
f e (t = ⎡⎣f (t + f ( −t ⎤⎦
1
2
) (5) )
5. Instantaneous and dynamic systems
6. Active and passive systems
1
2
)
f 0 (t = ⎡⎣f (t − f ( −t ⎤⎦ ) (6) )
7. Causal and non-causal systems By these two equations, we can decompose a signal
8. Stable and unstable systems into its odd and even components.
9. Invertible and non-invertible systems
3. Define the following functions:
2. Define an odd and an even function. How can you (a) Step function (c) Ramp function
decompose a general function into its odd and (b) Gate function (d) Impulse function
even components?
(a) Step function
A function f(t) is said to be odd if A step function is defined as given below.
f(t) −f(−t) (1)
f (t) u(t)
1 for t > 0
Some examples of odd functions are sine functions, trian- 1 for t > 0
gular functions, and square functions, as shown in Fig. 1.32. and is undefined at t 0.
v (t ) u(t) Ku(t )
f (t)
1 K
V T/2
T T/2 0 T/4 T t 0 ωt 0 t 0 t
V Fig. 1.33 (a) Unit Fig. 1.33 (b) Step
Fig. 1.32 Odd functions step function function of magnitude K
19
A step function of magnitude K is defined as f (t )
f (t) Ku(t) K for t > 0
1 for t > 0 3/a (t )
and is undefined at t 0. 2/a
1/a
K
0 t
0 a/3 a/2 a t
Fig. 1.34 (a) Generation of Fig. 1.34 (b)
0 a b impulse function from gate Impulse Signal
Fig. 1.33 (c) Gate function
function It is defined as,
∞
(b) Gate function (t) 0 for t 0 and ∫

−∞
(t )dt = 1
A gate function can be obtained from a step func-
tion as shown in Fig. 1.33 (c). Also, (t ) = Lim 1 [ u(t ) − u(t − a )] = d [ u(t )]
⎯oa
a ⎯→ dt
Therefore, g(t) Ku(t−a)−Ku(t−b).
4. What are the conditions for a system to be a linear
(c) Ramp function system?
A unit ramp function is defined as
A system in continuous-time or discrete-time, is said
f(t) r(t) t for t 0 to be linear if it obeys the properties of superposition,
0 for t 0 i.e. additivity and homogeneity (or scaling); while a
A ramp function of any slope K is defined as system is non-linear that does not obey at least any
f(t) Kr(t) Kt for t 0 one of these properties.
0 for t < 0 The superposition principle says that the output to a
linear combination of input signals is the same linear com-
r (t ) Kr (t) bination of the corresponding output signals. Mathemati-
cally, the linearity condition is based on two properties:
1. Additivity If the input signals x1(t) and x2(t) corre-
1 K
1 1
spond to the output signals y1(t) and y2(t), respec-
tively then the input signal {x1(t) x2(t)} should
0 t 0 t correspond to the output signal {y1(t) y2(t)}.
Fig. 1.33 (d) Unit Fig. 1.33 (e) Ramp 2. Homogeneity If the input signal x1(t) corresponds
ramp function funtion to the output signal y1(t) then the input signal a1x1(t)
should correspond to the output signal a1y1(t) for
(d) Impulse function any constants a1.
This function is also known as Dirac Delta function, Combining these two properties, the condition for
denoted by (t). This is a function of a real variable t, a linear system can be written as if the input signals
such that the function is zero everywhere except at x1(t) and x2(t) correspond to the output signals y1(t)
the instant t 0. Physically, it is a very sharp pulse of and y2(t), respectively then the input signal a1x1(t)
infinitesimally small width and very large magnitude, a2x2(t) should correspond to the output signal a1y1(t)
the area under the curve being unity. a2y2(t) for any constants a1 and a2.
Consider a gate function as shown in Fig. 1.34 (a).
5. Give the conditions for a BIBO stability of a
The function is compressed along the time-
system.
axis and stretched along the y-axis, keeping
area under the pulse unity. As a 0, the A stable system is one where the output does not
value of [1/a] and the resulting function diverge as long as the input does not diverge. A
is known as impulse. bounded input produces a bounded output. For this
20
reason, this type of system is known as bounded input- A system is referred to as an invertible system if
bounded output (BIBO) stable system. i) distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs, and
Mathematically, a stable system must have the fol- ii) the input can be recovered from the output.
lowing property:
The property of invertibility is important in the design
If x(t) be the input and y(t) be the output then the of communication systems. When a transmitted signal
output must satisfy the condition propagates through a communication channel, it
y (t ) ≤ M y <∝ ; for all t becomes distorted due to the physical characteristics
of the channel. An equalizer is connected in cascade
whenever the input satisfy the condition with the channel in the receiver to compensate this
y (t ) ≤ M x <∝ ; for all t distortion. By designing the equalizer to be inverse of
the channel, the transmitted signal is restored.
where, Mx and My both represent a set of finite positive
numbers. x(t ) y(t ) w (t) = x(t)
6. Define invertible systems. Why is it important to
have an inverse system of a system? Fig. 1.35 Invertible system
Exercises
1. A discrete-time system is modeled by (c) y(t) x2(t) (d) y mx c

2
Y[n] X [n] Check whether S is linear.
Is this system time-invariant? 3. Consider the following discrete-time systems with
2. Consider the systems S whose input and output are input–output relationships as given:
related by (a) y[n] 2x[n] 3 (b) y[n] nx[n]
(a) y(t) tx(t) (b) y(t) x(t)x(t − 1) Check whether the systems are linear.
Questions
1. What is a system? What are the different types of (c) Lumped and distributed system
systems? Give their definitions. (d) Instantaneous (static or memoryless) and dynamic
2. Define the following and give examples: system
(e) Causal and non-causal system
(a) Continuous and discrete signals
(f) Active and passive system
(b) Periodic and non-periodic signals
(c) Odd and even signals 4. (a) What are the conditions for a system to be a linear
(d) Step, ramp and impulse signals system?
(b) Give the conditions for BIBO stability of a system.
3. Define the following and give examples:
(a) Continuous and discrete system
(b) Time-invariant and Time-varying system
1. The output y(t) and the input x(t) of a system are (iii) may be linear or non-linear depending on y(t)
related by the equation y(t) mx(t) c, where m and and x(t)
c are constants. The system is (iv) none of the above
(i) linear (ii) non-linear
21
2. If the impulse response is realizable by delaying it 9. What is the input–output relation of the causal moving-
appropriately and is bounded for bounded excitation average system (discrete time)?
then the system is said to be
(i) causal and stable (i) y [n ] =
1
3
{
x [ n ] + x [ n − 1] + x [ n − 2 ] }
(ii) causal but not stable
(iii) non-causal but stable (ii) y [n ] =
1
3
{
x [ n − 1] + x [ n ] + x [ n + 1] }
(iv) non-causal, not stable
3. In a linear circuit, when the ac input is doubled, the ac
output becomes
(iii) y [n ] =
1
3 { (
2
) (
x [n ] + x [n ] + x [n ] )
1
2
}
(i) one-fourth
(iii) two times
(ii) half
(iv) four times
(iv)
1
y [n ] =
3
{
x [ n ] + x [ n + 1] + x [ n + 2 ] }
10. The v−i characteristic of an element is shown in
4. A circuit having an emf source or any energy source is
Fig. 1.36. The element is
a/an
(i) non-linear, active, non-bilateral
(i) active circuit (ii) linear, active, non-bilateral
(ii) passive circuit (iii) non-linear, passive, non-bilateral
(iii) unilateral circuit (iv) non-linear, active, bilateral
(iv) bilateral circuit v
5. A network is said to be linear if and only if
(i) a response is proportional to the excitation
function
(ii) the principle of superposition applies
(iii) the principle of homogeneity applied
(iv) both the principles (ii) and (iii) apply i
0
6. Consider the following data Fig. 1.36
1. Input applied for t t0
2. Input applied for t t0 11. Which one of the following is a linear system?
3. State of the network at t t0 (i) y(t) 2u(t) (ii) y(t) 2u(t) 5
4. State of the network at t t0 (iii) y(t) 2u2(t) (iv) y(t) 2u2(t) 5
Among these, those needed for determining 12. A function f( . ) is linear under the following conditions
the response of a linear network for t > t0 would (i) f (x1 x2) f (x1) f (x2) only
include (ii) f (kx) kf (x) only
(i) 1, 3 and 4 (iii) f (x1 x2) f (x1) f (x2) and f (kx) kf (x)
(ii) 2, 3 and 4 (iv) f (x1 x2) f (x1) f (x2) or f (kx) kf (x)
(iii) 2 and 3 13. The v−i characteristic of a resistor is i 2v 2. The resis-
(iv) 2 and 4 tor is
(i) linear, passive, bilateral
7. An excitation is applied to a system at t T and its
(ii) non-linear, passive, bilateral
response is zero for < t < T. Such a system is a/an
(iii) non-linear, active, bilateral
(i) non-causal system
(iv) non-linear, active, unilateral
(ii) stable system
(iii) causal system 14. The system y(t) tx(t) 4 is
(iv) unstable system (i) non-linear, time-varying and unstable
(ii) linear, time-varying and unstable
8. The elements which are not capable of delivering (iii) non-linear, time-invariant and unstable
energy by their own are known as (iv) non-linear, time-varying and stable
(i) unilateral elements
15. The following is true.
(ii) non-linear elements
(i) A finite signal is always bounded.
(iii) passive elements
(ii) A bounded signal always possesses finite energy.
(iv) active elements
22
(iii) A bounded signal is always zero outside the (iii) y(t) (t 4)x(t 1)
interval [−t0, t0] for some t0. (iv) y(t) (t 5)x(t 5)
(iv) A bounded signal is always finite.
18. The impulse response h(t) of a linear time–invariant con-
16. The function x(t) is shown in Fig. 1.37. The even and tinuous time system is described by h(t) exp( t)u(t)
odd parts of a unit-step function u(t) are respectively exp( t)u( t), where, u(t) denotes the unit step function,
1 1 1 1 and and are real constants. The system is stable if
(i) , x (t ) (ii) , x (t )
2 2 2 2 (i) is positive and is positive
1 1 1 1 (ii) is negative and is negative
(iii) , − x (t ) (iv) , − x (t ) (iii) is positive and is negative
2 2 2 2
(iv) is negative and is positive
x (t) 19. Which of the following represent a stable system?
1. Impulse response of the system decreases expo-
1 nentially.
0
2. Area within the impulse response is finite.
t
1 3. Eigen values of the system are positive and real.
4. Roots of the characteristic equation of the
Fig. 1.37 system are real and negative.
17. The input and output of a continuous-time system are Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
respectively denoted by x(t) and y(t). Which of the fol- (i) 1 and 4
lowing description corresponds to a causal system? (ii) 1 and 3
(i) y(t) x(t 2) x(t 4) (iii) 2, 3 and 4
(ii) y(t) (t 4)x(t 1) (iv) 1, 2 and 4
Answers
1. (ii) 5. (iv) 9. (i) 13. (ii) 17. (i)

2. (i) 6. (iii) 10. (ii) 14. (i) 18. (iv)
3. (iii) 7. (iii) 11. (i) 15. (ii) 19. (ii)
4. (i) 8. (iii) 12. (iii) 16. (i)
2 Introduction to Circuit-
Theory Concepts
Introduction
The most fundamental branch of electrical engineering is electric circuit theory. All other branches of elec-
trical engineering, such as electric power, electric machines, control, electronics, computers, communica-
tions and instrumentation are built on the electric circuit theory. Thus, it is very essential to have a proper
grounding with electric circuit theory as the base. In this chapter, we will discuss about the basic terms
related to electric circuit theory, basic circuit elements and their properties. We will also discuss the different
laws which are required to analyze an electric circuit where many circuit elements are interconnected.
2.1 SOME BASIC TERMINOLOGIES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

2.1.1 Concept of Electric Charge
The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge q. Electric charge is a fundamental con-
served property of some subatomic particles, which determine their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically
charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields.
It is known that an atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged elec-
trons. In a neutral atom, the total charge of the nucleus is equal to the total charge of the electrons. When
electrons are removed from a substance, the substance becomes positively charged and if excess electrons are
given to a substance, it becomes negatively charged.
The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C). The charge of an electron is 1.602 10 19 C. Thus, one coulomb
⎛ 1 ⎞
charge is defined as the charge possessed by ⎜ electrons.
⎝ 1.602 × 10−19 ⎟⎠
1 coulomb charge charge of 6.24 1018 electrons
The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes within the system
itself. This is known as the law of conservation of charge. The law of conservation of charge states that
charge can neither be created nor destroyed.
24
The electric charge of a macroscopic object is the sum of the electric charges of its constituent particles.
Often, the net electric charge is zero, because it is favorable for the number of electrons in every atom to
equal the number of protons (or, more generally, for the number of anions, or negatively charged atoms, in
every molecule to equal the number of cations, or positively charged atoms). When the net electric charge is
non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as static electricity. Even when the net charge is zero, it
can be distributed non-uniformly due to an external electric field, or due to molecular motion; in such cases
the material is said to be polarized. The charge due to the polarization is known as bound charge, while the
excess charge brought from outside is called free charge. The motion of charged particles (e.g., of electrons
in metals) in a particular direction is said to constitute an electric current.
2.1.2 Conductor, Insulators and Semiconductors

In some materials, there is a large number of free electrons or loosely bound valence-band electrons present.
These electrons are easily knocked out of their orbit and easily constitute a large current. Such materials are
known as conductors. Almost all metals and some liquids are good conductors.
In some materials, no free electrons are available; the valence-band electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus.
Such materials are known as insulators. Examples of some insulators include glass, mica, plastics, etc.
In between the limits of these two major categories is a third general class of materials called semicon-
ductors; where there are no such free electrons present, but free electrons can easily be created by adding
some impurities. Examples of some insulators include germanium and silicon. For example, germanium, a
semiconductor, has approximately one trillion times (1 1012) the conductivity of glass, an insulator, but has
only about one thirty-millionth (3 10 8) part of the conductivity of copper, a conductor.
2.1.3 Concept of Electric Current

The phenomenon of transferring electric charge from one point in a circuit to another is described by the term
electric current. Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charges or electrons through a cross-
sectional area. By convention, the electric current flows in the opposite direction to the electrons.
If Q amount of charges flow through an area in time t, then the current is given as,
Q
I= (2.1)
t
dq
or in differential form, i= (2.2)
dt
t
and the charge transferred between time t0 and t is given by q = ∫ idt (2.3)
t0
As Q is expressed in coulombs, the unit of electric current is coulomb per second and it is given the name
ampere (A).
Thus,
1A current flow of 6.24 1018 electrons per second through an area
2.1.4 Current Density

Current density at any point is a vector whose magnitude is the electric current per unit cross-sectional area and
I
whose direction is normal to the cross-sectional are a, i.e. J = nˆ. Its unit is ampere per square metre (A/m2).
A
25
Introduction to Circuit-Theory Concepts
2.1.5 Concept of Electric Potential and Potential Difference

To move an electron in a conductor in a particular direction, or to create a current, requires some work or
energy. This work is done by the potential or the potential difference. This is also known as voltage differ-
ence or voltage (with reference to a selected point such as earth). The unit of potential is volt.
The potential of a point is 1volt if 1joule of work is done in bringing a 1-coulmb charge from infinity to
that point.
The voltage Vab between two points a and b is the energy (or work) w required to move a unit positive
charge from a to b. [Unit of voltage is volt (V ).]
dw
Vab = (2.4)
dq
The potential difference between two points is 1volt if 1joule of work is done to displace 1coulomb of
charge from one point to another.
2.1.6 Drift Velocity

Electric current is the number of coulombs of charge which pass a point in the circuit per unit time. Because
of its definition, it is often confused with the quantity ‘drift velocity.’ Drift velocity refers to the average
distance traveled by a charge carrier per unit time. Like the velocity of any object, the drift velocity of an
electron is the distance-to-time ratio. The path of a typical electron through a wire could be described as a
rather chaotic, zigzag path characterized by collisions with fixed atoms. Each collision results in a change in
direction of the electron.
The net effect of these collisions results in slow drifting of the electrons with a constant average drift
velocity. The drift velocity is defined as the vector average velocity of the charge carriers moving under the
influence of an electric field.
Mathematically, if n number of charge carriers (electrons) with charge Q each passes through an area A
with drift velocity v, then the current is given by, I nQvA.
2.1.7 Concept of Electromotive Force (emf)

The phenomenon of electric current depends on the presence of free
electrons. If a material has a large number of free electrons, these elec-
trons will always move in random directions as shown in Fig. 2.1 (a). If
an external effort is applied to the material, it is possible to drift all the
electrons in a definite direction as shown in Fig. 2.1 (b). Such an exter-
nal factor is known as electromotive force (emf). In other words, the
voltage or potential of an electrical energy source is known as emf. Fig. 2.1 (a) Typical path of an electron
When we say something as ‘electrical energy source’, we mean
that the energy is converted from non-electrical form (such as,
mechanical, chemical, tidal, etc.) into an electrical form. Please note that emf is not a force, but it is the
energy or work done.
2.1.8 Electric Circuits and Networks

Any combination and interconnection of network elements like resistors or inductors or capacitors or electri-
cal energy sources are known as a ‘networks’. However, a closed energized network is known as a ‘circuit’.
26
A network need not contain an energy source; but a circuit must contain an
energy source. Therefore, it can be stated that all circuits are networks, but all
networks are not circuits.
A high current results from
2.1.9 Loop and Mesh many charge carriers passing
A loop or mesh denotes a closed path obtained by starting at a node and returning through a given cross-section
of wire on a circuit.
back to the same node through a set of connected circuit elements without passing
Fig. 2.1 (b) Current is
through any intermediate node more than once. However, the difference between
constituted by flow of
mesh and loop is that a mesh does not contain any other loop within it, i.e. a mesh many charge carriers
is the smallest loop. In Fig. 2.2, some loops are: a-b-e-d-c-a, a-b-e-g-f-c-a, c-d-e- through a cross-section.
b-g-f-c, etc; and some meshes are: a-b-e-d-c-a, c-d-e-g-f-c, g-e-b-g (through R7)
and g-e-b-g (through I ).
R1
a b
2.1.10 Node and Branch
A node is a point in a circuit where two or more circuit ele- V1 + R5
_
ments join. A node is said to be an essential node if it joins R2
d R 3
three or more elements. Examples of nodes for Fig. 2.2 are c e R7 I
a, b, c, d, e, f and g and examples of some essential node of
V2 + R6
Fig. 2.2 are b, c, e and g. _
R4
A branch is a path that connects two nodes. Those paths f
that connect essential nodes without passing through an g
essential node are known as essential branches. Examples of Fig. 2.2 Circuit illustrating terminologies
branches of Fig. 2.2 are V1, R1, R2, R3, V2, R4, R5, R6, R7 and I
and some essential branches of Fig. 2.2 are c-a-b, c-d-e, c-f-g, b-e, e-g, b-g (through R7 ), and b-g (through I ).
2.2 DIFFERENT NOTATIONS
Notations Name Unit

C capacitance farad, F
E voltage source volt, V
e instantaneous value of E volt, V
G conductance siemens, S
I current ampere, A
i instantaneous current ampere, A
k coefficient unit less
L inductance henry, H
M mutual inductance henry, H
N number of turns unit less
P power watt, W
Q charge coulomb, C
q instantaneous charge coulomb, C
27
R resistance ohm,
time constant second
t instantaneous time second
V voltage drop volt, V
v instantaneous V volt, V
W energy joule, J
magnetic flux weber, Wb
magnetic linkage weber, Wb
instantaneous weber, Wb
2.3 BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Active and Passive Elements Electric circuits consist of two basic types of elements. These are the
active elements and the passive elements.
An active element is capable of generating electrical energy. In electrical engineering, generating or pro-
ducing electrical energy actually refers to conversion of electrical energy from a non-electrical form to an
electrical form. Similarly, energy loss would mean that electrical energy is converted to a non-useful form of
energy and not actually lost.
Examples of active elements are voltage source (such as a battery or generator) and current source. Most
sources are independent of other circuit variables, but some elements are dependent (modeling elements such
as transistors and operational amplifiers would require dependent sources).
Active elements may be ideal voltage sources or current sources. In such cases, the particular generated
voltage (or current) would be independent of the connected circuit.
A passive element is one which does not generate electricity but either consumes it or stores it. Resistors,
inductors and capacitors are simple passive elements. Diodes and transistors are also passive elements.
Passive elements may either be linear or non-linear. Linear elements obey a straight-line law. For exam-
ple, a linear resistor has a linear voltage vs. current relationship which passes through the origin (V RI ).
A linear inductor has a linear flux vs. current relationship which passes through the origin ( kI ) and
a linear capacitor has a linear charge vs. voltage relationship which passes through the origin (q CV ).
[R, k and C are constants.]
Resistors, inductors and capacitors may be linear or non-linear, while diodes and transistors are always non-linear.
Linear Element A circuit/network element is linear if the relation between the current and voltage involves
a constant coefficient.
Examples Voltage–current relationship of a resistor, inductor and capacitor (both with zero initial condi-
di 1
tions) are linear (v ri, v = L , v = ∫ idt ). Hence, the elements are linear.
dt C
Diode and transistors are non-linear devices having non-linear characteristics.
Bilateral System In a bilateral system, the same relationship between current and voltage exists for cur-
rent flowing in either direction. On the other hand, a unilateral system has different current–voltage relation-
ships for the two possible directions of current, as in diodes and transistors.
28
2.4 PASSIVE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

We will consider three basic passive elements, namely,
1. Resistor,
2. Inductor, and
3. Capacitor.
Name of Passive Element Symbol

Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
2.4.1 Electrical Resistance

Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an object opposes an electric current through it.
The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm. Its reciprocal quantity is electrical conductance measured
in siemen. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction.
The resistance of an object determines the amount of current through the object for a given voltage across
the object.
V
I= (2.5)
R
where, R is the resistance of the object, measured in ohm, equivalent to J-s/C 2,
V is the voltage across the object, measured in volt, and
I is the current through the object, measured in ampere.
For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance does not depend on the amount of
current through or the amount of voltage across the object, meaning that the resistance R is constant.
Factors Affecting the Resistance

1. Length of the Material The resistance of a material is directly proportional to the length of the
material.
2. Cross-sectional Area The resistance of a material is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of
the material.
3. Type and Nature of the Material The resistance of a material is dependent upon the nature of the mate-
rial in the sense that it depends upon the number of free electrons present in the materials. For example,
for a conductor with plenty of free electrons, the resistance is least and for insulators with no free elec-
trons, the resistance is the largest.
4. Temperature The resistance of a material is affected by the temperature of the material. Near
room temperature, the electric resistance of a typical metal conductor increases linearly with the
temperature:
R R0(1 T) (2.6)
where, is the thermal resistance coefficient.
29
The electric resistance of a typical intrinsic (non-doped) semiconductor decreases exponentially with the
temperature:
R R0e T (2.7)
Extrinsic (doped) semiconductors have a far more complicated temperature profile. As temperature
increases starting from absolute zero, they first decrease steeply in resistance as the carriers leave the donors
or acceptors. After most of the donors or acceptors have lost their carriers the resistance starts to increase
again slightly due to the reducing mobility of carriers (much as in a metal). At higher temperatures it will
behave like intrinsic semiconductors as the carriers from the donors or acceptors become insignificant com-
pared to the thermally generated carriers.
The electric resistance of electrolytes and insulators is highly non-linear, and case-dependent, therefore no
generalized equations are given.
Resistance of a Conductor
dc Resistance As long as the current density is totally uniform in the conductor, the dc resistance R of a
conductor of regular cross-section can be computed as
l
R= (2.8)
A
where, l is the length of the conductor, measured in metres
A is the cross-sectional area, measured in square metres
(Greek: rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material,
measured in ohm-metre. Resistivity is a measure of the ability of the material to oppose the flow of
electric current.
For practical reasons, any connections to a real conductor will almost certainly mean the current density is not
totally uniform. However, this formula still provides a good approximation for long thin conductors such as wires.
AC Resistance If a wire conducts high-frequency alternating current then the effective cross-sectional
area of the wire is reduced. This is because of the skin effect.
This formula applies to isolated conductors. In a conductor close to others, the actual resistance is higher
because of the proximity effect.
Differential Resistance When resistance may depend on voltage and current, differential resistance,
incremental resistance or slope resistance is defined as the slope of the U-I graph at a particular point.
dU
Thus: R= (2.9)
dI
This quantity is sometimes simply called resistance, although the two definitions are equivalent only for an
ohmic component such as an ideal resistor. If the U-I graph is not monotonic (i.e., it has a peak or a trough), the
differential resistance will be negative for some values of voltage and current. This property is often known as
negative resistance, although it is more correctly called negative differential resistance, since the absolute resis-
tance U/I is still positive.
Resistor A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that resists an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with Ohm’s law:
V
R= (2.10)
I
30
The electrical resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor divided by the current through the
resistor. Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits.
Energy in a Resistor Instantaneous power absorbed in the resistor is
p vi iR i i2R (in Watt) (2.11)
Therefore, the energy converted into heat energy is given by
t t
W = ∫ pdt = ∫ i 2 Rdt = i 2 Rt (in joules) (2.12)

0 0
Four-Band Axial Resistors Four-band identification is the most commonly used color-coding scheme
on all resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The scheme
is simple. The first two numbers are the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a mul-
tiplier, and the fourth is the tolerance of the value. Each color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the
chart below. The tolerance for a 4-band resistor will be 2%, 5%, or 10%.
The Standard EIA Color Code Table per EIA-RS-279 is as follows:
3rd band 4th band Temp.

st nd
Color 1 band 2 band (multiplier) (tolerance) Coefficient
Black 0 0 100 — —
1
Brown 1 1 10 1% (F) 100 ppm
2
Red 2 2 10 2% (G) 50 ppm
3
Orange 3 3 10 — 15 ppm
4
Yellow 4 4 10 — 25 ppm
5
Green 5 5 10 0.5% (D) —
6
Blue 6 6 10 0.25% (C) —
7
Violet 7 7 10 0.1% (B) —
8
Grey 8 8 10 0.05% (A) —
9
White 9 9 10 — —
Gold — — 0.1 5% (J) —
Silver — — 0.01 10% (K) —
None — — — 20% (M) —
Note: Red to violet are the colors of the rainbow where red is low energy and violet is high energy.
As an example, let us take a resistor which (read left to right) displays the colors yellow, violet, yellow,
brown. We take the first two bands as the value, giving us 4, 7. Then the third band, another yellow, gives
us the multiplier 104. Our total value is then 47 104 , totaling 470,000 or 470 k . Our brown is then a
tolerance of 1%.
Resistors use specific values, which are determined by their tolerance. These values repeat for every expo-
nent; 6.8, 68, 680, and so forth. This is useful because the digits, and hence the first two or three stripes, will
always be similar patterns of colors, which make them easier to recognize.
31
5-Band Axial Resistors 5-band identification is used for higher tolerance resistors (1%, 0.5%, 0.25%,
0.1%), to notate the extra digit. The first three bands represent the significant digits, the fourth is the multi-
plier, and the fifth is the tolerance. 5-band standard tolerance resistors are sometimes encountered, generally
on older or specialized resistors. They can be identified by noting a standard tolerance color in the 4th band.
The 5th band in this case is the temperature coefficient.
Series and Parallel Arrangements of Resistors Resistors
in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference
(voltage). To find their total equivalent resistance (Req):
R1 R2 Rn
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋅⋅⋅+ (2.13)
Req R1 R2 Rn
The parallel, property can be represented in equations by two
vertical lines “||” (as in geometry) to simplify equations. For two Fig. 2.3 Parallel arrangement
resistors, of resistors
R1 R2
Req = R1 R2 = (2.14)
R1 + R2
R1 R2 R2
The current through resistors in series stays the same,
but the voltage across each resistor can be different. The Fig. 2.4 Series arrangement of resistors
sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the
total voltage. To find their total resistance:
R3
Req R1 R2 Rn (2.15)
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can sometimes
R2 R1
be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,
( ) RR
Req = R1 R2 + R3 = 1 2 + R3
R1 + R2 (2.16) Fig. 2.5 Series–parallel
arrangement of resistors
Characteristics of Series Circuits

1. The same current flows through each resistance.
2. The supply voltage V is the sum of the voltage drops across each resistance, i.e. V V1 V2 V3 Vn.
3. The equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
Current Division by Parallel Resistances When a total current IP is passed through parallel-connected
resistances R1 and R2, the voltage VP which appears across the parallel circuit is
VP IPRP IPR1R2/(R1 R2)
The currents I1 and I2 which pass through the respective resistances R1 and R2 are
I1 VP /R1 IPRP/R1 IPR2/(R1 R2)
I2 VP/R2 IPRP/R2 IPR1/(R1 R2)
In general terms, for resistances R1, R2, R3, . . . (with conductances G1, G2, G3, . . . ) connected in parallel:
VP IPRP IP/GP IP/(G1 G2 G3 )
In VP/Rn VPGn IPGn/GP IPGn/(G1 G2 G3 )
where Gn 1/Rn and In is the current through the nth resistance Rn.
32
Characteristics of Parallel Circuits

1. The voltage across all the resistances is the same.
2. The total current is the sum of the currents flowing through the parallel resistances.
3. The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of
the individual resistances.
4. The highest current passes through the highest conductance (with the lowest resistance).
Example 2.1 Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B.
A
15 10
B
C D
6 4
Fig. 2.6 Circuit of Example 2.1

A
Solution The circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 2.7 (a).
15 10
Here, 15 and 10 are in parallel and 6 and 4 are also in parallel. These C D
two resisiances are then connected in series. Therefore, the equivalent resistance 6 4
between terminals A and B is B
Fig. 2.7 (a)
15 × 10 6 × 4
{ } {
Req = 15 10 + 6 4 = } +
15 + 10 6 + 4
= 6 + 2.4 = 8.4
2.4.2 Capacitance
Capacitance is a measure of the amount of electric charge stored for a given electric potential. The most
common form of charge storage device is a two-plate capacitor. If the charges on the plates are Q and −Q,
and V gives the voltage difference between the plates then the capacitance is given by
Q
C= (2.17)
V
The SI unit of capacitance is farad (F); 1 farad 1 coulomb per volt.
The capacitance can be calculated if the geometry of the conductors and the dielectric properties of the
insulator between the conductors are known. For example, the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor con-
structed of two parallel plates of area A separated by a distance d is approximately equal to the following:
A
C= (2.18)
d
where C is the capacitance in farad, F,
is the permittivity of the insulator used (or 0 for a vacuum),
A is the area of each plate, measured in square metre and,
d is the separation between the plates, measured in metre.
The equation is a good approximation if d is small compared to the other dimensions of the plates.
The dielectric constant for a number of very useful dielectric changes as a function of the applied electrical
field, e.g., for ferroelectric materials, so the capacitance for these devices is no longer purely a function of
33
device geometry. If a capacitor is driven with a sinusoidal voltage, the dielectric constant, or more accurately
the dielectric permittivity, is a function of frequency. A changing dielectric constant with frequency is referred
as a dielectric dispersion, and is governed by dielectric relaxation processes, such as Debye relaxation.
Capacitor A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of
closely spaced conductors. When a current is applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but
of opposite polarity, build up on each plate.
Capacitors are used in electrical circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be used to differentiate
between high-frequency and low-frequency signals and this makes them useful in electronic filters.
Capacitors are occasionally referred as condensers. This is now considered an antiquated term.
Properties of Capacitance The relation between charge and voltage in a capacitor is written as
Q CV (2.19)
dQ dV dV dC
The current, i= =C =C +V
dt dt dt dt
In most physical cases, the capacitance is constant with time.
dV
∴ i =C (2.20)
dt
1
∴ dV = i dt
v t C
1
Taking integration on both sides, ∫ dV = ∫ i dt
0
C0
t
1
C ∫0
or, vc (t ) = i(t )dt + vc (0) (2.21)
where, vc(0) is the initial voltage across the capacitor. For zero initial voltage,
t
1
vc = ∫ i dt (2.22)
C0
From Eq. (2.20), it is clear that for an abrupt change of voltage across the capacitor, the current becomes infinite.
Also, from Eq. (2.22), it is observed that for a finite change of current in zero time, the integral must be zero.
Therefore, the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
Let us explain the meaning of the initial voltage vC (0). It is possible that this capacitor might have been used
in some other circuit earlier, where it absorbed some energy and then it was disconnected. Because of its non-
dissipative nature, the energy was stored within the capacitor. Now, as this capacitor is connected to a circuit, it
gets some path to release its stored energy. Here, this stored energy is represented by the initial voltage vC(0).
Energy Stored in Capacitors The energy (measured in joules) stored in a capacitor is equal to the work done
to charge it. Consider a capacitance C, holding a charge q on one plate and q on the other. Moving a small
element of charge dq from one plate to the other against the potential difference V q/C requires the work dW:
q
dW = dq (2.23)
C
where, W is the work measured in joule,
q is the charge measured in coulomb, and
C is the capacitance, measured in farad.
34
We can find the energy stored in a capacitance by integrating this equation. Starting with an uncharged
capacitance (q 0) and moving the charge from one plate to the other until the plates have charge Q and
Q requires the work W:
Q
q 1 Q2 1 2
Wcharging = ∫ dq = = CV = Wstored (2.24)
0
C 2 C 2
Combining this with the above equation for the capacitance of a flat-plate capacitor, we get
1 1 A 2
Wstored = CV 2 = V (2.25)
2 2 d
where, W is the energy measured in joule,
C is the capacitance, measured in farad, and
V is the voltage measured in volt.
Series or Parallel Arrangements of Capacitors
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential differ-
ence (voltage). Their total capacitance (Ceq) is given by
Ceq C1 C2 Cn (2.26[a])
C1 C2 Cn
The reason for putting capacitors in parallel is to increase the total
amount of charge stored. In other words, increasing the capacitance also
increases the amount of energy that can be stored. Fig. 2.8 Parallel arrangement of
The current through capacitors in series stays the same, but the voltage capacitors
across each capacitor can be different. The sum of the potential differ-
ences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. Their total capacitance is
given by
C1 C2 Cn
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋅⋅⋅+ (2.26[b])
Ceq C1 C2 Cn Fig. 2.9 Series arrangement of
capacitors
In parallel the effective area of the combined capacitor has increased,
increasing the overall capacitance. While in series, the distance between
the plates has effectively been increased, reducing the overall capacitance.
Voltage Division by Capacitances

In Series Connection When a total voltage ES is applied to series-connected capacitances C1 and C2, the
charge QS which accumulates in the series circuit is
QS iSdt ESCS ESC1C2/(C1 C2)
The voltages V1 and V2 which appear across the respective capacitances C1 and C2 are
V1 iS dt/C1 ESCS/C1 ESC2/(C1 C2)
V2 iSdt/C2 ESCS/C2 ESC1/(C1 C2)
In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, . . . connected in series:
QS iSdt ESCS ES/(1/CS) ES/(1/C1 1/C2 1/C3 /
Vn iS dt/Cn ESCS/Cn ES/Cn(1/CS) ES/Cn(1/C1 1/C2 1/C3 )
Note that the highest voltage appears across the lowest capacitance.
35
In Parallel Connection When a voltage EP is applied to parallel-connected capacitances C1 and C2, the
charge QP which accumulates in the parallel circuit is
QP iPdt EPCP EP(C1 C2)
The charges Q1 and Q2 which accumulate in the respective capacitances C1 and C2 are
Q1 i1dt EPC1 QPC1/CP QPC1/(C1 C2)
Q2 i2dt EPC2 QPC2/CP QPC2/(C1 C2)
In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, . . . connected in parallel:
QP iPdt EPCP EP(C1 C2 C3 )
Qn indt EPCn QPCn /CP QPCn /(C1 C2 C3 )
Note that the highest charge accumulates in the highest capacitance.
2.4.3 Inductance
An electric current i flowing round a circuit produces a magnetic field and hence a magnetic flux through
the circuit. The ratio of the magnetic flux to the current is called the inductance, or more accurately self-
inductance of the circuit. The term was coined by Oliver Heaviside in February 1886. Inductance is denoted
by L, in honour of the physicist Heinrich Lenz. The quantitative definition of the inductance is therefore
L= (2.27)
i
It follows that the SI unit for inductance is weber per ampere. In honour of Joseph Henry, the unit of
inductance has been given the name henry (H): 1H 1Wb/A.
Properties of Inductance The equation relating inductance and flux linkages can be rearranged as
follows:
Li (2.28)
Taking the time derivative of both sides of the equation yields
d di dL
= L +i
dt dt dt
In most physical cases, the inductance is constant with time and so
d di
=L (2.29)
dt dt
By Faraday’s law of induction we have
d
= −E = v (2.30)
dt
where E is the electromotive force (emf) and v is the induced voltage. Note that the emf is opposite to the
induced voltage. Thus
di
v=L (2.31)
dt
t
1
or i(t ) = ∫ v (t ) dt + i(0) (2.32)
L0
where i(0) is the initial current. When initial current is zero,
t
1
i(t ) = ∫ v (t )dt (2.33)
L0
36
These equations together state that for a steady applied voltage v, the current changes in a linear
manner, at a rate proportional to the applied voltage, but inversely proportional to the inductance.
Conversely, if the current through the inductor is changing at a constant rate, the induced voltage is
constant.
From Eq. (2.31), it is clear that for an abrupt change in current, the voltage across the inductor becomes
infinite. Also, from Eq. (2.33), it is observed that for a finite change in voltage in zero time the integral must
be zero.
Therefore, the current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
Let us explain the meaning of the initial current i(0). It is possible that this inductor might have been
used in some other circuit earlier, where it absorbed some energy and then it was disconnected. Because
of its non-dissipative nature, the energy was stored within the inductor core. Now, as this inductor is con-
nected to a circuit, it gets some path to release its stored energy. Here, this stored energy is represented by
the initial current i(0).
The effect of inductance can be understood using a single loop of wire as an example. If a voltage is sud-
denly applied between the ends of the loop of wire, the current must change from zero to non-zero. However,
a non-zero current induces a magnetic field by Ampère’s law. This change in the magnetic field induces
an emf that is in the opposite direction of the change in current. The strength of this emf is proportional to
the change in current and the inductance. When these opposing forces are in balance, the result is a current
that increases linearly with time where the rate of this change is determined by the applied voltage and the
inductance.
Inductor An inductor is a passive electrical device employed in electrical

circuits for its property of inductance. An inductor can take many forms.
Series and Parallel Arrangement of Inductors Inductors in a parallel

configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find their
L1 L2 Ln
total equivalent inductance (Leq),
1 1 1 1 Fig. 2.10 Parallel arrange-
= + + ⋅⋅⋅+ (2.34) ment of inductors
Leq L1 L2 Ln
The current through inductors in series stays the same, but the voltage
across each inductor can be different. The sum of the potential differences L1 L2 Ln
(voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total inductance. Fig. 2.11 Series arrange-
Leq L1 L2 Ln (2.35) ment of inductors
These simple relationships hold true only when there is no mutual coupling
of magnetic fields between individual inductors.
Energy Stored in Inductors When an electric current is flowing in an inductor, there is energy stored
in the magnetic field.
Suppose that an inductor of inductance L is connected to a variable dc voltage supply. The supply is
adjusted so as to increase the current i flowing through the inductor from zero to some final value I.
As the current through the inductor is increasing, the emf generated is
di
E = −L (2.36)
dt
37
and this emf acts to oppose the increase in the current. Clearly, work must be done against this emf by the voltage source
in order to establish the current in the inductor. The work done by the voltage source during a time interval dt is
di
dW = Pdt = − Eidt = i L dt = Lidi
dt
Here, P Ei is the instantaneous rate at which the voltage source performs work. To find the total work
W done in establishing the final current I in the inductor, we must integrate the above expression. Thus,
I
1
W = L ∫ idi = LI 2 (2.37)
0
2
This energy is actually stored in the magnetic field generated by the current flowing through the inductor.
In a pure inductor, the energy is stored without loss, and is returned to the rest of the circuit when the current
through the inductor is ramped down, and its associated magnetic field collapses.
2.4.4 Coupled Inductors

When the magnetic flux produced by an inductor links another inductor, these inductors are said to be cou-
pled. Coupling is often undesired but in many cases, this coupling is intentional and is the basis of the trans-
former. When inductors are coupled, there exists a mutual inductance that relates the current in one inductor
to the flux linkage in the other inductor. Thus, there are three inductances defined for coupled inductors:
L11—the self-inductance of the inductor 1
L22—the self-inductance of the inductor 2
L12 L21—the mutual inductance associated with both inductors
When either side of the transformer is a tuned circuit, the amount of mutual inductance between the two
windings determines the shape of the frequency response curve. Although no boundaries are defined, this is
often referred as loose-, critical-, and over-coupling. When two tuned circuits are loosely coupled through
mutual inductance, the bandwidth will be narrow. As the amount of mutual inductance increases, the band-
width continues to grow. When the mutual inductance is increased beyond a critical point, the peak in the
response curve begins to drop, and the centre frequency will be attenuated more strongly than its direct side-
bands. This is known as over-coupling.
Mutual Inductance The two vertical lines between the inductors indicate a solid core that the wires
of the inductor are wrapped around. n:m shows the ratio between the number of windings of the left
inductor to windings of the right inductor. This picture also shows the dot
convention. M
Mutual inductance is the concept that the current through one inductor I 1
I2
can induce a voltage in another nearby inductor. It is important as the mecha-
nism by which transformers work, but it can also cause unwanted coupling
between conductors in a circuit.
The mutual inductance, M, is also a measure of the coupling between two
inductors. The mutual inductance by the circuit i on the circuit j is given by
the double integral Neumann formula: n:m
ds ds Fig. 2.12 Circuit diagram

M ij = 0 ∫ ∫ i j (2.38) representation of mutually
4 Ci C j Rij
inducting inductors
38
The mutual inductance also has the relationship:

M21 N1N2P21
where M21 is the mutual inductance, and the subscript specifies the relationship of the voltage induced in
the coil 2 to the current in the coil 1.
N1 is the number of turns in the coil 1,
N2 is the number of turns in the coil 2,
P21 is the permeance of the space occupied by the flux.
The mutual inductance also has a relationship with the coefficient of coupling. The coefficient of cou-
pling is always between 1 and 0, and is a convenient way to specify the relationship between a certain orienta-
tion of the inductor with arbitrary inductance:
M = k L1 L2 (2.39)
where k is the coefficient of coupling and 0 k 1,
L1 is the inductance of the first coil, and
L2 is the inductance of the second coil.
Once this mutual inductance factor M is determined, it can be used to predict the behavior of a circuit:
dI dI
V = L1 1 + M 2 (2.40)
dt dt
where V is the voltage across the inductor of interest,
L1 is the inductance of the inductor of interest,
dI1 /dt is the derivative, with respect to time, of the current through the inductor of interest,
M is the mutual inductance, and
dI2 /dt is the derivative, with respect to time, of the current through the inductor that is coupled to the
first inductor.
When one inductor is closely coupled to another inductor through mutual inductance, such as in a trans-
former, the voltages, currents, and number of turns can be related in the following way:
N
Vs = I p s (2.41)
Np
where Vs is the voltage across the secondary inductor,
Vp is the voltage across the primary inductor (the one connected to a power source),
Ns is the number of turns in the secondary inductor, and
Np is the number of turns in the primary inductor.
Conversely the current is
Np
Is = I p (2.42)
Ns
where Is is the current through the secondary inductor,
Ip is the current through the primary inductor (the one connected to a power source),
Ns is the number of turns in the secondary inductor, and
Np is the number of turns in the primary inductor.
Note that the power through one inductor is the same as the power through the other. Also note that these
equations don’t work if both transformers are forced (with power sources).
39
Inductance and Capacitance as Linear Circuit Elements We consider that an alternating voltage v(t )
is applied to an inductor L at a reference time t 0. Then the current carried by the inductor is given by
t
1
i(t ) = ∫ v (t ) dt + i(0) (2.32)
L0
and the relation between flux linkage and current is given by
(t ) Li(t ) (2.28)
The properties of an inductor can be explained by plotting the characteristics in the i– plane. If the char-
acteristic is a straight line passing through the origin, the inductor will be considered as a linear element.
But if the i– characteristic is not a straight line and/or does not pass through the origin (e.g., Hysteresis
curve), the inductor will behave as a non-linear element.
λ q
λ
Slope = L
Slope = C
i i v
Fig. 2.13 (a) Characteristic Fig. 2.13 (b) Characteristic of Fig. 2.13 (c) Characteristic
of a linear inductor a non-linear inductor of a linear capacitor
Similarly, for a capacitor the voltage is given by
t
()
1
()
v t = ∫ i t dt + v 0
C0
() (2.21)
and the relation between charge and voltage is given by

q(t ) Cv(t ) (2.19)
The properties of a capacitor can be explained by plotting the characteristics in the q–v plane. If the char-
acteristic is a straight line passing through the origin, the capacitor will be considered as a linear element.
But if the q–v characteristic is not a straight line and/or does not pass through the origin (e.g., space-charge
capacitance of a diode), the capacitor will behave as a non-linear element.
2.5 TYPES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY SOURCES

Energy source is defined as the device that generates electrical energy. They are classified according to the
current–voltage characteristics. The classification is given below.
Electrical energy source
Independent sources Dependent sources
Voltage source Voltage-controlled

voltage source (VCVS)
Current source Voltage-controlled
current source(VCCS)
Current-controlled
voltage source(CCVS)
Current-controlled
curren source(CCCS)
40
Independent Voltage Source An ideal voltage source has the following features:
(i) It is a voltage generator whose output voltage remains absolutely constant whatever be the value of the
output current.
(ii) It has zero internal resistance so that voltage drop in the source is zero.
(iii) The power drawn by the source is zero.
In practical, the voltage does not remain constant, but falls slightly; this is taken care of by connecting a
small resistance (r ) in series with the ideal source. In this case, the terminal voltage will be
v1 (t ) = v (t ) − ir
i.e. it will decrease with increase in the current i.
An ideal voltage source is not practically possible. No voltage source can maintain its terminal volt-
age constant even when its terminals are short-circuited. The terminal voltage of a practical voltage source
decreases as the load current increases. The v–i characteristics of an ideal and practical voltage source are
shown in Fig. 2.14. A dc or ac generator or batteries are some examples of independent voltage sources. A
lead–acid battery and a dry-cell are some examples of constant voltage source which can produce constant
terminal voltage within a specified range of output current.
i r
v (t)
Ideal
V v (t) v (t) v1(t ) Practical
i
Fig. 2.14 Independent voltage sources and their characteristics
Independent Current Source An ideal current source has the following features.
(i) It produces a constant current irrespective of the value of the voltage across it.
(ii) It has infinity resistance.
(iii) It is capable of supplying infinity power.
In practical, the output current does not remain constant but decreases with increase in voltage. So, a
practical current source is represented by an ideal current source in parallel with a high resistance (R) and the
output current becomes
v (t )
i1 (t ) = i(t ) −
R
Similar to voltage sources, an ideal current source is not practically possible. No current source can main-
tain constant current even when its terminals are open-circuited. The output current of a practical current
source decreases as the output voltage increases. The v–i characteristics of an ideal and practical current
source are shown in Fig. 2.15. A solar cell, which can produce constant current within a specified range of
output voltage, is an example of an independent current source. A natural lightning can be considered to be
an ideal current source. When a natural lightning strikes the top of a conductor, the resistance to the ground
path is ideally zero. But, when the lightning strikes a non-conducting element (like the top of a tree), a large
voltage is developed across the element which is flashed out immediately.
41
i1
v (t) Practical
Ideal
I i(t) i(t) R v (t )
i
Fig. 2.15 Independent current sources and their characteristics
Dependent Sources In dependent sources (also referred as controlled sources), the source voltage or
current is not fixed, but is dependent on a voltage or current at some other location in the circuit. Thus, there
are four types of dependent sources.
(a) Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
(b) Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
(c) Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
(d) Current-controlled current source (CCCS)
K1VX K2Ix K3Vx K4Ix
VCVS CCVS VCCS CCCS

Fig. 2.16 Symbols of dependent sources
Dependent sources are unilateral, because for a voltage-controlled voltage source, say, v2 kv1, the output
voltage v2 is controlled by the input voltage v1, but the output current i2 has no influence on the input v1.
Application in electronic systems that uses either transistors or vacuum tubes needs dependent sources.
2.6 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS

The fundamental laws that govern electric circuits are Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws.
2.6.1 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that the voltage v(t ) across a resistor R is directly proportional to the current i(t ) flowing
through it.
v(t ) i(t ) or v(t ) R i(t )
This general statement of Ohm’s law can be extended to cover inductances and capacitors as well alternating cur-
rent conditions and transient conditions. This is then known as the generalized Ohm’s law. This may be stated as
v(t ) Z(p) i(t ), where p d/dt differential operator
Z(p) is known as the impedance function of the circuit, and the above equation is the differential equation
governing the behaviour of the circuit.
Z(p) R for a resistor
Lp for an inductor
1
for a capacitor
Cp
42
In the particular case of alternating current, p j , so that the equation governing circuit behaviour may
be written as
V Z( j )I
Z( j ) R for a resistor
j L for an inductor
1
for a capacitor
jω C
Definition of Ohm’s Law Physical states (temperature, material, etc.) of a conductor remaining constant,
the current flowing through a capacitor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two ends
of the conductor.
2.6.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoff’s current law is based on the principle of conservation of charge. This requires that the algebraic
sum of the charges within a system cannot change. Thus the total rate of change of charge must add up to
zero. The rate of change of charge is the current.
i1 ie
i5 id
i4 ia
i2
i3
ic
ib
Fig. 2.17 Illustration of KCL
This gives us our basic Kirchhoff’s current law as the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point is
zero, i.e. at a node, .In 0, where In are the currents in the branches meeting at the node.
This is also sometimes stated as that the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
current leaving the node.
The theorem is applicable not only to a node, but to a closed system.
i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 0; Also, for the closed boundary, ia ib ic id ie 0.
2.6.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s voltage law is based on the principle of conservation of
Vd Ve
energy. This requires that the total work done in taking a unit positive
charge around a closed path and ending up at the original point is zero. Vc Loop
This gives us our basic Kirchhoff’s law as the algebraic sum of the Va
potential differences taken round a closed loop is zero, i.e. around a loop, Vb
.Vn 0, where Vn are the voltages across the branches in the loop.
va vb vc vd ve 0 Fig. 2.18 Illustration of KVL
43
This is also sometimes stated as the sum of the emfs taken around a closed loop is equal to the sum of the
voltage drops around the loop.
Although all circuits could be solved using only Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, the calculations would
be tedious. Various network theorems have been formulated to simplify these calculations.
Sign Conventions for Applying Kirchhoff’s Laws
(i) When tracing through a voltage source from a positive to a negative terminal, the voltage should be
given a positive sign.
(ii) When tracing through a voltage source from a negative to a positive terminal, the voltage should be
given a negative sign.
(iii) When tracing through a resistance in the direction of current flow, the voltage should be given a posi-
tive sign.
(iv) When tracing through a resistance in a direction opposite to the direction of current flow, the voltage
should be given a negative sign.
2.7 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

Transformation of several voltage (or current) sources into a single voltage (or current) source and a voltage
source into a current source or vice-versa is known as source transformation. This makes circuit analysis easier.
There are some rules of source transformation.
Rule (1) Several voltage sources {V1(t ), V2(t ), . . . , Vn(t )} connected in series will be replaced by a single
voltage source of value V V1(t ) V2(t ) Vn(t ). Similarly, a number of current sources {I1(t ), I2(t ), . . . ,
In(t )} connected in parallel is replaced by a single current source of value I(t ) I1(t ) I2(t ) In(t ).
V1(t )
V(t) {V1(t) V2(t)

... I I I1 I2 ... In
V2(t ) ⬅ ... V (t)} I1 I2 n ⬅
n
Vn(t )
Fig. 2.19 Source transformation technique: Rule (1)
Rule (2) A number of voltage sources V1(t ), V2(t ), . . . , Vn(t ) in parallel will result in a single voltage source,
V(t ) V1(t ) V2(t ) . . . Vn(t ).
Therefore, voltage sources should not be connected in parallel unless they have identical potential, as
paralleling of sources with non-similar potential waveforms will result in heavy current, which may damage
the equipment.
Similarly, a number of current sources I1(t ), I2(t ), . . . , In(t ) in series will result in a single current source
of value I(t ) I1(t ) I2(t ) . . . In(t ) and thus, current sources cannot be connected in series if they are
not identical.
44
I1(t )
V V1 V2 I2(t )
V1 V2 Vn ⬅ ⬅ I(t) I1(t ) I2(t )
Vn
In(t )
In(t )

Rule (3) As far as the computations in the remainder of the network are concerned, a resistor in parallel
with an ideal voltage source and a resistor in series with an ideal current source may be ignored.
v (t) R ⬅ v (t) ⬅ I(t)
I(t )

Rule (4) A voltage source V(t ) in series with a resistor R can be converted into a current source I(t ) in paral-
()
lel with the same resistor R, where, I t = V (t ) .
R
R I1(t) I1(t)
V(t) V1(t) ⬅ I(t) R V1(t)
Similarly, a voltage source V(t ) in series with a capacitor C may converted into a current source I(t ) in
dV (t )
parallel with C, where, I (t ) = C ; and a voltage source V(t ) in series with an inductor L may converted
dt
into a current source I(t ) in parallel with L, where, I t = ∫V (t )dt . ()
1
L
2.7.1 V-Shift and I-Shift in Source Transformation
This method of shifting a voltage source or a current source is useful for a voltage source without any
series passive element and a current source without any parallel passive element. For source transformation,
45
i.e. transforming a voltage source into a current source and vice-versa, it is first necessary to shift the sources
within the network. This is done by V or I shifting.
The methods are explained below.
For voltage source shifting, we consider a network as shown in Fig. 2.23 (a). We can shift the voltage
source within the network as shown in Fig. 2.23 (b) and Fig. 2.23 (c).
R3 R3
R2 R3 R2
R1 R2 R1
R1
V V V V V V V
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.23 V-Shift in source transformation
Similarly, a current source can be shifted within a network as explained in Fig. 2.24 (a) to Fig. 2.24 (b).
I
R1
R1 R
2 I
R3
I R2
I
R3
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.24 I-Shift in source transformation
Example 2.2 Using source transformation, find the current through 6V 2

the 3- resistor shown in Fig. 2.25.
Solution We convert the four voltage sources in series with the resis-
tances into equivalent currents in parallel with the same resistances. 8V 6V 3V
1
The simplified circuit is shown in Fig. 2.26 (a) and Fig. 2.26 (b). 3
2 1
2
3A Fig. 2.25 Circuit of Example 2.2
1 2/3
3A 3
4A 2 6A 1 3 10 A 2/3 6A
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.26
46
Now we convert back the current sources into their equivalent voltage 2/3
sources. The simplified circuit is shown in Fig. 2.26 (c).
20
V 4V
From Fig. 2.26 (c), we get the current through the 3- resistor as 3
I 3
2
20 3
4+
I= 3 = 32 = 2.46 A
2 2 13 Fig. 2.26 (c)
+ +3
3 3
2.8 NETWORK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Network analysis is the determination of the response output of a network when the input excitation is given.
There are two techniques of network analysis:
1. Nodal analysis
2. Loop or mesh analysis
2.8.1 Nodal Analysis

It is based on Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL). In this method, the unknown variables are the node voltages. It
is generally used when the circuit contains several current sources.
Steps
(i) If there are ‘N’ number of nodes in a network, all nodes are labeled. One node is treated as the datum or
reference node (zero potential) and the other node voltages are treated as unknowns to be determined
with respect to this reference.
(ii) KCL is written at each node in terms of node voltages.
(a) KCL is applied at N 1 of the N nodes of the circuit using assumed current directions, as neces-
sary. This will create N 1 linearly independent equations, known as node equations.
(b) In a circuit with independent voltage sources, if two nodes of interest are separated by a voltage
source instead of a resistor or current source then the concept of supernode is used that creates
constraint equations.
(c) The current is computed based on voltage difference between two nodes. The current in any branch
is obtained via Ohm’ law as
Vmn Vm − Vn
i= = ; for dc
R R
Vmn Vm − Vn
I= = ; for ac
Z Z
where, Vm Vn and current flows from the node m to n.
(iii) Solution of the N 1 simultaneous equations (by Gaussian elimination or matrix method) gives the
unknown node voltages.
47
Example 2.3 For the network shown in Fig. 2.27, apply Kirchhoff’s current law and write the node equations.
R2 R4
E1 E2 E3
I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8
I1 R1 R3 R5 R6 I2
Fig. 2.27 Network of Example 2.3
Solution Let node voltages be E1, E2 and E3 at nodes 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

At the node 1,
I1 = I 3 + I 4
E1 (E1 − E2 )
I1 = +
R1 R2
⎛ 1 1⎞ E
I1 = ⎜ + ⎟ E1 − 2 (i)
⎝ 1
R R2⎠
R2
At the node 2,
I4 = I5 + I6
(E1 − E2 ) (E1 − E3 ) E2
= +
R2 R4 R3
E1 ⎛ 1 1 1⎞ E
0=− + E2 ⎜ + + ⎟ − 3 (ii)
R2 ⎝ R2 R3 R4 ⎠ R4
At the node 3,
I 6 = I 7 + I8 − I 2
(E2 − E3 ) E3 E3
= + − I2
R4 R5 R6
E2 ⎛ 1 1 1⎞
I2 = − + E3 ⎜ + + ⎟ (iii)
R4 ⎝ R4 R5 R6 ⎠
Given the other values, solution of equations (i), (ii), and (iii) gives the values of E1, E2 and E3.
Concept of Supernode This concept is used when a circuit contains voltage sources. A supernode
is formed by enclosing a dependent or independent voltage source connected between two non-reference
nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it. This concept is necessary for nodal analysis with
voltage source, because the current through a voltage source is unknown. We consider the following
example.
48
Example 2.4 Determine the node voltages V1 , V2 , and V3 for the circuit of Fig. 2.28 (a).
V2 10V
V1 5 V3 Supernode 10V
i3
i1 20
5V i2 10
V2 V3
Fig. 2.28 (a) Circuit of Example 2.4 Fig. 2.28 (b) KVL with supernode
Solution For this problem we have two cases:

Case-1 When a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a non-reference node
In this case, the voltage of the non-reference node is taken equal to the voltage of the voltage source. For the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.28 (a),
V1 5 V (1)
Case-2 When a voltage source is connected between two non-reference nodes
In this case, a supernode is considered enclosing the non-reference nodes. Both KCL and KVL is written for
the supernode.
For this example, nodes 2 and 3 are forming the supernode.
By KCL at the supernode, i1 i2 i3
V1 − V2 V2 − 0 V3 − 0
or, = + (2)
5 10 20
To apply KVL to the supernode, the circuit is drawn as shown in Fig. 2.28 (b). By KVL,
10 V3 V2 0 (3)
Solving equations (1), (2) and (3), the node voltages are obtained as V1 5 V, V2 4.2857 V, and
V3 5.7143 V.
Properties of a Supernode
(i) It provides the constraint equations.
(ii) Both KCL and KVL are written for a supernode.
(iii) A supernode does not have any voltage of its own.
2.8.2 Loop or Mesh Analysis

It is based on Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL). In this method, the unknown variables are the loop currents. It
is generally used when the circuit contains several voltage sources.
Steps
(i) If there are ‘N’ number of loops/meshes in a network, all loops are labeled.
(ii) KVL is written at each loop/mesh in terms of loop/mesh currents. Loop currents are those currents
flowing in a loop; they are used to define branch currents.
(a) For N independent loops, a total of N equations are written using KVL around each loop. These
equations are known as loop/mesh equations.
49
(b) The concept of supermesh is used in case a circuit contains current source that provides the con-
straint equations.
(iii) Solution of the N simultaneous equations gives the required loop/mesh currents.
Example 2.5 Write the mesh equations for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.29.
R1 R3
Solution Two meshes are labeled as meshes 1 and 2.
Applying KVL for the mesh 1,
Vs R1I1 R2(I1 I2) (1) Vs I1 R2 I2 R4
Applying KVL for the mesh 2,
0 I1R2 I2(R2 R3 R4) (2)
Solving the equations, we get I1 and I2. Fig. 2.29 Circuit of Example 2.5
Concept of Supermesh This concept is used when a circuit contains current sources. A supermesh
is formed by excluding the branch containing a dependent or independent current source connected in
common to two meshes and any elements connected in series with it. This concept is necessary for loop
analysis with a current source, because the voltage drop across a current source is unknown. We consider
two examples.
Example 2.6 Find the mesh currents in the circuit of Fig. 2.30.
5 20
Solution Here, a current source is in one mesh.
In this case, the mesh current is taken equal to the current of the
current source. For example, for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.30, 5V i1 10 i2 10 A
i2 10 A
By KVL for the mesh 1, we get
5 i1 10 (i1 10) 5 ⇒ i1 6.33A Fig. 2.30 Circuit of Example 2.6
Example 2.7 Find the mesh currents in the circuit of Fig. 2.31.
Solution Here, a current source is connected between two meshes. 2 i2 2
In this case, a supermesh is considered excluding the branch
with the current source and any elements connected in series with 6V i1 4 Supermesh
it. Both KCL and KVL is written for the supermesh. For example,
i3 8
consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.31. A supermesh is formed by 3A
1
excluding the branch with the 3-A current source.
By KVL for the supermesh, i1 i3
X
2(i1 i2) 4(i3 i2) 8i3 5 (i)
Fig. 2.31 Current source connected
By KCL at any one node of the omitted branch (say, X ), between two meshes
i1 3 i3 (ii)
Also by KVL for the second mesh, 2i2 4(i2 i3) 2(i2 i1) 0 (iii)
50
Solving equations (i), (ii) and (iii), the mesh currents are obtained as i1 3.437 A, i2 1.1052 A
and i3 0.4737 A.
Properties of a Supermesh
(i) It provides the constraint equations.
(ii) Both KCL and KVL are written for supermesh.
(iii) A supermesh does not have any current of its own.
2.8.3 Comparison of Loop and Node Analysis

In any network having ‘N’ nodes and ‘B’ branches, there are 2B unknowns, i.e. ‘B’ branch currents and ‘B’
branch voltages. These unknowns can be determined either by loop analysis or nodal analysis.
The choice of the method depends on two factors:
Nature of the Network The mesh-method is generally used for circuits having many series-connected
elements, voltage sources, or supermeshes. On the other hand, nodal analysis is more suitable for networks
for circuits having many parallel-connected elements, current sources, or supernodes.
The main factor for selecting any one method is the minimum number of equations. If a circuit has fewer nodes than
meshes then nodal analysis is used, while if a circuit has fewer meshes than nodes then the loop method is used.
Requirement of the Problem If node voltages are required, nodal analysis is used; if branch/mesh cur-
rents are required, loop analysis is used.
However, there are some particular circuits, where only one method can be applied. For example, in
analyzing transistor circuits, the mesh method is the only possible method; while for op-amp circuits and for
non-planar networks, the node method is the only possible method.
2.9 DUALITY
Duality is a transformation in which currents and voltages are inter-
changed. Two phenomena are said to be dual if they are described by
R L C
equations of the same mathematical form.
There are a number of similarities and analogies between the two
circuit analysis techniques based on loop-current method and node-volt- v i(t)
age method. The principal quantities and concepts involved in these two
methods based on KVL and KCL are dual of each other with voltage vari-
ables substituted by current variables, independent loop by independent Fig. 2.32 (a) Series RLC circuit
node-pair, etc.
This similarity is termed as ‘principle of duality’.
Some dual relations are
v = Ri i = Gv
di dv i R L C v(t )
v=L i =C
dt dt
1 1
v = ∫ idt
L∫
i= vdt
C Fig. 2.32 (b) Parallel RLC circuit
51
Thus, the circuit elements (R, L, C) have some dual relationship. Duality also appears as a relation between
two networks. For example, an RLC series circuit with voltage excitation is the dual of an RLC parallel circuit
with current excitation.
di 1
For a series circuit, v = Ri + L + ∫ idt
dt C
dv 1
For a parallel circuit, i = Gv + C + ∫ vdt
dt L
Dual Quantities and Concepts
Sl. No. Quantity/Concept Dual

1 Current Voltage
2 Resistance Conductance
3 Inductance Capacitance
4 Impedance Admittance
5 Reactance Susceptance
6 Branch current Branch voltage
7 Mesh or loop Node or node-pair
8 Mesh current or loop current Node voltage or node-pair voltage
9 Link Tree branch
10 Link current Tree branch voltage
11 Tree branch current Link voltage
12 Tie-set Cut-set
13 Short-circuit Open-circuit
14 Parallel paths Series paths
Construction of Dual of a Network

1. A dot is placed inside each independent loop of the given network; these dots correspond to the non-
reference nodes of the dual network.
2. A dot is placed outside the network; this dot corresponds to the datum node.
3. All internal dots are connected by dashed lines crossing the common branches and placing the ele-
ments which are duals of the elements of the original network.
4. All internal dots are connected to the external dot by dashed lines crossing all external branches and
placing dual elements of the external branch.
Conventions for Reference Polarities of Voltage Source and Reference Directions of the Current Source
(i) A clockwise current in a loop corresponds to a positive polarity (with respect to reference node) at the
dual independent node.
(ii) A voltage rise in the direction of a clockwise loop current corresponds to a current flowing towards the
dual independent nodes.
Finally, the dual construction can be checked by writing mesh equations and node equations of two networks.
52
Example 2.8 Draw the dual of the network shown in Fig. 2.33.
5A
3 5
100 V 4 6

Solution Following the steps, a dual network is drawn as shown in Fig. 2.34.
5V
5A
1/3
3 1/5
1/4
5 6
100V 4
1/5
1/4 100 A 1/3 1/6
100A 1/6
5V
Fig. 2.34 Figure explaining drawing dual of Fig. 2.35 Dual of network of Fig. 2.32
network of Fig. 2.33
Therefore, the dual network becomes as shown in Fig. 2.35.

By KVL to the original network,
I1(3 4) I2(4) 100
I1(4) I2(4 5 6) 5I3 0
I3 5 5A
The dual equations will be,

3 5 I
3
V1(3 4) V2(4) 100
V1(4) V2(4 5 6) 5V3 0 100 V I 4 I
2
6
1
V3 5
These equations satisfy the dual network. Fig. 2.36 Labeled circuit of Fig. 2.33
2.10 STAR-DELTA CONVERSION TECHNIQUE

The Y- transform, also written Y-delta, Wye-delta, Kennelly’s delta-star transformation, star-mesh
transformation, T- or T-pi transform, is a mathematical technique to simplify the analysis of an electrical
network. The name derives from the shapes of the circuit diagrams, which look respectively like the letter Y
and the Greek capital letter .
The transformation is used to establish equivalence for networks with three terminals. For equivalence,
the impedance between any pair of terminals must be the same for both networks.
53
For the star connection, the impedance between terminals 1 1 2 Z12

and 2 is Z1 Z2. 1 2
Z1 Z2
For the delta connection, the the impedance between ter-
minals 1 and 2 is Z3 Z31 Z23
Z12 (Z )
+ Z 31 =
(
Z12 Z 23 + Z 31 ).
23
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31 3 3
(a) (b)
As the impedance between terminals 1 and 2 should be Fig. 2.37 (a) Star connection (b) Delta
same, therefore, connection
Z1 + Z 2 =
(
Z12 Z 23 + Z 31 ) (i)
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31
Similarly, for terminals 2 and 3 we get,
Z2 + Z3 =
(
Z 23 Z 31 + Z12 ) (ii)
Z 23 + Z 31 + Z12
Z 3 + Z1 =
(
Z 31 Z12 + Z 23 ) (iii)
Z 31 + Z12 + Z 23
2.10.1 Delta to Star Conversion
In this case, Z1, Z2, and Z3 are to be written in terms of Z12, Z23, and Z31.
Z12 Z 31
By, (i) (ii) (iii); Z1 = (iv)
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31
Z 23 Z12
Similarly, we get, Z2 = (v)
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31
Z 31 Z 23
and Z3 = (vi)
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31
2.10.2 Star to Delta Conversion

In this case, Z12, Z23, and Z31 are to be written in terms of Z1, Z2, and Z3.
Let Z Z1Z2 Z2Z3 Z3Z1. Then from (iv) to (vi), we get
Z12 Z 232 Z 31 Z12 Z 23 Z 312 Z12 2 Z 23 Z 31 Z12 Z 23 Z 31
Z= + + = (viii)
(Z ) (Z ) (Z ) Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31
2 2 2
12
+ Z 23 + Z 31 12
+ Z 233 + Z 31 12
+ Z 23 + Z 31
Z
From (vii) and (iv), we get Z = Z12 Z 3 ⇒ Z12 =
Z3
Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 ZZ
Therefore, Z12 = = Z1 + Z 2 + 1 2
Z3 Z3
54
Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 Z Z
Similarly, Z 23 = = Z2 + Z3 + 2 3
Z1 Z1
Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 ZZ
and Z 31 = = Z 3 + Z1 + 3 1
Z2 Z2
Example 2.9 Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B of the circuit shown below.
6Ω A 4Ω
3Ω 5Ω
5Ω 8Ω 4Ω
B A
6 4
Solution Converting star into delta,
5 9.875 4
⎛ rr ⎞ 15 15.8 26.33
r12 = ⎜ r1 + r2 + 1 2 ⎟ = 8 + = 9.875 Ω B
⎝ r3 ⎠
8
Fig. 2.39 (a)
⎛ rr ⎞ 40 A
r23 = ⎜ r2 + r3 + 2 3 ⎟ = 13 + = 26 ⋅ 33 Ω 6 4
⎝ r1 ⎠ 3
⎛ rr ⎞ 24 3.798 9.875 3.472

r31 = ⎜ r3 + r1 + 3 1 ⎟ = 11 + = 15 ⋅ 8 Ω
⎝ r2 ⎠
5
B
Fig. 2.39 (b)
Combining the parallel connections of 5 and 15.8 and 4 and 26.33 ,
we have the reduced circuit. A
1.2075
Again, converting the delta made of 6 , 4 and 9.875 into equivalent
star, 2.981 1.987
r r 6×4
r1 = 12 31 = = 1.2075 Ω
r1 + r2 + r3 19 ⋅ 875 3.798 3.472
4 × 9.875 B
r2 = = 1.987 Ω
19.875 Fig. 2.39 (c)
6 × 9.875 A
r3 = = 2.981 Ω 1.2075
19.875
So, the given circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 2.39 (d). 6.779 5.459
6.779 × 5.459 B
∴ RAB = 1.2075 + = 4.23 Ω
6.779 + 5.459 Fig. 2.39 (d)
55
Solved Problems
Problem 2.1 Find the values of V, Vab and the power delivered by the 5-V source.
2V
a
2 1
Solution Current, i = = A 20 60
60 30 V
By KVL, 5V
20i 2 5 v70i 0
30 b 40
1
v = −7 − 90i = −7 − 90 × = −10 V Fig. 2.40
30
vab 20i v 30i 50i 10 a 2V
1 20 60
= 50 × − 10 = −8.33 V V
30
i 5V
Power drawn by the 5-V source − (power taken the source)
1 30 b 40
= −5 × = −0.166 W Fig. 2.41
30
Problem 2.2 Find the equivalent resistance between A
(i) A and B,
(ii) B and C, 4
5 10
(iii) C and A, and
N
(iv) A and N of the circuit shown.
Solution Converting the star into delta, 6 5
B 25 C
⎛ rr ⎞ 5×4
r12 = ⎜ r1 + r2 + 1 2 ⎟ = 4 + 5 + = 12 ⋅ 33 Ω Fig. 2.42
⎝ r3 ⎠ 6
A
⎛ rr ⎞ 5×6
r23 = ⎜ r2 + r3 + 2 3 ⎟ = 5 + 6 + = 18.5 Ω 10
⎝ r1 ⎠ 4 5
14.8
⎛ rr ⎞ 6×4 12.3
r31 = ⎜ r3 + r1 + 3 1 ⎟ = 6 + 4 + = 14.8 Ω 18.5
⎝ r2 ⎠ 5
C
The circuit becomes as shown below in Fig. 2.44 B
25
(i) Equivalent resistance between A and B, Fig. 2.43
3.73 × (10.06 + 5.52 ) A
RAB = = 3⋅ 035 Ω
3.73 + 10.06 + 5.52
10.06 × ( 3.73 + 5.52 ) 3.73 5.52
(ii) RBC = 4.82 Ω
10.06 + 3.73 + 5.52
5.52 × (10.06 + 3.73)
(iii) RCA = = 3.94 Ω B 10.063 C
5.52 + 10.06 + 3.73 Fig. 2.44
56
(iv) Converting the delta into equivalent star, A

5×6
r1 = = 0.83 Ω
5 + 6 + 25 4 10
5 N
25 × 6
r2 = = 4.167 Ω
5 + 6 + 25 0.83
25 × 5
r3 = = 3.472 Ω B 4.167 3.472 C
5 + 6 + 25
Fig. 2.45
The circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 2.46.
A A
4 4
9.167 N 13.472 5.455 N
0.83 0.83
B B
Fig. 2.46
4 × 6.288
∴ RAN = = 2.4448 Ω
4 + 6.288
Problem 2.3 Find the current through the galvanometer using

B
delta–star conversion.
20 10
Solution Converting the delta consisting of 20 , 30 and 50 ,
we get, C
A 50
20 × 30
r1 = =6Ω
20 + 30 + 50 30 5
20 × 50
r2 = = 10 Ω D
20 + 30 + 50
8V
30 × 50
r3 = = 15Ω Fig. 2.47
20 + 30 + 50
B
RAC 16
20 10
8
Main current i = = 0 ⋅ 5 A r1
r2 C
16 A 50
Now, to calculate potential difference between the points B and D; r3
30 5
Vxc 10 0.5 5 V
D
VBD (10 0.25 5 0.25) 1.25 V
current through the galvanometer, (50 ) 8V
1.25 Fig. 2.48

iG = = 0.025A
50
57
10 B 10
6 6 10
X C A C
A
15 5 X
8V 8V
Fig. 2.49
Problem 2.4 The current and voltage profile of an element vs. time has been shown in Fig. 2.50. Deter-
mine the element and find its value.
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
1A 5
0 5 0 5
Time (ms) Time (ms)
Fig. 2.50
Solution Here, the voltage is not proportional to the current; therefore, the element is not a resistance.
Also, at t 5 ms, i 0, but the voltage suddenly drops to zero value, i.e. the element acts as a short circuit.
As the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, the element is not a capacitor.
Now, the current is zero at t 0 and the voltage is zero at t 5 ms. Therefore, we conclude that the ele-
ment is an inductor.
di 1
From the figure, = = 200 A/s and v 5 V.
dt 5 × 10−3
di v 5
v=L ⇒ L= = = 25 mH
dt di 200
dt
Problem 2.5 The voltage across a capacitor of value C 1 mF is shown in Fig. 2.51. Find the current
waveform. v(t)(V )
Solution Here, the voltage can be expressed as 10
v(t ) 0 t 0
10t 0 t 1 t (s)
0 1 2
20 10t 1 t 2
Fig. 2.51
0 t 2
dv t ( ) , we have the current given as
()
Since, i t = C
dt
i(t ) 0 t 0
2
10 0 t 1
58
2
10 1 t 2 i (t) (mA)
0 t 2 10
This means that the current waveform consists of two sharp positive t (s)
and negative pulses of magnitude 10 mA as shown in Fig. 2.52. 0
10 1 2
Problem 2.6 Twelve similar conductors each of ‘R’ resistance form a
Fig. 2.52 Current waveform of
cubical frame. Find the resistance across two opposite corners of the cube. the capacitor
Solution The configuration is shown in Fig. 2.53.
The current distribution is shown. R I/3 I
R B
So, the total voltage drop between two opposite corners A and I/6 I/6 I/3
R
B for a total current of I is I/3
I/6 R R R
I I I 5
VAB = R ⋅ + R⋅ + R⋅ = R× I R R
3 6 3 6 R I/6
Equivalent resistance, I/3 I/3 R

I/6
A R
V 5 I/6
RAB = AB = R I I/3 R
I 6 Fig. 2.53
Problem 2.7 A regular hexagon is formed from R

6 wires of R ohms each. The corners are joined to the R 2R R
centre by six more wires of 2R ohms each. Calculate the 2R 2R
A B
resistance of the hexagon between any two nodes dia-
metrically opposite. 2R
R 2R 2R R
Solution The hexagon can be redrawn as shown in
Fig. 2.55. R
Y Fig. 2.54
R/2 R/2
R 4R 2R R
4R
X A B X'
4R 4R
R 2R 2R R
R/2 R/2
Y'
Fig. 2.55
The hexagon is symmetrical about XX´.
Equivalent resistance of the second quadrant,
R1 R1
28
R1 = ( 2 R R / 2 + R) 4 R = R
27 A B
So, the figure is modified as shown in Fig. 2.56.
28 R1 R1
∴ RAB = ( R1 R1 ) + ( R1 R1 ) = R1 = R
27 Fig. 2.56
59
Problem 2.8 Find the input resistance of the infinite section resistive network shown below.
R R A R R A R
Rin R R R R Infinity
B’ B
Fig. 2.57
Solution Let the equivalent resistance be Rin.
The network can be terminated at A’B’ instead of AB.
RA′B ' = [ R + ( Rin ) ( R)]
By assumption,
Rin R 2 Rin R + R 2
Rin = R + =
R + Rin R + Rin
⇒ RRin + Rin 2 = 2 RRin + R 2 ⇒ Rin 2 − RRin − R 2 = 0
R ± R2 + 4 R2 R
⇒ Rin = = [1 ± 5 ]
2 2
⎛ 5 + 1⎞
Taking positive sign, Rin = ⎜ ⎟R.
⎝ 2 ⎠
Problem 2.9 In the network shown, calculate the power input to each of the following elements when it is con-
nected across A and B: 2100V
(a) a resistance RAB of 59
(b) a voltage source of 160 V
18 7
Solution (a) Converting the two deltas into star, the circuit is shown A B
6 14
in Fig. 2.59.
12 28
18 × 6 6 × 12 18 × 12
r1 = =3 r2 = =2Ω r3 = =6
18 + 12 + 6 36 36
10
14 × 7 28 × 14 Fig. 2.58
r =
1
1
= 2 , r21 = = 8 , r31 = 4
49 49
⎛ 69 × 20 ⎞
∴ Req = ⎜ 3 + + 2 = 20.5
⎝ 69 + 20 ⎟⎠
2100
Main current, i = = 102.41 A
20.5
60
2100 V 2100 V
3 2 3 2
69
6 59 4
20
2 10 8
Fig. 2.59
20
Current in the 59 resistor, i59 = 102.41 × = 23.01A
89 2100 V
2 2
Power input, Pi (i59) 59 (23 01) 59
31248 189 W 31 kW i1
3 2
(b) By KVL, for circuit of Fig. 2.60,
15i1 10i2 2260 0 and 30i2 10i1 160 0 6 4
160 V
Solving, i1 206.285A i2
i2 63.43A
2 10 8
power input, Pi v i 160 (i1 i2)
Fig. 2.60
160 ( 206 285 63 43)
17.37 kW
P
Problem 2.10 The two-dimensional network of the
Fig. 2.61 consists of an infinite number of square meshes,
each side of which has a resistance of R. Find the effec- X T
tive resistance between two adjacent nodes such as Q
X and Y. R Y S
Solution Let the current flowing into the circuit at the node
X be I. Since the infinite network is symmetrical about X, the T
current ‘I’ in going from X to infinity, is divided equally along
the branches XQ, XT, XP and XY. Fig. 2.61
The current ‘I’ then returns from infinity and is taken from
the network at the node Y.
Again, by symmetry, the currents flowing along RY, XY, SY and TY are each I/4.
Hence, the total current flowing along XY is I兾4 I兾4 I兾2. So, the voltage between X and Y.
VXY I兾2 R
So, the effective resistance between X and Y, RXY VXY 兾I R兾2
Problem 2.11 Use loop current analysis to find currents in all branches of the network of Fig. 2.62. Also,
find the power delivered by the 5-A current source.
61
Solution By KVL, 5i1 + 10i2 + 5(i2 − i4 ) + 15(i1 − i3 ) = 50 5
or, 20i1 + 15i2 − 15i3 − 5i4 = 50 (i) I2

50V I1 5 A 10
and, 5(i4 − i2 ) + 30 + 10i4 + 20(i4 − i3 ) = 0 15 5
or, −5i2 − 20i3 + 35i4 = −30 (ii) 10A I3 20 I4 30 V

By constraint equations, 10
(i2 i1) 5 (iii)
Fig. 2.62
and i3 10 (iv)
From (i) and (ii),
20(i2 − 5) + 15i2 − 15 × 10 − 5i4 = 50
or, 35i2 − 5i4 = 300 ⇒ 7i2 − i4 = 60
and, −5i2 + 35i4 = 170 ⇒ − i2 + 7i4 = 34
Solving i4 6.02083A
i2 4.4583A
i1 4.4583A and i3 10A
Power delivered by the 5-A current source v i 110.83 5 554.16 W
[To calculate the voltage across the 5-A current source, v, writing KVL for mesh (1),
5i1 + v + 15(i1 − i3 ) = 50 ⇒ v = 50 − 20i1 + 15i3 = 200 − 20 × 4.4
4583 = 110.83 V ]
Problem 2.12 For the circuit of Fig. 2.63 (a), find the voltage Vx using nodal analysis.
Iy
40
0.6 A 0.2 Vx
100 50 Vx
25 Iy
Fig. 2.63 (a)
Solution By KCL at the node (1),

Vx v −v
− 0.6 + I y + − 25 I y + 1 2 = 0 (i)
50 40
1 2
Iy 40
0.6A 100 0.2Vx

50 Vx
25Iy
Fig. 2.63 (b)

62
By KCL at the node (2),

v2 0.2Vx (ii)
and other constraint equation,
Vx
Iy = and v1 = Vx
100 (iii)
From (1), V V V v −v
− 0 ⋅ 6 + x + x − 25 x + 1 2 = 0
100 50 100 40
⇒ −120 + 2Vx + 4Vx − 50Vx + 5Vx − 5 × 0.2Vx = 0
120
⇒ Vx = = −3 V
−40
Problem 2.13 Use nodal analysis to find the voltages VA , VB and Vx in the circuit of Fig. 2.64, in which I1 0.4 A.
0.03 Vx
Solution By KCL at the node (A),
VA VA − VB VA Vx VB
− 0.4 + + + 0.03Vx = 0 (1) 20
C
100 20 Iy 40
I1 80Iy
VB − VA VB VB − VC 100 40
By KCL at the node (B), + + =0 (2)
20 40 40
VB Fig. 2.64
Constraint equations, Iy = (3)
40
VC = 80 I y
and (4)
(VA − VB ) = Vx
and (5)
V V V
From (1), − 0.4 + A + A − B + 0 ⋅ 03VA − 0 ⋅ 03VB = 0 ⇒ ( 9VA − 8VB ) = 40 (6)
100 20 20
From (2), VA VB [by (3) and (4)]
Thus, solving (6) VA VB 40V I1
Vx (VA VB) 0
300
Problem 2.14 For the circuit, use loop analysis to find I1 and the power 0.4I1
50V 500
absorbed by the 500- resistor.
Solution Converting the dependent current source into dependent voltage

source, Fig. 2.65
I1
50
By KVL, 800 I1 − 200 I1 = 50 ⇒ I1 = = 0.083A 200I1
600 300 500
Power absorbed by the 500- resistor 50V
2
⎛ 50 ⎞ 500
= I12 R = ⎜ ⎟ × 500 = = 3 ⋅ 47W
⎝ 600 ⎠ 144 Fig. 2.66
63
Problem 2.15 Determine the currents in all the branches I1 I2

of the network.
5 5
10I2
Solution By KVL, for the mesh (1) 10
5 I1 + 10 I 2 + 10( I1 − I 2 ) + 5 I1 = 5 5V 10V
5I1
⇒ 20 I1 = 5 ⇒ I1 = 0 ⋅ 25A
By KVL for the mesh (2),

Fig. 2.67
5I2 10 5I1 (I2 I1) 10 0
15I2 15I1 10 (3.75 10) 6.25
I2 0.416 A
Problem 2.16 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.68,

(a) determine the KVL equations
(b) find the two loop currents I1 and I2
(c) find the power supplied by the source and the power dissipated in each resistor
j2 j5
2 3
j2
10 00 V 1
Fig. 2.68
Solution
(a) KVL equations:
2 I1 − j 2 I 2 = 10 ⎫⎪
⎬
(
and − j 2 I1 + 4 − j 3 I 2 = 0 ⎭⎪ )
10 − j2
(b) Solving for the currents, I1 =

0 ( 4 − j3 ) =
40 − j 30
= 3.773∠ − 10.3 A
2 − j2 12 − j 6
− j2 ( 4 − j3 )
2 10
− j2 0 j 20
and I2 = = = 1.5∠116.6 A
2 − j2 12 − j 6
− j2 ( 4 − j3 )
(c) Power supplied by the source, Ps = VI1 cos 1 (
= 10 × 6.933cos 19.44 = 65.28 W )
64
Power dissipated in resistors,

P2 = I1 × 2 = 96.15 W ⎫
2
⎪
2 ⎪
P3 = I 2 × 3 = 23.08 W ⎬
2 ⎪
P1 = I 2 × 1 = 7.69 W ⎪
⎭
Problem 2.17 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.69, determine 8 2

the voltage ‘v’ using nodal analysis.
100V 12 v 6 10A
Solution Let the node voltages be V1 and V2. Here, V2 v
By KCL, Fig. 2.69
V1 − 100 V1 V1 − V2
+ + = 0 ⇒ 17V1 − 12 v = 300 8 1 2 2
8 12 2 (i)
V2 − V1 V2 100V 12 v 6 10A
and + − 10 = 0 ⇒ − 3V1 + 4 v = 60 (ii)
2 6
Fig. 2.70
Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get,
17 300
−3 60 1920
v= = = 60 V
17 −12 32
−3 4
Problem 2.18 Determine the voltage v in the network 2 2

in Fig. 2.71 using nodal analysis.
Solution Converting the current source into equivalent 100 V 12 v 6 10 A
voltage source, we get the following circuit.
By KVL,
Fig. 2.71
14 I1 − 12 I 2 = 100
−12 I1 + 20 I 2 = −60
Solving for I2, 2 2
14 100 12 6
−12 − 60 −840 + 1200 360 100V v
I2 = = = = 2.64 A
14 −12 280 − 144 136 I1 I2
60 v
−12 20
v (6I2 60) 75.88 V Fig. 2.72

65
Problem 2.19 Determine the voltage V using source transformation and

simplification in Fig. 2.73. 3 8V 4
Solution By KVL, 6A V
3 6
( ) 32
4 i1 + 6 + 8 + 31 = 0 ⇒ i1 = −
7
A
28 Fig. 2.73
and 9i2 + 36 − 8 = 0 ⇒ i2 = − A
9 i1
Thus, the voltage is, 3 4
8V
6A V
⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 28 ⎞
( ) ( ⎝ 7
)
V = 4 i1 + 6 + 6 i2 + 6 = 4 ⎜ − + 6⎟ + 6 ⎜ − + 6⎟ = 23.05 V
⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠ 3 i2 6
i3
Problem 2.20 Convert the current sources into the equivalent volt- Fig. 2.74
age source given in Fig. 2.75 and hence find the voltage V0. 2
Solution Converting the current sources into voltage sources, we get 2 5A V0

2
the following circuit. 5A
20 10
∴i = − =− A Fig. 2.75
6 3 10 V
2
⎛ 10 ⎞ 10
∴V0 = 2i + 10 = 2 × ⎜ − + 10⎟ = = 3.33 V 2
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 2 V0
i
10 V
Problem 2.21 In the network shown in Fig. 2.77, determine the voltage Vb
Fig. 2.76
which results in a zero current through the (2 j3) impedance branch.
5 2 j3 4
30 V j5 6 Vb
Fig. 2.77
Solution When the 30-V source is acting alone, let the current through the branch (2 j3) be I1.
5 2 j3 5 2 j3
30V j5 I1 6 4 30V j 5 I1 2.4
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.78
Impedance, Z = 5 +
(
j 5 × 4.4 + j 3 ) = ⎛ 7 + j 62 ⎞
4.4 + j8 ⎜⎝ 4.4 + j8 ⎟⎠
66
∴I =
30 30 4.4 + j8
=
( )
Z 7 + j 62
∴ I1 = I ×
j5
= ×⎜
(
30 4.4 + j8 ⎛ j 5 ⎞
=
)
j150
A
4.4 + j8 7 + j 62 ⎟
⎝ 4.4 + j8 ⎠ 7 + j 62
When the Vb source is acting alone, let the current through the 2 j3 4
branch (2 j3) be I2.
Impedance, Z = 4 +
(
6 × 4.5 + j 5.5 )=⎛ 69 + j 55 ⎞ 5 j5 6 Vb
10.5 + j 5.5 ⎜⎝ 10.5 + j 5.5 ⎟⎠
∴I′= =
(
Vb Vb 10.5 + j 5.5 ) Fig. 2.79
Z 69 + j 55
∴ I2 = I ′ ×
6
= b
(
V 10.5 + j 5.5 ⎛
×⎜
6 )
⎞
=
6Vb
A
10.5 + j 5.5 69 + j 55 ⎝ 10.5 + j 5.5 ⎟⎠ 69 + j 55
Current through the branch (2 j3) will be zero, if
6Vb
I1 = I 2 ⇒
j150
=
7 + j 62 69 + j 55
⇒ Vb = 25 + j 25 V = 35.35∠45 V( )
Problem 2.22 Determine the current through the impedance (2 + j3) in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.80,
where, Vb 20 0 (V ).
5 2 j3 4
30 V j5 6 Vb
Fig. 2.80
Solution When the 30-V source is acting alone, let the current through the branch (2 j3) be I1.
5 2 j3 5 2 j3
I1 j 5 I1
30V j5 6 4 30V 2.4
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.81
Impedance, Z = 5 +
(
j 5 × 4.4 + j 3 ) = ⎛ 7 + j 62 ⎞
4.4 + j8 ⎜⎝ 4.4 + j8 ⎟⎠
∴I =
30 30 4.4 + j8
=
( )
Z 7 + j 62
67
∴ I1 = I ×
j5
=
(
30 4.4 + j8 ⎛ j 5 ⎞
×⎜
) =
j150
= 2.4 ∠6.44 = 2.38 + j 0.27 A ( )
4.4 + j8 7 + j 62 ⎝ 4.4 + j8 ⎟⎠ 7 + j 62
When the 20-V (Vb) source is acting alone, let the current through the branch (2 j3) be I2.
Impedance, 2 j3 4
Z =4+
(
6 × 4.5 + j 5.5 )=⎛ 69 + j 55 ⎞
10.5 + j 5.5 ⎜⎝ 10.5 + j 5.5 ⎟⎠ 5 j5 I1
6 Vb
∴I′=
(
Vb 20 10.5 + j 5.5
=
)
Z 69 + j 55 Fig. 2.82
∴ I2 = I ′ ×
6
=
(
20 10.5 + j 5.5 ⎛
×⎜
)6 ⎞
=
120
= 1.36 ∠ − 38.56 = 1.06 − j 0.85 A ( )
10.5 + j 5.5 69 + j 55 ⎟
⎝ 10.5 + j 5.5 ⎠ 69 + j 55
Total current through the branch (2 j3) is
( ) ( ) ( ) (
I = I1 − I 2 = 2.38 + j 0.27 − 1.06 − j 0.85 = 1.32 + j1.12 = 1.73∠40.31 A ) ( )
Problem 2.23 Write the loop equations of the circuit and find the voltage Vx.
j2 Ω 5 300 (V)
2Ω
j5 Ω 10 Ω
10 00 (V)
5Ω 2Ω j2 Ω
10 Ω
Vx
Fig. 2.83
Solution By KVL for the three meshes, we get,
j2 Ω 5 300 (V )
2Ω
I1 j5 ΩI 10 Ω
10 00 (V ) 2
5Ω 2Ω j2 Ω
I3
10 Ω
Vx
Fig. 2.84
(7 + j 3) I 1
− j 5 I 2 − 5 I 3 = 10 (i)
68
j5I1 (12 j3) 5I2 (2 j2) I3 (4.33 j2.5) (ii)

5I1 (2 j2)I2 (17 j2) I3 0 (iii)
Solving for I3 from equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
(7 + j 3) − j5 10
− j5 (12 + j 3) − ( 4.33 + j 2.5)
−5 −(2 − j 2) 0
I3 = = 0.435∠ − 194.15 (A)
(7 + j 3) − j5 −5
− j5 (12 + j 3) − ( 2 − j 2 )
−5 − ( 2 − j 2 ) (17 − j2 )
Therefore, the required voltage is

Vx = 10 × I 3 = 10 × 0.435∠ − 194.15 = 4.35∠ − 194.15 V ( )
Problem 2.24 For the network shown, find the value of the voltage V which results in the output voltage
V0 5 V.
5 j2 j5
2
3 V0
V 5
j2
Fig. 2.85
Solution For V0 5 V, the current in the (2 j 2) branch is

I1 5 j2
5 x I3 j5 I5
I5 =
2 − j2 I2 I4
5 2
V0
Also, I4 = = 1 A V 3 5
5 j2
⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 7 − j2 ⎞
( )
∴ I3 = I4 + I5 = ⎜1+
⎝ 2 −
=
j 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 − j 2 ⎟⎠
A
Fig. 2.86
Voltage at the node x is

⎛ 7 − j2 ⎞ ⎛ 20 + j 25 ⎞
Vx = 5 + I 3 × j 5 = 5 + ⎜ ⎟ × j5 = ⎜
⎝ 2 − j 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 − j 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 20 25 ⎞
Vx ⎜ 3 + j 3 ⎟
∴ I2 = =
3 ⎜ 2 − j2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
69
⎛ 20 + j 25 ⎞
3 ⎟ + ⎛ 7 − j 2 ⎞ = ⎛ 13.67 + j 6.333 ⎞
(
∴ I1 = I 2 + I 3 = ⎜ 3 )
⎜ 2 − j 2 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 − j 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 − j 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠
Now, by KVL for the left mesh, we get,
⎛ 20 + j 25 ⎞ ⎛ 13.67 + j 6.33 ⎞
(
V = Vx + I1 5 − j 2 = ⎜ ) +
⎝ 2 − j 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 − j 2 ⎟⎠
× 5 − j2 ( )
101 + j 29.33 105.17∠16.119
=
2 − j2
=
2.83∠ − 45
= 37.18∠61.19 V ( )
Problem 2.25 (a) Determine the voltages of 5 m 4 n 2
node ‘m’ and ‘n’ with respect to the reference in the
I j2
circuit shown. j2
(b) Find the current ‘I’ using node voltage method. 50 0 (V ) 50 90 (V )
Fig. 2.87
Solution (a) By KCL at node (m), we get,
Vm − 50 Vm Vm − Vn
5
+ +
j2 4
(
= 0 ⇒ 10 + j 9 Vm − j 5Vn = j 200 ) (i)
By KCL at node (n), we get,

Vn − Vm Vn Vn − j 50
4
+
− j2
+
2
= 0 ⇒ j1Vm + 2 − j 3 Vn = 100 ( ) (ii)
Solving for Vm and Vn from equations (i) and (ii), we get,

j 200 − j5
100 ( 2 − j3 ) 600 − j 900
Vm = = = 24.76 ∠ − 40.36 V ( )
(10 + j 9) − j5 42 − j12
j1 ( 2 − j 3)
(10 + j 9) j 200
1200 + j 900
Vn =
j1 100
= = 34.34 ∠52.81 V ( )
(10 + j 9) − j5 42 − j12
j1 ( 2 − j 3)
(b) Therefore, the required current is,
V 24.76 ∠ − 40.36
I= m =
j2 2 ∠90
= 12.38∠ − 130.36 A ( )
Problem 2.26 Use node voltage method to find V in the circuit.
Solution Converting the voltage source into current source, we get the circuit shown below.
70
40 j20 V V
40
2.68 41.56 6 30 j30 50
6 30 j30 50
j 20
120 15
Fig. 2.88 Fig. 2.89
By KCL,
V V V
+ + = 2.68∠ − 41.56 − 6 ∠30
40 + j 20 − j 30 50
⇒ V ⎡⎣0.022 ∠26.56 + j 0.033 + 0.02 ⎤⎦ = 2 − j1.78 − 5.196 − j 3
−3.196 − j 4.78 −3.196 − j 4.78
⇒ V= = ⇒ V = −97.62 ∠8.94 V
0.02 + j 0.01 + j 0.033 + 0.02 0.04 + j 0.043
Problem 2.27 Using source transformation and simplification, 2A

determine the voltage between the points, P and Q shown in Fig. 2.90.
Solution By KCL,
P Q
V − 10 VP 2 4
At the node-1, P + + 2 = 0 ⇒ VP = 4.8 V 10 V
2 8
VQ − 10 VQ 8 6
At the node-2, + − 2 = 0 ⇒ VQ = 10.8 V
4 6 Fig. 2.90
Therefore, the voltage between the points P and Q is
(Vp VQ ) (4.8 10.8) 6V
Problem 2.28 Find the voltage across the resistor R 2 2Ω
in Fig. 2.91.
Solution Since the 2- resistor is in parallel with the 10-V
10 V 2Ω 10 A 2Ω
voltage source, it may be ignored. Also, converting the cur-
rent source into equivalent voltage source, we get the simpli- R = 2Ω
fied circuit as shown in Fig. 2.92.
Fig. 2.91
−10 5
∴i = =− A
6 3
2 2
10V 2
10 V 2 10 A 2 i
R=2 R=2 20 V
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.92
5 10
Voltage across R 2- resistor, is, V = i × 2 = − × 2 = − = −3.33 V
3 3
71
Problem 2.29 Find the current through the 5- resistor in

Fig. 2.93 using mesh analysis. 10 2
3
Solution By KVL for the first mesh, 50 V
5 2A 1
15i1 − 10i2 − 5i3 = 50 ⇒ 3i1 − 2i2 − i3 = 10 (i)
By KVL for the supermesh, Fig. 2.93
( ) ( )
2i2 + i3 + 5 i3 − i1 + 10 i2 − i1 = 0 ⇒ − 15i1 + 12i2 + 6i3 = 0 (ii)
Also, the constraint equation is that
10 I2 2
(i 2 )
− i3 = 2 ⇒ i2 = 2 + i3 ( ) 50 V I1
3
Putting this value of i2 in equations (i) and (ii), we get 2 A I3 1

5
3i1 3i3 14
15i1 18i3 24
Fig. 2.94
46
Solving these two equations, i1 = 20 A and i2 = A = 15.33 A
3
current through the 5- (

resistor is, i = i1 − i3 = ) 14
3
= 4.67 A
Problem 2.30 Obtain the current ‘I’ in the network shown in Fig. 2.95. 5
Solution By KVL for the second mesh 2A

4V
3VR 5I 4 VR 0 3 3VR
or, 2VR 5I 4 0 (i) VR
2 I
Also, VR 2 (I 2) putting this in (i),
2 2 (I 2) 5I 4 0 Fig. 2.95
⇒ −4 I + 8 + 5 I + 4 = 0 ⇒ I = −12A
20 25
Problem 2.31 Use mesh analysis to find the current ix .
Solution We convert the 5-A current source into its equiv- 2A 10 1.5ix 5 5A
alent voltage source. ix
From the first loop, we get, i1 2A
Fig. 2.96
20 25 5
2A i1 10 i2 1.5ix i3
25 V
ix
Fig. 2.97
By KVL for the supermesh as shown by the dotted line, we get
20i2 30i3 25 10 (i2 i1) 0
( )
Putting the value of i1, 20i2 + 30i3 + 25 + 10 × i2 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 6i2 + 6i3 + 1 = 0 (i)
72
Also by KCL we get the following constraint equations.
( ) (
ix = i1 − i2 = 2 − i2 ) ⇒ i = (2 − i )
2 x
and (
1.5ix = i3 − i2 ) ( ) (
⇒ i3 = 1.5ix + i2 = 1.5ix + 2 − i ) = ( 2 + 0.5i )
x x
Putting the values of i2 and i3 in equation (i), we get
( ) (
6i2 + 6i3 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 6 × 2 − ix + 6 × 2 + 0.5ix = −1 ⇒ ix = ) 25
3
= 8.33 A
Problem 2.32 Calculate the effective resistance between the points A and B in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.98.
2Ω 3Ω 4Ω
A
6Ω 6Ω
2Ω 2Ω
2Ω 5Ω
5Ω
3Ω B
Fig. 2.98
Solution The 2- , 2- and 3- resistances are in series and the 4- , 2- and 5- resistances are also in
series. The reduced circuit is shown in Fig. 2.99.
2Ω 3Ω
A
r1 r2
6Ω 6Ω
r3
7Ω 11 Ω
5Ω
Fig. 2.99
Converting the delta consisting of the resistances of 6 ,6 and 3 into equivalent star, the circuit is
reduced as shown in Fig. 2.100.
3.2 Ω
6×3 A
r1 = = 1.2
6 + 3+ 6
7 7.4 12.2
6×3
r2 = = 1.2
6 + 3+ 6 B
6×6 Fig. 2.100
r3 = = 2.4
6 + 3+ 6
73
The equivalent resistance between terminals A and B is given as

⎡ 7.4 × 12.2 ⎤ 7 × 7.8061
RAB = 7 ⎢ 3.2 + 7.4 + 12.2 ⎥ = 7 ⎡⎣ 3.2 + 4.6061⎤⎦ = = 3.69
⎣ ⎦ 7 + 7.8061
Problem 2.33 Find the currents i1, i2 and i3 and powers delivered by the sources of the network shown in
Fig. 2.101.
i3
6 12 C E 4
A
i1 B D F
12 V 4V
i2
4
Fig. 2.101
Solution We consider the four meshes and the mesh currents as shown in Fig. 2.102.
i4 i3
6Ω 12 Ω C E 4Ω
A
B D F
12 V i2 4V
i1
4Ω
Fig. 2.102
By KVL for the meshes, we get,
3
18i1 − 12i4 = 0 ⇒ 3i1 = 2i4 ⇒ i4 = i1
2
⎛3 ⎞
−12i1 + 12i4 = 12 ⇒ 12i1 = 12i4 − 12 = 12 ⎜ i1 ⎟ − 12 = 18i1 − 12 ⇒ i1 = 2 A
⎝2 ⎠
∴ i4 = 3 A
4i2 = 16 ⇒ i2 = 4 A
4i3 = 4 ⇒ i3 = 1A
Therefore, the required currents are

i1 2A; i2 4A; i3 1A
Power delivered by the 12-V source 12 (i4 i2) 12 7 84W
Power delivered by the 4-V source 4 (i2 i3) 4 5 20W
74
Problem 2.34 Determine the current through 10- 4 24 13

resistance in the network shown in Fig. 2.103 by using
star–delta conversion. 8 12 30 17
Solution The resistances of 8 and 4 are in series 10
and the resistances of 13 and 17 are also in series. 12 30
The reduced circuit is shown in Fig. 2.104 (a).
There are two deltas in the circuit, one consisting of
180 V
the resistances of 12 each and the other consisting of
Fig. 2.103
the resistances of 30 each. We convert the deltas into
their equivalent star and the reduced circuit is shown in Fig. 2.104 (b).
24
180 V 24
4 10
12 30
12 30 4 10 10
10 4 10
12 30
180 V 180 V
Fig. 2.104(a) Fig. 2.104 (b)
Equivalent resistances in star are,

12 × 12
R= =4
12 + 12 + 12
30 × 30
R' = = 10
30 + 30 + 30
From Fig. 2.104 (b), the further modified circuit is shown in Fig. 2.104 (c).
Therefore, the current through the 10- resistance is the current through the 24- resistance branch in
Fig. 2.104 (c). This is given as total current
38
180
I= = 6.27 A 4 I10 10
38 × 24
4+ + 10
38 + 24
24
38
∴ I10 =I×
38 + 24 180 V
38 Fig. 2.104(c)
= 6.27 × = 3.8426 A
38 + 24
Problem 2.35 Find the equivalent network for the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.105. R R
Solution We convert the outer star into its equivalent delta with each
R R
R×R R R
resistance equal to R ' = R + R + = 3R . The reduced circuit is shown in
R
Fig. 2.106 (a). Fig. 2.105
75
R×R
Now, we convert the inner star into its equivalent delta with each resistance equal to R ′′ = R + R + = 3R .
R
The reduced circuit is shown in Fig. 2.106 (b).
Combining all the parallel resistances the equivalent network is shown in Fig. 2.106 (c).
3R 3R
R R 3R 1.5 R
R
R 3R 3R 1.5 R 1.5 R
3R 3R 3R
3R
Fig. 2.106 (a) Fig. 2.106 (b) Fig. 2.106 (c)
Problem 2.36 The element of a 500-watt electric iron is designed for use on a 200-V supply. What value of
resistance is needed to be connected in series in order that the iron can be operated from a 240-V supply?
Solution Since the iron is rated for 500 W, 200 V, the resistance of the iron coil is
2002
R= = 80
500
When an external resistance Rx is connected in series with the iron, the total resistance in the circuit is RT
(R Rx). If this is connected to a 240-V supply, the power equation becomes
V2 2402
P= ⇒ 500 = ⇒ Rx = 35.2
RT 80 + Rx
Problem 2.37 Find the value of the constant ‘K’ in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.107, such that the power
dissipated in 2- resistor does not exceed 50-W.
4 KI
6A 2 8 16 V
Fig. 2.107
Solution Here, the 8- resistance in parallel with the 16-V source can be ignored. Converting the depen-
dent voltage source into its equivalent current source, we get the following circuit.
4 KI
2 I1
6A 16 V
Fig. 2.108
⎛ KI − 4 ⎞
(
By KVL for the right mesh, we get 4 I1 − KI + 16 + 2 × I1 − 6 = 0 ⇒ I1 = ⎜ )
⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
76
⎛ KI − 4 ⎞ 40 − KI
( )
Also, I = 6 − I1 = 6 − ⎜
⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
=
6
⇒ I=
40
6+ K
Now, the power dissipated in the 2- resistance is 50 W.
2
⎛ 40 ⎞ 40
∴ P2 = I 2 × 2 50 = ⎜ ×2 ⇒ =5 ⇒ K =2
⎝ 6 + K ⎟⎠ 6+ K
Problem 2.38 Use nodal analysis to determine v1 and power 50

being supplied by the dependent current source in the circuit
20 30
shown in Fig. 2.109.
Solution We first label the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.110 below. 5A v1 0.4 v1 0.01v1
v1 − v3 v1 − v2
By KCL at the node 1, + =5
50 20 Fig. 2.109
7v1 − 5v2 − 2 v3 = 500 (i)
50
v3 − v1 v3 − v2
By KCL at the node 3, + = 0.01v1 20 v2 30
50 30 v1 v3
9v1 + 10v2 − 16 v3 = 0 (ii)
5A v1 0.4 v1 0.01v1
Also, by constraint equation, v2 0.4v1
Putting this value in (i) and (ii), we get,
( )
7v1 − 5 0.4 v1 − 2 v3 = 500 ⇒ 5v1 − 2 v3 = 500 (iii)
Fig. 2.110
( )
9v1 + 10 0.4 v1 − 16 v3 = 0 ⇒ 13v1 = 16 v3 (iv)
⎛ 13 ⎞ 500 × 16
From (iii), putting the value of v3, we get, 5v1 − 2 ⎜ ⎟ v1 = 500 ⇒ v1 = = 148.148 V
⎝ 16 ⎠ 54
13 13
∴ v3 =
× v1 = × 148.148 = 120.37 V
16 16
power supplied by the dependent current source is
P v3 0.01v1 120.37 0.01 148.148 178.32 W
Problem 2.39 Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in 20 k

Fig. 2.111.
V1 V2
Solution By KCL for the two nodes, we get
I
At the node 1, 12 mA
V1 V −V 10 k 0.8I 30 k
− 0.8 I + 12 × 10−3 + 1 2 3 = 0
10 × 10 3
20 × 10
⇒ 3V1 − V2 = 16 × 103 I − 240 (i) Fig. 2.111
At the node 2,
V2 − V1 V2
−12 × 10−3 + + = 0 ⇒ − 3V1 + 5V2 = 720 (ii)
20 × 10 3
30 × 103
77
V2
Also, I =−
30 × 103
⎛ V2 ⎞ 8 (iii)
Putting this in (i), we get, 3V1 − V2 = 16 × 103 ⎜ − 3⎟
− 240 = − V2 − 240 ⇒ − 45V1 + 7V2 = 3600
⎝ 30 × 10 ⎠ 15
720 5
3600 7 12960
Solving (ii) and (iii), we get, V1 = =− = −63.53 V
−3 5 204
−45 7
−3 720
−45 3600 21600
V2 = =− = 105.88 V
−3 5 204
−45 7
Problem 2.40 Draw a circuit and its dual if the mesh equations of the circuit are given as
8i1 2i2 4i3 5
14i2 6i3 3
4i1 6i2 15i3 6
Solution The circuit satisfying the mesh equations is shown in Fig. 2.112 below.
The dual equations will be 2i1
i1 2 6
8v1 2v2 4v3 5
14v2 6v3 3 i2
2
4v1 6v2 15v3 6 5V i1 3V
Here, v1, v2, and v3 are the node voltages. In the dual circuit, resis-
4 6
tances will be replaced by conductances and voltage sources by i3 6V
the current sources.
5
Following the procedure mentioned in section 2.9, we con-
struct the dual circuit as shown below. Fig. 2.112
2v1
1/2 1/6
5A 2i1
i1 2 6
3A
5V v1 2 3V
1/2
v2
1/6 6A
4 6
1/4 6V
v3
5
1/5
Fig. 2.113
78
Therefore, the dual circuit is shown below.

1/4
v1 1/2 v2 1/6 v3
5A 1/2 2v 1 3A 1/5 6A
1/6
Fig. 2.114
Problem 2.41 Draw the dual of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.115.
(a)
L2
C
vg R3
R2
R1 L1
i0
(b) 2 3H 1F
10 V 1 2 1H 1
2F
Fig. 2.115
Solution (a) The dual network is drawn as shown below.
2 L2
1 C
R3
vg
R2
R1 L1 3
i0
Fig. 2.116
79
The final dual circuit becomes as shown below.

C1 = L1
G1 = R1 mho
L=C 2 G2
1 3
G2 = R2 mho
ig= vg G1 G3 C2 = L2 v0= i0
G3 = R3 mho
Fig. 2.117
(b) The dual network is drawn as shown below.
2 3H 1F
1 2 1H
10 V 2 1
3 4
2F
Fig. 2.118
The final dual network is shown below.
1
1/2 1F
2H
3F 1H
1/2 10A 1
Fig. 2.119
Summary
1. Electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of 2. Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of elec-
some subatomic particles, which determines their electric charges or electrons through a cross-sectional area
tromagnetic interaction. The SI unit of charge is coulomb i dq兾dt.
(C). The charge of an electron is 1.602 10 19C. Hence, 3. The work done to move an electron in a conductor in
1-coulomb charge charge of 6.24 1018 electrons. a particular direction or to create a current is known
80
as the potential of a point. V dw兾dq The potential 1

= when they are connected in
of a point is 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done in bring- 1 1 1
ing a 1-coulomb charge from infinity to that point. + + + ⋅⋅⋅ series
C1 C2 C 3
4. Any combination and interconnection of network
elements like a resistor or inductor or capacitor or 15. When an electric current i flows round a circuit and
electrical energy sources are known as ‘networks’. produces a magnetic field through the circuit, the
5. A closed energized network is known as a ‘circuit’. ratio of the magnetic flux to the current is called the
6. A loop or mesh denotes a closed path obtained by inductance, or more accurately self-inductance of
starting at a node and returning back to the same the circuit; L 兾i. The voltage–current relation-
node through a set of connected circuit elements ship of an inductor is given as v L di兾dt and the
without passing through any intermediate node more energy stored in a inductor is W 1兾2 LI2.
than once. A mesh does not contain any other loop 16. For interconnection of several inductances, the equiv-
within it. alent inductance is given as
7. A node is a point in a circuit where two or more circuit Leq L1 L2 L3 when they are connected in
elements join. A node is said to be an essential node if series
it joins three or more elements. 1
= When they are connected in
8. A branch is a path that connects two nodes. Those 1 1 1
+ + + ⋅⋅⋅ parallel
paths that connect essential nodes without passing L1 L2 L3
through an essential node are known as essential
branches. 17. When the magnetic flux produced by one inductor
9. An active element is capable of generating electrical links another inductor, these inductors are said to be
energy. Examples of active elements are voltage source magnetically coupled. The mutual inductance, M, is
(such as a battery or generator) and current source. a measure of the coupling between two inductors L1
10. A passive element is one which does not generate and L2 and it is given as M = k L1L2 where, k is
electricity but either consumes it or stores it. Resistors,
called the coefficient of coupling.
inductors and capacitors are simple passive elements.
11. Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to 18. An ideal voltage source can produce constant output
which an object opposes an electric current through voltage, whatever be the value of the output current.
it. The voltage–current relationship of a resistance is However, in most of the practical voltage sources, the
v Ri. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm output voltage reduces as the load current increases.
( ). Resistance of a conductor depends on several 19. An ideal current source can produce constant output
factors like length, cross-section, temperature, etc. current, whatever be the value of the output voltage.
12. For interconnection of several resistances, the equiva- However, in most of the practical current sources, the
lent resistance is given as output current reduces as the load voltage increases.
Req R1 R2 R3 when they are connected in 20. Dependent sources or controlled sources are the
series sources where the source voltage or current is not
When they are connected in fixed, but is dependent on a voltage or current at some
1
= other location in the circuit. There are four types of
1 1 1 parallel
+ + + ⋅⋅⋅ dependent sources, voltage-controlled voltage source
R1 R 2 R 3 (VCVS), current-controlled voltage source (CCVS), volt-
13. Capacitance (C ) is a measure of the amount of electric age-controlled current source (VCCS), and current-
charge stored for a given electric potential; C Q兾V. controlled current source (CCCS).
The voltage–current relationship of a capacitor is given 21. Ohm’s law states that physical states (temperature,
as i C dv兾dt and the energy stored in a capacitor is material, etc.) of a conductor remaining constant, the
W 1兾2 CV 2. current flowing through a conductor is directly pro-
14. For interconnection of several capacitances, the equiv- portional to the potential difference across the two
alent resistance is given as ends of the conductor; i.e., V RI.
Ceq C1 C2 C3 when they are connected in 22. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic
parallel sum of the currents meeting at a node is zero.
81
23. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic inductance and capacitance, series circuit and paral-
sum of the potential differences taken round a closed lel circuit, and so on.
loop is zero. 29. A star-connected circuit can be converted into a delta-con-
24. Nodal analysis is based on Kirchhoff’s current law. In nected circuit and vice versa. The formulas are as given.
this method, the solution of the KCL equations gives Delta to star conversion
the unknown node voltages. It is generally used when
the circuit contains several current sources. Z12 Z 31 Z 23 Z12
Z1 = Z2 =
25. The concept of supernode is used when a circuit con- Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31 Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31
tains independent voltage sources between two non-
Z 31 Z 23
reference nodes. and Z3 =
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31
26. Mesh analysis is based on Kirchhoff’s current law. In
this method, the solution of the KCL equations gives Star to delta conversion
the unknown node voltages. It is generally used when Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 ZZ
the circuit contains several current sources. Z12 = = Z1 + Z 2 + 1 2
Z3 Z3
27. The concept of supermesh is used when an indepen-
dent current source is connected in common to two Z 1Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z 1 Z Z
Z 23 = = Z2 + Z3 + 2 3
meshes. Z1 Z1
28. Two phenomena are said to be dual if they are and
described by equations of the same mathematical
Z 1Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z 1 Z Z
form. There are a number of dualities between two Z 31 = = Z3 + Z1 + 3 1
circuit quantities, like resistance and conductance, Z2 Z2
1. Define the following terms: The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C). The charge
(a) Electric charge of an electron is 1.602 10 19C. Thus, one cou-
(b) Electric current lomb charge is defined as the charge possessed by
(c) Current density ⎛ 1 ⎞
electrons.
⎝⎜ 1.602 × 10 −19 ⎠⎟
(d) Electric potential and potential difference
(e) Drift velocity
1 coulomb chargecharge of 6.24
(f) EMF
1018 electrons
(a) Electric charge The most basic quantity in an (b) Electric current The phenomenon of transfer-
electric circuit is the electric charge q. Electric charge ring electric charge from one point in a circuit
is a fundamental conserved property of some sub- to another is described by the term electric cur-
atomic particles, which determines their electro- rent. Electric current is defined as the rate of
magnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter is flow of electric charges or electrons through a
influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. cross-sectional area. By convention, the electric
It is known that an atom consists of a current flows in the opposite direction to the
positively charged nucleus surrounded by nega- electrons.
tively charged electrons. In a neutral atom, the total If Q amount of charges flow through an area in
charge of the nucleus is equal to the total charge time t then the current is given as I Qyt or in dif-
of the electrons. When electrons are removed from ferential form, i dqydt and the charge transferred
a substance, the substance becomes positively t
charged and if excess electrons are given to a sub- between time t0 and t is given by q = ∫ idt .
stance, it becomes negatively charged. t0
82
As Q is expressed in coulomb, the unit of electric free electrons. If a material has a large number of
current is Coulomb per second and it is given the free electrons, these electrons will always move in
name ampere (A). random directions as shown in Fig. 2.120 (a). If an
Thus, 1A current flow of 6.24 1018 electrons external effort is applied to the material, it is pos-
per second through an area sible to drift all the electrons in a definite direction
as shown in Fig. 2.120 (b). Such an external factor is
(c) Current Density Current density at any point known as electromotive force (emf ). In other words,
is a vector whose magnitude is the electric cur- the voltage or potential of an electrical energy
rent per unit cross-sectional area and whose direc- source is known as emf.
tion is normal to the cross-sectional are a, i.e.,
J I兾A n̂. Its unit is ampere per square metre (A/m2).
(d) Electric potential and potential difference To
move an electron in a conductor in a particular
direction, or to create a current, requires some work
or energy. This work is done by the potential or the
potential difference. This is also known as voltage Fig. 2.120(a) Typical path
difference or voltage (with reference to a selected of an electron
point such as earth). The unit of potential is volt.
The potential of a point is 1volt if 1joule of work
is done in bringing 1 coulmb of charge from infinity
to that point.
The voltage Vab between two points a and b
is the energy (or work) w required to move a unit A high current results from
positive charge from a to b. [Unit of voltage is many charge carriers passing
volt (V).] through a given cross-section
of wire on a circuit.
Vab dw兾dq (2.4)
Fig. 2.120 (b) Current
The potential difference between two points
is constituted by flow of
is 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done to displace
1 coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
many charge carriers
through a cross section
(e) Drift velocity Drift velocity refers to the aver-
age distance traveled by a charge carrier per When we say something as electrical energy
unit time. Like the velocity of any object, the drift source, we mean that the energy is converted from
velocity of an electron is the distance-to-time a non-electrical form (such as, mechanical, chemical,
ratio. The path of a typical electron through a wire tidal, etc.) into electrical form. Please note that emf is
could be described as a rather chaotic, zigzag path not a force, but it is the energy or work done.
characterized by collisions with fixed atoms. Each
collision results in a change in direction of the 2. Why should the current in different cross sections
electron. of a cable be constant even though the cross-
sectional area is different at different places? Is
The net effect of these collisions results in slow
current a scalar or vector quantity?
drifting of the electrons with a constant aver-
age drift velocity. The drift velocity is defined as An electric current is defined as the time rate of flow of
the vector average velocity of the charge carriers electric charge across a cross-sectional area.
moving under the influence of electric field. By convention, the electric current flows in the
Mathematically, if n number of charge carriers opposite direction to the electrons.
(electrons) with charge Q each passes through an If Q amount of charges flow through an area in time
area A with drift velocity v then the current is given t then the current is given as I Qyt or in differential
by I nQvA. form, i dqydt.
(f) Electromotive force (emf) The phenomenon The current is the same for all cross-sections of
of electric current depends on the presence of a conductor even though the cross-sectional areas
83
are different at different places of the conductor. This We consider that an alternating voltage v(t ) is
is because of the fact that electric charge cannot be applied to an inductor L at a reference time t 0. Then
accumulated at any point in a conductor. the current carried by the inductor is given by
Although the current in a conductor has some mag- 1
t
L ∫0
nitude in a certain direction, it is not a vector quantity; i (t ) = v (t )dt + i (0) (1)
it is a scalar quantity that indicates the rate of charge
flow. In case of alternating currents, it may be repre- and the relation between flux linkage and current is
sented as a phasor quantity. given by
(t) Li(t) (2)
3. What is the difference between circuits and net-
works? The properties of an inductor can be explained by plot-
ting the characteristics in the i– plane. If the characteris-
or, tic is a straight line passing through the origin, the inductor
“All circuits are networks, but all networks are not will be considered as a linear element. But if the i– charac-
circuits.”-Justify this statement. teristic is not a straight line and /or does not pass through
Any combination and interconnection of net- the origin (e.g., hysteresis curve), the inductor will behave as
work elements like resistor or inductor or capac- a non-linear element.
itor or electrical energy sources are known as
λ
‘networks’. However, a closed energized network
is known as ‘circuit’. A network need not contain
an energy source; but a circuit must contain i
energy source.
4. What is the difference between loop and mesh? Fig. 2.121 Characteristic
of a non-linear inductor
A loop or mesh denotes a closed path obtained by
starting at a node and returning back to the same node q
through a set of connected circuit elements without
passing through any intermediate node more than Slope = C
Slope = L
once. However, the difference between mesh and loop
is that a mesh does not contain any other loop within v
i
it, i.e., a mesh is the smallest loop.
5. Explain the limitations of ohm’s law. Fig. 2.122 (a) Fig. 2.122 (b)
Characteristic of a Characteritic of a
(a) It is not applicable to non-linear circuits like circuits
with powdered carbon, thyrite, etc.
linear inductor linear capcitor
(b) It is not applicable to unilateral circuits, like circuits Similarly, for a capacitor the voltage is given by
with electron tubes, transistors, etc. t
6. Explain linearity conditions of elements in detail.

v (t = ) 1
C ∫0
()
i t dt + v 0 () (3)
A circuit/network element is linear if the relation and the relation between charge and voltage is
between the current and voltage involves a constant given by
coefficient. q(t ) Cv(t ) (4)
For example, voltage–current relationship of a resis- The properties of a capacitor can be explained by plot-
tor, inductor and capacitor (both with zero initial con- ting the characteristics in the q–v plane. If the charac-
di
ditions) are linear (v = Ri , v = L , v = C1 ∫ idt ) . Hence teristic is a straight line passing through the origin, the
dt capacitor will be considered as a linear element. But if the
these elements are linear. q–v characteristic is not a straight line and/or does not
However, if the initial conditions in inductors and pass through the origin (e.g., space-charge capacitance
capacitors are non-zero, these elements will become of a diode), the capacitor will behave as a non-linear
non-linear as explained below. element.
84
7. Differentiate between unilateral and bilateral ele- In practical voltage sources, the voltage does not
ments. Give examples. remain constant, but falls slightly; this is taken care of
by connecting a small resistance (r) in series with the
A system where the voltage–current relationship is
ideal source. In this case, the terminal voltage will be
different for two possible directions of current flow is
known as a unilateral system. v1 (t ) v (t ) ir
On the other hand, in a bilateral system, the same i.e., it will decrease with increase in current i.
relationship between current and voltage exists for the An ideal current source has the following character-
current flowing in either direction. istics:
For example, the v–i relationships in a resistor,
(i) It produces a constant current irrespective of the
inductor and capacitor are same for any direction of
value of the voltage across it.
current flow. So, these are bilateral elements. But, in
(ii) It has infinity resistance.
a diode transistors, the v–i relationships change for
(iii) It is capable of supplying infinity power.
change in the direction of current flow. These elements
are unilateral. i1
v (t)
Practical
v v Ideal
I i(t ) i(t) R v(t)

i
0 i
i
0
Fig. 2.125
Fig. 2.123 (a) v–i Fig. 2.123 (b)
relationship for a bilateral In practical current sources, the output current does
element not remain constant but decreases with increase in
voltage. So, a practical current source is represented
by an ideal current source in parallel with a high resis-
8. Discuss the characteristics of ideal and practical
tance (R) and the output current becomes
sources (voltage and current). What is loading of
sources? Explain.
v (t )
Or, i 1(t ) = i (t ) −
R
Draw the V–I characteristics for voltage and cur-
rent source for ideal and actual cases.
Loading of sources It has been mentioned that the
Or,
output voltage of a voltage source decreases as the
Draw the symbol and characteristics of ideal and
load current increases. If the source is loaded in such
practical voltage and current sources.
a way that the output (or load) voltage falls below
An ideal voltage source has the following characteristics: a specified full load value, then the source is said to
(i) It is a voltage generator whose output voltage be loaded and the situation is known as loading of
remains absolutely constant whatever be the source.
value of the output current. For example, we consider a voltage source of
(ii) It has zero internal resistance so that voltage drop 100 V as shown in Fig. 2.126 with an internal resistance
in the source is zero. of 1 .
(iii) The power drawn by the source is zero. IL(t )
1
i
r v (t)
Ideal
V v (t ) v (t ) v1(t) Practical 100 V VL(t ) Load, RL
t
Fig. 2.124 Independent Voltage sources and their
characteristics Fig. 2.126 (a) Loading of source
85
v(t ) Thus, we cannot convert a voltage source V with zero

internal resistance to a corresponding current source.
10. Give one practical example each of an ideal volt-
VNL Ideal
age source and an ideal current source.
Example of ideal voltage source An ideal voltage
Loading of source source is not practically possible. No voltage source
can maintain its terminal voltage constant even when
its terminals are short-circuited. The terminal voltage of
i
0 IFL a practical voltage source decreases as the load current
increases. A dc or ac generator or batteries are some
Fig. 2.126 (b) Loading of source examples of independent voltage sources. A lead–
acid battery and a dry-cell are some examples of
100 constant voltage source which can produce constant
Here, load current, I L =
RL + 1 terminal voltage within a specified range of output
current.
No load voltage is, VNL 100 V
Example of ideal current source Similar to voltage
If the specified full load current is 10 A then the load
sources, an ideal current source is not practically possible.
⎛ 100 ⎞
resistance on full load is R L = ⎜ −1 = 9 Ω No current source can maintain constant current even
⎝ 10 ⎟⎠ when its terminals are open-circuited. The output current
Then, the full load voltage is, of a practical current source decreases as the output volt-
age increases. A solar cell, which can produce constant
⎛ 100 ⎞
V FL = I FL × R L = 10 × ⎜ − 1 = 90 V current within a specified range of output voltage, is an
⎝ 10 ⎟⎠ example of independent current source. A natural light-
ning can be considered to be an ideal current source.
If the load resistance is increased beyond 9 , the
When a natural lightning strikes the top of a conductor,
load voltage falls below the specified full load volt-
the resistance to the ground path is ideally zero. But,
age of 90 V. In that case, the source is said to be
when the lightning strikes a non-conducting element
loaded.
(like the top of a tree) a large voltage is developed across
the element which is flashed out immediately.
9. How can ideal voltage sources be converted into
ideal current sources and vice-versa? 11. Explain why a capacitor is considered as a linear
A voltage source V(t ) with an internal resistance R can circuit element.
be converted into a current source I(t ) in parallel with Let VC1 and VC2 individually excite a relaxed capacitor,
the same resistance R, where, I(t ) V(t) yR. producing the respective currents,
I1(t ) dVC dV
R I1(t )
iC = C 1 and i C = C C 2
1
dt 2
dt
Let iC be the current induced by a voltage (VC1 VC2)
V (t ) V1(t ) ⬅ I (t ) R V1(t )
( )
d dVC dVC
∴i C = C V +V = C 1
+C 2
(ic1 ic2)
dt C 1 C 2 dt dt
This shows that the v–i characteristic of a capacitor
Fig. 2.127 Conversion of voltae source into current obeys the superposition principles. Therefore, a capaci-
source tor is considered as a liner element.
A voltage source can be converted into a current 12. Explain why an inductor is considered as a linear
source and vice-versa if and only if their respective circuit element.
open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current are same. Let VL1 and VL2 individually excite a relaxed capacitor,
However, an ideal voltage source can never be open- producing the respective currents,
circuited and an ideal current source can never be
short-circuited, as this is in contrary to the definitions 1 1
L ∫ L1 L ∫ L2
iL = V dt and i L = V dt
of ideal voltage and current sources. 1 2
86
Let iL be the current induced by a voltage (VL1 VL2) From the equation (2), it is clear that for an
( ) ( )
1 1 abrupt change in current, the voltage across the
∴ iL = ∫VL dt = ∫ VL + VL dt = iL + iL inductor becomes infinite. Also, from the equation
L L 1 2 1 2
(3), it is observed that for a finite change in voltage
This shows that the v–i characteristic of an induc- in zero time, the integral must be zero.
tor obeys the superposition principles. Therefore, an
Therefore, the current through an inductor cannot
inductor is considered as a linear element.
change instantaneously.
13. Explain the following: (b) The relation between charge and voltage in a
(a) The current through an inductor cannot capacitor is written as
change instantaneously.
(b) The voltage across a capacitor cannot change Q CV (4)
instantaneously. dQ dV dV dC
The current, =C i==C +V
(a) The equation relating inductance and flux linkages dt dt dt dt
can be rearranged as follows: In most physical cases, the capacitance is con-
Li (1) stant with time
(5)
Taking the time derivative of both sides of the dV
equation yields ∴ i =C
dt
d di dL 1
= L +i ∴ dV = idt
C
dt dt dt
Taking integration on both sides,
In most physical cases, the inductance is constant vc t
1
with time and so
∫ dV =
0
C ∫0
idt
d di
=L
dt dt 1
t
C ∫0
or, v c (t ) = i (t )dt + v c (0)
By Faraday’s law of induction we have
d where, vc(0) is the initial voltage across the capaci-
= −E = v
dt tor. For zero initial voltage,
t
where E is the electromotive force (emf ) and v is the 1
C ∫0
induced voltage. Note that the emf is opposite to vc = idt (6)
the induced voltage. Thus
From the equation (5), it is clear that for an abrupt
di change of voltage across the capacitor, the current
v =L (2)
dt becomes infinite. Also, from the equation (6), it is
t
observed that for a finite change of current in zero
1
L ∫0
or i (t ) = v (t )dt + i (0) time, the integral must be zero.
Therefore, the voltage across a capacitor cannot
where i(0) is the initial curent. When initial current change instantaneously.
is zero, 14. Elaborate the statement: “A voltage impulse causes
t
1 a current to be established in an inductance in
i (t ) = ∫v (t )dt (3) zero time.” What is the value of this current? Is it a
L0
violation of the fact that current in an inductance
These equations together state that for a steady cannot change instantaneously?
applied voltage v, the current changes in a linear
manner at a rate proportional to the applied voltage, The voltage–current relationship of an inductor is
but inversely proportional to the inductance. Con- t
versely, if the current through the inductor is changing iL =

1
∫ v t dt
L −∞
()
at a constant rate, the induced voltage is constant.
87
If an impulse voltage is applied to an inductor then the Combining this with the above equation for the capaci-
resulting current is given by tance of a flat-plate capacitor, we get the energy stored
t in a capacitor as
iL =
1
L −∞
( 1
)
∫ t −T dt = L u t −T ( ) 1 1 A 2
W = CV 2 = V
2 2 d
Thus, an impulse voltage applied to an inductor L
results instantaneously in a current of 1兾L. where, W is the energy measured in joules
However, we know that the current in an inductor C is the capacitance, measured in farads
cannot change instantaneously. Here, the instanta- V is the voltage measured in volts
neous current generated is an unusual behaviour of 17. Derive an expression of the energy stored in an
an inductor and this happens because of the fact that inductor.
the driving voltage in the form of an impulse is also an
When an electric current is flowing in an inductor, there
unusual voltage.
is energy stored in the magnetic field.
15. If a unit impulse current is applied to a capacitor Suppose that an inductor of inductance L is con-
what will be the result? nected to a variable dc voltage supply. The supply is
The voltage–current relationship of a capacitor adjusted so as to increase the current i flowing through
t the inductor from zero to some final value I.
is v C =
1
C −∞
()
∫ i t dt . As the current through the inductor is increasing,
the emf generated is E L di兾dt and this emf acts
If an impulse current is applied to a capacitor then to oppose the increase in the current. Clearly, work
the resulting voltage across the capacitor is given by must be done against this emf by the voltage source
t
in order to establish the current in the inductor. The
vC =
1
C −∞
( 1
)
∫ t −T dt = C u t −T ( ) work done by the voltage source during a time inter-
val dt is
Thus, an impulse current applied to a capacitor C
results in an instantaneous voltage of 1兾C. di
dW = Pdt = − Eidt = iL dt = Lidi
dt
16. Derive an expression of the energy stored in a
capacitor. Here, P Ei is the instantaneous rate at which the
voltage source performs work. To find the total work W
Energy stored in a capacitor The energy (measured done in establishing the final current I in the inductor,
in joules) stored in a capacitor is equal to the work we must integrate the above expression. Thus,
done to charge it. Consider a capacitance C, holding a
I
charge q on one plate and q on the other. Moving a 1
small element of charge dq from one plate to the other W = L ∫ idi = LI 2
0
2
against the potential difference V q/C requires the
work dW,
q 18. Define V-shift and I-shift in the source transfor-
dW = dq mation.
C
For source transformation, i.e., transforming a voltage
where, W is the work measured in joules source into a current source and vice-versa, it is first
q is the charge measured in coulombs necessary to shift the sources within the network. This
C is the capacitance, measured in farads is done by V or I shifting.
We can find the energy stored in a capacitance by The methods are explained below.
integrating this equation. Starting with an uncharged
capacitance (q 0) and moving the charge from one For voltage source shifting, we consider a net-
plate to the other until the plates have charge Q and work as shown in Fig. 2.128 (a). We can shift the
Q requires the work W: voltage source within the network as shown in
Fig. 2.128 (b) and Fig. 2.128 (c).
Q
q 1Q 2 1 2
W = ∫ dq = = CV Similarly, a current source can be shifted within a
0
C 2C 2 network as explained in Fig. 2.128 (d) to Fig. 2.128 (e).
88
2. Requirement of the problem If node voltages are
R3 R3 required, nodal analysis is used; if branch/mesh
R2 currents are required, loop analysis is used.
R1 R2 R1 However, there are some particular circuits, where
only one method can be applied. For example, in ana-
V V V lyzing transistor circuits, mesh method is the only pos-
(a) (b) sible method; while for op-amp circuits and for non-
planar networks, node method is the only possible
method.
R3 20. Explain ‘duality’ in electrical engineering. State the

R2 steps followed in finding the dual of a network.
Two phenomena are said to be dual if they are described
R1 by equations of the same mathematical form.
There are a number of similarities and analogies
V V V between the two circuit analysis techniques based
on loop-current method and node voltage method.
(c) The principal quantities and concepts involved in
these two methods based on KVL and KCL are dual
of each other with voltage variables substituted by
R1 I current variables, independent loop by independent
node-pair, etc.
R1 R
2 I This similarity is termed as ‘principle of duality’.
I R2 R3
Some dual relations are
I v = Ri i = Gv
R3
di dv
(d) (e) v =L i =C
dt dt
Fig. 2.128 V-Shift and I-Shift in source transformation
1 1
v = ∫ idt i = ∫vdt
19. Comment briefly on the choice between loop and C L
node methods of analyzing a network Thus, the circuit elements (R, L, C) have some dual rela-
tionship. Duality also appears as a relation between
In any network having ‘N’ nodes and ‘B’ branches, two networks. For example, an RLC series circuit with
there are 2B unknowns, i.e., ‘B’ branch currents and voltage excitation is the dual of an RLC parallel circuit
‘B’ branch voltages. These unknowns can be deter- with current excitation.
mined either by loop analysis or nodal analysis.
The choice of the method depends on two factors: Steps for construction of the dual of a network
1. Nature of the network The mesh-method is gen- 1. A dot is placed inside each independent loop of the
erally used for circuits having many series-con- given network; these dots correspond to the non-
nected elements, voltage sources, or super- reference nodes of the dual network.
meshes. On the other hand, nodal analysis is more 2. A dot is placed outside the network; this dot cor-
suitable for networks for circuits having many responds to the datum node.
parallel-connected elements, current sources, or 3. All internal dots are connected by dashed lines
supernodes. crossing the common branches and placing the
The main factor for selecting any one method elements which are duals of the elements of the
is the minimum number of equations. If a circuit has original network.
fewer nodes than meshes then nodal analysis is 4. All internal dots are connected to the external dot
used, while if a circuit has fewer meshes than nodes by dashed lines crossing all external branches and
then loop method is used. placing dual elements of the external branch.
89
Conventions for reference polarities of voltage source 2. A voltage rise in the direction of a clockwise loop
and reference directions of current source current corresponds to a current flowing towards
1. A clockwise current in a loop corresponds to a posi- the dual independent nodes.
tive polarity (with respect to reference node) at the Finally, the dual construction can be checked by writing
dual independent node. mesh equations and node equations of the two networks.
Exercises
1. Find RAB in the network shown below. All resistance

values are in ohms. [23.52 ] 15V 4 8A 4
A 10 20 5
8 10 V 12A 6
5 15
10 25 (a) (b)
2
B Fig. 2.132
5 30
5. Convert the circuit shown in 10V
Fig. 2.129 18V
Fig. 2.133 to a single current
2. Use loop current analysis to find the current in each source in parallel in with a 6 5
battery in the network shown. All resistance values are single resistor.
in ohm. [0.793 A, 0.408 A, 0.295 A] [I 1 A, R 2.73 ]
Fig. 2.133
20 60 6. Determine the voltage V in the circuit, using the source
transformation technique and/ or any other method.
40 25 50
[V 56.25 V]
5A
120 V 60V 40 V
3
Fig. 2.130 2
5 20A 8 10 V
3. Find the current through the 2- resistance in the net-
work shown below. Use loop current method.
[ 0.841 A] Fig. 2.134
60 2
7. Find the current flowing through the 5- resistor using
⎡ 11 ⎤
1 3 10 source transformation technique. ⎢ A⎥
10 V ⎣ 27 ⎦
3 1
20V
Fig. 2.131
5V 3 1 2A 5
4. Convert the circuits shown in Fig. 2.132 to a single volt-
age source in series with a single resistor.
[V 5兾3 V, R 8兾3 ] [V 104 V, R 10 ] Fig. 2.135
90
8. Reduce the network shown in Fig. 2.136 (a) to a form 12. Use mesh analysis to find the current ix in the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.136 (b) using successive source trans- shown in Fig. 2.140. [8.33 A]
formations. [I 2.14 A, R 1.75 ]
20 25
a
2A 10 1.5ix 5 5A
2
1A 2 ix
4V
a Fig. 2.140
3 1
13. Use mesh analysis to find the current ix in the circuit
6V I R
3V shown in Fig. 2.141. [2.79 A]
b b 8A
(a) (b) ix
8 2
Fig. 2.136
10
100V 4 3 5
9. For the circuit of Fig. 2.137, apply source transforma-
tion and then find V1 and V2 by nodal analysis.
Fig. 2.141
[V1 40 V, V2 15 V]
14. Determine the value of V2, such that the current

_
through (3 j4) impedance is zero.
5 [80.43 119.55 (V)]
2A 20 0.5V1 10
V1 V2 4 3 j4 4
4A
2
_ 20_V 40 V _
_ 20 V j3 j5 V2
Fig. 2.137 Fig. 2.142
10. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.138 if I1 2 A, determine RL

15. Find the current ix in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.143.
and the power delivered in it. [2 ; 18 W]
[0.571 mA]
I1 i1
5k 20 k
12 A 3I1 3 6 RL
4 mA ix 3i1
Fig. 2.138 Fig. 2.143
16. Find the current i1 in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.144.

11. Find the node voltages Va, Vb and Vc using nodal analysis.
[ 1 A]
[4.3 V; 3.9 V; 3.3 V]
90 V
2 10 40
i v2
Va 2 Vb 3 i1
Vc
2V 20V 2v2
4A 1 2i 5
Fig. 2.139 Fig. 2.144

91
17. Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals 22. Construct the dual of the networks shown below.
A and B for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.145. [60 ] R L
10 80 40
A
v (t ) C
Req
100 30 20
(a)
B
Fig. 2.145 5A
18. Using mesh analysis, find the current ix in the circuit

3
shown in Fig. 2.146. [2.79 A]
8A 5
100V 4 6
ix
8 10
2 (b)
100 V 4 3 5
Fig. 2.146 5
4H
19. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.147, find the currents iA, iB,
and iC. [3 A, 5.4 A, 6 A] 0.2F
2A 3 20V
iA iB iC
5.6 A Vx 18 0.1Vx 9 2A (c)
Fig. 2.147 3F
50 mA 4H
20. Use nodal analysis to find the voltage Vxy in the circuit 10
shown in Fig. 2.148 below. [ 0.257 V]
(d)
X
10 2 40 12 5H
30 V1 20
0.55 V 6 3 V1 10 V 2F 3A
Y
Fig. 2.148
(e)
21. Determine Va and Vb in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.149. 2

t=0
[5.17 75 V;1.33 V]
j6 Va 3 Vb j5
6V 2H 10 mF
10 0 (V ) j6 j4 j4
(f)
Fig. 2.149 Fig. 2.150
92
23. Draw a circuit and its dual if the mesh equations of the 24. Draw a circuit and its dual if the node equations of
circuit are the circuit are
(a) 8i1 2i2 4i3 6; 7i2 5i3 3; 4i1 5i2 (a) 4v1 v2 v3 4; v1 6v2 5v3 6; 5v2 8v3 2
9i3 5 (b) 4v1 v2 v3 5; 3v2 v3 3; v1 v2 2v3 6
(b) 4i1 i2 i3 4; i1 6i2 5i3 6; i1 5i2 (c) 6v1 2v2 v3 5; 2v1 8v2 3v3 4;
8i3 2 v1 3v2 9v3 0
Questions
1. Define an electrical network. “All circuits are networks, (b) the voltage across a capacitor cannot change
but all networks are not circuits.”-Justify this statement. instantaneously
2. Explain linearity conditions of elements in detail. 12. Discuss the characteristics of ideal and practical
3. Differentiate between unilateral and bilateral ele- sources (voltage and current). What is loading of
ments. Give examples. sources? Explain.
4. (a) State the basic assumptions for circuit analysis. Or,
Draw the V–I characteristics for voltage and current
(b) Briefly mention the different source transforma- source for ideal and actual cases.
tion techniques. Or,
(c) Discuss the properties of an ideal current source Draw the symbol and characteristics of ideal and prac-
and ideal voltage source. tical voltage and current sources.
(d) Explain how a voltage source can be converted 13. Explain voltage source to current source transforma-
into an equivalent current source and vice-versa. tion. Define V-shift in the source transformation.
5. Explain the properties of basic elements R, L and C in 14. Establish the conditions for equivalence of practical
the network. voltage and current sources.
6. What is electrical resistance? Explain the factors that 15. Give a brief introduction to the dependent (controlled)
affect the resistance. sources.
7. Define capacitance. Derive an expression of the energy 16. (a) State Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws.
stored in a capacitor. (b) Give a brief comparison of the loop method and
node method of circuit analysis.
8. Define self-inductance of a coil. Derive an expression
of the energy stored in an inductor. (c) Comment briefly on the choice between loop and
nodal methods of analyzing a network.
9. What is mutual inductance? Explain coefficient of cou-
pling of two mutually coupled coils. 17. Explain ‘duality’ in electrical engineering. How can you
draw the dual of a network?
10. (a) Explain why a capacitor is considered as a linear cir-
18. State the steps followed in finding the dual of a net-
cuit element.
work.
(b) Explain why an inductor is considered as a linear
19. Elaborate the statement: “A voltage impulse causes
circuit element.
a current to be established in an inductance in zero
11. Explain why time.” What is the value of this current? Is it a viola-
(a) the current through an inductor cannot change tion of the fact that current in an inductance cannot
instantaneously change instantaneously?
1. Find the odd one from the following elements: 2. Kirchhoff’s laws are valid for
(i) Inductor (ii) Capacitor (i) linear circuits only
(iii) Resistor (iv) Transistor (ii) passive time-invariant circuits
93
(iii) non-linear circuits only 12. The voltage across the 5-A current source in the circuit
(iv) both linear and non-linear circuits shown in Fig. 2.151 is
3. Kirchhoff’s laws are applicable to
5
(i) dc circuits
(ii) circuits with sinusoidal excitation only
(iii) circuits with dc and sinusoidal excitation only 5V 5A 5
(iv) circuits with any excitation.
4. Kirchhoff’s law fails in case of
(i) linear networks Fig. 2.151
(ii) non-linear networks
(iii) dual networks
6 ix
(iv) distributed parameter networks
3V 9 12A
5. KCL is a consequence of law of conservation of
(i) energy
(ii) charge
(iii) flux Fig. 2.152
(iv) all of the above
(i) 25 V (ii) 15 V (iii) 17.5 V (iv) 20 V
6. A component that opposes the change in circuit cur-
rent is 13. The current ix in the network of Fig. 2.152 is,
(i) resistance (i) 1A (ii) 1兾2A
(ii) capacitance (iii) 1兾3A (iv) 4兾5A
(iii) inductance 14. The equivalent circuit of the capacitor shown is
iv) conductance
7. A component that opposes the change in circuit volt- C
age is
(i) resistance (ii) capacitance V0 = q0/C
(iii) inductance (iv) conductance
Fig. 2.153
8. For a dc voltage an inductor
(i) is virtually a short circuit.
(i) C V0 (ii) C
(ii) is an open circuit
(iii) depends on polarity
(iv) depends on voltage value
9. A network N’ is a dual of a network N if
(i) both of them have same mesh equations C
(iii) (iv) C
(ii) both of them have same node equations
(iii) mesh equations of one of them are node equa- V0
tions of the other
(iv) none of the above
10. A connected planar network has 4 nodes and 15. A network has seven nodes and five independent
5 elements. The number of meshes in its dual net- loops. The number of branches in the network is
work is (i) 7 (ii) 5 (iii) 11 (iv) 12
(i) 4 (ii) 3 (iii) 2 (iv) 1 16. An electric circuit with 10 branches and 7 nodes will
have
11. Two networks can be dual when
(i) 3 loop equations (ii) 4 loop equations
(i) their nodal equations are the same
(iii) 7 loop equations (iv) 10 loop equations.
(ii) the loop equations of one network are the nodal
equations of the other 17. A circuit having an emf source or any energy source is
(iii) their loop equations are the same (i) active circuit (ii) passive circuit
(iv) none of these (iii) unilateral circuit (iv) bilateral circuit
94
18. The internal impedance of an ideal current source is 30. There are two wires A and B. A is 20 times longer than
(i) zero (ii) infinite B and has half the cross section of that of B. If the
(iii) both (i) and (ii) (iv) none of these resistance of B is 1 , the resistance of A will be
19. The internal impedance of an ideal voltage source is (i) 40 (ii) 1兾40 (iii) 20 (iv) 10
(i) zero (ii) infinite 31. The resistance between the opposite faces of a
(iii) both (i) and (ii) (iv) none of these 1-m cube is found to be 1 . If its length is increased
20. The internal impedance of a dependent voltage to 2 m, with its volume remaining the same then
source is its resistance between the opposite faces along its
(i) zero (ii) infinity length is
(iii) fraction of ohm (iv) any unknown value (i) 2 (ii) 4 (iii) 1 (iv) 8 (v) ½
32. A wire of length l and of circular cross section of radius
21. An ideal voltage source will charge an ideal capacitor
r has a resistance of R ohms. Another wire of the same
(i) in infinite time (ii) exponentially
material and cross-sectional radius 2r will have the
(iii) instantaneously (iv) none of the above
same resistance R if the length is
22. A practical current source is usually represented by (i) 2l (ii) l兾2 (iii) 4l (iv) l2
(i) a resistance in series with an ideal current source 33. Two resistances of equal value, when connected in
(ii) a resistance in parallel with an ideal current source parallel, give an equivalent resistance of R. If these
(iii) a resistance in series with an ideal voltage source resistances are connected in series, the equivalent
(iv) none of the above resistance will be
23. Energy stored in a capacitor is (i) R (ii) 4R (iii) 2R (iv) R兾2
∞
1 34. A series arrangement of ‘n’ identical resistances is
(i) 1兾4CV 2 (ii) 1兾2CV 2 (iii) ∫2C
0
(iv) 0
changed into a parallel arrangement. The new total
resistance will become…times the original resis-
24. The node method of circuit analysis is based on
tance.
(i) KVL and Ohm’s law
(i) 1兾n (ii) 1兾n 2 (iii) 1兾n 3 (iv) 1兾n 4
(ii) KCL and KVL
(iii) KCL, KVL and Ohm’s law 35. If a two-terminal network element in a circuit has volt-
(iv) KCL and Ohm’s law age and current variables that follow the associated
reference directions and its power is negative, which
25. The loop method of circuit analysis is based on
of the following is true?
(i) KVL and Ohm’s law
(i) The element is supplying energy to the rest of
(ii) KCL and KVL
the circuit.
(iii) KCL, KVL and Ohm’s law
(iv) KCL and Ohm’s law. (ii) The element is receiving energy from the rest of
the circuit.
26. If there are b branches and n nodes, the number of (iii) Either (i) or (ii) could be true.
KVL equations required will be
(i) b (ii) b n (iii) n 1 (iv) b n 1 36. If an ideal voltage source and an ideal current source
are the connected in parallel, what are the properties
27. If the number of branches is ‘B’, the number of nodes is of the combination?
‘N’ and the number of dependent loops is ‘L’ then the (i) The same as a voltage source
number of independent node equations will be (ii) The same as a current source
(i) N L 1 (ii) B 1 (iii) Different from either a voltage source or a cur-
(iii) B N (iv) N 1 rent source
28. A network has 10 nodes and 17 branches in all. The 37. If an ideal voltage source and an ideal current source
number of different node pair voltages would be are connected in series, what are the properties of the
(i) 7 (ii) 9 (iii) 10 (iv) 45 combination?
29. Two wires A and B of the same material and lengths (i) The same as a voltage source
L and 2L have radii r and 2r, respectively. The ratio of (ii) The same as a current source
their specific resistance will be (iii) Different from either a voltage source or a cur-
(i) 1 : 1 (ii) 1 : 2 (ii) 1 : 4 (iv) 1 : 8 rent source
95
38. When ideal voltage sources are connected in series, 45. In a network containing only independent voltage
which of the following is true? sources and resistors, if the values of all the resistors
(i) The voltages add, independent of whether the are doubled, the values of the mesh currents
individual sources are constant valued or have (i) are doubled (ii) remain the same
outputs that are functions of time. (iii) are halved (iv) change in some other way
(ii) The connection violates KVL; thus it is not per- 46. If the same constant value of current is added to all
mitted. the independent current sources in a network, the
(iii) Neither is true. node voltages
39. When ideal arbitrary voltage sources are connected in (i) will all have a constant value added
parallel, which of the following is true? (ii) will remain the same
(i) The voltages add, independent of whether the (iii) will all have a constant value subtracted
individual sources are constant valued or have (iv) will change in some other way
outputs that are functions of time. 47. If the same constant value of voltage is added to each
(ii) The connection violates KVL; thus it is not per- of the independent voltage sources in an arbitrary
mitted. network containing only resistors and independent
(iii) Neither is true. voltage sources, the mesh currents
40. When ideal arbitrary current sources are connected in (i) will all have a constant value added
series, which of the following is true? (ii) will remain the same
(i) The currents add, independent of whether the (iii) will all have a constant value subtracted
individual sources are constant valued or have (iv) will change in some other way
outputs that are functions of time. 48. Two resistors R1 and R2 give combined resistance of
(ii) The connection violates KCL; thus it is not per- 4.5 when in series and 1 when in parallel. The
mitted. resistances are
(iii) Neither is true. (i) 2 and 2.5 (ii) 1 and 3.5
(iii) 1.5 and 3.5 (iv) 4 and 0.5
41. When ideal current sources are connected in parallel,
which of the following is true? 49. When all the resistance in the circuit are of 1 each,
the equivalent resistance across the points A and B
(i) The currents add, independent of whether the
will be
individual sources are constant valued or have
outputs that are functions of time.
(ii) The connection violates KCL; thus it is not per-
mitted.
(iii) Neither is true. A B
42. In a network containing only independent current
sources and resistors, if the values of all resistors are
doubled, the values of the node voltages
Fig. 2.154
(i) are doubled (ii) remain the same
(iii) are halved (iv) change in some other way (i) 1 (ii) 0.5 (iii) 2 (iv) 1.5
43. In a network containing only independent current 50. The energy expanded or heat generated in joules
sources and resistors, if the values of all the current when a current of ‘I’ flows through a conductor ‘R’ for ‘t’
sources are doubled, the values of the node voltages seconds is given by
(i) are doubled (ii) remain the same (i) I 2Rt (ii) IRt (iii) IR 2t (iv) IRt 2
(iii) are halved (iv) change in some other way 51. A 2- resistance having a current of 2 A will dissipate
44. In a network containing only independent voltage a power of
sources and resistors, if the values of all the volt- (i) 2 W (ii) 4 W (iii) 8 W (iv) 8 J
age sources are doubled, the values of the mesh 52. The ratio of resistances of a 100-W, 220-V lamp to that
currents of a 100-W, 110-V lamp will be, at the respective volt-
(i) are doubled (ii) remain the same ages
(iii) are halved (iv) change in some other way (i) 4 (ii) 2 (iii) 1兾2 (iv) 1兾4
96
53. The elements which are not capable of delivering (i) 1 A (ii) 0.5 A (iii) 1.5 A (iv) none of these
energy by their own are known as 60. If the current in the 7- resistor branch is 0.5 A as
(i) unilateral elements (ii) non-linear elements shown in Fig. 2.160 and now if the source is connected
(iii) passive elements (iv) active elements in series with the 7- branch and the terminals AB are
54. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.155, the value of current I is shorted, the current in the 5- resistor is
i 3 2 2
A 5 3
6
100 V 12 4
2 6 10 V 10 7
Fig. 2.155
B
(i) 10 A (ii) 15 A (iii) 20 A (iv) 25 A Fig. 2.160
55. The current in the 1- resistor is
A (i) 1 A (ii) 0.5 A (iii) 9.75 A (iv) none of these.
61. The voltage across the 5-A source in the given circuit is
10 V 1 5V
5
B
Fig. 2.156
10 V 5 5A
(i) 5 A (ii) 10 A (iii) 15 A (iv) zero
56. The current in a 5- resistor branch in a linear net-
work is 5 A. If this branch is replaced by a resistor of Fig. 2.161
10 , the current in this branch will be
(i) 5 A (ii) 10 A (i) 25 V (ii) 15 V (iii) 17.5 V (iv) 20 V
(iii) less than 4 A (iv) none of these 62. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.162 current I flows
57. The potential of the point A in the given network is through the resistance R. If a battery with an emf of
1/2 A 1/3 2 V and an internal resistance of 1 is connected
between the terminals A and A’ with the positive termi-
nal connected to A’, the current through R would be
5V 1 10 V
1 A
B
Fig. 2.157 I amp 1 R=2
(i) 6 V (ii) 7 V (iii) 8 V (iv) none of these
A
58. The current through the 30- branch in the given circuit is
10 Fig. 2.162
(i) 2 A (ii) 1.66 A (iii) 1 A (iv) 1.5 A

5
10 30 63. The circuit shown in Fig. 2.163 is linear and time-
10 A invariant. The sources are ideal. The voltage across
the 1- resistor and the current through it will be
Fig. 2.158
I 5
(i) 2.5 A (ii) 2.25 A (iii) 2 A (iv) 10 A
5 volts 1 1A
59. The current through the 8- branch is
5 2 v(t )
10 V 10 10 8 Fig. 2.163
(i) −5 V and −5 A (ii) 1 V and 1 A
Fig. 2.159 (iii) 1 V and 6 A (iv) 5 V and 5 A.
97
64. The number of 2-μF, 400-V capacitors needed to obtain (i) A (ii) A
a capacitance value of 1.5 μF rated for 1600 V is R R
(i) 12 (ii) 8 (iii) 6 (iv) 4
V I
65. The value of the current I flowing in the 1- resistor in B B
the circuit, shown in Fig. 2.164 will be
(iii) A (iv) A
I
5V 5A 1 R I V
B B
Fig. 2.164 69. Two condensers of 20-μF and 40-μF capacitances are
(i) 10 A (ii) 6 A (iii) 5 A (iv) zero. connected in series across a 90-V supply. After charging,
they are removed from the supply and are connected
66. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.165, the current I through in parallel with positive terminals connected together.
RL is Similar is done to the negative terminals. Then the volt-
age across them will be
120 60 (i) 90 V (ii) 60 V (iii) 40 V (iv) 20 V
RL = 30
420 V 420 V 70. The current read by the ammeter A in the ac circuit
shown in Fig. 2.167 is
Fig. 2.165
A
1A 3A 5A
(i) 2 A (ii) zero (iii) 2A (iv) 6A
67. A voltage source with an internal resistance RS, sup-
plies power to a load RL. The power delivered to the
load varies with RL as Fig. 2.167
(i) (ii) (i) 9 A (ii) 5 A (iii) 3 A (iv) 1 A
P 71. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.168, current I is

P
1 2
RL I
RL
3 4
(iii) (iv) 10 V
P P
Fig. 2.168
(i) 2兾5 A (ii) 24兾5 A

RL RL
(iii) 18兾5 A (iv) 2兾5 A
68. A simple equivalent circuit of the 2-terminal network 72. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.169, the voltage VAB is
shown in Fig. 2.166 is
A B
10 V 50 V
R 5
5 10
I V A
Fig. 2.169
B
Fig. 2.166 (i) 6 V (ii) 10 V (iii) 25 V (iv) 40 V
98
73. The equivalent resistance between the terminal 78. For the circuit shown A C
points X and Y in the circuit shown is in Fig. 2.175, when the Linear
E passive i
15 voltage E is 10 V, the network
Y B D
current i is 1 A. If the
15 30 applied voltage across Fig. 2.175
30 the terminal C–D is 100
V, the short-circuit current flowing through the termi-
30 15
nals A–B will be
X (i) 0.1 A (ii) 1 A (iii) 10 A (iv) 100 A
15
79. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.176, the current I is
Fig. 2.170 given by
(i) 15 (ii) 45 (iii) 55 (iv) 30 4 2
74. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.171, if I = 2 then the value I
of the battery voltage V will be 6A 1 3 3V
I 0.5
1 1 Fig. 2.176
V 1
(i) 3 A (ii) 2 A (iii) 1 A (iv) zero
80. The value of V in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.177 is
Fig. 2.171 3V
1
(i) 5 V (ii) 3 V (iii) 2 V (iv) 1 V
75. The effective resistance between the terminals A and
B in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.172 is 3A 1 1 V
A
R R R Fig. 2.177
O
(i) 1 V (ii) 2 V (iii) 3 V (iv) 4 V
R R
B C
R 81. For the circuit given in figure, the power delivered by
the 2 volt source is given by:
Fig. 2.172
(i) 4 W (ii) 2 W (iii) 2 W (iv) 4 W
(i) R (ii) R 1 (iii) R兾2 (iv) 6兾11 R 3
76. The current in the given circuit with a dependent source is
2 Vb 2A 1 1V
1
24 V Vb 3 Fig. 2.178
(i) 4 W (ii) 2 W (iii) 2 W (iv) 4W
4 82. The current through 120- resistor in the circuit
Fig. 2.173 shown in the Fig. 2.178 is
5V
(i) 10 A (ii) 12 A (iii) 14 A (iv) 16 A
77. The value of the resistance ‘R’ shown in Fig. 2.174 is
6
4A 4/7 A
25/7 A 120
50 V 7 R
Fig. 2.174 Fig. 2.179

(i) 3.5 (ii) 2.5 (iii) 1 (iv) 4.5 (i) 1 A (ii) 2 A (iii) 3 A (iv) 4 A
99
83. Four resistors of equal value when connected in series (i) 4 A (ii) 3 A (iii) 2 A (iv) 1 A
across a supply dissipate 25 W. If the same resistors 88. For the circuit given, what is the current delivered by
are now connected in parallel across the same supply, the battery?
what is the power dissipated?
9
(i) 75 W (ii) 100 W (iii) 200 W (iv) 400 W
84. What is the voltage V in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.180?
I=2 1 2
5A
3
2 Fig. 2.184
5 20 A 8 V
10
(i) 3.0 A (ii) 2.0 A (iii) 1.0 A (iv) 0.0 A
Fig. 2.180 89. The circuit shown in Fig. 2.185 is in steady state with
the switch open. At t = 0, the switch is closed. What
(i) 185 V (ii) 115 V (iii) 85 V (iv) 55 V
is the current through the 1- resistor, i(0 )?
85. A part of an electrical network has the configuration 5
shown in Fig. 2.180. The voltage drops across the resis-
tances are 20 V, 30 V and 65 V with respective polarities 1 L2
shown. Which one of the following gives the correct
value of the resistance R3? 12 V
t=0
10 A I3 65 V L1 C
R3
I1 I2 Fig. 2.185
(i) 0 (ii) 1.33 A (iii) 1.66 A (iv) 2 A
20 V 10 30 V 6
90. A 2-terminal network is one of the R-L-C elements.
The element is connected to an ac supply. The current
Fig. 2.181 through the element is I. When a capacitor is inserted
in series between the source and the element then cur-
(i) 13 (ii) 5 (iii) 65 (iv) 63兾17 rent through the element becomes 2I. The element
86. What is the current I in the circuit given in Fig. 2.182? (i) is a resistor (ii) is an inductor
3 (iii) is a capacitor (iv) cannot be a single element
91. For the circuit shown in R
2 3 Fig. 2.186, if the current I = 3 A
and 1.5 A for RL = 0 and 2
6V 3 respectively, then what is the V RL
1 value of I for RL = 1 ? I
3
(i) 0.5 A (ii) 1.0 A Fig. 2.186
I
(iii) 2.0 A (iv) 3.0 A
Fig. 2.182
92. What is the value of current I in the circuit shown in
(i) 0 (ii) 1 A (iii) 2 A (iv) 3 A Fig. 2.187?
87. In the circuit given when R is infinite, V 4 V and when 2
R 0, the current through R is 4 A. If R 3 , what is
the current through it?
6V 1 1 30 V
2
Sources
and V R I
resistors Fig. 2.187
Fig. 2.183 (i) 1 A (ii) 3A (iii) 6A (iv) 9 A

100
93. In the circuit shown, the current through R is 98. The current I1 through the 5- resistor in the network
shown in Fig. 2.193, is
I 10
I1
10 V 5 10
5 10
5A 20 5
5I 100 V
R(= 10 )
Fig. 2.193
Fig. 2.188
(i) 8.58 A (ii) 7.54 A (iii) 11.66 A (iv) 15 A
(i) 0 (ii) 0.5 A (iii) 2.5 A (iv) 3.33 A 99. A lamp rated at 10 W, 50 V is proposed to be used in a
94. Referring to the circuit shown in Fig. 2.189, the current 110-V system. The wattage and resistance of the resis-
in the 18- resistor is tor to be connected in series with the lamp should be
13 11 (i) 15 watts, 350 ohms (ii) 10 watts, 250 ohms
(iii) 12 watts, 300 ohms (iv) 15 watts, 250 ohms
18 14
44 V 5 100. Fig. 2.194 shows the wave-
22 9
form of the current passing
Fig. 2.189 through an inductor of 1- 6A
resistance and 2-H induc-
(i) 2 A (ii) 1.5 A (iii) 1 A (iv) 0.5 A tance. The energy absorbed t
0 2s 4s
95. An ideal ammeter is connected between terminals by the inductor in the first
four seconds is Fig. 2.194
A and B of the network shown above. The current
through the ammeter is (i) 144 J (ii) 98 J
(iii) 132 J (iv) 168J
6 3
A 101. A segment of a circuit is shown in Fig. 2.195. VR 5 V,
9.6 V VC = 4sin2t. The voltage VL is given by
6 6
Q
B
1A
Fig. 2.190
VR
2A 5 1F
(i) 0.8 A (ii) 1.6 A (iii) 0 A (iv) 3.2 A
P R
96. For the network shown in Fig. 2.191, the current in the
VL VC
2- resistor would be 2x
10 iC
S
5A 10 2 25 A Fig. 2.195
(i) 3 8 cos 2t (ii) 32 sin 2t
Fig. 2.191 (iii) 16 sin 2t (iv) 16 cos 2t
(i) 5 A (ii) 20 A (iii) 25 A (iv) 30 A 102. In the circuit of Fig. 2.196, the magnitudes of VL and VC
are twice that of VR. The inductance of the coil is
97. The branch voltages are marked with proper polarity
VR
for the network shown in Fig. 2.192. The value of V5 is
V1 = 1V
5
A V2 = 2 V B V3 C C VC
5 00
V4 V5 V6
L VL
D
Fig. 2.192 Fig. 2.196
(i) 3 V (ii) 2 V (iii) 1 V (iv) 0 V (i) 2.14 mH (ii) 5.30 H (iii) 3.18 mH (iv) 1.32 H
101
103. In Fig. 2.197, the value of the source voltage is
L1 R1 R2 L3
10 6 P 2A C1
V
I L2 R3 C2
1A 6
Fig. 2.201
Q
Fig. 2.197 (i) 1, 4 (ii) 5, 1 (iii) 5, 2 (iv) 5, 4
(i) 12 V (ii) 24 V (iii) 30 V (iv) 44 V 108. A 3-V dc supply with an internal resistance of 2- sup-
plies a passive non-linear resistance characterized by
104. In Fig. 2.198, Ra, Rb and Rc are 20 , 10 and 10
the relation VNL = I2NL. The power dissipated in the non-
respectively. The resistances R1, R2 and R3 in of an
linear resistance is
equivalent star-connection are
(i) 1.0 W (ii) 1.5 W (iii) 2.5 W (iv) 3.0 W
a
a 109. Assuming ideal elements in the circuit shown below,
the voltage Vab will be
R1
Rb Rc a 2
R3 R2
c Ra b c b
1A Vab
Fig. 2.198 5V
(i) 2.5, 5, 5 (ii) 5, 2.5, 5 i

(iii) 5, 5, 2.5 (iv) 2.5, 5, 2.5
b
105. In Fig. 2.199, the value of resistance R in is
Fig. 2.202
10 2A (i) 3V (ii) 0 V (iii) 3 V (iv) 5 V
10 R 110. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.203, the value of the cur-
100 V
rent i will be given by
1 Vab b 3
Fig. 2.199 4Vab

5V 1 1
(i) 10 (ii) 20 (iii) 30 (iv) 40 i
106. In the Fig. 2.200, the value of R is

Fig. 2.203
8A R
(i) 0.31 A (ii) 1.25 A (iii) 1.75 A (iv) 2.5 A
111. The minimum number of equations required to ana-
10 10 lyze circuit shown in Fig. 2.204 is
100 V
C C
Fig. 2.200 R R
(i) 2.5 (ii) 5.0 (iii) 7.5 (iv) 10.0 R C R
107. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.201, the current source

I = 1 A, voltage source V = 5 V, R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 , Fig. 2.204
L1 = L2 = L3 = 1 H, C1 = C2 = 1 F. The current (in A) through
R3 and the voltage source V respectively will be (i) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) 6 (iv) 7
102
112. Twelve 1- resistances are used as edges to form a a capacitance of 0.1F is inserted in series between
cube. The resistance between two diagonally oppo- the source and the box then the current through the
site corners of the cube is source is 2I. The element is
(i) 5兾6 (ii) 1 (iii) 6兾5 (iv) 3兾2 (i) a resistance
113. A two-terminal black box contains one of the R, L, C (ii) an inductance
elements. The black box is connected to a 220-V (iii) a capacitance of 0.5 F
ac supply. The current through the source is I. When (iv) not readily identifiable from the given data
Answers
1. (iv) 24. (iv) 47. (iv) 70. (ii) 93. (i)

2. (iv) 25. (i) 48. (iii) 71. (ii) 94. (iii)
3. (iv) 26. (iv) 49. (ii) 72. (i) 95. (i)
4. (iv) 27. (iv) 50. (i) 73. (iv) 96. (iii)
5. (ii) 28. (iv) 51. (iii) 74. (iii) 97. (iv)
6. (iii) 29. (i) 52. (i) 75. (iii) 98. (i)
7. (ii) 30. (i) 53. (iii) 76. (ii) 99. (iii)
8. (i) 31. (ii) 54. (iv) 77. (i) 100. (i)
9. (iii) 32. (iii) 55. (iv) 78. (iii) 101. (ii)
10. (ii) 33. (ii) 56. (iii) 79. (iii) 102. (iii)
11. (ii) 34. (ii) 57. (iii) 80. (iii) 103. (iii)
12. (ii) 35. (i) 58. (iii) 81. (ii) 104. (i)
13. (i) 36. (i) 59. (ii) 82. (iii) 105. (ii)
14. (i) 37. (ii) 60. (ii) 83. (iv) 106. (iii)
15. (iii) 38. (i) 61. (iii) 84. (iv) 107. (iv)
16. (ii) 39. (ii) 62. (iv) 85. (ii) 108. (i)
17. (i) 40. (ii) 63. (iv) 86. (ii) 109. (i)
18. (ii) 41. (i) 64. (i) 87. (iv) 110. (ii)
19. (i) 42. (i) 65. (iii) 88. (iv) 111. (ii)
20. (iv) 43. (i) 66. (iii) 89. (i) 112. (i)
21. (iii) 44. (i) 67. (iii) 90. (ii) 113. (ii)
22. (ii) 45. (iii) 68. (i) 91. (iii)
23. (ii) 46. (iv) 69. (iii) 92. (iii)
3 Network Topology
(Graph Theory)
Introduction
The word topology refers to the science of place. In mathematics, topology is a branch of geometry in
which figures are considered perfectly elastic.
Network topology refers to the properties that relate to the geometry of a network (circuit). These
properties remain unchanged even if the circuit is bent into any other shape provided that no parts are
cut and no new connections are made.
In electrical engineering, solution of network analysis problems involves finding the current through
and voltage across different circuit elements. Different laws (like Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s laws, etc.) have
been postulated for simplifying the solution method. However, it is sometimes found that the algebraic
equations written by different laws are not independent. On the other hand, the equations formed by
network topology method are all independent.
The network topology method has many other merits and can be listed as follows.
1. The graph theory or network topology deals with those properties of networks which do not
change with the change in the shape of the networks.
2. All the equations (KCL and KVL) formed by graph theory concept are independent equations.
3. The graph theory concept eases the solution method for solving networks with a large number of
nodes and branches.
In this chapter, we will discuss the fundamentals of graph theory (network topology) and their
applications for solving network-analysis problems.
3.1 GRAPH OF A NETWORK

A linear graph (or simply a graph) is defined as a collection of points called nodes, and line segment called
branches, the nodes being joined together by the branches.
104
6 6
4 b 5
4 5 a c
b
a c
3 2
1 2
1 3
d d
Fig. 3.1 (a) Circuit Fig 3.1 (b) Graph of the circuit
While Drawing the Graph of a Given Network

(i) All passive elements between the nodes are represented by lines.
(ii) The independent current sources and voltage sources are represented by their internal impedances
(i.e., current sources by an open circuit and voltage sources by a short circuit) if they are accompanied
by a passive element, viz, a shunt admittance in a current source and a series impedance in a voltage
source.
(iii) If the sources are not accompanied by passive elements, an arbitrary impedance (say resistance R) or
admittance is assumed to accompany the sources and finally, we find the results by letting the imped-
ance R → 0 or R → as the case may be for the current or voltage sources.
3.2 TERMINOLOGY
In order to discuss the more involved methods of circuit analysis, we must define a few basic terms necessary
for a clear, concise description of important circuit features.
a R1 b
Node A node is a point in a circuit where
two or more circuit elements join. i1
v1 i2 R5
Example a, b, c, d, e, f and g R2 d R3
c i6 I
e R7
Essential Nodes A node that joins three
i3
or more elements. v2 i4 R6
R4
Example b, c, e and g
f g
Branc A branch is a path that connects i5
two nodes. Fig. 3.2 Circuit illustrating terminologies
Example v1, R1, R2, R3, v2, R4, R5, R6, R7 and I
Essential Branch Those paths that connect essential nodes without passing through an essential node.
Example c-a-b, c-d-e, c-f-g, b-e, e-g, b-g (through R7), and b-g (through I)
Loop A loop is a complete path, i.e., its starting at a selected node, tracing a set of connected basic-circuit elements
and returning to the original starting node without passing through any intermediate node more than once.
105
Network Topology (Graph Theory)
Example abedca, abegfca, cdebgfc, etc.

Mesh A mesh is a special type of loop, i.e., it does not contain any other loops within it.
Example abedca, cdegfc, gebg (through R7) and gebg (through I)

Oriented Graph A graph whose branches are oriented is called a directed or oriented graph.
Rank of a Graph The rank of a graph is (n 1) where n is the number of nodes or vertices of the graph.
Planar and Non-Planar Graph A graph is planar if it can be drawn in a plane such that no two branches
intersect at a point which is not a node.
6
4 b 5
a c
2 3
1
d
Fig. 3.3 (a) Planar graph Fig. 3.3 (b) Non-planar graph Fig. 3.3 (c)
Subgraph A subgraph is a subset of the branches and nodes of a graph. The subgraph is said to be proper
if it consists of strictly less than all the branches and nodes of the graph.
Path A path is a particular sub graph where only two branches are incident at every node except the
terminal nodes (i.e., starting and finishing nodes). At the terminal nodes, only one branch is incident.
In the example in the Fig. 3.3 (c), branches 2, 3, and 4, together with all the four nodes, constitute a path. A
graph is connected if there exists a path between any pair of vertices. Otherwise, the graph is disconnected.
3.3 CONCEPT OF A TREE

For a given connected graph of a network, a connected subgraph is known as a tree of the graph if the sub-
graph has all the nodes of the graph without containing any loop.
R1
R2 2 R4
1 3
R5
R3
v1 is
4
Fig. 3.4 (a) Circuit Fig. 3.4 (b) Trees and links of the circuit of Fig. 3.4 (a)
106
Twigs The branches of a tree are called twigs or tree-branches. The number of branches or twigs, in any
selected tree is always one less than the number of nodes, i.e.,
twigs (n 1), where n is the number of nodes of the graph
For the graph shown in Fig. 3.3 (c), twigs (4 1) 3 twigs. These are shown by solid lines in
Fig.3. 4 (b).
Links and co-tree If a graph for a network is known and a particular tree is specified, the remaining
branches are referred as the links. The collection of links is called a co-tree. So, a co-tree is the complement
of a tree. These are shown by dotted lines in Fig. 3.4 (b).
The branches of a co-tree may or may not be connected, whereas the branches of a tree are always connected.
To Summarize Number of nodes in a graph n
Number of independent voltages n 1
Number of tree-branches n 1
Number of links L (Total number of branches) (Number of tree-branches)
b (n 1)
Total number of branches b L (n 1)
Properties of a tree
1. In a tree, there exists one and only one path between any pairs of nodes.
2. Every connected graph has at least one tree.
3. A tree contains all the nodes of the graph.
4. There is no closed path in a tree and hence, a tree is circuitless.
5. The rank of a tree is (n 1).
Example 3.1 For the network shown in Fig. 3.5, draw the graph and show some possible trees.
Solution Before drawing the graph we first label the nodes and
branches of the network as shown in Fig. 3.6 (a). Since the voltage R1 R2 C1
source is accompanied by a series resistance and the current source
by a parallel resistance, while drawing the graph they will be open- L1
V R3
circuited and short-circuited, respectively. I
The graph of the network is shown in Fig. 3.6 (b) and some trees
are shown in Fig. 3.6 (c) to Fig. 3.6 (e). Fig. 3.5 Circuit of Example 3.1
(5) C1 (5)
R1 R2 B
A A
(4) B
(1) (3) (3)
L1 (2)
V (2) I R3 (4)
(1)
C C
Fig. 3.6 (a) Fig. 3.6 (b) Graph of the
circuit of Fig. 3.5
107
The twigs are shown by solid lines and the links by dashed lines.
(5) (5) (5)
A B A B A B
(3) (3) (3)
(1) (4) (4) (1) (4)

(2) (1) (2) (2)
C C C
Fig. 3.6 (c) Fig. 3.6 (d) Fig. 3.6 (e)
3.4 INCIDENCE MATRIX [Aa]

The incidence matrix symbolically describes a network. It also facilitates the testing and identification of the
independent variables. The incidence matrix is a matrix which represents a graph uniquely.
For a given graph with ‘n’ nodes and ‘b’ branches, the complete incidence matrix Aa is a rectangular matrix
of order n b, whose elements have the following values:
Number of columns in [A] Number of branches b
Number of rows in [A] Number of nodes n
Aij 1, if the branch j is associated with the node i and oriented away from the node j.
1, if the branch j is associated with the node i and oriented towards the node j.
0, if the branch j is not associated with the node i.
This matrix tells us which branches are incident at which nodes and what the orientations relative to the
nodes are.
Example 3.2 Draw the graph of the network shown in Fig. 3.7 (a) and write the incidence matrix.
4 4 b 5
a b 5 a c
c
6 2
3
1 2 3 1 6
d d
Fig. 3.7 (a) Network Fig. 3.7 (b) Graph of the network
108
Solution The graph of the network is shown in Fig. 3.7 (b). The incidence matrix Aa is given as
Branches
1 2 3 4 5 6
a 1 0 0 1 0 0 Reduced
Aa = Nodes b 0 1 0 1 1 0 incidence
c 0 0 1 0 1 1 matrix AI
Reference node d 1 1 1 0 0 1
3.4.1 Incidence Matrix and KCL

For the graph shown in Fig. 3.8, Kirchhoff’s current law for the branch currents (i1, i2, , i6) gives the equations
i1 i2 i6 0
i1 i3 i5 0 1
i2 i3 i4 0
(1)
i4 i5 i6 0 (2)
(6) (3)
In matrix form, these equations can be represented as 2 3
(5)
⎡ i1 ⎤ (4)
⎢ ⎥
⎡ 1 1 0 0 0 1 ⎤ ⎢i2 ⎥ 4
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ −1 0 1 0 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ i3 ⎥ Fig. 3.8 Graph illustrating
=0 incidence matrix and KCL
⎢ 0 −1 −1 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢i4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 −1 1 −1⎦ ⎢i5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣i6 ⎦
Or, Aa I b = 0
where, Aa is the complete incidence matrix of the graph.
Reduced Incidence Matrix [A] The matrix obtained from Aa by eliminating one of the rows is called the
reduced incidence matrix. In other words, suppression of the datum node (reference node) from the incidence
matrix results in a reduced incidence matrix.
3.4.2 Incidence Matrix and KVL

For the graph shown in Fig. 3.8, the branch voltages (vb1, vb2, vb6) can be represented in terms of the node
voltages (vn1, vn2, vn3, vn4) as
vb1 (vn1 – vn2), vb2 (vn1 – vn3), vb3 (vn2 – vn3), vb4 (vn3 – vn4), vb5 ( vn1 vn4), vb6 (vn1 – vn4)
109
Thus, the Kirchhoff’s voltage law in matrix form can be written as
⎡1 −1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ vb1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ vn1 ⎤ ⎢ v ⎥
⎢1 0 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ b 2 ⎥
⎢0 1 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ vn2 ⎥ ⎢ vb 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 1 −1 ⎥ ⎢ vn3 ⎥ ⎢ vb 4 ⎥
⎢0 −1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ vn4 ⎥⎦ ⎢ b 5 ⎥
⎢⎣1 0 0 −1⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ vb 6 ⎦⎥
Or, AaT Vn = Vb
Properties of complete incidence matrix
(i) The sum of the entries in any column is zero.
(ii) The determinant of the incidence matrix of a closed loop is zero.
(iii) The rank of the incidence matrix of a connected graph is (n 1).
3.4.3 Number of Possible Trees of a Graph

The number of possible trees of a graph, det {[A] [A]T}
where, A is the reduced incidence matrix obtained by eliminating any one row of the complete incidence
matrix Aa, and [A]T is the transpose of the matrix [A].
Example 3.3 For the graph shown in Fig. 3.8, find the number of possible trees.
⎡ 1 1 0 0 0 1⎤
⎢ ⎥
−1 0 1 0 −1 0 ⎥
Solution The complete incidence matrix is Aa = ⎢
⎢ 0 −1 −1 1 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 −1 1 −1⎦
⎡ 1 1 0 0 0 1⎤
⎢ ⎥
So, the reduced incidence matrix is A = ⎢ −1 0 1 0 −1 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 −1 −1 1 0 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Thus, the number of possible trees of the graph of Fig. 3.8
⎧ ⎡1 −1 0 ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎡ 1 1 0 0 0 1 ⎤ ⎢1 0 −1⎥ ⎪ 3 −1 −1
⎪⎪ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 1 −1⎥ ⎪⎪
= det ⎨ ⎢ −1 0 1 0 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎬ = −1 3 −1 = 16
⎪ ⎢ 0 −1 −1 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎪ −1 −1 3
⎪⎣ ⎦ ⎢0 −1 0 ⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣1 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
110
3.5 TIE-SET MATRIX AND LOOP CURRENTS

Tie-Set A tie-set is a set of branches contained in a loop such that each loop contains one link or chord and
the remainder are tree branches.
Consider the graph and the tree as shown in Fig. 3.9. This selected tree will result in three fundamental
loops as we connect each link, in turn to the tree.
1 1
2 3
2 3
FL 1
4 2 3
5 4 6
Fig. 3.9 (a) Graph Fig. 3.9 (b) Tree of the graph Fig. 3.9 (c) Loop-1
2 3
FL 2 FL 3
5 4 4 6
Fig. 3.9 (d) Loop-2 Fig. 3.9 (e) Loop-3

Fundamental Loop 1 (FL1): Connecting link 1 to the tree
These sets of branches (1, 2, 3), (2, 4, 5) and (3, 4, 6) form three tie-sets.
3.5.1 Tie-Set Matrix or Loop Incidence Matrix or Circuit Matrix (Ba)

For a given graph having ‘n’ nodes and ‘b’ branches, the tie-set matrix is a rectangular matrix with ‘b’ col-
umns and as many rows as there are loops. Its elements have the following values:
Bij 1, if the branch j is in the loop i and their orientations coincide (i.e., the loop current and branch cur-
rent flows in the same direction)
1, if the branch j is in the loop i and their orientations do not coincide
0, if the branch j is not in the loop i
Example 3.4 For the graph shown in Fig. 3.10 (a), select a tree, identify the b 5
a 4 c
tie-sets and write the tie-set matrix.
Solution The tree is shown in Fig. 3.10 (b) and three tie-sets are identified and 2
1
shown in Fig. 3.10 (b). The tie-set matrix is written as follows. The entries in the 3 6
tie-set schedule are given as 1 or 1 depending on whether the branch current
is in the same direction as the link current or not. If the branch current does not d
depend on the link current then the entry is zero Fig. 3.10 (a) Graph
111
Branches no (i) j4 j5
b
Links ( j) 1 a c
2 3 4 5 6
4 1 1 0 1 0 0 i4 2 i5
Tie-set Matrix, Ba 5 0 1 1 0 1 0 i6
1
6 0 0 1 0 0 1 3 j6
d
Fig. 3.10 (b) Formation of loops
3.5.2 Tie-Set Matrix and KVL

For the graph shown in Fig. 3.9 (a) and three loops shown in Fig. 3.9 (c), (d) and (e), three fundamental mesh
KVL equations can be written as follows:
For Fundamental Loop 1 (FL1): vb1 vb3 vb2 0
These equations in matrix form is written as
⎡ vb1 ⎤
⎡1 1 −1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ vb 2 ⎥
⎢0 −1 0 −1 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = 0
⎢0 0 1 1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ b 3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎢ ⎥
⎣ vb44 ⎦
Or, BaVb = 0
3.5.3 Tie-Set Matrix and KCL

For the graph shown in Fig. 3.9 (a) and three loops shown in Fig. 3.9 (c), (d) and (e), the branch currents
(ib1, ib2, ,ib6) can be represented in terms of the loop currents (IL1, IL2, IL3) as
ib1 IL1, ib2 (IL1 – IL2), ib3 (−IL1 IL3), ib4 (−IL2 IL3), ib5 IL2, ib6 IL3
In matrix form, these equations can be written as
⎡ ib1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ib 2 ⎥ ⎢ 1 −1 0⎥
⎢i ⎥ ⎢ ⎡ IL1 ⎤
⎢ b 3 ⎥ = ⎢ −1 0 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎥⎢I ⎥
⎢i ⎥ ⎢ 0 −1 1⎥ ⎢ L 2 ⎥
⎢ b4 ⎥ ⎢ I
⎢ ib 5 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0⎥ ⎣ L 3 ⎦
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ ib 6 ⎥⎦ ⎣
Or, I b = Ba T I L
112
3.6 CUT-SET MATRIX AND NODE-PAIR POTENTIAL

Cut-set A cut-set is a minimum set of elements that when cut, or removed, separates the graph into two
groups of nodes. A cut-set is a minimum set of branches of a connected graph, such that the removal of
these branches from the graph reduces the rank of the graph by one.
In other words, for a given connected graph (G), a set of branches (C) is defined as a cut-set if and only if
(i) the removal of all the branches of C results in an unconnected graph
(ii) the removal of all but one of the branches of C leaves the graph still connected
Example Consider the graph shown in Fig. 3.11 (a). The rank of the graph is 3.
The removal of branches 1 and 3 reduces the graph into two connected subgraphs as shown in Fig. 3.11 (b).
The rank of the graph of Fig. 3.11 (a) (4 1) 3
The rank of the graph of Fig. 3.11 (b) addition of the ranks of the subgraphs (1 1) 2
So, branches [1, 3] may be a cut-set.
(5) (5)
(2)
(2) (2)
(1) (3)
(4) (4) (4)
Fig. 3.11 (a) Graph Fig. 3.11 (b) Subgraphs Fig. 3.11 (c) Subgraphs
with removal of 1 and 3 with removal of 1, 3 and 5
Also, removal of the branches 1, 3 and 5 reduces the graph into two connected subgraphs as shown in
Fig. 3.11 (c) and the rank becomes 2. So, [1, 3, 5] may also be a cut-set.
As a cut-set is the minimum set of branches and [1, 3] is a subset of [1, 3, 5], so, [1, 3] is the cut-set, and
[1, 3, 5] is not a cut-set.
1 C1
C2
Fundamental Cut-Set A fundamental cut-set (FCS) is a cut-set
that cuts or contains one and only one tree branch. Therefore, for (1)
a given tree, the number of fundamental cut-sets will be equal to the (2)
number of twigs.
(bk)
(6)
The Procedure for Finding the Fundamental Cut-Sets 2 3
(3)
1. First, select a tree of the given graph. (5) (4)
2. Focus on a tree branch (bk).
3. Check whether removing this tree branch (bk) from the tree dis-
connects the tree into two separate parts. C3
4
4. All the links which go from one part of this disconnected tree
to the other, together with the tree branch (bk) forms a funda- Fig. 3.12 Graph illustrating
mental cut-set. fundamental cut-set
113
Following this procedure, the fundamental cut-sets for the above graphs will be
f-cut-set – 1: [1, 2, 6]
f-cut-set – 2: [2, 3, 5, 6]
f-cut-set – 3: [4, 5, 6]
Properties of a Cut-Set
1. A cut-set divides the set of nodes into two subsets.
2. Each fundamental cut-set contains one tree-branch, the remaining elements being links.
3. Each branch of the cut-set has one of its terminals incident at a node in one subset and its other terminal
at a node in the other subset.
4. A cut-set is oriented by selecting an orientation from one of the two parts to the other. Generally, the
direction of a cut-set is chosen same as the direction of the tree branch.
3.6.1 Cut-Set Matrix (QC)

For a given graph, a cut-set matrix (QC) is defined as a rectangular matrix whose rows correspond to cut-sets
and columns correspond to the branches of the graph. Its elements have the following values:
Qij 1, if the branch j is in the cut-set i and the orientations coincide
1, if the branch j is in the cut-set i and the orientations do not coincide
0, if the branch j is not in the cut-set i
Example 3.5 For the graph shown in Fig. 3.12, write the fundamental cut-set matrix.
Solution The fundamental cut-sets have been identified as
f-cut-set – 1: [1, 2, 6]
f-cut-set – 2: [2, 3, 5, 6]
f-cut-set – 3: [4, 5, 6]
So, the cut-set matrix is written as
Branch no.
f-cut-sets 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 0 0 0 1
2 0 1 1 0 1 1
3 0 0 0 1 1 1
3.6.2 Cut-Set Matrix and KVL FCS-2
By cut-set schedule, the branch voltages can be expressed in terms of the 1 6

2
tree-branch voltages. 7
5
A cut-set consists of one and only one branch of the tree together with FCS-1 FCS-3
8
any links which must be cut to divide the network into two parts. A set of 3
4
fundamental cut-sets includes those cut-sets which are obtained by apply-
ing a cut-set division for each of the branches of the network tree. FCS-4
Consider the following graph shown in Fig. 3.13. Fig. 3.13 (a) Graph
114
Applying cut-sets at nodes a, b, c, d, which are the fundamental cut-sets (FCS), b

we can write the cut-set schedule as
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 5 7
a c
FCS-1→ a 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 8
FCS-2→ b 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
c d
FCS-3→ 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
Fig. 3.13 (b) Tree
FCS-4→ d 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
The tree-branch voltages are [vt 5, vt 6, vt 7, vt 8], the branch voltages are [Vb1, Vb2, … Vb8] and the relationship
between tree-branch voltages and branch voltages are
Vb1 −vt5 vt6 Vb5 vt5
Vb2 −vt6 vt7 Vb6 vt6
Vb3 vt7 − vt8 Vb7 vt7
Vb4 vt5 − vt8 Vb8 vt8
The above equations can be related by using the cut-set schedule as
⎡Vb1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ −1 1 0 0⎤
⎢Vb 2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 −1 1 0⎥
⎥
⎢V ⎥ ⎢
⎢ b3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 −1⎥ ⎡ vt 5 ⎤
⎢V ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 ⎥⎢ ⎥
−1⎥ ⎢ vt 6 ⎥
⎢ b4 ⎥ = ⎢
0
⎢Vb 5 ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢⎢ vt 7 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb 6 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢⎣ vt 8 ⎥⎦
⎢V ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥
⎥
⎢ b7 ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣Vb8 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
Or, Vb = QC T Vt
3.6.3 Cut-Set Matrix and KCL

For the graph of Fig. 3.13, writing Kirchhoff ’s current laws for the nodes, the branch currents can be expressed as
Node a: ib1 ib4 ib5 0
Node b: ib1 ib2 ib6 0
Node c: ib2 ib3 ib7 0
Node d: ib3 ib4 ib8 0
115
In matrix form they can be written as

⎡ ib1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ib 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎡ −1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ ib 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 −1 0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ib 4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥=0
⎢ 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ ib 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −1 −1 0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎢ ib 6 ⎥
⎢i ⎥
⎢ b7 ⎥
⎢⎣ ib8 ⎥⎦
Or, QC I b = 0
There is a cut-set matrix for a given tree. If a graph contains more than one tree, there will be as many
numbers of cut-set matrices as the number of trees of the graph.
To summarize, KVL and KCL equations in three matrix forms are given below.
Matrix KCL KVL
Incidence matrix (Aa) Aa Ib 0 Vb AaT Vn
Tie-set matrix (Ba) Ib BaT IL Ba Vb 0
T
Cut-set matrix (QC) QC Ib 0 Vb QC Vt
3.7 FORMULATION OF NETWORK EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS

The network equilibrium equations are a set of equations that completely and uniquely determine the state
of a network at any instant of time. These equations are written in terms of suitably chosen current variables
or voltage variables.
These equations will be unique if the number of independent variables are equal to the number of inde-
pendent equations.
Number of Independent variables or equations b (n 1); for loop method of analysis
(n 1); for node method of analysis
The equations for a network can be formed in either of the two methods as given below:
1. Through a set of voltage law equations in which the currents are the independent variables (loop-basis
method)
2. Through a set of current law equations in which the node-pair voltages are the independent variables
(node-basis method)
3.7.1 Formulation of Network Equations on Loop Basis
Steps
1. Draw the directed graph of the network selecting the direction of assumed current flow to coincide for
current sources.
2. Select a tree of the graph.
116
3. Place all voltage sources in the tree and all current sources in the co-tree.
4. Place all control-voltage branches for voltage-controlled dependent sources in the tree and all control-
current branches for current-controlled dependent sources in the co-tree, if possible.
5. Add one link to the tree, creating a fundamental loop, and write a KVL equation for this fundamental
loop (FL). Repeat for each additional link until L ( b n 1) mesh equations are obtained in the
form Ba Vb 0.
6. The current sources in the co-tree, if present, will provide the constraint equations.
7. The KCL equations are obtained by representing the branch currents in terms of loop currents in the
form Ib BaT IL.
8. For each branch, the relationship between the voltage and current is obtained from Ohm’s law (V ⴝ RI).
9. Finally, the equilibrium equations are obtained in terms of loop currents by suitable substitution of the
equations obtained in steps 5 to 8.
3.7.2 Formulation of Network Equations on Node Basis
Steps
1. Draw a directed graph of the circuit under considerations, selecting the directions of assumed current
flow to coincide for current sources.
2. Select the tree of the graph so that current sources are in the co-tree and the voltage sources are
within the tree, if possible. Also, if possible, select the tree so that at least two branches of the tree are
incident at the reference node.
3. Identify (n 1) fundamental cut-sets (FCS) and draw the FCS lines.
4. Write the (n 1) FCS KCL equations in the form Aa Ib 0 or QC Ib ⴝ 0.
5. Obtain each of the branch currents in terms of node voltages in the form Vb AaT Vn or, Vbⴝ
T
QC ×Vt.
6. For each branch, the relationship between the voltage and current is obtained from Ohm’s law
(V ⴝ RI).
7. Substitute the equations of the step 6 into the KVL equations of the step 5 and finally into the KCL
equations of the step 4, thus obtaining the (n 1) independent node voltage equations.
3.8 GENERALIZED EQUATIONS IN MATRIX FORMS FOR CIRCUITS

HAVING SOURCES
A general branch consisting of a voltage source Vs and a current source Is Vs
Ib
is shown in Fig. 3.14. Zb
Here, the branch current is (Ib Is) and the branch voltage is (Vb Vs)
Without sources, the KCL and KVL equations are
Aa Ib 0 (3.1) Is
Fig. 3.14
Ib ⴝ BaT IL (3.2) KCL
QC Ib ⴝ 0 (3.3)
and Vb ⴝ AaT Vn (3.4)
Ba Vb ⴝ 0 (3.5) KVL
T
Vb ⴝ Q C Vt (3.6)
117
With the sources, the KCL and KVL equations are modified as
Aa Ib Aa Is 0 (3.7)
T
Ib Is Ba IL (3.8)
Qc Ib Qc Is 0 (3.9)
T
and Vb Vs Aa Vn (3.10)
Ba Vb Ba Vs 0 (3.11)
T
Vb Vs Q Vtc (3.12)
The branch voltage–current relations for the passive network elements are written in matrix form as
Vb Zb Ib (3.13)
and Ib Yb Vb (3.14)
where, Zb is the branch impedance matrix and Yb is the branch admittance matrix, both of the order b × b.
On the basis of these equations, the general equations can be written in terms of three matrices
as follows.
Node Equations From Eq. (3.7),
Aa Is Aa Ib Aa Yb Vb Aa Yb (AaT Vn Vs) {by Eq. (3.10)}
T
Or, Aa Yb Aa Vn Aa Yb Vs Aa Is Aa [Yb Vs – Is]
Or, YVn =Aa [Yb Vs − I s ]
In case of node analysis, one node is taken as the datum node and the potential of that node is zero. Conse-
quently, the complete incident matrix becomes the reduced incidence matrix. Thus, the node equations become
Y Vn =A [Yb Vs − I s ]
where, Y ⴝ AYb AT is called the nodal admittance matrix of the order of (n – 1) (n – 1). The above equa-
tion represents a set of (n – 1) number of equations, known as node equations.
Mesh Equations
From Eq. (3.11), Ba Vs Ba Vb Ba Zb Ib Ba Zb (BaT IL Is) {by Eq. (3.8)}
Or, Ba Zb BaT IL Ba [Zb Is Vs]
Or, Z I L =Ba [ Z b I s −Vs ]
where, Z Ba Zb BaT is the loop-impedance matrix of the order of (b n 1) (b n 1). The above
equation represents a set of (b n 1) number of equations, known as mesh or loop equations.
Cut-Set Equations From Eq. (3.8),
Qc Is Qc Ib Qc Yb Vb Qc Yb (QcT Vt Vs) {by Eq. (3.12)}
Or, Qc Yb QcT Vt Qc [Yb Vs Is]
118
Or, YcVt =Qc [YbVs − I s ]
where, Yc Qc Yb QcT is the cut-set admittance matrix of the order of (n 1) (n 1) and the set of
(n 1) equations represented by the above equation is known as cut-set equations.
Solution of Equilibrium Equations
There are two methods of solving equilibrium equations:
Elimination Method By eliminating variables until an equation with a single variable is achieved, and
then by the method of substitution.
Determinant Method By the method known as Cramer’s rule.
Solved Problems
Problem 3.1 Draw the graph of the network shown in Fig. 3.15 (a)
7
3 5
2
1
4 6
Fig. 3.15 (a)
Solution The graph of the network is shown below.

(2) 2 (7)
1 3
(5)
(3)
(1)
4 (6)
(4)
5
Fig. 315 (b)
Problem 3.2 From Fig. 3.16, make the graph and find one tree. How many mesh currents are required for
solving the network? Find the number of possible trees.
Fig. 3.16
119
Solution The graph of the network is shown below. One tree of the graph is shown.
(2)
(2)
(1) 2 (5)
3 (1) (5)
1 4 2 3
(3) 1 4
(3)
(7)
(9) (6) (7)
(4) (6)
(4) (9)
5
7 6 5
(8) 6
(10) 7 (8) (10)
Fig. 3.17 (a) Graph of the network Fig. 3.17 (b) Tree of the graph
The complete incidence matrix is obtained as
Branches
Nodes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Aa 3 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
7 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
The reduced incidence matrix becomes
Branches
Nodes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A 3 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
120
Hence the number of possible trees is
⎧ ⎡ 1 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎢ 0 1 −1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎪
⎪⎡ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 ⎤ ⎢ 0 1 −1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎪
⎪⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎢ −1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 0 0 ⎥⎪
⎪⎪ ⎢ 0 −1 −1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 −1 0 0 ⎥ ⎪⎪
n = det ⎨ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎬
⎪⎢ 0 0 0 0 −1 1 1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 −1 0 ⎥ ⎪
⎪⎢ 0 0 0 ⎢ ⎥
0 0 −1 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 −1⎥ ⎪
⎪⎢ ⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 1 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎢ −1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎭
⎡ 2 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −1 3 −2 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 −2 4 0 0 0 ⎥
= det ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ n = 12
⎢ 0 0 −1 3 −1 −1⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 −1 2 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 −1 0 2 ⎥⎦
Problem 3.3 Branch current and loop current relations are expressed in matrix form as,
⎡ i1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1 0 0 −1⎤
⎢i2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 −1⎥
⎢i ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ I1 ⎥
⎢i ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 1 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ I2 ⎥
⎢ 4⎥=⎢
⎢ i5 ⎥ ⎢ 1 −1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢⎢ I 3 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ i6 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 −1 0 ⎥ ⎣ I 4 ⎦
⎢
⎢ i ⎥ −1 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 7⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ i8 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
Draw the oriented graph.

Solution We know that, [Ib] [Ba]T [IL]. So, the tie-set matrix, here, is
121
Branches
Loop or Link
Currents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Ba 2 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
3 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
4 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
So, the graph consists of four loops and eight branches. Loop1 consists of branches 1, 5 and 7. The ori-
entations are given following the sign 1 or 1. Following the procedure, the complete oriented graph is
shown below.
(8)
I4
(2)
(1)
I1
(5)
(6)
(7) I3 I2
(4) (3)
Fig. 3.18
Problem 3.4 The fundamental cut-set matrix is given as
Twigs Links
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Draw the oriented graph of the network.
Solution The graph has seven branches and three fundamental cut-sets:
Cut-set-1: [1, 5]
Cut-set-2: [2, 5, 7]
Cut-set-3: [3, 6, 7]
Cut-set-4: [4, 6]
122
So, the oriented graph is as shown in Fig. 3.19 (a), (b), (c).
C1
(5) (5)
(5)
(1) i3
(2) (4)
C4 C2 (3) (4) (3)
(4) i2
(1) (6) (2) i1 (6) (2)
(1)
(3)
(6) (7)
C3
Fig. 3.19 (a) Fig. 3.19 (b) Fig. 3.19 (c)
Problem 3.5 Write the complete incidence matrix for the graph shown in Fig. 3.20 (a).
2
1
4
3
7
6
5
Fig. 3.20 (a)
Solution We first label the nodes as shown in Fig. 3.20 (b)

A
2
1
C
B 4
3
7
6 D
5
E
Fig. 3.20 (b)
The complete incidence matrix is given as

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
Aa B 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
C 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
D 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
E 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
123
Problem 3.6 Write down the incidence matrix and cut-set matrices for the network shown.
Solution The graph and a suitable tree for the network are shown in Fig.3.21 (b).
A C3
5
1
5 2 3
10 V 4 C
4 5
4 D
5 B 6
4 C2
C1
Fig. 3.21 (a) Fig. 3.21 (b)
The complete incidence matrix is given as
1 2 3 4 5 6
A 1 1 1 0 0 0
Aa B 1 0 0 1 0 1
C 0 1 0 1 1 0
D 0 0 1 0 1 1
The fundamental cut-sets are identified as

f-cutset-1: [1, 4, 6]
f-cutset-2: [3, 5, 6]
f-cutset-3: [1, 2, 3]
The fundamental cutset matrix is given as
1 2 3 4 5 6
C1 1 0 0 1 0 1
Q C2 0 0 1 0 1 1
C3 1 1 1 0 0 0
Problem 3.7 For the network shown in Fig. 3.22 (a), give fundamental cut-set matrix and hence find KCL
equations.
1
1A 2 2 1
Fig.3.22 (a)
124
Solution The graph and one tree are shown for the network. (2)
The fundamental cutsets are identified as A B
f-cutset-1: [1, 2]
f-cutset-2: [2, 3, 4]
(1) (3) (4)
The fundamental cut-set matrix is given as
1 2 3 4
Qa C1 1 1 0 0 C
C2 0 1 1 1 Fig. 3.22 (b)
The KCL equations in terms of cut-set matrix is given as

[Q] [Yb][QT][Vt] [Q] [IS]
Here,
⎡2 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡1 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢1 −1⎥ ⎡ 2 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎢1 −1⎥
⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Yb ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Q T ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ =⎢ ⎥
⎣0 −1 1 1 ⎦ 0 0 2 0 ⎥ ⎢0 1 ⎥ ⎣ 0 −1 2 1 ⎦ ⎢0 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
⎡ 3 −1⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 4 ⎦
⎡ −1⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎡1 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎡1 ⎤
− ⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ I S ⎤⎦ = − ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣0 −1 1 1 ⎦ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎣0 ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0⎦
Thus, the KCL equations are
⎡ 3 −1⎤ ⎡Vt 1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 4 ⎦ ⎢⎣Vt 3 ⎦⎥ ⎣0 ⎦
Problem 3.8 For the network shown in Fig. 3.23 (a), draw the ori- 2v
ented graph, select a suitable tree and obtain the fundamental cut-set
matrix. Determine the node equations and find v. 2
Solution The oriented graph of the network is shown in Fig. 3.23 (b). 2
Since we have to find v, we take the branch (2) in the twig and a pos- 2V v 2
sible tree is selected. 2
The fundamental cutsets are identified as
f-cut-set-1: [1, 2, 3] Fig. 3.23 (a)
f-cut-set-2: [3, 4]
125
The fundamental cut-set matrix is given as (4)

C3
A B
1 2 3 4 (2)
Qa C1 1 1 1 0 (1) (3)
C2 0 0 1 1 C C1
The node equations are given as Fig. 3.23 (b)

[Q][Yb][QT][Vt ] [Q] {[Yb][Vs] [IS]}
Here,
⎡1 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎡ −1 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎡ −1 1 1 0 ⎤ ⎢ 0
1 0 0 ⎥⎢ 1 0⎥ ⎡ 3 −1 ⎤
⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Yb ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ = ⎢
T 2 ⎢ ⎥=⎢ 2 2⎥
⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢− 1 ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −1 1 ⎦ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎢ 1 −1 1 ⎥
⎥ ⎢
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎣ 0 1⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎢ 0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
⎧⎡ 1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎫
⎪⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎡2 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎪
⎪⎢ ⎥ ⎪
⎡1 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎪ ⎢ 0
1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤
{ }
⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ × ⎡⎣Yb ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Vs ⎤⎦ − ⎡⎣ I S ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎨⎢
2
⎥
⎢ ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥⎬ =
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 −1 1 1 ⎦ ⎪ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ ⎪ ⎣ −2v ⎦
⎪⎢ 2 ⎥ 0 2v ⎪
⎪⎢ 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎪
⎩⎣ 2⎦ ⎭
⎡3 −1 ⎤
⎢ 2 2 ⎥ ⎡Vt 2 ⎤ = ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ −1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 1 ⎥ ⎣⎢Vt 4 ⎥⎦ ⎣ −2 v ⎦
⎦
4
Here, Vt2 v. Putting this in the KCL equations and solving we get, v V
9
Problem 3.9 For the resistive network, write a cut-set schedule and equilibrium equations on voltage
basis. Hence obtain values of branch voltages and branch currents.
2
5 10
5
10
5
910 V
Fig. 3.24
126
Solution The graph of the network is shown in Fig. 3.25. A suitable tree is shown.
6
6
2 2 3 C2
3
C1
4 4
1 5
1 5
C3
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.25
The fundamental cut-sets are identified as

f-cut-set-1: [1, 2, 6]
f-cut-set-2: [3, 5, 6]
f-cut-set-3: [1, 4, 5]
The fundamental cutset matrix is given as
1 2 3 4 5 6
C1 1 1 0 0 0 1
Q C2 0 0 1 0 1 1
C3 1 0 0 1 1 0
The node equations are given as

[Q][Yb][QT][Vt] [Q] {[Yb][VS] [IS]} [Q] [Yb][VS] {since IS 0 here}
Here,
⎡1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0
1 0 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎡ −1 0 1 ⎤
5 ⎢ ⎥
⎡ −1 1 0 ⎢ ⎥⎢ 1 0 0⎥
0 0 1⎤ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ 0 1 0⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 10 ⎥⎢
⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Yb ⎤⎦ ⎣Q ⎦ = ⎢ 0 0 1
T
0 −1 1 ⎥ ⎥
⎢ 1 0 0 ⎢ 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1⎥
⎣ 1 −1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 0 0 0
10
0
⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 0 −1 −1⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎢
5 ⎢⎣ 1 1 0 ⎥⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
⎡0.9 0.5 −0.2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ 0.5 0.8 0.2 ⎥
⎢ 0.5 0.2 0.3 ⎥⎦
⎣
127
⎡1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0
1 0 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎡ −910 ⎤
5 ⎢ ⎥
⎡ −1 1 0 0 0 1 ⎤ ⎢⎢ 0 0 1 0 0
⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎡
0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ 182 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 10 ⎢ ⎥
⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Yb ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Vs ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 0 0 1 0 −1 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 1 0 0 1 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥⎢
⎣ ⎦ 10 ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0
5
0 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
⎡0.9 0.5 −0.2 ⎤ ⎡Vt 2 ⎤ ⎡182 ⎤

⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ 0.5 0.8 0.2 ⎥ ⎢Vt 3 ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 0.5 0.2 0.3 ⎥ ⎢V ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ t4 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Solving by Cramer’s rule, we get the tree-branch voltages as

Vt2 143 V; Vt3 14.3 V; Vt4 300 V
Problem 3.10 Using topological method, obtain node equations and node voltages in the s domain
for the network shown in Fig. 3.26 (a), when L1 ⴝ L2 ⴝ 1 H, C5 ⴝ 1 F, G3 ⴝ G4 ⴝ 1 ⍀, Vgt (t) ⴝ 2u (t) and
ig4 (t) ⴝ 2 (t), where, u(t) is the unit step function and ␦(t) is the unit impulse function.
L1 L2
1 2
Vg1(t ) C5 G4 ig4(t)
G3
Fig. 3.26 (a)
Solution The graph of the network is shown in Fig. 3.26 (b).

1 (3) 2
(4)
(2)
(1)
(5)
3
Fig. 3.26 (b)
128
The incidence matrix is given as
1 2 3 4 5
Aa 1 1 1 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 1 1
3 1 1 0 1 1
The reduced Incidence matrix is
⎡ −1 1 1 0 0 ⎤
A= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −1 1 1 ⎦
The branch admittance matrix is
⎡1 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ s ⎥
⎢ 0 1 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
Yb = ⎢ 0 0 1 0 0⎥
⎢ s ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 s 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡1 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ s ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0⎥ ⎡− 1
⎡ −1 1 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎢
1 0
⎥ ⎢ s 1 1 0 0⎤
∴ AYb = ⎢ s ⎥
⎥⎢ 0 0 1 0 0⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −1 1 1 ⎦ ⎢ s ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 − 1 s 1⎥
⎢ 0 ⎣ s ⎦
0 0 s 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ −1 0 ⎤
⎡− 1
∴ AYb A = ⎢⎢ s
1
s
1
⎥⎢
⎢ ⎥
0 0 ⎤ ⎢ 1 0 ⎥ ⎡⎢ 2 + 1
⎥ s ( ) −1
s
⎤
⎥
⎥ ⎢ 1 −1⎥ = ⎢
T
( )
⎥
0 − 1 ⎢ −1 s +1+ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 s
s 1⎥ 0 1
⎦⎢ ⎥ ⎣ s s ⎦
⎢0 1⎥
⎣ ⎦
Now,
⎡2 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ s2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡− 1 1 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎡ −1 1 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎡ 2 ⎤
AYbVs − AI s = ⎢⎢ s s ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ s2 ⎥
⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ − ⎢ 0 0 −1 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ = ⎢
⎢⎣ 0 0 − 1 s 1⎥ ⎢ ⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎥⎦
s ⎦ 0 ⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎣
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦
129
Thus, node equations are
(
⎡ 2 +1
⎢ s ) −1
s
⎤
⎥ ⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡⎢ 2 2 ⎤⎥
⎥⎢ ⎥= ⎢ s ⎥
( )
⎢
⎢ −1 s +1+ 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎣ s s ⎦
Solving by Cramer’s rule, we get the voltages as
V1 =
(
2 2s2 + s + 1 ) and V2 =
(
2 s3 + s2 + 1 )
( )(
s s + 1 s + 2s + 1
2
) ( )(
s s + 1 s + 2s + 1 2
)
Problem 3.11 For the network of Fig. 3.27, draw the graph and write a tie-set schedule. Using the tie-set
schedule obtain the loop equations and find the currents in all branches.
0.2
1 1
0.5
1
0.5
9V
Fig. 3.27
Solution The graph and one tree are shown in Fig. 3.28.
(5) (5)
i3
(3) (4)
(3) (4)
i1 i2
(6) (6) (2)
(2) (1)
(1)
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.28
The tie-set matrix
⎡1 0 1 0 0 −1⎤
⎢ ⎥
Ba = ⎢0 1 0 1 0 1 ⎥
⎢0 0 −1 −1 1 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
130
Branch impedance matrix is

⎡0.5 0 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0.5 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢0 0 1 0 0 0⎥
Zb = ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 1 0 0⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0.2 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
Thus,
⎡0.5 0 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 0.5 0 0 0 0⎥
⎡1 0 1 0 0 −1⎤ ⎢ ⎡0.5 0 1 0 0 −1⎤
⎢ ⎢
⎥ 0 0 1 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡⎣ Ba ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ Z b ⎤⎦ = ⎢0 1 0 1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ =
⎥ ⎢ 0 0 .5 0 1 0 1⎥
⎢0 0 −1 −1 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0⎥ ⎢
0 0 −1 −1 0.2 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦⎢ 0 0 0 0 0.2 0 ⎥ ⎣
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 1 0⎥
⎡0.5 0 1 0 0 −1⎤ ⎢ ⎡ 2.5 −1 −1 ⎤
T ⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ 0 −1⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∴⎡⎣ Ba ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ Z b ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ Ba ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 0 0.5 0 1 0 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ −1 2.5 −1 ⎥
−1⎥
0 −1 −1 0.2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢
⎢0 0 1
⎢ −1 −1 2.2 ⎥
⎣ 0 0 1⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −1 1 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ −9 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
0
⎡1 0 1 0 0 −1⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 9 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Now, − ⎡⎣ Ba ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Vs ⎤⎦ = − ⎢0 1 0 1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 −1 −1 1 0 ⎦ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎣ 0 ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
So, the loop equations are
⎡ 2.5 −1 −1 ⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤ ⎡ 9 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −1 2.5 −1 ⎥ × ⎢i2 ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ −1 −1 2.2 ⎥ ⎢ i ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 3⎦ ⎣ ⎦
131
Solving the three equations,

i1 8.9 A, i2 6.33 A, i3 6.92 A
Problem 3.12 Figure 3.29 (a) shows a dc network. (a) Draw a graph of the network. Which elements are
not included in the graph and why? (b) Write a loop incidence matrix and use it to obtain loop equations. (c)
Find branch currents.
2A 2 2 2 5V
2 2
Fig. 3.29 (a)
Solution (a) The graph is shown below.
A
(3)
(4)
(5)
i2
i1
B C
(1) (2)
Fig. 3.29 (b)
The 2-V resistor in parallel with the voltage source and the 2-A current source have not been included in the
graph. This is because of the reason that passive elements in parallel with a voltage source are not included in a
graph and the current source in parallel with a passive element is open-circuited while drawing a graph.
(b) The tie-set matrix for the tree chosen is
⎡1 0 0 −1 1 ⎤
Ba = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 −1 0 −1⎦
Branch impedance matrix is
⎡2 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 2 0 0 0⎥
Zb = ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 2 0⎥
⎢0 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ 0 0 0
132
⎡2 0 0 0 0⎤⎡ 1 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
0 2 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1⎥
⎡1 0 0 −1 1 ⎤ ⎢
Ba Z b Ba = ⎢
T
⎢
⎥ 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 −1⎥
⎣0 1 −1 0 −1⎦ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 2 0 ⎥ ⎢ −1 0 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 −1⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ 1 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 1⎥
⎡ 2 0 0 −2 2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡ 6 −2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 −1⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 2 0 0 −2 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ −2 4 ⎦
⎢ −1 0 ⎥
⎢ 1 −1⎥
⎣ ⎦
Now,
⎡2 ⎤ ⎡ 0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 0
⎡ 2 0 0 −2 2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡1 0 0 −1 1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤ ⎡ 4 ⎤
Ba Z b I s − BaVs = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ − ⎢ ⎢
⎥ 5⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
−
⎣ 0 2 0 0 −2 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣0 1 −1 0 −1⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦ ⎣ −5 ⎦
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
So, the loop equations are
⎡ 6 −2 ⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤ ⎡ 4 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −2 4 ⎦ ⎢⎣i2 ⎦⎥ ⎣ −5 ⎦
Solving these equations, i1 0.3A, i2 1.1 A
(c) Putting these values, the branch voltages are
V1 2 i1 0.6 V, V2 2 i2 2.2 V, V3 5 V, V4 2 i1 4 3.4 V, V5 2.8 V
Thus, the branch currents are
3.4 2.8 5 0.6 2.2
I AB = = 1.7 A, I AD = = 1.4 A, I AC = = 2.5 A, I DB = = 0.3A, I DC = = 1.1A
2 2 2 2 2
So, the current supplied by the battery (1.7 1.4 2.5 2) 3.6 A
Problem 3.13 For the network shown in Fig. 3.30, draw the oriented graph and obtain the tie-set matrix.
Use this matrix to calculate i.
1 2
2 1V
i 1
2V
3 1
Fig. 3.30
133
Solution The oriented graph and any one tree are shown.
The tie-set matrix is given as
⎡1 1 0 0 1 0 ⎤ 1 1
⎢ ⎥ (3)
Ba = ⎢0 −1 1 −1 0 0 ⎥ (3)
⎢0 0 0 1 −1 1 ⎥ (2) (2)
I2
⎣ ⎦ (4) (1) (4)
I1
2 3 2 3
(1)
The branch impedance matrix (5) (5) I3
(6)
(6)
⎡1 0 0 0 0 0⎤ 4
⎢ ⎥ 4
(a)
⎢0 2 0 0 0 0⎥ (b)
⎢0 0 2 0 0 0⎥ Fig. 3.31
Zb = ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 1 0 0⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 3 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡1 0 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 2 0 0 0 0⎥
⎡1 1 0 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡1 2 0 0 3 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎢
⎥ 0 0 2 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∴ Ba Z b = ⎢0 −1 1 −1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 −2 2 −1 0 0 ⎥
=
⎢0 0 0 1 −1 1 ⎥ ⎢0 0 0 1 0 0⎥ ⎢
0 0 0 1 −3 1 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎢0 0 0 0 3 0⎥ ⎣
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
1 −1 0 ⎥
⎡1 2 0 0 3 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡ 6 −2 −3⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∴ Ba Z b Ba = ⎢0 −2 2 −1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢
T
⎥ = ⎢ −2 5 −1⎥
⎢0 0 0 1 −3 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 −1 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢1 0 −1⎥ ⎣ −3 −1 5 ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦
Now,
⎡ −2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
0
⎡1 1 0 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ −2 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
− BaVs = − ⎢0 −1 1 −1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = − ⎢ −1 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 1 −1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
134
So, the loop equations become

⎡ 6 −2 −3⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −2 5 −1⎥ ⎢ I 2 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ −3 −1 5 ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Solving for I1
2 −2 −3
1 5 −1
0 −1 5
I1 = = 0.91A
6 −2 −3
−2 5 −1
−3 −1 5
I1 0.91 A
Problem 3.14 Determine the currents in all branches of the network shown in Fig. 3.32 using the node
analysis method. Use the graph theory method.
1 2
1A 2 1 2V
Fig. 3.32
Solution Here, the 1- resistance in parallel with the 2-V voltage source can be ignored. Also, there is no pas-
sive element in parallel with the 1-A current source. We assume a resistance R in parallel with the 1-A current
source and finally let R → . Therefore, the graph of the network is shown in Fig. 3.33.
1 1 2 2 1 (1) 2
(3)
1A R 2 2V (2)
(4)
3
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.33
The complete incidence matrix is

⎡ 1 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
Aa = ⎢ −1 0 1 1 ⎥
⎢ 0 −1 −1 −1⎥
⎣ ⎦
135
Reduced incidence matrix is

⎡ 1 1 0 0⎤
A= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 0 1 1 ⎦
Branch admittance matrix is
⎡1 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1 0 0 ⎥
R
Yb = ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 1 0 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡1 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
1 0 ⎥ ⎡ 1
⎡ 1 1 0 0⎤ ⎢
⎢0
R
0 1 0 0 ⎤
∴ AYb = ⎢ ⎥=⎢ R ⎥
⎥
⎣ −1 0 1 1 ⎦ ⎢⎢0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ −1 0 1 1 ⎥
2 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
⎢0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡1 −1⎤
⎡ 1
∴ AYb AT = ⎢⎢
1
R
0 0 ⎤ ⎢1 0 ⎥ ⎡ 1 + 1
⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ R ( ) −1⎤
⎥
1 1 ⎥ ⎢0 1 ⎥ ⎢ −1 2 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ −1 0
2 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣
⎣0 1 ⎦
Now,
⎡0 ⎤ ⎡ 0⎤
⎡ 1 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎡ 1 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ −1⎥ ⎡0 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤ ⎡1⎤
AYbVs − AI s = ⎢⎢ R ⎥⎢ ⎥ −
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥=
⎢ ⎥− ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎣ −1 0 1 1 ⎦ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎣1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣1⎦
⎢⎣ −1 0
2 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣2 ⎦ ⎣ 0⎦
⎢(
⎡ 1+ 1
R ) −1⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −1 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ ⎣1⎦
⎣
With R → , the equations become
V1 − V2 = 1
−V1 + 2V2 = 1
Solving equations, we get

V1 = 3 V, V2 = 2 V
136
Hence, the currents in different branches are shown in Fig. 3.34.

V1 1 V2 2 2A
0A 2A
1A
1A 2 1A 1 2V
Fig. 3.34
Problem 3.15 Consider the network shown in Fig. 3.35. Using 1 2 i2

loop method of analysis, determine currents in all the branches
indicating their directions. Use graph theory method. 1
4V 3V
Solution The graph of the network is shown below. Also the tree
3i2
is selected as shown.
For the selected tree, the tie-set matrix is given as
Fig. 3.35
⎡1 0 −1⎤
Ba = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 1 ⎦
i2
⎡1 0 0 ⎤ 1 2
⎢ ⎥
The branch impedance matrix is Z b = ⎢0 2 0 ⎥
1
⎢0 0 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ 4V i1 i2 3V
3i2
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
⎡1 0 −1⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡1 0 −1⎤
∴ Ba Z b = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 2 0 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ Fig. 3.36
⎣0 1 1 ⎦ ⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎣0 2 1 ⎦
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 0⎤
⎡1 0 −1⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 2 −1⎤
∴ Ba Z b B = ⎢
T
⎥ ⎢ 0 1⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 2 1 ⎦ ⎢ −1 1 ⎥ ⎣ −1 3 ⎦
a
⎣ ⎦
⎡ −4 ⎤ 1 3
1 2
⎡1 0 −1⎤ ⎢
Now, − BaVs = − ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 4 − 3i2 ⎤
⎥⎢ 3 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 1 ⎦ ⎢ −3i ⎥ ⎢⎣ −3 + 3i2 ⎥⎦
⎣ 2⎦ (a) (b)
⎡ 2 −1⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤ ⎡ 4 − 3i2 ⎤ Fig. 3.37
So, the loop equations become ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 3 ⎦ ⎢⎣i2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −3 + 3i2 ⎥⎦
These equations reduce to, 3A 1 2 1A
2i1 − i2 = 4 − 3i2 ⇒ i1 + i2 = 2 1 4A
−i1 + 3i2 = −3 + 3i2 ⇒ i1 = 3A 4V 3V
3i2
∴ i2 = −1A
Thus, the branch currents are shown with their directions. Fig. 3.38
137
Problem 3.16 For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.39 construct a tree 2A
in which 10 ⍀ and 20 ⍀ are in tree branches. Using node analysis,
solve for V1 and V2. 5 10 20
V1 V2
Solution Here, we have one current source without parallel resistance 80V 50
and one voltage source without series resistance. Therefore, we connect
a parallel resistance R1 in parallel with the 2-A current source and a
Fig. 3.39
series resistance R2 in series with the 20-V voltage source. Finally, we
will let R1 → and R2 → 0. R1
Now, we construct the graph of the network as 2A
shown below. A tree, in which 10 and 20 are in tree
branches, is selected.
5 A 10 B 20
The complete incidence matrix is C
V1 V2
⎡ −1 1 0 0 0 1 ⎤ 20V
⎢ ⎥
0 −1 1 1 0 0 ⎥ 50
Aa = ⎢
80V
⎢ 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1⎥ R2
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 0 0 −1 1 0 ⎦ Fig. 3.40
(6)
⎡ −1 1 0 0 0 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ VA VB VC
The reduced Incidence matrix is A = ⎢ 0 −1 1 1 0 0 ⎥ (2) (3)
⎢ 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1⎥
⎣ ⎦ (1) (4) (5)
⎡0.2 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 ⎥ Fig. 3.41 (a)
⎢0 0 0.05 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ (6)
The branch admittance matrix is Yb = ⎢
0 0 0 0.02 0 0⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥ VA VB VC
⎢0 0 0 0 0⎥ (2) (3)
⎢ R2 ⎥ (4)
⎢ ⎥ (1) (5)
⎢0 1⎥
0 0 0 0
⎢⎣ R1 ⎥⎦
Fig. 3.41 (b)
⎡0.2 0 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0.1 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢0 0 0.05 0 0 0⎥
⎡ −1 1 0 0 0 1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 0 0 0.02 0 0⎥
∴ AYb = ⎢ 0 −1 1 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1
⎢ 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎣ ⎦⎢ R2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1⎥
0 0 0 0
⎢⎣ R1 ⎥⎦
138
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ − 0.2 0.1 0 0 0
R1 ⎥⎥
⎢
= ⎢ 0 −0.1 0.05 0.02 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 −0.05 0 −
1
− ⎥⎥
1
⎢ R R1 ⎦
⎣ 2
⎡ −1 0 0 ⎤
⎡ 1 ⎤⎢ ⎥
⎢ −0.2 0.1 0 0 0
R1 ⎥⎥ ⎢
1 −1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎢ 0 1 −1⎥
∴ AYb AT = ⎢ 0 −0.1 0.05 0.02 0 0 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 0 1 0⎥
⎢ 0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢⎢
⎢ 0 −0.05 0 − − ⎥ 0 0 −1⎥
⎣ R2 R1 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 0 −1⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 1⎞ 1 ⎤
⎢⎜ 0.3 + ⎟ −0.1 − ⎥
⎢⎝ R1 ⎠ R1 ⎥
⎢
= ⎢ −0.1 0.17 −0.05 ⎥
⎥
⎢ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎥
⎢ − −0.05 ⎜ 0.05 + + ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ R 1 ⎝ R2 R1 ⎠ ⎥
⎦
Now,
⎡ −80 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
⎡ 1 ⎤⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −0.2 0.1 0 0 0
R1 ⎥⎥ ⎢
0 ⎥ 0
⎢ ⎡ −1 1 0 0 0 1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ 14
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎢
⎥ 0⎥
AYbVs − AI s = ⎢ 0 −0.1 0.05 0.02 0 0 ⎥⎢ ⎥ − 0 −1 1 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ = 0
⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1⎥
⎢ 0 0 −0.0
05 0 −
1
− ⎥⎥ ⎢ −20 ⎥ ⎣
1 ⎦ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎛ 20 + 2⎞
⎢ R2 R1 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎜⎝ R2 ⎟
⎣ ⎠
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 1⎞ 1 ⎤
⎢⎜ 0.3 + ⎟ −0.1 − ⎥
⎢⎝ R1 ⎠ R1 ⎥ ⎡VA ⎤ 14
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −0.1 −0.05 ⎥ ⎢VB ⎥ =
Thus, node equations are 0.17 0
⎢ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎥ V ⎢ ⎥ ⎛ 20 ⎞
⎢ − −0.05 ⎜ 0.05 + + ⎟ ⎥ ⎣ C ⎦ ⎜ + 2⎟
⎢⎣ R1 ⎝ R2 R1 ⎠ ⎥
⎦ ⎝ R2 ⎠
0.3VA − 0.1VB = 14
−0.1VA + 0.17VB − 0.05VC = 0
With R1 → , the equations become
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
−0.05VB + ⎜ 0.05 + ⎟ VC = ⎜ + 2⎟
⎝ R2 ⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠
139
Solving equations, we get

14 − 0.1 0
0 0.17 − 0.05
⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜ R + 2⎟ −0.05 ⎜ 0.05 + R ⎟ ( )
14 ⎡0.17 0.05 R2 + 1 − 0.0025 R2 ⎤⎦ + 0.005 20 + 2 R2 ( )
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
VA = = ⎣
0.3 −0.1 0 ( )
0.3 ⎡⎣0.17 0.05 R2 + 1 − 0.0025 R2 ⎤⎦ − 0.001 0.05 R2 + 1 ( )
−0.1 0.17 −0.05
⎛ 1⎞
0 −0.05 ⎜ 0.05 + ⎟
⎝ R2 ⎠
2.48
With R2 0, VA = = 60.49 V
0.041
Similarly, with R2 0, we get,
VB = 41.47 V
VC = 20 V
( ) (
V1 = VA − VB = 60.49 − 41.47 = 19.02 V )
and V2 = (V
B
− VC ) = ( 41.420) = 21.47 V
Problem 3.17 The circuit of Fig. 3.42 contains a voltage-controlled volt- Vx
age source. For this circuit, draw the oriented graph. By selecting a proper
tree obtain the tie-set matrix and hence calculate the voltage, Vx . 5
Solution Since the controlled voltage source is not accompanied by 5
5 5 4 Vx
any passive element, we will consider a resistance R1 in series with the
controlled voltage source, and finally let R1 → 0. 1V
The graph of the network is shown with one tree.
Fig. 3.42
⎡1 1 −1 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
The tie-set matrix is Ba = ⎢0 0 1 −1 1 0 ⎥
⎢0 −1 0 1 0 1 ⎥ (6)
⎣ ⎦
The branch impedance matrix R1 Vx I3
1 2
⎡5 0 0 0 0 0⎤ (2) (4)
3
⎢ ⎥ 1 2 5 3 I2
⎢0 5 0 0 0 0⎥
(1)
I1 (5)
⎢0 0 5 0 0 0⎥ 5
5 4 Vx (3)
Zb = ⎢ ⎥ 5
⎢0 0 0 5 0 0⎥ 1V
⎢0 0 0 0 4 0⎥ 4
⎢ ⎥ (a) (b)
⎢⎣0 0 0 0 0 R1 ⎥⎦ Fig. 3.43
140
⎡5 0 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 5 0 0 0 0⎥
⎡1 1 −1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡ 5 5 −5 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎢
⎥ 0 0 5 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∴ Ba Z b = ⎢0 0 1 −1 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢0 0 5 −5 4 0 ⎥
⎢0 −1 0 1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢
0 0 0 5 0 0⎥
⎢0 −5 0 5 0 R1 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎢0 0 0 0 4 0⎥ ⎣
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 0 0 0 R1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
1 0 −1⎥
⎡ 5 5 −5 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡ 15 −5 −5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∴ Ba Z b Ba = ⎢0 0
T
5 −5 4 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ −5 14 −5 ⎥
0 −1 1 ⎥ ⎢
⎢0 −5 0
⎣
⎥ ⎢
5 0 R1 ⎦ ⎢
0 1 0⎥ ⎣
−5 −5 ( )
10 + R1 ⎥⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
0⎥
⎡1 1 −1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Now, − BaVs = − ⎢0 0 1 −1 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = − ⎢ −1 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢0 −1 0 1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
⎢ −V ⎥ ⎢V ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎣ x⎦ ⎣ x⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −Vx ⎥⎦
⎡15 −5 −5 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
So, the loop equations become ⎢ −5 14 −5 ⎥ ⎢ I 2 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ −5 −5
⎣ ( )
10 + R1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vx ⎥⎦
⎡15 −5 −5 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
With R1 → 0 and Vx 4I2, the equations reduce to, ⎢ −5 14 −5 ⎥ ⎢ I 2 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ −5 −9 10 ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Solving for I2,
15 −1 −5
−5 1 −5
−5 0 10 1
I2 = = A
15 −5 −5 19
−5 14 −5
−5 −9 10
1 4
Vx = 4 × I 2 = 4 × = V
19 19
141
Problem 3.18 In the following circuit of Fig. 3.44, determine the volt- (5)
ages V2 and V3 using cut-set analysis. Select the circuit elements (1), (2) and 2 1A
V2
(3) in the tree.
(2) 1 (6)
Solution The graph and tree are shown in Fig. 3.45 Hence, there is 8V (4) 2 1 V3
(1) (3)
no series impedance with voltage source and parallel admittance with
current source. We consider two resistances R1 and R2 in series with Fig. 3.44
the voltage source and in parallel with the current source, respectively.
Finally, we will let R1 → 0, R2 → . (5)
Three fundamental cut-sets are C1
f-cutset-1: [1, 4, 5, 6]
C2
f-cutset-2: [2, 4, 6] C3
(2)
f-cutset-3: [3, 5, 6] (6)
The fundamental cut-set matrix is given as (4) (3)
(1)
1 2 3 4 5 6
C1 1 0 0 1 1 1
Fig. 3.45
Q C2 0 1 0 1 0 1
C3 0 0 1 0 1 1
The node equations are given as

[Q][Yb][QT][Vt] [Q] × {[Yb][VS] −[IS]}
Here,
⎡ 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ R1 ⎥⎡ 1 0 1⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ 0 1 0⎥
⎡1 0 0 −1 −1 1 ⎤ ⎢
⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 0 1 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ 0 0 1⎥
⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Yb ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Q T ⎤⎦ = ⎢0 1 0 1 0 −1⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 1 0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 2 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ −1 1 0⎥
⎣ ⎦⎢ 0 0 0 0 2 0 ⎥ ⎢ −11 0 1⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 1 −1 1 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ R2 ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎢⎜ 4 + R + R ⎟ −⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ −⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠
1 ⎥
⎢ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎥
= ⎢ −⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ −⎜ 3+ 1 ⎟ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎝ R2⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠ R2 ⎥
⎢ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎥
⎢ −⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ 1
⎜⎝ 3 + 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ R2 ⎠ R2 R2 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
142
⎡ 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ R1 ⎥ ⎡ −8 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ − 8
⎡1 0 0 −1 −1 1 ⎤ ⎢ R1
⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 0 1 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥
⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Yb ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Vs ⎤⎦ = ⎢0 1 0 1 0 −1⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = 0
⎢0 0 1 0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 2 0 0 ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥
0
⎣ ⎦⎢ 0 0 0 0 2 0 ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ R2 ⎥⎦
⎡0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
0
⎡1 0 0 −1 −1 1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
− ⎡⎣Q ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ I s ⎤⎦ = − ⎢0 1 0 1 0 −1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢0 0 1 0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎢⎜ 4 + 1 R + 1 R ⎟ −⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ −⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ ⎥ ⎛ ⎞
− ⎜ 8 + 1⎟
⎢⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎥
R R
1
⎡Vt 1 ⎤ ⎝ R1 ⎠
⎢ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎥⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ −⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ −⎜ 3+ 1 ⎟ 1 ⎥ ⎢Vt 2 ⎥ = 1
⎢ ⎝ R2⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠ R2 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ V 1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎥⎣ t3 ⎦
⎢ −⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ 1
⎜⎝ 3 + R ⎟⎠ ⎥
1
⎢⎣ ⎝ R2⎠
R2 2 ⎥⎦
When R1 → 0, R2 → , the equations reduce to the form as given below.

Vt1 8V
2Vt1 3Vt2 1
2Vt1 3Vt3 1
Solving the last two equations, Vt2 5V; Vt3 5V
Therefore,
V2 Vt2 5V
V3 Vt3 5V A
5 (1)
Problem 3.19 For the network shown in Fig. 3.46, write (5) (2)
10
the tie-set matrix and determine the loop currents and C
10V 5
branch currents. 10 5 (4)(6)
5 B D
Solution The graph and a suitable tree for the network are (3)
shown in Fig. 3.47. Fig. 3.46 Fig. 3.47
143
The tie-set matrix is given as

⎡1 0 0 1 −1 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Ba = ⎢0 1 0 0 1 −1⎥
⎢0 0 1 −1 0 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The branch impedance matrix is given as
⎡5 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 10 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢0 0 5 0 0 0 ⎥
Zb = ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 10 0 0 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 5 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 0 0 0 5 ⎥⎦
⎡5 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 10 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎡1 0 0 1 −1 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡ 5 0 0 10 −5 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 0 5 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∴ Ba Z b = ⎢0 1 0 0 1 −1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢0 10 0 0 5 −5 ⎥
⎢0 0 1 −1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 10 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢0 0 0 0 5 0 ⎥ ⎣0 0 5 −10 0 5 ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 0 0 0 5 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 1 0⎥
⎡ 5 0 0 10 −5 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡ 20 −5 −10 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∴ Ba Z b Ba = ⎢0 10 0
T
0 5 −5 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ −5 20 −5 ⎥
⎢0 0 5 −10 0 5 ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 −1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ −1 1 0 ⎥ ⎣ −10 −5 15 ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 −1 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ −10 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
0⎥
⎡1 0 0 1 −1 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡10 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
− BaVs = − ⎢0 1 0 0 1 −1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 0⎥
⎢0 0 1 −1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Thus, the lop equations are given as

⎡ 20 −5 −10 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡10 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −5 20 −5 ⎥ ⎢ I 2 ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ −10 −5 15 ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
144
Solving by Cramer’s rule, we get the loop currents as

10 −5 −10
0 20 −5
0 −5 15 2750
I1 = = = 1.047 A
20 −5 −10 2625
− 5 20 −5
−10 −5 15
20 10 −10
−5 0 −5
−10 0 15 1250
I2 = = = 0.476 A
20 −5 −10 2625
− 5 20 −5
−10 −5 15
20 −5 10
− 5 20 0
−10 −5 0 2250
I3 = = = 0.857 A
20 −5 −10 2625
− 5 20 −5
−10 −5 15
Also, the branch currents are given as, Ib BaT IL
⎡ I b1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Ib2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎡1.047 ⎤
⎢I ⎥ ⎢ ⎡ I ⎤
0 0 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1⎥ ⎢
1
⎥
∴⎢ b3 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ I2 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0.476 ⎥
⎢ I ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 −1⎥ −
⎢ b4 ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎥ ⎣ I 3 ⎦ ⎢ −1 1 0 ⎥ ⎣ 0.857 ⎦
⎢ I b 5 ⎥ ⎢ −1 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 −1 1 ⎥ ⎢ − ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ b 6 ⎥⎦
I ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 1
( )
∴ I b 4 = 1.047 − 0.857 = 0.19 A ⎫
⎪⎪
∴ Ib5 = ( −1.047 + 0.476 ) = −0.571 A ⎬
⎪
∴ Ib6 = ( −0.476 + 0.857 ) = 0.381 A ⎪⎭
5 19 V 2 4
Problem 3.20 Determine the current i1 in the circuit of Fig. 3.48
using nodal analysis method and graph theory concepts. i1 25 V
30 V 4A 1.5i1
Solution By source transformation technique, we convert the
19-V and 25-V voltage sources into current sources. Fig. 3.48
145
Since the 30-V voltage source, the 4-A current 9.5 A

source, and the controlled current source are not
accompanied by the passive elements, we consider 5
three resistors R1, R2 and R3 and finally let, R1 → 0, R2 2
i1
→ , and R3 → 0. 30 V 4A 4 6.25 A
1.5i1
The graph of the network is shown.
The complete incidence matrix is Fig. 3.49
9.5 A
⎡1 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 1 5 2 3
0 1 1 1 0 0⎥
Aa = ⎢ R1
⎢0 0 −1 −1 1 1 ⎥ i1 2 R3 4 6.25 A
⎢ ⎥ 30 V 4A R2 1.5i1
⎣1 0 0 0 −1 −1⎦
Fig. 3.50
The reduced incidence matrix is
(2) 2 (4)
1 3
⎡1 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢0 1 1 1 0 0 ⎥ (1)
(3)
(5)
⎢0 0 −1 −1 1 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
(6)
4
The branch admittance matrix is Fig. 3.51
⎡G1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 5 ⎥
⎢0 0 G2 0 0 0 ⎥
Yb = ⎢ ⎥ where, G = 1 , G = 1 , G = 1
⎢0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ 1
R1 2
R2 3 R3
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 G3 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎣ 4⎦
⎡G1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 5 ⎥ ⎡G1 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎡1 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎢ 0 0 ⎥ ⎢⎢ ⎥
5
⎢ ⎥ 0 G2 0 0 ⎥
∴ AYb = ⎢0 1 1 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥= 0 1 G2 1 0 0 ⎥
⎢
⎢0 0 −1 −1 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢⎢ 5 2
⎥
⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎥ 1 1 ⎥
⎢0 ⎢0 0 −1 − G3
0 0 0 G3 0 ⎥ ⎣ 2 4⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎣ 4⎦
146
⎡ 1 0 0⎤
⎡G ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
−1 0 0 0 0 ⎢ −1 1 0⎥
⎢ 1 5 ⎥
⎢ 1 1 ⎥⎢ 0 1 −1⎥
∴ AYb A = ⎢ 0
T
G2 0 0 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢
5 2
⎥⎢ 0 1 −1⎥
⎢0 0 −1 − 1 G3 1 ⎥⎢ 0 0 1⎥
⎣ 2 4 ⎦⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎢ 1 (
⎡G +1
5 ) −1
5
0 ⎤
⎥
( )
⎢ ⎥
=⎢ − 1 G1 + 1 +1 −1 ⎥
⎢ 5 5 2 2 ⎥
⎢
⎢⎣
0 − 1
2 ( G3 + 1
2
+ 1
)⎥
4 ⎥⎦
Now,
⎡ −30G1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎡1 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎢
0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 4 ⎥
AYbVs − AI s = − AI s = − ⎢0 1 1 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ { we made, Vs 0}
⎢0 0 −1 −1 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ −9.5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ −1.5i ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 6.25 ⎥⎦
⎡ −30G1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
= −⎢ −5.5 ⎥
(
⎢ 15.75 − 1.5i ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦ )
(
⎡G +1
⎢ 1 5 ) −1
5
0 ⎤
⎥ ⎡V ⎤ ⎡ 30G ⎤
( )
⎢ ⎥⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1
⎥
⎢ −1 G2 + 7 −1 ⎥ ⎢V2 ⎥ = ⎢ 5.5 ⎥
⎢ 5 10 2 ⎥
⎢V ⎥ ⎢1.5i − 15.7 ⎥
⎢
⎢⎣
0 −1
2 ( )
G3 + 3 ⎥ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣
4 ⎦⎥
1
7 5 ⎦
With R1 → 0, G1 → , R2 → , G2 → 0, the equations become
⎛ 1⎞ 1
⎜⎝ G1 + 5 ⎟⎠ V1 − 5V2 = 30G1
1 ⎛ 7⎞ 1
− V1 + ⎜ G2 + ⎟ V2 − V3 = 5.5
5 ⎝ 10 ⎠ 2
1
2
3
(
− V2 + V3 = 1.5i1 − 15.75
4
)
147
or, V1 = 30 (i)
1 7 1
− V1 + V2 − V3 = 5.5 ⇒ 7V2 − 5V3 = 115 (ii)
5 10 2
1 3 ⎡ ⎛ V −V ⎞ ⎤
− V2 + V3 = ⎢1.5⎜ 2 1 ⎟ − 15.75 ⎥ ⇒ 16V2 − 15V3 = 495 (iii)
2 4 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Solving equations (i), (ii), and (iii), we get

V2 = −30 V, V3 = 65 V
⎛ V − V ⎞ −30 − 30
Hence, the current, i1 = ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ = = −12 A
⎝ 5 ⎠ 5
Summary
1. Network Topology refers to the properties that relate remaining branches are referred as the links. The col-
to the geometry of the network (circuit).These proper- lection of links is called a co-tree.
ties remain unchanged even if the circuit is bent into 5. Number of nodes in a graph n
any other shape provided that no parts are cut and no Number of independent voltages n 1
new connections are made.
Number of tree-branches n 1
2. A graph is defined as a collection of points called
Number of links L (Total number of branches)
nodes, and line segments called branches, the nodes
(Number of tree-branches)
being joined together by the branches. A subgraph is
subset of the branches and nodes of a graph. b (n 1)
3. For a given connected graph of a network, a con- Total number of branches b L (n 1)
nected subgraph is known as a tree of the graph if the 6. Network analysis by the topological method involves
subgraph has all the nodes of the graph without con- writing KCL and KVL equations with the help of any
taining any loop. one of the three matrices i.e. incidence matrix, tie-set
4. The branches of tree are called twigs. If a graph for a matrix and cut-set matrix.
network is known and a particular tree is specified, the
1. Explain ‘network topology’. 2. State the advantages offered by the graph theory
Network Topology The word topology refers to the sci- as applied to electric circuit problems.
ence of place. In mathematics, topology is a branch 1. Graph theory or network topology deals with
of geometry in which figures are considered perfectly those properties of networks which do not change
elastic. with the change in the shape of the networks.
Network topology refers to the properties that 2. All the equations (KCL and KVL) formed by graph-
relate to the geometry of the network (circuit). These theory concept are independent equations.
properties remain unchanged even if the circuit is bent 3. The graph-theory concept eases the solution
into any other shape provided that no parts are cut and method for solving networks with a large number
no new connections are made. of nodes and branches.
148
3. Define the following terms: The subgraph is said to be proper if it con-
(i) Graph of a network sists of strictly less than all the branches and
(ii) Oriented graph nodes of the graph.
(iii) Rank of a graph
1 1
(iv) Planar and non-planar graph
(v) Subgraph (1)
(2) (2)
(vi) Path
(6)
2 3 2 3
(i) Graph of a network A linear graph (or simply a
graph) is defined as a collection of points called (5) (5)
nodes, and line segments called branches, the (4)
nodes being joined together by the branches.
4 4
6 Subgraph 1 Subgraph 2
6
4 b 5
Fig. 3.55
4 5 a c
b
a c (vi) Path A path is a particular subgraph where
3 2
1 2 only two branches are incident at every node
1 3
except the internal
nodes (i.e., starting and 6
d d
finishing nodes). At the 4 b 5
Fig. 3.52 (a) Circuit Fig. 3.52 (b) a c
internal nodes, only
Graph of the Circuit one branch is incident. 2
1 3
(ii) Oriented graph A graph 1 In the example in
whose branches are ori- (1)
Fig. 3.56, branches 2, d
(2)
ented is called a directed (6)
3, and 4, together with
or oriented graph. The 2
(3)
3 all the four nodes, con- Fig. 3.56
orientation is indicated by (5) stitute a path. A graph
(4)
an arrow head in each of is connected if there
the branches represent- 4 exists a path between any pair of vertices. Oth-
ing the direction of cur- erwise, the graph is disconnected.
Fig. 3.53
rent flow in the branch.
4. Show that the number of links for a graph having n
(iii) Rank of a graph The rank of a graph is (n −1) nodes and b branches is b ⴚ n 1.
where n is the number of nodes or vertices of
the graph. Let, n Number of nodes in a graph
number of independent voltages n 1
(iv) Planar and non-planar graph A graph is planar
if it can be drawn in a plane such that no two number of tree-branches n 1
branches intersect at a point which is not a node. number of links, L (total number of branches)
(number of tree-branches)
b (n 1) b n 1
5. Enlist the properties of a tree.

1. In a tree, there exists one and only one path between
Fig. 3.54 (a) Fig. 3.54 (b) any pairs of nodes.
Planar graph non-planar Graph 2. Every connected graph has at least one tree.
3. A tree contains all the nodes of the graph.
(v) Subgraph A subgraph is a subset of the
branches and nodes of a graph. For example, 4. There is no closed path in a tree and hence, tree is
for the graph shown in Fig. 3.53, some sub- circuitless.
graphs are shown below, in Fig. 3.55. 5. The rank of a tree is (n 1).
149
6. List the properties of an incidence matrix. 4. A cut-set is oriented by selecting an orientation
1. The sum of the entries in any column is zero. from one of the two parts to the other. Generally,
the direction of a cut-set is chosen to be same as the
2. The determinant of the incidence matrix of a closed
direction of the tree branch.
loop is zero.
3. The rank of incidence matrix of a connected graph is
9. Show that for a network graph with P separate
(n 1).
parts, n nodes and b branches, the number of
7. Show that the determinant of the complete inci- chords C is given as C b n P.
dence matrix of a closed loop is zero.
We know that if a connected graph of a network has n
5 4 b 5
a 4 b c a c nodes and b branches then number of tree branches or
2 twigs, bt (n 1)
1 2 3 6 1 3
6 number of links or chords, C (b bt ) b (n 1)
b n 1
d d Now, instead of a connected graph, if we have a net-
Fig. 3.57 (a) Network Fig. 3.57 (b) work graph with P separate parts then the number of
Graph of network chords is calculated as explained below.
Let, n1, n2, n3, …nP be the number of nodes of the
The complete incidence matrix of the graph Aa is given first, second, third, … pth part of the graph, respectively,
as Fig. 3.57 so that the total number of nodes of the graph is
Branches n n1 n2 n3 np
1 2 3 4 5 6 Again, number of twigs for the first part, bt1 (n1 1)

Number of twigs for the second part, bt2 (n2 1)
a 1 0 0 1 0 0 Reduced
Number of twigs for the third part, bt3 (n3 1)
Aa = Nodes b 0 1 0 1 1 0 incidence
Reference c 0 0 1 0 1 1 matrix AI
Number of twigs for the pth part, btp (np 1)
node d 1 1 1 0 0 1
Hence, total number of twigs is,
However, for the closed loop consisting of the branches bt (n1 1) + (n2 1) (n3 1) (np 1)
1, 2 and 4, the complete incidence matrix is given as (n1 n2 n3 np) 1 P (n P)
⎡ 1 2 4⎤ number of chords, C (b bt ) b (n P)
⎢ ⎥ b n P
a −1 0 1 ⎥
Aa = ⎢
⎢ b 0 −1 −1⎥ 10. Prove that in a linear graph, every cut-set has
⎢ ⎥ an even number of branches in common with every
⎣d 1 1 0 ⎦ loop.
The determinant value of this matrix comes to be zero. A cut-set is a minimum number of branches of a con-
Therefore, we can conclude that the complete inci- nected graph that when cut, or removed from the
dence matrix of a closed loop is zero. graph, separates the graph into two groups of nodes. A
cut-set is said to be a fundamental cut-set if it contains
8. Mention some properties of a cut-set.
only one tree branch.
1. A cut-set divides the set of nodes into two subsets. We consider the graph as shown in Fig. 3.58.
2. Each fundamental cut-set contains one tree-branch, The fundamental cut-sets are
the remaining elements being links.
f-cut-set – 1: [1, 2, 6]
3. Each branch of the cut-set has one of its terminals
incident at a node in one subset and its other termi- f-cut-set – 2: [2, 3, 5, 6]
nal at a node in the other subset. f-cut-set – 3: [4, 5, 6]
150
C1 1
1 C2
(1) (2)
(1) Loop 1
(2) Loop 3
(6) (3)
3
(6) 2
3 Loop 2
2 (3) (5) (4)
(5)
(4)
4
Fig. 3.59 Graph Illustrating Loops
4 C3
Fig. 3.58 Graph Illustrating As every fundamental cut-set must contain one tree
Fundamental cut-set branch and at least one link, and every loop also must
contain one link and at least one tree branch, we can
Therefore, a fundamental cut-set contains only one tree say that every fundamental cut-set has two branches
branch and the other branches being the links of the graph. in common with every loop.
On the other hand, a loop always consists of one link and In the similar way, considering a cut-set for an uncon-
the other branches being the tree branches of the graph. nected graph, which contains more than one tree
It is shown in Fig. 3.59. branch, we can show that every fundamental cut-set
The loops are has an even number of branches in common with
Loop 1: [1, 2, 3] Loop2: [3, 4, 5] Loop 3: [1, 2, 4, 6] every loop.
Exercises
1. For the network shown in Fig. 3.60, draw the graph tions containing branch currents and loop currents.
and a possible tree. Show the links and write the tie- All the values are in ohms.
set matrix. Write the equations of the branch currents A
in terms of loop currents.
2 4 3 4
D 8
5 1 6 7
1 2
3
6 5
Fig. 3.60
B C
2. Find out the currents through and voltage across all
9
branches of the network shown in fig. 3.61 with the
help of its tie-set schedule. Fig. 3.62
4. Draw the graph of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.63 and
2 8V select a suitable tree to write tie-set matrix.
6
6 4 10 10
4
2
12 V 6V 5V 10 20 20
Fig. 3.61
Fig. 3.63
3. Find a tree from the graph of the network shown in
Fig. 3.62 Make the tie-set matrix and write the equa- [i1 3 A, i2 1 A, i3 0.5 A]
151
5. For the given network of A 8 15
Fig. 3.64 draw the graph
and a tree. Write the cut- VX
sets and the cut-set matrix E F 4
100 V Vx /14
of the tree. Write the
equations of link branch
voltages in terms of tree B D C
branch voltages. Fig. 3.67
6. For the given network of
Fig. 3.64
[7 A, 4 A]
Fig. 3.65 draw the graph and a tree. Write the cut-sets
and the cut-set matrix of the tree. Write the equations of 9. Select the (i) fundamental 1 2
link branch voltages in terms of tree branch voltages. All loops, and (ii) fundamental 4 5
3 7 6
the values are in ohms. cut-sets corresponding to
a tree of the network graph
A Fig. 3.68
which is shown by solid lines
in Fig. 3.68. Hence write
2
3 the KCL and KVL equations for the network in matrix
3 form.
1 1
2 1 10. Draw the graph of the net-
2 (4) 3
work in Fig. 3.69. Select a 2A
B C tree with tree branches of
3
elements (1) and (2) and (1) 4
Fig. 3.65 write the equilibrium equa-
5 2 (2)
tion taking tree branch
7. The linear oriented 6 (3)
8 voltages as variables.
graph is given in 7
Fig. 3.69
Fig. 3.66 Considering 3
9 4 5 11. The incidence matrix of
a tree, mark all the 1
a network graph is given below. Draw the oriented
fundamental cut-sets
2 graph.
and form the cut-set
matrix.
Fig. 3.66 ⎡1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 1 0 0 −1 1 0 0⎥
8. For the network shown in Fig. 3.67, determine A= ⎢
(a) tie-set matrix, ⎢0 0 1 0 0 −1 1 −1⎥
⎢ ⎥
(b) loop impedance matrix, and
⎣0 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 ⎦
(c) loop currents.
Questions
1. Give the topological description of networks. (b) State the advantages offered by graph theory as
2. (a) Define the following terms: applied to electric circuit problems.
(i) Graph of a network 3. What is meant by a graph? How does a graph help in
circuit analysis?
(ii) Oriented graph
4. (a) Define a tree of a graph of a network. Mention some
(iii) Rank of a graph.
basic properties of a ‘tree’. How can you calculate
(iv) Planar and non-planar graph the number of possible trees of a given graph?
(vi) Subgraph (b) Define the followings:
(v) Path (i) Twigs (ii) Co-tree (iii) Links or chords
152
5. Show that the number of links for a graph having n (c) Write a tie-set schedule and formulate the equilib-
nodes and b brances is b n 1. rium equation on loop current basis.
6. Show that for a network graph with P separate parts, n 11. (a) Define a cut-set in a network graph. How can you
nodes and b branches, the number of chords C is given find out a fundamental cut-set? Mention some
as C b n P. properties of a cut-set.
7. Explain with illustrative examples the meaning of the (b) Define a cut-set matrix with an illustrative example
following terms: and show that the matrix equation QIb 0, where
Q is the cut-set matrix and Ib represents the branch
(a) Incidence matrix
current matrix of the graph.
(b) Tie-set matrix (c) Briefly discuss the relation between branch volt-
(c) Cut-set matrix age matrix and node voltage matrix in terms of
cut-sets.
8. (a) Explain what is meant by incidence matrix of a
graph and indicate how the values of the incidence 12. Prove that in a linear graph, every cut-set has an even
matrix elements are obtained. number of branches in common with every loop.
(b) List the properties of an incidence matrix. 13. (a) Write notes on network equilibrium equation.
(c) How can you determine the number of possible (b) Establish that the independent loop equations of a
trees of a graph with this matrix? network can be formulated from the tie-set matrix
of its graph, with illustrative examples.
9. Show that the determinant of the complete incidence
(c) Establish the formulation of node equations of a
matrix of a closed loop is zero.
network from the cut-set matrix.
10. (a) Explain the term ‘tie-set’ and ‘tie-set matrix’ of a 14. Using the topological properties of a network graph,
network with an illustrative example. describe the step-by-step procedure of analyzing a
(b) Show that the matrix equation, Ib BTIL network by the node voltage method.
where, B is the tie-set matrix and Ib and IL rep- 15. Using the topological properties of a network graph,
resent the branch current and loop cur- describe the step-by-step procedure of analyzing a
rent matrix respectively. network by the loop current method.
1. The number of links for a graph having ‘n’ nodes and 5. For a connected planar graph of v vertices and e
‘b’ branches are edges, the number of meshes is
(i) b – n 1 (ii) n – b 1 (i) (e v 1) (ii) (e v 1) (iii) (e v 1)
(iii) b n – 1 (iv) b n 6. The number of chords of a tree of a connected graph
2. The tree branches of a graph are called G of v vertices and e edges is
(i) chords (ii) links (i) (v 1) (ii) (e v 1) (iii) (e v 1)
(iii) twigs (iv) co-tree 7. The table meant for the oriented graph represents a/an
3. The tie-set matrix gives the relation between
(i) branch currents and link currents
(ii) branch voltages and link currents
(iii) branch currents and link voltages
(iv) none of these 3 I3 I1
2 1
4. The graph of a network has six branches with three
tree branches. The minimum number of equations
required for the solution of the network is
(i) 2 (ii) 3
(iii) 4 (iv) 5 Fig. 3.70
153
Link or loop current ← Branch → The parallel branches in the graph are
(i) 1 and 2 (ii) 2 and 3
1 2 3
(iii) 6 and 7 (iv) none of the above
i1 1 −1 0
12. For a given network, the incidence matrix is given as
i2 0 1 1
(i) tie-set matrix (ii) cut-set matrix 1 2 3 4 5 6
(iii) incidence matrix (iv) none of the above ⎡1 0 0 1 −1 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
8. The reduced incidence matrix of a circuit is given by ⎢0 1 0 −1 1 −1⎥
⎢0 0 1 0 0 1 ⎥
1 2 3 4 5 6 ⎣ ⎦
a ⎡1 −1 −1 −1 0 0 ⎤ The series branches in the graph are
⎢ ⎥
Ai = b ⎢0 1 0 0 −1 1 ⎥ (i) 3 and 4 (ii) 3 and 5
c ⎢⎣0 0 1 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ (iii) 3 and 6 (iv) none of the above
13. For a given network the incidence matrix is given as
The set of branches forming a tree are
(i) 1, 2 and 3 (ii) 2, 3 and 5 1 2 3 4 5 6
(iii) 1, 2 and 4 (iv) 1, 2 and 6. ⎡1 0 0 1 −1 0 ⎤
9. Relative to a given fixed tree of a network, ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1 0 −1 1 −1⎥
1. link currents form an independent set ⎢0 0 1 0 0 1 ⎥
2. branch currents form an independent set ⎣ ⎦
3. link voltages form an independent set The parallel branches in the graph are
4. branch voltages form an independent set of these
(i) 3 and 5 (ii) 4 and 5
statements,
(iii) 3 and 6 (iv) none of the above
(i) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct
(ii) 1, 2 and 3 are correct 14. Which one of the following represents the total
(iii) 2, 3 and 4 are correct number of trees in the graph given in Fig. 3.71?
(iv) 1, 3 and 4 are correct 1 2 3
2
10. For a given network, the incidence matrix is given as
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 5
⎡ 1 0 0 1 0 −1 1 ⎤ 1
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −1 −1 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 1 0 −1 1 0 0 ⎥ 4
⎣ ⎦
Fig. 3.71
The series branches in the graph are
(i) 3 and 4 (ii) 6 and 7 (i) 4 (ii) 5 (iii) 6 (iv) 8
(iii) 2 and 3 (iv) none of the above 15. In the graph and the tree 7
11. For a given network, the incidence matrix is given as shown in Fig. 3.72 the fun- 6 8
damental cut-set for the 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 branch 2 is
1 3
⎡ 1 0 0 1 0 −1 1 ⎤ (i) 2, 1, 5 2
⎢ ⎥ (ii) 2, 6, 7, 8 Fig. 3.72
⎢ −1 −1 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥ (iii) 2, 1, 3, 4, 5
⎢ 0 1 0 −1 1 0 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ (iv) 2, 3, 4
154
16. In the graph shown in Fig. 3.73, one possible tree is 19. The number of chords in the graph of the given circuit
formed by the branches 4, 5, 6, 7. Then one possible will be
fundamental cut set is
8
6 7
1 3
2 4
5 Fig. 3.74
Fig. 3.73
(i) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) 5 (iv) 6
(i) 1, 2, 3, 8 (ii) 1, 2, 5, 6
20. Consider the network graph
(iii) 1, 5, 6, 8 (iv) 1, 2, 3, 7, 8
shown in Fig. 3.75. Which one of
17. Which one of the following statements is correct? the following is NOT a ‘tree’ of
A tree in a network is a connected graph containing this graph?
Fig. 3.75
(i) all the nodes only
(i) (ii)
(ii) all the branches only
(iii) all the branches and nodes
(iv) all the nodes but no close path
(iii) (iv)
1 2 3 4 5 6
⎡1 −1 −1 −1 0 0 ⎤
⎢
18. A = 0
⎥
⎢ 1 0 0 −1 1 ⎥ 21. In the following graph, the (1)
⎢0 0 1 0 1 0 ⎥ number of trees (P) and the
⎣ ⎦ number of cut-sets (Q) are (2) (3)
For the reduced incidence matrix given, which is the (i) P 2, Q 2
set of branches forming a tree? (4)
(ii) P 2, Q 6 Fig. 3.76
(i) 1, 2, 3 (ii) 2, 4, 6 (iii) P 4, Q 6
(iii) 2, 3, 5 (iv) 1, 4, 6 (iv) P 4, Q 10
Answers
1. (i) 6. (ii) 10. (iv) 14. (iv) 18. (i)

2. (iii) 7. (i) 11. (iii) 15. (ii) 19. (i)
3. (i) 8. (i) 12. (iii) 16. (iv) 20. (ii)
4. (ii) 9. (ii) 13. (ii) 17. (iv) 21. (iii)
5. (i)
4 Network Theorems
Introduction
A theorem is a relatively simple rule used to solve a problem, derived from a more intensive analysis
using fundamental rules of mathematics. At least hypothetically, any problem in mathematics
can be solved just by using the simple rules of arithmetic, but human beings are not as consistent
or as fast as a digital computer. We need some shortcut methods in order to avoid procedural
errors.
In electric network analysis, the fundamental rules are Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. While these
humble laws may be applied to analyze any circuit configuration, for complex circuits, it is sometimes
necessary to simplify the network to find current or voltage in a particular branch without solving the
entire circuit. For this purpose, there are some ‘shortcut’ methods of analysis, known as network theo-
rems. As with any theorem of geometry or algebra, the network theorems are also derived from funda-
mental rules.
4.1 NETWORK THEOREMS

In this chapter, we will discuss the following network theorems:
1. Substitution theorem
2. Superposition theorem
3. Reciprocity theorem
4. Thevenin’s theorem
5. Norton’s theorem
6. Maximum power transfer theorem
7. Tellegen’s theorem
8. Millman’s theorem
9. Compensation theorem
156
4.2 SUBSTITUTION THEOREM

Statement
Any branch in a network may be substituted by a different branch without disturbing the voltages and currents in the
entire network, provided the new branch has the same set of terminal voltage and current as the original branch.
Proof In a network N, let the number of branches be ‘b’. The branch method requires the solution of 2b
equations. Now, after substitution, (2b 1) branch equations remain unaltered. However, as the branch volt-
age and current of the replaced branch remain unaltered, it implies that the set of 2b simultaneous equations
will still be satisfied with the same voltage and currents as before. This proves the substitution theorem.
Points to be Noted
(i) The substitution theorem is a general theorem and is applicable for any arbitrary network.
(ii) This theorem is used to replace an impedance branch by either a voltage source or a current source or
a voltage source with a series impedance without altering the branch voltage and current. The restric-
tions imposed are that the branch should not be coupled to other branches in the circuit and the modi-
fied network must have a unique solution.
(iii) This theorem is very useful in circuit analysis of network having non-linear elements.
(iv) This theorem cannot be applied to a branch which is coupled to other branches in the circuit.
(v) This theorem cannot be applied if the branch voltage and current are not known.
Example 4.1 We consider the branch xy of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.1. The branch voltage Vxy ⴝ 50 V,
and branch current Ixy ⴝ 5 A. This branch can be substituted by any other branch as shown without altering
the voltage and current in the branch.
10 x
x x 5A 5
10 10 5A
x 10 50V
25V
y y y
100V 10 10
(a) (b) (c) (d)
y
Fig. 4.1 Illustration of substitution theorem
The branch can be substituted using the relation as given below.

Vxy ZxyIxy E, before substitution
Vxy Zxy Ixy E , after substitution
4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Statement
This theorem states that in a linear bilateral network, the current at any point (or voltage between any two
points) due to the simultaneous action of a number of independent sources in the network is equal to the
summation of the component currents (or voltages). A component current (or voltage) is defined as that due
to one source acting alone in the network with all the remaining sources removed.
157
Network Theorems
r (t) r1(t ) r2(t)

Linear Linear Linear
e1(t ) passive e1(t) passive passive
bilateral bilateral bilateral
network network network
e2(t) e2(t )
Fig. 4.2 Illustration of superposition theorem
Proof
Z1 Z2 E1 Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2
E1 I1 Z3 I2 E2 I Z3 I I Z3 I E2
1 2 1 2
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.3 Proof of superposition theorem
Using KVLfor the above network, as shown in Fig. 4.3 (a),

E1 = I1 ( Z1 + Z 3 ) + I 2 Z 3 and E2 = I1 Z 3 + I 2 ( Z 2 + Z 3 )
Solving the above two equations,
Z2 + Z3 Z3
I1 = E1 − E
Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 2
− Z3 Z1 + Z 3
I1 = E1 + E
Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 2
Making E2 inoperative, the circuit diagram becomes as shown in Fig. 4.3 (b),
Then the KVL equations are
E1 = I1′ ( Z1 + Z 3 ) + I 2′ Z 3 and 0 = I1′ Z 3 + I 2′ ( Z 2 + Z 3 )
Z2 + Z3 − Z3
I1′ = E and I 2′ = E
Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 1 Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 1
Making E1 inoperative, the circuit diagram becomes as shown in Fig. 4.3 (c),
Then the KVL equations are
0 = I 2′′( Z1 + Z 3 ) + I 2′′Z 3 and E2 = I 2′′Z 3 + I 2′′( Z 2 + Z 3 )
− Z3 Z2 + Z3
I1′′= E and I 2′′ = E
Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 2 Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1 2
158
So, I1 = I1′ + I1′′, I 2 = I 2′ + I 2′′

If an excitation e1(t) alone gives a response r1(t), and an excitation e2(t) alone gives a response r2(t) then,
by the superposition theorem, the excitation e1(t) and the excitation e2(t) together would give a response r(t)
r1(t) r2(t)
The superposition theorem can even be stated in a more general manner, where the superposition occurs
with scaling.
Thus an excitation of k1e1(t) and an excitation of k2e2(t) occurring together would give a response of k1r1(t)
k2 r2(t).
Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem

1. Only one source is considered to act alone. The other sources are replaced by their internal impedances,
i. e., ideal independent voltage sources are short-circuited and ideal independent current sources are
open-circuited. All dependent sources will act normally.
2. Using any suitable network analysis technique, the current through or the voltage across the desired
element is found out due to the source under consideration.
3. The above steps are repeated considering all the independent sources one by one.
4. The total response (current or voltage) is obtained by taking the algebraic sum of all the responses.
Points to be Noted
(i) This theorem is valid for all types of linear circuits having time-varying or time-invariant elements.
(ii) This theorem is used to find the current or voltage in a branch when the circuit has a large number of
independent sources.
(iii) This theorem is not valid for power relationship.
(iv) This theorem is not applicable to circuits containing only dependent sources. With dependent sources,
superposition can be used only when the controlling functions are external to the network containing
sources, so that the controls are unchanged when the sources act at a time.
(v) This theorem is not applicable for circuits with non-linear elements.
(vi) This theorem is not useful for circuits with only one independent source.
Example 4.2 Find the current ‘I’ in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.4
1 I
using the superposition theorem.
2
Solution We consider two cases: 1A 1 3 1V
Case (1) When the 1-V voltage source is acting alone
For Fig. 4.5 (a), the current through the 2- resistance in this case is
1
I′=− A
3
Case (2) When the 1-A current source is acting alone
1 1
For Fig. 4.5(b), the current through the 2- resistance in this case is I ′′ = 1 × = A
1+ 2 3
By superposition theorem, the current when both the sources are acting simultaneously is
1 1
I = ( I ′ + I ′′ ) = − + = 0
3 3
159
Network Theorems
I I
1 1
2 2
1 3 1V 1A 1 3
Fig. 4.5 (a) Voltage source acting alone Fig. 4.5 (b) Current source acting alone
4.4 RECIPROCITY THEOREM

Statement
In any linear, bilateral and time-invariant network, the ratio of response to excitation remains same for an
interchange of the position of excitation and response in the network.
Proof Let us consider a network ‘N’ having only one driving voltage source E Ei in the loop ‘i’ and the
current source Ij in the loop j, Then Ij YjiEi.
Next, interchanging the positions of cause and effect, i.e., placing the same voltage source E Ej in the
loop j, we get the current response Ii in the loop ‘i’ as Ii Yij Ej
Then Ii will be equal to Ij provided, Yij Yji
This is the condition for reciprocity, Yij Yji for all j and i signifies that the admittance matrix Y is symmetric.
Points to be Noted
(i) This theorem is applicable to the networks comprising of linear, time-invariant, bilateral, passive ele-
ments, such as ordinary resistors, inductors, capacitors and transformers.
(ii) This theorem is inapplicable to unilateral networks, such as networks comprising of electron tubes or
other control devices.
(iii) This theorem is inapplicable to circuits with time-varying elements.
(iv) This theorem is inapplicable to circuits with dependent sources.
(v) To apply this theorem, we have to consider only the zero-state response by taking all the initial condi-
tions to be zero.
Example 4.3 Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network 2 4
shown in Fig. 4.6 using a current source and a voltmeter.
Solution Using a current source and a voltmeter, the circuit is
shown in Fig. 4.7 (a). 1 3 5
By KCL,
At the node (1), ⇒ 3e1 − e2 − 2i1 = 0 (i)
At the node (2) ⇒ − 6 e1 + 13e2 − 3v1 = 0 (ii) Fig. 4.6 Circuit of Example 4.3
At the node (3) 9v1 = 5e2 (iii) 1 2 2 4 3

9
From (ii) ⇒ − 6 e1 + 13 × v1 − 3v1 = 0
5 i1 1 3 5 V
117
⇒ − 6 e1 + ( − 3)v1 = 0
5
102 17 Fig. 4.7 (a) Circuit of Example 4.3 with current
⇒ 6 e1 + v ⇒ e1 = v1
5 1 5 source and voltmeter
160
17 9 ⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ 21⎞
From (i) ⇒ 3× v1 − v1 = 2i ⇒ ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ (A)
5 5 ⎝ v1 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠
Interchanging the positions of the current source and the 1 2 2 4 3
voltmeter, the circuit is shown in Fig. 4.7 (b).
By KCL, i2
V 1 3 5
At the node (1) ⇒ 3v2 = e2 (iv)
At the node (2) ⇒ − 6 v2 + 13e2 − 3e3 = 0
Fig. 4.7 (b) Circuit of Fig. 4.7 (a) interchanging
⇒ − 6 v2 + 13 × 3v2 − 3e3 = 0 the position of source and excitation
⇒ e3 = 11v2 (v)
At the node (3) ⇒ 5e3 − 5e2 + 4 e3 − 20i2 = 0
⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ 21⎞
⇒ 20i2 = 9e3 − 5e2 = 9 × 11v2 − 5 × 3v2 = 84 v2 ⇒ ⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ (B)
⎝ v2 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠
From equations (A) and (B), reciprocity theorem is proved.
4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Statement
A linear active bilateral network can be replaced at any
Linear Z Thevenin
two of its terminals by an equivalent voltage source active Voc
(Thevenin’s voltage source), Voc, in series with an bilateral Z in
E Thevenin
equivalent Impedance (Thevenin’s impedance), Zth. network
Here, Voc is the open circuit voltage between the two
terminals under the action of all sources and initial con- Fig. 4.8 Illustration of Thevenin’s theorem
ditions, and Zth is the impedance obtained across the
terminals with all sources removed by their internal a
impedance and initial conditions reduced to zero.
Linear
Proof We consider a linear active circuit of Fig. 4.9 (a). An external current I V circuit
source is applied through the terminals a–b where we have access to the circuit.
We have to prove that the v–i relation at terminals a–b of Fig. 4.9 (a) is b
identical with that of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.9 (b).
Fig. 4.9 (a) A current-
For simplicity, we assume that the circuit contains two independent driven circuit
voltage sources Vs1 and Vs2 and two independent current sources a
Is1 and Is2.
Zth
Considering the contribution due to each independent source
I V Vth
including the external one, the voltage at a–b, V, is, by superposition
theorem,
b
V = K0 I + K1Vs1 + K 2Vs 2 + K 3 I s1 + K 4 I s 2
Fig. 4.9 (b) Thevenin’s Equivalent
where, K0, K1, K2, K3, K4 are constants. Circuit
161
Network Theorems
or, V = K0 I + P0 (4.1)
where, P0 = K1Vs1 + K 2Vs 2 + K 3 I s1 + K 4 I s 2 total contribution due to internal independent sources
To evaluate the constants K0 and P0 of Eq. (4.1), two conditions are
(i) When the terminals a and b are open-circuited

I 0, and V Voc Vth
From Eq. (4.1), Vth Voc P0 ⇒ Vth = P0
(ii) When all the internal sources are turned off
P0 0 and the equivalent impedance is Zth
From Eq. (4.1), V K0I
V
Or, = K0 = Z th ⇒ K0 = Z th
I
Thus, substituting the values of K0 and P0, the v–i relation becomes,
V = Z th I + Vth
This represents the v–i relationship of Fig. (b). So, Thevenin’s theorem is proved.
Points to be Noted
(i) This theorem is very useful for replacement of a large portion of a network with a small equivalent
circuit. This is useful for calculating the load resistance in impedance-matching problems.
(ii) This theorem is applicable to any linear, bilateral, active network.
(iii) To apply this theorem, the load branch should not be magnetically coupled to any other branch in the
circuit and the load should not contain any dependent source.
(iv) This theorem is inapplicable to non-linear and unilateral networks.
4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM

Statement
A linear active bilateral network can be replaced at any
two of its terminals, by an equivalent current source Linear
(Norton’s current source), Isc, in parallel with an equiva- active YN Isc Isc YN
bilateral
lent admittance (Norton’s admittance), YN. network
Here, Isc is the short-circuit current flowing from one
terminal to the other under the action of all sources and Fig. 4.10 Illustration of Norton’s theorem
initial conditions, and YN is the admittance obtained across
the terminals with all sources removed by their internal impedance and initial conditions reduced to zero.
Proof We consider a linear active circuit of Fig. 4.11 (a). An external voltage source is applied through
the terminals a–b where we have access to the circuit.
We have to prove that the v–i relation at terminals a–b of Fig. 4.11 (a) is identical with that of the Norton’s
equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.11 (b).
162
For simplicity, we assume that the circuit contains I

I a
two independent voltage sources Vs1 and Vs2 and two a
independent current sources Is1 and Is2.
Linear V YN Is
Considering the contribution due to each indepen- V circuit
dent source including the external one, the entering at
a, I, is, by superposition theorem, b b
Fig. 4.11 (a) A voltage- Fig. 4.11 (b) Norton’s
I = K0V + K1Vs1 + K 2Vs 2 + K 3 I s1 + K 4 I s 2 driven circuit equivalent circuit
where, K0, K1, K2, K3, K4 are constants.
Or, I = K0V + P0 (4.2)
where, P0 = K1Vs1 + K 2Vs 2 + K 3 I s1 + K 4 I s 2 total contribution due to internal independent sources
To evaluate the constants K0 and P0 of Eq. (4.2), two conditions are
When the terminals a and b are short-circuited,
V 0, and I Isc IN
From Eq. (4.2), Isc P0 ⇒ I sc = − P0
When all the internal sources are turned off

P0 0 and the equivalent admittance is YN.
From Eq. (4.2), I K0V
I
Or, = K0 = YN ⇒ K0 = YN
V
Thus, substituting the values of K0 and P0, the v–i relation becomes,
I = VYN − I N (4.3)
This represents the v–i relationship of Fig. (b). So, Norton’s theorem is proved.
Points to be Noted
(i) This theorem is very useful for replacement of a large portion of a network with a small equivalent
circuit. This is useful for calculating the load resistance in impedance-matching problems.
(ii) This theorem is applicable to any linear, bilateral, active network.
(iii) To apply this theorem, the load branch should not be magnetically coupled to any other branch in the
circuit and the load should not contain any dependent source.
(iv) This theorem is inapplicable to non-linear and unilateral networks.
(v) This theorem is inapplicable for active load.
4.6.1 Steps for Determination of Thevenin’s/Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

1. The portion of the network across which the Thevenin’s or Norton’s equivalent circuit is to be found
out is removed from the network.
2. (a) The open-circuit voltage (Voc or Vth) is calculated keeping all the sources at their normal values.
(b) The short-circuit current (Isc or IN) flowing from one terminal to the other is calculated keeping all
the sources at their normal values.
163
Network Theorems
Calculation of Zth or YN
When the Circuit Contains Only Independent Sources
• All voltage sources are short-circuited.
• All current sources are open-circuited.
• Equivalent impedance or admittance is calculated looking back to the circuit with respect to the two terminals.
When the Circuit Contains Both Dependent and Independent Sources
• Open-circuit voltage (Voc) is calculated with all sources alive.
• Short-circuit current (Isc) is calculated with all sources alive.
Voc 1
• Thevenin’s impedance is obtained as, Z th = =
I sc YN
When the Circuit Contains Only Dependent Sources
• In this case, Voc 0.
• We connect a test voltage (or current) source at the terminals a and b and the current flowing through
a–b (voltage drop between the terminals a–b) is calculated.
V 1
• Thevenin’s impedance is obtained as, Z th = test =
I test YN
Finally, Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is obtained by placing Voc in series with Zth and Norton’s equivalent
is obtained by placing Isc in parallel with YN.
Example 4.4 Find both Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuit for the network shown in Fig. 4.12. All
resistance values are in ohm.
2 1
5V 2 2 1 2A

Solution The circuit has only independent sources. We find the Thevenin equivalent impedance by removing
the sources.
⎛2 ⎞ 5
⇒ RN = Rth = ⎜ + 1⎟ =
⎝3 ⎠ 3
2 1 2 1
R th 1 R th
2 2 1
Fig. 4.13 (a) Fig. 4.13 (b)

164
Short-circuiting the terminals,

2 1
5V 2 2 1 2A Isc
Fig. 4.13 (c)
By superposition theorem, when the 5-V source is acting alone,

5
I=
= 7A I I1 2 I2 1
5
7
I1 4.5 A 5V 2 2 1 Isc
I2 2 A
Isc 1 A
Fig. 4.13 (d)
and when the 2-A source is acting alone,
2 1 2 1
2 2 1 2A Isc 1 2A Isc
Fig. 4.13 (e) Fig. 4.13 (f)
A 5/3
2 A
∴ I sc′′ = 2 × 3 = 4A
2 +1 5 9/5 A 5/3 or, 3 V
3
B B
⎛ 4⎞ 9 Fig. 4.13 (g) Fig. 4.13 (h)
∴ total I sc = ( I sc′ + I sc′′) = ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = A
⎝ 5⎠ 5
9 5
∴Vth = I sc × Rth = × = 3 V
5 3
So, the circuits are shown. i0 10
A
Example 4.5 Find Thevenin’s equivalent cir-
cuit across the terminals A and B for the network
12V 2i0 5
shown in Fig. 4.14.
Solution The circuit has both dependent and
independent sources. We find Vth and Isc and then B
taking the ratio we get Zth. Fig. 4.14
165
Network Theorems
To find Vth i0 10
A
By KVL for the supermesh shown,
10i0 + Vth − 12 = 0 ⇒ Vth = 12 − 10i0 (i)
12V 2i0 5 Vth
By KCL at the node A,
Vth B
−i0 − 2i0 + = 0 ⇒ Vth = 15i0 (ii)
5 Fig. 4.15 (a)
From (i) and (ii) we get, Vth 7.2 V i0 10
A
To find Isc
When the terminals A and B are shorted, no current 12 V 2i0 ISC
flows through the 5- resistance. The circuit is shown in
Fig. 4.15 (b).
B
By KVL for the supermesh, Fig. 4.15 (b)
10i0 12 ⇒ i0 1.2 A 2
A
By KCL at the node A, Isc 3i0 3.6 A
Therefore, the Thevenin impedance is given as
7.2 V
Vth 7.2
Z th = = =2Ω
I sc 3.6 B
Fig. 4.15 (c)
Example 4.6 Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the network shown
in Fig. 4.16. 10
Solution This circuit does not have any independent source; it has only a
dependent current source. Therefore, the Thevenin equivalent voltage will 0.5v0
20 v0
be zero.
Vth 0
To find Thevenin’s equivalent impedance, we connect a test current source Fig. 4.16
of value I. Let the voltage across this test source be V.
10 x
By KCL at the node x,
V − v0 I
− 0.5v0 − I = 0 ⇒ V 10I 6v0 (i) 20 v0 0.5v0 V
10
( )
Also, v0 = 20 × 0.5v0 + I = 10v0 + 20 I ⇒ v0 = −
20
9
I (ii)
Fig. 4.17 (a)
Putting the value of v0 in (i) from (ii), 3.33
⎛ 20 ⎞ 10 A
V = 10 I + 6 × ⎜ − I ⎟ = − I
⎝ 9 ⎠ 3
V 10
Z th =
= − = −3.33
I 3 B
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.17 (b). Fig. 4.17 (b)
166
4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

As we are probably aware, a normal car battery is rated at 12 V and generally has an open circuit voltage of
around 13.5 V. Similarly, if we take 9 pen-torch batteries, they too will have a terminal voltage of 9 1.5
13.5 V. However, we know that if our car battery is dead, we cannot start our car with 9 pen-torch batteries.
The reason behind that is that a pen-torch batteries, although having the same open-circuit voltage do not
have necessary power (or current capacity) and hence the required current cannot be given. Or if stated in
different terms, it has too high an internal resistance so that the voltage would drop without giving the neces-
sary current.
This means that a given battery (or any other energy supply, such as the mains) can only give a limited
amount of power to a load. The maximum power transfer theorem defines this power, and tells us the condi-
tion at which this occurs.
Statement Maximum power is absorbed by one network from another connected to it at two terminals,
when the impedance of one is the complex conjugate of the other.
This means that for maximum active power to be delivered to the load, the load impedance must cor-
respond to the conjugate of the source impedance (or in the case of direct quantities, be equal to the source
impedance).
The statement and proof of this theorem are discussed for four different cases:
1. Purely resistive circuit with variable load resistance
In this case, the statement of this theorem is given as ‘Maximum power will be delivered from a source to a
load when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance.’
Proof Let V be the voltage source, RS the internal resistance of the source and
RL the load resistance. RS
power delivered to the load is,

2 V 2 RL RL
P = I RL = (4.4) V
(R )
2
S
+ RL
For maximum power,
Fig. 4.18 (a) Purely
∂P
=0 ⇒ V2 ⎢ L S (
⎡ R + R − 2R R + R
L S L) ( ) ⎤⎥ = 0 resistive circuit with
)
variable load resistance
∂RL ⎢ ( ⎥
4
⎣ RS + RL ⎦
RS = RL
i.e., the load resistance is equal to the source resistance.
(V )
2
2
V
Putting RL RS in Eq. (4.4), the maximum power transferred will be Pmax = = 2 and thus, the
efficiency will be 50%. This case arises in a purely dc circuit. 4 RL RL
2. Load impedance with variable resistance and variable reactance

In this case, the statement of the theorem is given as ‘Maximum power will be delivered from a source to a
load when the load impedance is the complex conjugate of the source impedance.’
167
Network Theorems
Proof Let V be the voltage source, (RS jXS) the internal imped- (RS jXS)
ance of the source and (RL jXL) the load impedance.
V V
current, I = = (4.5)
ZS + ZL (
RS + RL + j X S + X L ) ( ) V (RL jXL)
Power delivered to the load is

2 V 2 RL Fig. 4.18 (b) Load impedance with
P = I RL = (4.6) variable resistance and variable reactance
( RS + RL )2 + ( X S + X L )2
where, Z S = RS + jX S , Z L = RL + jX L
∂P
For maximum power, must be zero.
∂X L
( )
2
∂P −2 V RL ( X L + X S )
Now, = =0
∂X L ⎡( R + R )2 + ( X + X )2 ⎤ 2
⎣ L S L S ⎦
From which, XL XS 0 or XL = −XS
i.e., the reactance of the load impedance is of opposite sign to the reactance of the source impedance.
V 2 RL
Putting XL XS in Eq. (4.6) P =
( RL + RS )2
∂P V ( RL + RS ) − 2V RL ( RL + RS )
2 2 2
For maximum power, = =0

∂RL ( RL + RS )4
or, V 2 ( RL + RS ) − 2V 2 RL = 0 or RL = RS
(V 2 )
2
V2
The maximum power transferred will be Pmax = = and thus, the efficiency will be 50%.
4 RL RL
3. Load impedance with variable resistance and fixed reactance

Maximum power transfer in this case takes place under certain conditions as obtained below.
Here, the current,
(RS jXS)
V V
I= = (4.7)
Z S + Z L ( RS + RL ) + j ( X S + X L ) RL
Power delivered to the load is V
j XL
2 V 2 RL
P = I RL =
( RS + RL )2 + ( X S + X L )2 (4.8) Fig. 4.18 (c) Load impe-
dance with variable resistance
where, Z S = RS + jX S , Z L = RL + jX L and fixed reactance
168
∂P
For maximum power, =0
∂RL
⎡ ⎤
( ) ( )
2 2
⎢ RS + RL + X S + X L − 2 RL ( RS + RL ) ⎥
⇒ V 2
=0
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎡ ( R + R ) 2
+ ( X + X ) 2
⎤ ⎥⎦
⎣ S L S L ⎦
⇒ RL 2 = RS 2 + ( X S + X L )2 ⇒ RL = RS 2 + ( X S + X L )2
Case (a) If the source impedance is purely resistive, i. e., XS 0, the condition for maximum power
transfer becomes
RL = RS 2 + X L 2
Case (b) if the load impedance is purely resistive, i. e., XL 0, the condition for maximum power transfer
becomes
RL = RS 2 + X S 2 = Z S
i. e., the load resistance is equal to the source impedance.
4. Load impedance with fixed ratio, i. e., with variable magnitude but fixed angle
In this case, the statement of the theorem is given as ‘Maximum power is delivered from a source to a load
when the magnitude of the load impedance is equal to the magnitude of the source impedance.’
Proof Let the angle of the load impedance be f.
∴ Z L = Z L cos + j Z L sin
power delivered to the load is
V 2 Z L cos
P=
( RS + Z L cos )2 + ( X S + Z L sin )2
For maximum power transfer
dP d ⎡ V 2 Z L cos ⎤
=0 ⇒ ⎢ ⎥=0
⎢⎣ ( RS + Z L cos ) + ( X S + Z L sin ) ⎦⎥
2 2
d ZL d ZL
Simplifying we get
2 2
Z L = RS 2 + X S 2 = Z S
ZL = ZS
This case arises in a transformer where the turns ratio is varied for maximum power transfer.
Points to be Noted
(i) It is to be noted that when maximum power is being transferred, only half the applied voltage is avail-
able to the load and the other half drops across the source. Also, under these conditions, half the power
supplied is wasted as dissipation in the source.
169
Network Theorems
Thus, the useful maximum power will be less than the theoretical maximum power derived and will
depend on the voltage required to be maintained at the load.
(ii) For circuits having a resistive load being supplied from a source with only an internal resistance (the
case for dc), the maximum power will be transferred to the load when the load resistance is equal to the
source resistance.
Example 4.7 Find the value of R in the circuit of Fig. 4.19 1 5 R

such that maximum power transfer takes place. What is the
amount of this power?
4V 2 1 6V
Solution Removing the résistance R,
∴ 3i1 − 2i1 = 4
and −2i1 + 8i2 = 0 Figure 4.19 Circuit of Example 4.7
2
Solving, i2 = A
5
1 5
⎛ 2 ⎞ 32
∴ 1 × i2 + 6 = Voc ⇒ Voc = ⎜ 6 + ⎟ = V
⎝ 5⎠ 5 4V 2 1 Voc
Also, to find the Rth, i1 i2
17
⎡⎛ 1 × 2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛2 ⎞ ×1
17
Rth = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 5 ⎥ [1] = ⎜ + 5⎟ 1 = 3 = Fig. 4.20 (a)
⎣ ⎝ 1 + 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 3 ⎠ 17 20
+1 1 5
3
17
for maximum power transfer, R = Rth = = 0 ⋅ 85 2 1
20 Rth
2
Voc
maximum power Pmax = = 12 W Fig. 4.20 (b)
4R
4.7.1 Concept of Internal Resistance of Voltage and Current Sources

A voltage source is any device or system that produces an electromotive force
between its terminals. An example of a primary source is a common battery.
Battery
Similarly, a current source is an electrical or electronic device that delivers elec- r
B A
tric current. Examples of current sources are a large voltage source in series with
a large resistor (however, this type of current source has very poor efficiency), an
active current source involving transistors, high-voltage current source like Van R
de Graff generator, etc. A current source is the dual of a voltage source.
In circuit theory, an ideal voltage source is a circuit element where the voltage I
across it is independent of the current through it. It only exists in mathematical Fig. 4.21 A battery of emf
models of circuits. The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero; it is E and internal resistance r
able to supply any amount of current. The current through an ideal voltage source connected to a load resistor
is completely determined by the external circuit. When connected to an open cir- of resistance R
170
cuit, there is zero current and thus zero power. When connected to a load resistance, the current through the source
approaches infinity as the load resistance approaches zero (a short circuit). Thus, an ideal voltage source can supply
unlimited power.
Similarly, an independent current source with zero current is identical to an ideal open circuit. For this
reason, the internal resistance of an ideal current source is infinite. The voltage across an ideal current source
is completely determined by the circuit it is connected to. When connected to a short circuit, there is zero
voltage and thus zero power delivered. When connected to a load resistance, the voltage across the source
approaches infinity as the load resistance approaches infinity (an open circuit). Thus, an ideal current source
can supply unlimited power forever and so represents an unlimited source of energy. Connecting an ideal
open circuit to an ideal non-zero current source is not valid in circuit analysis as the circuit equation would
be paradoxical, e.g., 3 0.
Now, real batteries are constructed from materials which possess non-zero resistivities. They possess
internal resistances. Incidentally, a pure voltage source is usually referred as an emf. A battery can be mod-
eled as an emf E connected in series with a resistor r, which represents its internal resistance as shown in the
Fig. 4.21.
The voltage V of the battery is defined as the difference in electric potential between its positive and nega-
tive terminals, i.e., the points A and B, respectively. Thus, the voltage V of the battery is related to its emf E
and internal resistance r via V E Ir
Now, the emf of a battery is essentially constant; so we must conclude that the voltage of a battery actu-
ally decreases as the current drawn from it increases. In fact, the voltage only equals the emf when the current
is negligibly small. The maximum current drawn from the battery is I0 E/r (since for I I0 the voltage V
becomes negative which can only happen if the load resistor R is also negative; that is not feasible.). It follows
that if we short-circuit a battery, by connecting its positive and negative terminals together using a conducting
wire of negligible resistance, the current drawn from the battery is limited to I0 by its internal resistance.
A real battery is usually characterized in terms of its emf E (i.e., its voltage at zero current), and the maxi-
mum current I0 which it can supply.
Therefore, we conclude that, no real voltage source is ideal; all have a non-zero effective internal resis-
tance, and none can supply unlimited current. However, the internal resistance of a real voltage source is
effectively modeled in linear circuit analysis by combining a non-zero resistance in series with an ideal
voltage source. Similarly, no real current source is ideal (no unlimited energy sources exist) and all have a
finite internal resistance (none can supply unlimited voltage). The internal resistance of a physical current
source is effectively modeled in circuit analysis by combining a non-zero resistance in parallel with an
ideal current source.
4.8 TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

Statement
Consider an arbitrary lumped network whose graph ‘G’ has ‘b’ branches and ‘n’ nodes. Let the associated
reference polarities and directions be chosen for the branch voltages v1 , v2 , v3 ,...vb and the branch currents
i1 , i2 , i3 ,... ib, which satisfy all the constraints imposed by KVL and KCL respectively.
Then, the summation of instantaneous power delivered to all branches is zero
b
i.e., ∑v i
k =1
k k
=0
171
Network Theorems
Proof We have to prove that

b
∑v i
k =1
k k
=0
⎡ i1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎡⎣ v1 ⎢i ⎥
or, v2 ... vb ⎤⎦ ⎢ 2 ⎥ = 0
⎢.⎥
⎢⎣ ib ⎥⎦
or, Vb]T [Ib] 0 (4.9)
Now, by KCL and KVL using complete incidence matrix, we have
[Aa] [Ib] 0 (4.10)
and [Vb] [Aa]T [Vn] (4.11)
So, [Vb]T [Ib] [[Aa]T [Vn]]T [Ib] {by Eq. (4.11)}
[Aa] [Ib] [Vn]T
0. [Vn]T {by Eq. (4.10)}
⇒ [Vb ] × [ I b ] = 0
T
Thus, Tellegen’s theorem is proved.

Points to be Noted
(i) This theorem is applicable for any lumped network having elements which are linear or non-linear,
active or passive, time-varying or time-invariant.
(ii) This theorem is completely independent of the nature of the elements and is only concerned with the
graph of the network.
(iii) This theorem is based on two Kirchhoff’s laws, i.e., KVL and KCL.
(iv) This theorem implies that the power delivered by independent sources of the network must be equal to
the sum of the power absorbed (dissipated or stored) in all other elements in the network.
(v) If the network is in sinusoidally steady-state (ac circuits) then Tellegen’s theorem is given as
b
∑V I
k =1
k k
*
=0
where, Vk are the phasor voltages, Ik are the phasor currents and Ik* is the complex conjugate of Ik.
(vi) If t1 and t2 refer to two different instants of observations, it still follows from Tellegen’s theorem that
b
∑ v (t ) ⋅ i (t
k =1
k 1 k 2
)=0
(vii) If N1 and N2 refer to two different circuits having the same graph, with the same reference directions
assigned to the branches in the two circuits then by Tellegen’s theorem,
b b
∑v
k =1
1k
⋅ i2 k = 0 and ∑v
k =1
2k
⋅ i1k = 0
where, v1k and i1k are the voltages and currents in N1 and v2k and i2k are the voltages and currents in N2,
all satisfying the Kirchhoff’s laws.
172
Example 4.8 Verify Tellegen’s theorem for the network shown in V2

Fig. 4.22.
I1 I3
It is given that V1 4 V, V2 2 V, V3 2 V, V4 8 V, V5 6 V, and I1 2 A, I2
I4 V4
I2 2 A, I3 6 A, I4 4 A, I5 4 A. V3
V1
Solution Before verifying Tellegen’s theorem, we have to check V5 I5
whether the voltage and current values satisfy the KVL and KCL,
respectively.
At the node (A), (i1 − i2 ) = ( 2 − 2 ) = 0
At the node (B), (i2 + i3 + i4 ) = ( 2 + 2 − 4 ) = 0
At the node (C), (i5 − i4 ) = ( 4 − 4 ) = 0
At the node (D), ( −i1 − i3 − i5 ) = ( −2 + 6 − 4 ) = 0
Thus, the currents satisfy KCL.
For the loop ABDA, ( − v2 + v3 − v1 ) = ( 2 + 2 − 4 ) = 0
For the loop ABCDA, ( − v2 + v4 + v5 − v1 ) = ( 2 + 8 − 6 − 4 ) = 0
For the loop BCDB, ( v4 + v5 − v3 ) = (8 − 6 − 2 ) = 0
Thus, the voltages satisfy KVL.
5
So, by Tellegen’s theorem, ∑V i
k =1
k k
= ( 4 × 2 ) + ( −2 × 2 ) + ( 2 × −6 ) + (8 × 4 ) + ( −6 × 4 ) = 0
4.9 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Consider a number of admittances Y1, Y2, Y3 …Yp … Yq, …Yn be connected together at a common point S. If
the voltages of the free ends of the admittances with respect to a common reference N are known to be V1N,
V2N, V3N …VpN… VqN, …VnN, then Millman’s theorem gives the voltage of the common point S with respect to
the reference N as follows.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at the node S, Y1
S
n Yn 1
∑I
p =1
p
= 0, I p = Yp (V pN − VsN ) Y2
n
n
or, ∑Y (V
p =1
p pN
− VsN ) = 0 Yq Yp
Y3
2
3
n n q
or, ∑Y V
p =1
p pN
= VsN ∑ Yp
p =1
p
N reference
n Fig. 4.23 Illustration of Millman’s theorem
∑YpVpN
p =1
⇒ VsN = n
∑Yp =1
p
An extension of the Millman’s theorem is the equivalent generator theorem.

173
Network Theorems
Statement
(I) This theorem states that if several ideal voltage sources (V1, V2, …) in series with impedances
(Z1, Z2,…) are connected in parallel , then the circuit may be replaced by a single ideal voltage source
(V) in series with an impedance (Z );
n
A
A
∑V Y
i =1
i i
1 Z1 Z2 Zn Z
where, V= n
and, Z = n
…..
∑Y i =1
i ∑Y
i =1
i V1 V2 Vn V
B
(II) If several ideal current sources (I1, I2, …) in parallel B
with impedances (Z1, Z2, …) are connected in series, Fig. 4.24 Voltage source equivalent using
they may be replaced by a single ideal current source Millman’s theorem
(I ) in parallel with an impedance (Z);
n
Ii
∑ Yi 1 n
where, I= i =1
n
and, Y = n
or Z = ∑ Z i
∑
i =1
1
Yi ∑
i =1
1
Yi
i =1
I1 I2 In I
A B A B
Z1 Z2 Zn Z
Fig. 4.25 Current source equivalent using Millman’s theorem
Proof
(I) Using the superposition theorem, the short-circuit current through A–B considering only one source acting
alone and replacing other sources by their internal impedances, (i.e., short circuit for ideal voltage sources),
I sc1 = V1Y1 I sc 2 = V2Y2 I scn = VnYn
Total short-circuit current through A–B, Isc (Isc1 Isc2 … Iscn)
= V1Y1 + V2Y2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ VnYn
n
= ∑ViYi (4.12)
i =1
Impedance looking back from A–B with all the sources removed
1 1
Z= = n (4.13)
Y1 + Y2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ Yn
∑Yi i =1
174
Thus, by Thevenin’s theorem, the equivalent voltage is,

n
∑V Y
i =1
i i
V = I sc ⋅ Z = n
(4.14)
∑Yi i =1
Form Eq. (4.12), (4.13) and (4.14), Millman’s theorem is proved.

(II) Using the superposition theorem, the short-circuit current through A–B considering only one source acting
alone and replacing other sources by their internal impedances, (i.e., open circuit for ideal current sources),
IZ I Z I Z
I sc1 = n1 1 ; I sc2 = n2 2 ; ⋅⋅⋅ I scn = nn n
∑ Zi ∑ Zi
i =1
∑ Zi i =1 i =1
Total short-circuit current, Isc I (Isc1 Isc2 … Iscn)

n
∑I Z
i =1
i i
or, I= n
(4.15)
∑Z
i =1
i
Impedance looking back from A–B with all the sources removed
n
Z = ∑ Zi (4.16)
i =1
From Eq. (4.15) and (4.16), Millman’s theorem is proved.

Points to be Noted
(i) This theorem provides the equivalent circuits which are either Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuits.
(ii) This theorem is applicable only to independent voltage sources with their internal series impedances
connected directly in parallel, or independent current sources with their internal series admittances
connected directly in series.
(iii) This theorem is not applicable to circuits where impedances or dependent sources are present between
the independent sources.
(iv) This theorem is not useful for circuits with less than two independent sources.
Example 4.9 Find the load current using Millman’s theorem.

Solution Here, E1 1V,
2V, E3E2 3V I
Z1 1 ,
2 , Z3Z2 3 , 1 2 3
1 10
Y1 1 mho, Y2 0.5 mho, Y3 mho
3 1V 2V 3V
By Millman’s theorem, the equivalent voltage is
3
∑EY
i =1
i i 1 ×1+ 2 × 0 ⋅5 + 3 ×
1
3 = 3 = 18 V
∴E = 3
=
1 11 11
∑Y
i =1
i
1+ 0 ⋅5 +
3 6
175
Network Theorems
and the equivalent impedance is

1 6
Z= 3
=
11
∑Y
i =1
i
Therefore, the current through the resistor is

18
E 11 = 18 = 9 A
∴I = =
Z + 10 6 + 10 116 58
11
4.10 COMPENSATION THEOREM

In many circuits, after the circuit is analyzed, it is realized that only a small change needs to be made to a
component to get a desired result. In such a case, we would normally have to recalculate. The compensation
theorem allows us to compensate properly for such changes without sacrificing accuracy.
Statement
In any linear bilateral active network, if any branch carrying a current I has its impedance Z changed by an
amount ␦Z, the resulting changes that occur in the other branches are the same as those which would have
been caused by the injection of a voltage source of ( I␦Z) in the modified branch.
In other words, in a linear network N, if the current in a branch is I and the impedance Z of the branch is
increased by ␦Z then the increment of voltage and current in each branch of the network is that voltage or
current that would be produced by an opposite voltage source of value vc( I␦Z) introduced into the altered
branch after the modification.
Zth
Proof Consider the network N, having branch impedance Z.
Let the current through Z be I and its voltage be V.
Voc Z
Let ␦Z be the change in Z. I
Then, I (the new current) can be written as

Voc Fig. 4.27 (a) Circuit for
I′= ; explaining compensation
Z + δ Z + Z th
theorem
Voc V ⎛ V ⎞⎛ δZ ⎞
δI = I′− I = − oc = − ⎜ oc ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ Zth
Z + δ Z + Z th Z + Z th ⎝ Z + Z th ⎠ ⎝ Z + δ Z + Z th ⎠
Iδ Z Vc
=− =− where Vc = I δ Z Z
Z + δ Z + Z th Z + δ Z + Z th I
How to Find ␦I? Vc = I
(i) Find the product I␦Z, where I is the current through the branch
before changing the impedance. Fig. 4.27 (b) Equivalent circuit
(ii) Remove all the independent sources. using compensation theorem
176
(iii) Connect a voltage source of magnitude Vc I␦Z, in series with the branch. The polarity of Vc is such
as to oppose the direction of the current I.
(iv) Solve the network assuming current flowing to be ␦I and thus the value of ␦I.
Points to be Noted
(i) This theorem is used to calculate the incremental changes in the voltages and currents in the branches
of a circuit due to a change of impedance in one branch.
(ii) This theorem is not applicable to circuits with only dependent sources.
(iii) This theorem is not applicable to circuits with non-linear elements.
Example 4.10 In the network shown in Fig. 4.28, the resistance 1

R is changed from 4 ⍀ to 2 ⍀. Verify the compensation theorem.
Solution By KCL,
1V R 8
5i1 − 4i2 = 1 and − 4i1 + 12i2 = 0
3 1
Solving ⇒ i1 = A and i2 = A Fig. 4.28 Circuit of Example 4.10
11 11
2 1
∴ I1 = (i1 − i2 ) = A
11
After changing the value of the resistance from 4 to 2 , by 1V I1 4 I2 8
KCL
3i1′ − 2i2′ = 1
Fig. 4.29 (a)
and −2i1′ + 10i2 = 0
1
5 1
Solving ⇒ i1′ = A and i2′ = A
13 13
1V I 1 2 I 2 8
4
∴ I1′ = A
13
change in current, Fig. 4.29 (b)
⎛ 4 2⎞ 8
δ I = ( I1 − I1 ) = ⎜ − ⎟ = A (I) 1
⎝ 13 11⎠ 143
Using the compensation theorem, 2
8
I
2 4
Vc = I1 × δ Z = ( −2 ) = − V. 4/11
11 11
4
11 = 8 A
δI = (II) Fig. 4.29 (c)
2+ 8 143
9
From (I) and (II), the compensation theorem is proved.
177
Network Theorems
Solved Exercises
Superposition Theorem
Problem 4.1 Calculate the voltage V across the resistor R by using the superposition theorem.
j1
j5
1A R=1 1V
j4
Fig. 4.30
Solution We consider two cases: j1
Case (1) When the 1-A current source is acting alone
j
For Fig. 4.31(a), the voltage across the resistor R 1 is, V ′ = . 1A 1 V
1+ j
Case (2) When the 1-V voltage source is acting alone
Fig. 4.31 (a) Circuit with current
1
For Fig. 4.31(b), the current through the resistor I ′′ = source acting alone
1+ j
j1
1
and hence, the voltage across the resistor R 1 is V ′′ = I ′′ × 1 =
.
1+ j j5
So, by the superposition theorem, total voltage across the resistor when V 1 1V
both the sources are acting simultaneously is, j4
j 1
V = (V ′ + V ′′ ) = + = 1V Fig. 4.31 (b) Circuit with
1+ j 1+ j voltage source acting alone
Problem 4.2 Use the superposition theorem on the circuit shown in

Fig. 4.32 to find ‘I’. 2Vx
I 5
Solution We consider two cases:
Case(1) When the 10-V voltage source is acting alone 10 V 2 Vx 2A
For Fig. 4.33(a), by KVL, 5i ′ − 2 v x′ + 2i ′ = 10 with v x′ = −2i ′
⇒ 7i ′ + 4i ′ = 10 ⇒ i ′ = 10 A Fig. 4.32
11
Case (2) When 1-V voltage source is acting alone 2 Vx
5
For Fig 4.33(b), by KCL at the node (x)
v x′
2 = ix + i ′′ = − + i ′′ (i) 10 V i 2 Vx
2
But loop analysis in the left loop gives
3
5i ′′ + 3v x ′′ = 0 or, i ′′ = − v x′′ Fig. 4.33 (a) Voltage source
5 acting alone
178
v x′′ 3 20 2 Vx
From (i), 2 = − − v x′′ ⇒ v x′′= − 5 X
2 5 11
3 ⎛ 20 ⎞ 12 Vx
∴ i ′′ = − × ⎜ − ⎟ = A i 2 2A
5 ⎝ 11 ⎠ 11
ix
So, by the superposition theorem total current, when both the sources are
acting simultaneously, is, Fig. 4.33 (b) Current source
acting alone
⎛ 10 12 ⎞ 2
I = (i ′ − i ′′ ) = ⎜ − ⎟ = − A
⎝ 11 11 ⎠ 11
Problem 4.3 Determine the current in the capacitor branch by the superposition
theorem.
4 0 V
Solution When the voltage source is acting alone 3
Here, the current in the capacitor branch is j4

3 j4
4 ∠0° 2
I′= = ∠0° A
(
3+ j4 + 3− j4 3 ) ( )
When the current source is acting alone 2 90 A
Here, the current in the capacitor branch is Fig. 4.34
(3 + j 4) ⎛ 4 ⎞
I ′′ = 2 ∠90° × = ⎜ − + j1⎟ A
(3 + j 4) + (3 − j 4) ⎝ 3 ⎠
3
total current when both the sources are acting simultane- j4
ously is 3 j4
4 0° V
3
⎛2 4 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
I = ( I ′ + I ′′ ) = ⎜ − + j1⎟ = ⎜ − + j1⎟ j4
⎝3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 j4
= 1.2 ∠123.7° A 2 90° A
Fig. 4.35 (a) Fig. 4.35 (b)
When voltage source When current source
Problem 4.4 Find the current i0 using superposition
acting alone acting alone
theorem.
(a) 4 j5 (c) 2 0 (A)
i0
5 0 V j2 2 0 A j2 6
i0
8 j4 10 30 (V)
4 2
i0
(b) 10 cos 4t (V) 1H 8V
Fig. 4.36
179
Network Theorems
Solution (a) When the voltage source is acting alone 4 j5

The current in this case is
i0
5 ⎛ 1⎞ j2
i0′ = = ⎜1+ j ⎟ A 5 0 V
4 − j2 ⎝ 2⎠
When the current source is acting alone Fig. 4.37 (a) Voltage source acting
In this case, the current is, alone
4 ⎛ 8 14 ⎞
i0′′= 2 ∠0° × =⎜ + j ⎟ A
4 − j2 ⎝ 5 5⎠
by the superposition theorem, total current is 4 j5
⎛ 8⎞ ⎛ 1 4⎞
( )
i0 = i0′ + i0′′ = ⎜ 1 + ⎟ +
⎝ 5⎠
j ⎜ + ⎟ = 2.9∠26.56° A
⎝ 2 5⎠
i0
2 0 A
j2
(b) When the dc source is acting alone

⎛ j 4 × 4 ⎞ 2 + j6 Fig. 4.37 (b) Current source acting
Equivalent impedance, Z = ⎜ +2 =
⎝ 4 + j 4 ⎟⎠ 1 + j alone
main current, I = = =
(
8 8 1+ j 4 1+ j ) ( ) 4 2
Z 2 + j6 1+ j3 i0
⎛2 j4
4 4(1 + j ) 4 6⎞ 8V
the current, i0′ = I × = × =⎜ − j ⎟ A
4 + j 4 1+ j 3 4 + j 4 ⎝ 5 5⎠
When the ac source is acting alone Fig. 4.38 (a) dc source acting alone
⎛ j 4 × 2 ⎞ 4 + j6
Equivalent impedance, Z = 4 + ⎜ =
⎝ 2 + j 4 ⎟⎠ 1 + j 2
4 2
main current, i0
10∠0° (1 + j 2 ) 10 + j 20 10 cost 4t(V) j4

I= = 10∠0° =
Z 4 + j6 4 + j6
the current,
Fig. 4.38 (b) ac source acting alone
2 10(1 + j 2 ) 1 ⎛ 10 15 ⎞
i0 ′′ = I × = × = −j A
2 + j4 4 + j6 1 + j 2 ⎜⎝ 13 13 ⎟⎠
⎛ 2 10 ⎞ ⎛ 6 15 ⎞
by the superposition theorem, total current is, i0 = (i0′ + i0′′ ) = ⎜ + ⎟ − j ⎜ + ⎟ = 2.63∠ − 63.58° A
⎝ 5 13 ⎠ ⎝ 5 13 ⎠
(c) When the voltage source is acting alone
j 4(8 − j 2 ) 28 + j 22
Equivalent impedance, Z = +6=
8 + j2 4+ j
180
j2
10∠30° ( 4 + j ) (8.66 + j 5)( 4 + j ) 6
main current, I = =
28 + j 22 28 + j 22 i0
the current, 8 j4 10 30 (V)
8 − j 2 8.66 + j 5
i0′ = I × = = 0.14 ∠ − 8.16° A Fig. 4.39 Voltage source acting alone
8 + j 2 56 + j 44
When the current source is acting alone

2 0 (A)
j2
j2 6
i0 i0
8 j4 6 2 0 (A)
8 j4
Fig. 4.40
j2
j4 × 6 j12
where, Z= =
6 + j4 3 + j2 i0
8 Z 2 0 (A)
the current,
Z j12
i0′′ = 2 ∠0 × = = 0.73∠47.49 A Fig. 4.41
8 − j 2 + Z 12 + j11
by the superposition theorem, total current is
( ) ( ) (
i0 = i0′ + i0′′ = 0.14 ∠ − 8.16° + 0.73∠47.49° = 0.631 + j 0.518 = 0.81∠39.38° A )
Problem 4.5 Find v0 using the superposition theorem.
8
30 sin 5t (V) v0 0.2 F 1H 2 cos 10t (A)
Fig. 4.42
Solution (a) When the voltage source is acting alone
−j
Here, X C = = − j1 and X L = j × 5 ×1 = j5
5 × 0.2
By KCL,
30 − v0′ v0′ v0′ 30
− + + = 0 ⇒ v0′ = = 4.631∠ − 81.12° ( V )
8 − j1 j 5 8 0.125 + j 0.8( )
181
Network Theorems
8 8
30 0 (V) v0 j1 j5 v0 j0.5 j10 2 0 (A)
Fig. 4.43 (a) Voltage source acting alone Fig. 4.43 (b) Current source acting alone
When the current source is acting alone

−j
Here, X C = = − j 0.5 and X L = j × 10 × 1 = j10
10 × 0.2
⎛1 1 1 ⎞ 2
By KCL, 2 = v0 ′′ ⎜ + + ⎟ ⇒ v0 ′′ = = 1.051∠ − 86.24° ( V )
⎝ 8 j10 − j 0.5 ⎠ 0.125 + j1.9
By the superposition theorem, when both the sources are acting simultaneously, the voltage is
v0 = ( v0′ + v0′′) = 4.631 sin(5t − 81.12° ) + 1.051 cos(110t − 86.24° ) ( V )
Problem 4.6 Find i0 and i from the circuit of Fig. 4.44 using i0 1 5 i
superposition theorem.
Solution When the 6-V source is acting alone 1A
6V 2i0
The circuit is shown.
Here, i0′ = i ′
Fig. 4.44
6 3
By KVL, 6i ′ + 2i ′ = 6 ⇒ i ′ = i0′ = = A = 0.75 A i0 1 5 i
8 4
When the 1-A source is acting alone
6V 2i0
By KCL, we get, 1 = i ′′ − i0′′ ⇒ i ′′ = 1 + i0′′
By KVL for the supermesh,
Fig. 4.45 (a) 6-V Source acting alone
1 × i0′′+ 5i ′′ + 2i0′′= 0 or, 3i0′′+ 5i ′′ = 0
( ) 5
or, 3i0′′+ 5 1 + i0′′ = 0 or, i0′′= − = −1.25 A
4
i0 1 5 i
∴ i ′′ = 1 − 1.25 = −0.25 A
By the superposition theorem, the total currents when both the 1A 2i0
sources are acting simultaneously is given as
i = (i ′ + i ′′ ) = (0.75 − 0.25) = 0.5 A ⎫⎪

⎬ Fig. 4.45 (b) 1-A source acting alone
i0 = (i0′ + i0′′) = (0.75 − 1.25) = − 0.5 A ⎭⎪
182
Problem 4.7 Using the superposition theorem, calculate the current through the (2 ⴙ j3)⍀ impedance
branch of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.46.
5 2 j3 4
j5
30 V 6 20 V
Fig. 4.46
Solution Case (I) When the 30-V source is acting alone

( 4.4 + j 3) × j 5 5 2 j3 4
Impedance, Z = 5 + = ( 6.32 + j 2.6 ) Ω I
4.4 + j 3 + j 5 30 V j5 i 6
∴I ′ =
30
=
30
Z 6.32 + j 2.6
(
= 4.06 − j1.67 A ) Fig. 4.47
j5
i′ = I ′ × = ( 2.39 + j 0.27) A
4.4 + j 3 + j 5
Case (II) when the 20-V source is acting alone
( 4.5 + j 5.5) × 6
Impedance, Z = 4 + = ( 7.31 + j1.41) Ω 5 2 j3 4
4.5 + j 5.5 + 6
j5 I
i 6 20 V
20 20
∴ I ′′ = = = ( 2.64 − 0.509) A
Z 7.31 + j1.41
Fig. 4.48
6
i ′′ = − I ′′ × = −(1.064 − j 0.848) A
4.5 + j 5.5 + 6
By the superposition theorem, total current flowing through the (2 j3) impedance is
i = (i ′ + i ′′ ) = ( 2.39 + j 0.27) − (1.064 − j 0.848) = (1.32
25 + j1.117) A = 1.733∠40.14° A
6
Problem 4.8 Using the superposition theorem, find VAB.
4V
Solution We consider three cases:
Case (I) When the 2-V source is acting alone 2V
2A
The circuit is shown Fig. 4.50. A 4 2 B
6 Fig. 4.49
I 2V
A 4 2 B
Fig. 4.50
183
Network Theorems
2 1
For this circuit, the current in the loop is obtained as I ′ = = A
12 6
1
′ = I ′ × 6 = × 6 = 1V
the voltage between A and B is VAB
6
Case (II) When the 4-V source is acting alone 4V
6
The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.51.
In this circuit, the loop current is obtained as
I
4 1
I ′′ = = A
12 3 A 4 2 B
Fig. 4.51
voltage between A and B is,
1 6
′′ = − I ′′ × 6 = − × 6 = −2 V
VAB
3
Case (III) When the 2-A source is acting alone
The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.52. 2A
We convert the current source into its equivalent voltage source as A 4 2 B

shown in Fig. 4.53. Fig. 4.52
8 2
The loop current is I ′′′ = = A 6
12 3
voltage between A and B is 8V I
2
VAB′′′= − I ′′′ × 6 = − × 6 = − 4 V A 4 2 B
3
Fig. 4.53
voltage between A and B when all the sources are acting
simultaneously is given by superposition theorem as
VAB = VAB
′ + VAB
′′ + VAB ( )
′′′= 1 − 2 − 4 = −5 V
Problem 4.9 Find the current i in the circuit shown in the Fig. 4.54 using the 4i
superposition theorem.
Solution We consider the three cases: 2 3 8A
2Ai
Case (I) When the 10-V source is acting alone
The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.55. 10V
4i Fig. 4.54
4i
2 3
2 3 2i 2 2A 3
i
2A
i i
10 V
Fig. 4.55 Fig. 4.56 Fig. 4.57
184
By KVL for the loop, we get, − 4i ′ + 3i ′ − 10 + 2i ′ = 0 ⇒ i ′ = 10 A

Case (II) When the 2-A source is acting alone
We convert the dependent voltage source into its equivalent dependent current source as shown in Fig. 4.57.
The total current (2 2i ) is divided into two paths, resistors 2 and 3 .
by current divider rule, current through the 3- resistor is
⎛ 2 ⎞
i ′′ = ⎜ × ( 2 + 2i ′′ ) ⇒ i ′′ = 4 A
⎝ 2 + 3 ⎟⎠
Case (III) When the 8-A source is acting alone 4i
By KVL for the loop, we get,
2 3 8A
−4i ′′′ + 3( I − 8) + 2 I = 0 I
where, i ′′′ = ( I − 8) or, I = (i ′′′ + 8) i
⇒ − 4i ′′′ + 3i ′′ + 2(i ′′′ + 8) = 0 ⇒ i = −16 A Fig. 4.58

current when all the sources are acting simultaneously is given by the
superposition theorem as
i = (i ′ + i ′′ + i ′′′ ) = (10 + 4 − 16 ) = −2 A
Problem 4.10 Using the superposition theorem determine V1, the

voltage across the 3-ohm resistor in Fig. 4.59. V1 3
4i
8A
Solution Case (I) When the 8-A current source is acting alone i
2A
1
By KVL for the supermesh, 3i ′ + 2i1 − 4i ′ = 0 ⇒ i1 = i ′
2 2 10V
1 Fig. 4.59
i1 = (8 + i ′ ) ⇒ i ′ = 8 + i ′ ⇒ i ′ = −16 A
2
∴V1′= 3i ′ = 3 × ( −16 ) = −48 V
Case (II) When the 2-A current source is acting
alone 4i V1 3
By KVL, 8A V1
i 4i 3
x
3(i2 + 2 ) + 2i2 − 4i ′′ = 0 ⇒ 5i2 + 6 − 4i ′′ = 0
i2 2A
i
Now, i ′′ = (i2 + 2 ) 2 i1 2 2A
∴ 5i2 + 6 − 4(i2 + 2 ) = 0 ⇒ i2 = 2 A
Fig. 4.60 (a) Fig. 4.60 (b)
∴ i ′′ = (i2 + 2 ) = ( 2 + 2 ) = 4 A
∴V1′′= 3i ′′ = 3 × 4 = 12 V
185
Network Theorems
Case (III) When the 10-V voltage source is acting alone

V1 3
By KVL, 3i ′′′ − 10 + 2i ′′′ − 4i ′′′ = 0 ⇒ i ′′′ = 10 A 4i
∴V1′′′= 10 × 3 = 30 V i
When all the sources are acting simultaneously, by the superposition theorem the
voltage is given as 2 10 V
V1 = (V1′+ V1′′+ V1′′′) = ( − 48 + 12 + 30) = − 6 V

Fig. 4.60 (c)
Problem 4.11 For the network shown in Fig. 4.61 5 j5
calculate the current throughout the impedance (3 ⴙ j4)
using superposition theorem.
3
10 90 V 10 0V
Solution When the 10 90ⴗ V is acting alone
j4
10∠90° j10( 3 + j 9)
Main current, I = =
(3 + j 4) j 5 − 5 + j 60 Fig. 4.61
5+
3 + j 4 + j5
j5 j10 × j 5 −10
∴I ′ = I × = = 5 j5
3 + j 9 − 5 + j 60 −1 + j12
When the 10 0 V is acting alone 3
10 90 V
10∠0° 10(8 + j 4 ) I j4
Main current, I = =
( 3 + j 4 )5 − 5 + j 60
j5 +
3+ j4 + 5 Fig. 4.62
5 10 × 5 10 5 j5
∴ I ′′ = I × = =
8 + j 4 −5 + j 60 −1 + j12
When both the sources are acting simultaneously, by the superposition 3
10 0 V
theorem, the total current flowing through the impedance (3 j4) is
I j4
−10 10
I = ( I ′ + I ′′ ) = + =0A
−1 + j12 −1 + j12 Fig. 4.63
Problem 4.12 Using the superposition theorem, determine the current in the 4-⍀ resistor in the network
shown in Fig. 4.64.
4 2
j2 j2 100 90 V
20 0A 5
Fig. 4.64
186
Solution Case (I) When the 20 0 A source is acting alone

4 2
I1
j2 j2
20 0A 5
Fig. 4.65
Reducing the parallel combination, the simplified circuit is 4

shown in Fig. 4.66.
5 × j2
Z1 =
5+ j2
(
= 1.857∠68.2° = 0.69 + j1.72 ) 20 0 A Z1
I1
Z2
2 × (− j 2)
Z2 = = (1 − j1) = 1.414 ∠ − 45°
2 − j2 Fig. 4.66
By current division rule, the current through the 4- resistor is

1.857∠68.2
)
Z1
I1 = 20∠0 ×
Z1 + 4 + Z 2
= 20∠0 ×
0.69 + j1.72 + 4 + 1 − j1
= 6.48∠61 = 3.14 + j 5.66 A (
Case (II) When the 100 90 V source is acting alone 4 2
Here, the current source is open-circuited. Combining the par-
allel connection of 5 and j 2 the simplified circuit is shown I2
Z1 j2 20 90 A
in Fig. 4.67. I
By KVL for the two loops, we get,
Fig. 4.67
( 4 + 0.69 + j1.72 − j 2 ) I 2 + j 2 I = 0
⇒ ( 4.69 − j 0.28) I 2 + j 2 I = 0 (i)
and, j 2 I 2 + ( 2 − j 2 ) I = 100∠90° = j100 (ii)

Solving (i) and (ii), we get
0 j2
j100 ( 2 − j 2 ) 200
I2 = = = 12.33∠37.75° ( A ) = ( 9.75 + j 7.55) A
( 4.69 − 0.28) j2 −12.83 + j 9.93
j2 (2 − j 2)
By superposition theorem, when both the sources are acting simultaneously, the current through the 4-
resistor is
I = I1 − I 2 = ( 3.14 + j 5.66 ) − ( 9.75 + j 7.55) = ( − 6.61 − j1.9) = 6.89∠ − 163.67° A
The direction of the current is from right to left.
187
Network Theorems
Problem 4.13 Find I in the Fig. 4.68 using the superposition theorem. 4V
3
Solution When the 4-V voltage source is acting alone
1
The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.69. VX 2 5 VX
2A
Here, by KVL, I
− 4 + 3 I ′ + 5Vx′− Vx′= 0
or, 3I ′ + 4 × (− 2 I ′ ) = 4 [ Vx′= −2 I ′ ] Fig. 4.68
4 4V
or, I ′ = − A = − 0.8 A 3
5
When the 2-A current source is acting alone VX 2 5 VX
The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.70. I
Vx′′ Vx′′− 5Vx′′ 12
By KCL, 2 = + ⇒ Vx′′= − = −2.4 V Fig. 4.69
2 3 5
3
12 ⎛ 12 ⎞
− −5×⎜− ⎟ 1
V ′′− 5Vx′′ 5 ⎝ 5 ⎠ 16 VX
∴ I ′′ = x = = = 3.2 A 2
2A
5 VX
3 3 5 I
When both the sources are acting simultaneously, the current by superposi-
tion theorem is given as I = ( I '+ I ") = ( − 0.8 + 3.2 ) = 2.4 A Fig. 4.70
1 1
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem i
Problem 4.14 Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent of the cir- 10 V 5V
cuit in Fig. 4.71 and find the load current, i. 1 R =2
1 2
Solution Open-circuiting the terminals, by KVL for two
meshes,
Fig. 4.71
3i1 − i2 = 10 and − i1 + 4i2 = − 5
1 1
Solving, i1 = 5 , and i2 = − 5
11 11 10 V
⎛ 10 ⎞ 45 i1 1 i2 Voc
∴Voc = (5 + 2i2 ) = ⎜ 5 − ⎟ = V 1 2
⎝ 11 ⎠ 11
Fig. 4.72 (a)
1 1 1
Rth Rth
1 1 2 2/3 2
Fig. 4.72 (b)

188
R th
5
×2
3 10
Equivalent resistance, Rth = = i
5 + 2 11
3 Voc 2
45
Voc 11 = 45 = 1.40625 A
So, the load current is, i = =
Rth + 2 10 + 2 32 Fig. 4.73
11
3V0
V0
Problem 4.15 Find I, in the given figure, using Thevenin’s theorem.
1 I
Solution Removing the 2- resistor,
By KVL for the supermesh, −10 − v0 + 3v0 + v0 c = 0 ⇒ v0 c = 10 − 2 v0 10 V 1A 2
But, due to open-circuit, the 1-A source will circulate through the1-
resistor.
∴ v0 = 1 × 1 = 1 V Fig. 4.74
∴V0 c = (10 − 2 ) = 8 V 3V0
V0
Let’s short circuit the terminals x–y,
1
By KVL,
1A VOC
−10 − v0 + 3v0 = 0 or, v0 = 5 10V
But, by KCL at the node (a),

v0 Fig. 4.75 (a)
= 1 − I sc
1
3V0
⇒ I sc = (1 − v0 ) = − 4 A ( e.g., current is f lowing f rom y to x ) V0 a x
Voc 8 1
∴ Rth = = =2
I sc 4
10V 1A Isc
8
So, the current through the 2- resistor, I = =2A
2+2
y
Problem 4.16 By the iterative use of Thevenin’s theorem, reduce the Fig. 4.75 (b)
circuit shown in Fig. 4.76 to a single emf acting in series with a single resis-
tor. Hence, calculate the current in the 10-⍀ resistor connected across XY.
10 100 100 1000
X
90
1000 10 100 10
100 V
Y
Fig. 4.76
189
Network Theorems
Solution Consider the section of the net- 10 A 100 100 1000

X
work to the left of A–B: By use of Theremin’s
theorem, this portion is reduced to the form of 90
1000 10 100 10
Fig. 4.77 (b).
100V
Y
1000 × 100 1000 B
∴ Rth = =
1000 + 100 11 Fig. 4.77 (a)
100 × 1000 1000
∴Vth = = V
1100 11
Applying Thevenin’s theorem to the section left
of CD of Fig. 4.77 (b), A 100 C 100 1000
X
∴R =
(100011) ×10 = 2100 1000/11
10 100 10
(210011) +10 221

th 1000/11 V
( 11)
B D
1000 × 10
1000 Fig. 4.77 (b)
∴V = =
(210011) +10 221
th
V
Applying Theremin’s theorem to the section left

100 E 1000
of EF of Fig. 4.77 (c), C X
∴ Rth =
(24200 221) ×100 = 24200 2100/221
(24200 221) +100 463

100 10
100 0/221V
Y
(1000 ) × 100 1000 D F
∴Vth = 221 =
( )
V
Fig. 4.77 (c )
24200 + 100 463
221
Section left to XY is put as in Fig. 4.77 (d).
24200 487200 100 0

∴ Rth = + 1000 = E X
463 463
Vth =
(
1000
463 )
× 1000 1000
=
24200/463
10
( )
V
24200 + 1000 4872 1000/463 V
463
Y
Hence, the current in the 10- resistor is F
I=
(1000 487.2) = 0.0193 A Fig. 4.77 (d)
(487200 436) +10

190
Problem 4.17 In the operational-amplifier circuit shown 4k

in Fig. 4.78 find I, in the R ⴝ 4-k⍀ resistor, using Thevenin’s
theorem. 12k
2k 8k
12 V
Solution Open- circuiting the 4-k resistor,
R =4k OPAMP
Here, e2 = 0, e3 = V0
Vo
e1 − 12 e1 − V0 e1
+ + = 0 ⇒ 7e1 = ( 48 + 2V0 )
2 × 103 4 × 103 8 × 103 (i)
Fig. 4.78
0 − e1 0 − V0 3
+ = 0 ⇒ V0 = − e1 (ii)
8 × 10 3
12 × 103 2
4k e3
From (i) and (ii), ⇒ e1 4 8 V eoc
12k
Now, we connect a 1-A current source at the place of the 2k e1
12 V 8k
4-k resistor.
e2
By KCL at the node (1), 1A OPAMP
e1 e −V e1 V0
+ 1 0 + = 1 ⇒ 7e1 = 8000 + 2V0
2 × 103 4 × 103 8 × 103
By KCL at the node (2), Fig. 4.79
3 ⎛ 3 ⎞
V0 = − e1 ⇒ 7e1 = 8000 + 2 ⎜ − e1 ⎟ ⇒ e1 = 800 V
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
e1
∴ Rth = = 800
1
4 ⋅8 4 ⋅8
∴i = = = 1 mA
4000 + 800 4 ⋅8 × 103 VS 4
A
Problem 4.18 Find Thevenin’s equivalent about AB for the circuit 2
shown in Fig. 4.80. 2
10 V 4
Solution Open-circuiting the 4- resistor by KCL,
4V S
Voc − 10
= 4 vs = 4(10 − Voc ) ⇒ Voc = 10 V B
2 Fig. 4.80
VS 4 VS V1 4
A A
2 2
2 2
10V V oc 10V Isc
4VS 4V S
B B
Fig. 4.81
191
Network Theorems
Short-circuiting the terminals AB, by KCL
V1 − 10 V1
+ = 4 vs = 4(10 − V1 )
2 4
180
V1 = = 9 ⋅ 47 V
19
9 ⋅ 47
∴ I sc = = 2 ⋅ 368 A
4
Vth
∴ Rth = = 4 ⋅ 22
I sc
Problem 4.19 In the network, determine the steady current in the 8-⍀ inductor using Thevenin’s theorem.
j4 a j8 b j4
100 0 ° (V) j8 j6 100 60° (V)
Fig. 4.82
Solution With a-b open-circuited,

j4 a b j4
100 0 ° (V) j8 j6 100 60 ° (V)
Fig. 4.83
100∠0
Va = ( − j8) = 200∠0 V
j 4 − j8
100∠60
Vb = ( − j 6 ) = 300∠60 V
j 4 − j6
∴ Vth = (Va − Vb ) = 200∠0 − 300∠60 = (50 − j 259.81) V
( j 4 )( − j8) ( j 4 )( − j 6 )
∴ Z th = + = j 20
j 4 − j8 j 4 − j6
Vth (50 − j 259.81)

current in the 8- inductor, i = = = 9.45∠ − 169.1 A
Z th + Z L j 20 + j8
192
Problem 4.20 Obtain Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with respect to terminals A–B in the networks shown
below.
(a) (b) 5 j 10
10 0 (A) A
j15 2
3
A 20 90 ° (V)
3 j 15 j4
B
B
(c) 10 5 (d) A B
A 1 1/2 H 1/4 F
8
100 0 (V) 4 1
j5 1/4 F
j6 2cos 2tu(t)
B
(e) 5I
I 100
A
j5
10 0 (V) j10
B
Fig. 4.84
Solution
(a) With A–B open, the current is
I
10∠0 150∠90
I= × j15 =
5 − j 5 + j15 5 + j10 10 0 ° (A) j 15 2
Thevenin voltage
A
150∠90
(
Vth = VAB = I × − j 5 = )
5 + j10
× (5∠ − 90 ) = 67.08∠ − 63.4 V j5
B
Thevenin impedance,
Fig. 4.85 (a)
− j 5 × (5 + j15)
Z th = Z AB = = 7.07∠ − 81.86°
− j 5 + 5 + j15 Z th = 7.07 81.86° ( )
A
Thus, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.85 (b).
(b) Here, Thevenin voltage, V th = 67.08 63.4 ° (V)
20∠90° j120( 3 − j 4 )
Vth = × (3 − j 4) = B
5 + j10 + 3 − j 4 8 + j6
Fig. 4.85 (b)
50∠36.87°
Vth = = 10∠0° ( V )
5∠36.87°
193
Network Theorems
Thevenin impedance,
(5 + j10) × ( 3 − j 4 ) 11.8∠63.43 × 5∠ − 53.13
Z th = = = 5.59∠ − 26.56 ( )
(5 + j10) + ( 3 − j 4 ) 10∠36.87
Thus, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.86 (b).
Z th = 7.07 81.86°( )
5 j 10 A 10 5
A
3 A 8
20 90 (V) V th = 6 7.08 63.4 ° (V)
100 0 (V) j5
j4 j6
B
B B
Fig. 4.86 (a) Fig. 4.86 (b) Fig. 4.87
(c) Here, with A–B open, the equivalent impedance,

− j 5 × (13 + j 6 ) 160 − j 55
Z = 10 +
− j 5 + (13 + j 6 )
=
13 + j1
= 12.98∠ − 23.37° ( )
100∠0° 100∠0°
main current, I= = = 7.7∠23.37° ( A )
Z 12.98∠ − 23.37°
Thevenin voltage,
⎛ − j5 ⎞ ⎛ − j5 ⎞
Vth = I × ⎜ ⎟ × (8 + j 6 ) = 7.7∠23.37° × ⎜ × (8 + j 6 ) = 29.553∠ − 34.16° ( V )
⎝ − j5 + 5 + 8 + j6 ⎠ ⎝ 13 + j1⎟⎠
⎡ 10 × ( − j 5) ⎤
Thevenin impedance, Z th = ⎢ + 5 ⎥ (8 + j 6 ) = 5.33∠ − 0.5° ( )
⎣ 10 − j 5 ⎦
(d) The circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 4.88, considering two capacitors in parallel.
⎛ 1 1⎞ 1
Ceq = (C1 + C2 ) = ⎜ + ⎟ = F A
⎝ 4 4⎠ 2 s/ 2
1 1
Thevenin voltage is given as
(1+ 2 s )
2s /s 2 4 2/ s
2s 4s
Vth ( s ) = 2 × = 2 B
( )
(V)
s + 4 1+ 2 +1+ s ( s + 4 )( s + 2 ) Fig. 4.88
s 2
Thevenin impedance, Z th ( s ) = 1 + 2 ( s ) (1+ s 2 ) = 1 5I
I 100
(e) To find Vth A
With A–B open, the current of the dependent source can j5
10 0 0 (V) j 10 Vth
flow through the capacitor only.
10∠0° B
∴I = = 0.09995∠ − 5.7° (A)
100 + j10 Fig. 4.89
194
Thevenin voltage,
Vth = VAB = ( I × j10) − {5 I × ( − j 5)} = j 35 I
= j 35 × 0.09995
5∠ − 5.7° = 3.48∠84.3° ( V )
To find IN
I 100
Converting the dependent current source into the A
voltage source, by KVL, j 2 5I j5
j10 IN
10∠0 = (100 + j10) I − j10 I N
0 10 0 0 (V)
and −( − j 25 I ) = − j10 I + I N ( j10 − j5)

B
Solving for IN, I N = 0.6 ∠31° ( A ) Fig. 4.90
Thevenin impedance,
Vth 3.48∠84.3
Z th = = = 5.8∠53.3 ( )
IN 0.6 ∠31
Problem 4.21 Find V0 using Thevenin’s theorem

Solution To find Vth
3i 0
Removing the 2- resistor and open circuiting the termi-
nals and then converting the dependent current source into i0 4
dependent voltage source, we redraw the circuit as follows.
2H
By KVL for the two loops, (here, i0 I1) 12cos t (V) 2
1/4 F 1/4 F V0
( 4 − j 4 ) I1 + j 4 I 2 = −12 and − j 2 I1 + ( − j 6 ) I 2 = 0
Fig. 4.91
Solving for I2,
( 4 − j 4 ) −12 3i 0
− j2 0 − j 24
I2 = = i0 4
(4 − j 4) j 4 − j 24 − 24 − 8
2H
− j2 − j6 12 cos t (V) 1/4 F 1/4 F V th
j3
= = 0.6 ∠53.13° ( A )
4 + j3
j 6i 0
Therefore, Thevenin voltage is i0 4 j2
24
Vth = I 2 × ( − j8) = = 4.8∠ − 36.87° ( V )
4 + j3 12 0 (V) I1 I2 vth
j4 j4
To find IN
Fig. 4.92
Removing the 2- resistor and short-circuiting the termi-
nals and then converting the dependent current source into
dependent voltage source, we redraw the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.92 (b)
195
Network Theorems
By KVL for the two loops, i0 4 j2

j 6i 0
( 4 − j 4 ) I1 + j 4 I 2 = −12
IN
− j 2 I1 + ( − j 2 ) I 2 = 0 12 0 ° (V) I1 j4 I2
Solving for I2,

( 4 − j 4 ) −12 Fig. 4.92 (b)
− j2 0 − j 24 j3
I2 = IN = = = = 1.341∠63.435° ( A )
(4 − j 4) j 4 −8 − j8 − 8 2 + j
− j2 − j2 Z th = 3.58 100.3 °( )
A
Therefore, Thevenin impedance is,
Vth 4.8∠ − 36.87° Vth =4.8 36.87° (V)
v0 2
Z th = = 3.58∠ − 100.3° ( Ω )
IN 1.341∠63.435°
B
Thus, Thevenin’s equivalent circuit becomes as shown
Fig. 4.93
in Fig. 4.93.
Thus, the required voltage,
⎛ Vth ⎞ ⎛ 4.8∠ − 36.87° ⎞
v0 = ⎜ ⎟ ×2=⎜ × 2 = 1.27∠32° ( V )
⎝ Z th + 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3.58∠ − 100.3° + 2 ⎟⎠
Problem 4.22 Obtain the Norton’s equivalent circuit 5 15

with respect to the terminals AB for the network shown
in Fig. 4.94. A
10V 20 V
Solution Removing the source, B
5 × 15 75
∴ Z eq = = = 3⋅ 75
5 + 15 20 Fig. 4.94
5 15 5 15
A A
10 V 20 V
B B
Fig. 4.94 (b) Fig. 4.95

A B
3.75
Short-circuiting AB,
10 20
I sc = + = 3.33 A
5 15
3.33 A
So, Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. Fig. 4.96
196
Problem 4.23 Replace the circuit in Fig. 4.97 with the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across A and B.
I 1k
A
10 mV V0 /104 V 30 k V0
75I
B
Fig. 4.97
Solution By KVL for the left-hand side loop,

V0
1 × 103 × I + = 10 × 10−3 (i)
104
In the right-hand side loop, the dependent current source current will circulate in the resistor. By KVL,
( )
V0 = 30 × 103 × −75 I = −225 × 104 I (ii)
Substituting the value of I from (ii) in (i), we get,
⎛ V0 ⎞ V0
⇒ 1 × 103 × ⎜ − 4⎟
+ 4 = 10 × 10−3
⎝ 225 × 10 ⎠ 10
⇒ − 4.44 × 10− 4 V0 + 1 × 10− 4 V0 = 10 × 10−3
10 × 10−3
⇒ V0 = − = −29 V I 1k
3.44 × 10−4 A
V0 = 0
Now, short circuiting the terminals A and B, we get by 30 k Isc
10 mV
KVL to left-hand-side loop, 75I
−3 −5
1 × 10 × I + 0 = 10 × 10
3
⇒ I = 1 × 10 A B
Fig. 4.98
Also, from right-hand side loop on the short circuit,
38.67 k
I sc = −75 I = −75 × 1 × 10−5 = −75 × 10−5 A A
Thus, the Thevenin equivalent impedance is given as
29 V
V −29
Z th = oc = = 38.67 k
I sc −75 × 10−5 B
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in the Fig. 4.99. Fig. 4.99
Problem 24 Find the Thevenin’s equivalent between I0 1k

a
terminals a and b of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.100.
Solution By KVL for the right-hand side mesh, 3V 2Vx 5 Vx
Voc = Vx = ( − 40 I 0 ) × 50 = −2000 I 0 (i) 40I0

b
From the left-hand side loop, Fig. 4.100
197
Network Theorems
I0
3 − 2Vx 3 − 2Voc 1k
I0 = = (ii) a
1000 1000
3V 50 Isc
From (i) and (ii), we get, 40I0
⎛ 3 − 2Voc ⎞ b
Voc = −2000 ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ Voc = 2 V Fig. 4.101
⎝ 1000 ⎠
To determine the Thevenin’s impedance, we short cir-
cuit the terminals a and b.
Here, 16.67
a
⎛ 3 ⎞
I sc = −40 I 0 = −40 × ⎜ = −0.12 A
⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠ 2V
Voc 2
∴ Rth = = = 16.67 b
I sc 0.12
Fig. 4.102
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.102.
Problem 25 In the network shown in Fig. 4.103 R1 = 2 L1 = 1 H R2 = 2 L2 = 1H

the switch is closed at time t ⴝ 0. Assuming all the
initial currents and voltages as zero, find the cur- t=0
rent through the inductor L2 by the use of Norton’s 3V C= 2F
theorem.
Solution The network for t 0 in Laplace Fig. 4.103
domain is shown in Fig. 4.104.
The equivalent network reduces to one as shown
in Fig. 4.105.
s 2 A
2 s 2 s
3 1 s 2
3 1 s s
s s
B
Fig. 4.104 Fig. 4.105
To find the current in L2, we have to find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across the terminals A and B. The
impedance between terminals A and B is given as
( s + 2 ) × 1s ( s + 2) ( s + 2)
Z th = Z AB = = =
s + 2s +1 ( s + 1)
2 2
1
s+2+
s
198
Short circuit current flowing from A to B is given as A

3 IL
3
I sc = s =
s+2 s s+2 ( ) 3
s(s 2)
(s 2)
(s 1)2
s 2
Therefore, the Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.

4.106.
Hence the current, B
IL =
3
×
s+2 ( )×
1
=
3
Fig. 4.106
(
s s+2 ) ( ) (
s +1
2
s+2
+ s + 2
) ( ) (
s s + 2 s2 + 2s + 2 )( )
( s + 1)2
By partial fraction expansion,
3 k1 k 2 k3 k3 *
IL = = + + +
( )(
s s + 2 s + 2s + 2
2
) s s + 2 s + 1 + j1 s + 1 − j1
3 3
where, k1 = =
( s + 2 )( s + 2 s + 2 ) s =0 4
2
3 3
k2 = =−
s( s + 2 s + 2 ) s =−2
2
4
3 3
k3 = =j
s( s + 2 )( s + 1 − j1) s =−1− j1 4
3
k3 * = − j
4
3 3 j3 j3 3 3 3
∴IL = 4 − 4 + 4 − 4 = 4− 4 − 2
s s + 2 s + 1 + j1 s + 1 − j1 s s + 2 ( s + 1)2 + 1
Taking inverse Laplace transform we get the required current as
3 3 3
i(t ) = − e −2 t − e − t sin t
4 4 2
Problem 4.26 The following circuit of Fig. 4.107 has a dependent

100 V
current source and an independent voltage source. Find the Thevenin
equivalent network of the circuit across the terminals a and b. a
v1
Solution 100 V 100 V 100
20 v1
b
v1
20 v1 20 Isc v1 = 0 Fig. 4.107
100
Fig. 4.108
199
Network Theorems
With open circuit, v1 voc. By KCL,

voc 100 + voc
− + = 0 ⇒ − voc + 500 + 5voc = 0 ⇒ voc = −125
5V
100 20 25
a
With short-circuit, v1 0 and the dependent current source is open, so
that, Isc 5A
125 V
voc −125
Thus, Thevenin impedance, Rth = = = 25
I sc −5
b
So, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.109. Fig. 4.109
Problem 4.27 In the network of Fig. 4.110, the switch

K is closed at time t ⴝ 0, a steady state having pre-
K R1 R2 L1 L2
viously existed. Obtain the current in the resistor R
using Thevenin’s theorem. 10 10 1H 1H
100 V R3 10 R 10
Solution When the switch K is opened, under steady
state condition, two inductors behave as short circuits.
Therefore, the initial currents flowing through the induc- Fig. 4.110
tors can be found out by writing the KVL equations for
the circuit at t 0 . 10 10
By KVL for the two meshes,
30 I1 − 10 I 2 = 100 and − 10 I1 + 20 I 2 = 0 100 V I1 10 I2 10
Solving, I1 = 4 A, I 2 = 2 A
Hence, the transform network for t 0 is shown in Fig. 4.111 (a) Circuit at t 0
Fig. 4.111 (b).
Thevenin equivalent impedance with respect to the
terminals a and b is given as
( s + 10) × 10 10( s + 10)
Z th = =
s + 10 + 10 ( s + 20)
L 1 I 1=4 V L 2I 2 =2 V
10 s s
a
100 10
s 10 ZL
b
Fig. 4.111 (b) Transform network for t 0

To find the open-circuit voltage across the terminals a and b, we have the current flowing in the left mesh
100 + 4
s 4 s + 100
I (s) = =
s + 10 + 10 s( s + 20)
200
4 s + 100 2 s 2 + 80 s + 1000
()
∴Voc ( s ) = I s × 10 + 2 =
s( s + 20)
× 10 + 2 =
s( s + 20)
Therefore, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in

Fig. 4.111 (c). Z th=10(s+10) /(s+20) a s
Hence, the current through the resistor R 10 is given as,
Voc ( s ) 2 s 2 + 80 s + 1000 10
I L (s) = = V OC =2s 2+80s+1000
Z th + R ⎡ 10( s + 10) ⎤ s(s+20)
s( s + 20) ⎢ + ( s + 10) ⎥
⎣ ( s + 20) ⎦
b
2 s 2 + 80 s + 1000
= Fig. 4.111 (c) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
s( s + 10)( s + 30)
By partial fraction expansion, let
2 s 2 + 80 s + 1000 K1 K K3
I L (s) = = + 2 +
( )(
s s + 10 s + 30 s )s + 10 s + 30
⎡ 2 s 2 + 80 s + 1000 ⎤ 100
∴ K1 = s ⎢ ⎥ =
⎢⎣ s s +( 10 s +)(
30 )
⎥⎦ s =0 3
⎡ 2 s 2 + 80 s + 1000 ⎤
(
∴ K 2 = s + 10 ⎢ ) ( )(
⎥
)
= −2
⎢⎣ s s + 10 s + 30 ⎥⎦ s =−10
⎡ 2 s 2 + 80 s + 1000 ⎤
(
∴ K 3 = s + 30 ⎢ ) ( )(
⎥
)
=
2
⎢⎣ s s + 10 s + 30 ⎥⎦ s =−30 3
10 2
3− 2
I L (s) = + 3
s s + 10 s + 30
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get
()
iL t =
10
3
2
− 2 e −10t + e −30t = 3.33 − 2 e −10t + 0.67e −30t
3
Problem 4.28 For the network shown in Fig. 4.112,

show that the Thevenin equivalent at the terminals a–b is 1
a
represented by,
V1 3−b
Vth =
2
(
1+ a + b − ab ) and Z th =
2
1 I1 1
bI1
Solution When the terminals a–b are open-cir-

cuited no current will flow through the right side of the V1 aV1
1 resistor. By KVL for the left mesh,
V b
2 I1 + aV1 = V1 ⇒ I1 = 1 (1 − a )
2 Fig. 4.112
201
Network Theorems
V1 V V
∴ Vth = 1 × I1 + aV1 + bI1 = 1 × (1 − a ) + aV1 + b 1 (1 − a ) = 1 (1 − a + 2 a + b − ab )
2 2 2
V1
∴ Vth =
(1 + a + b − ab ) ( Proved )
2
To find the Thevenin impedance, we have to find the short-circuit cur- 1
rent flowing through the terminals a–b. a
By KVL for the two meshes, we get, 1 bI1

I1 1
2 I1 − I sc = V1 (1 − a ) (i) Isc
and, 1 × ( I sc − I1 ) − bI1 + 1 × I sc = aV1 ⇒ − (1 + b ) I1 + 2 I sc = aV1 (ii) V1 aV 1
Solving (i) and (ii), we get b

Fig. 4.113
2 V1 (1 − a )
−(1 + b ) aV1 2 aV1 + V1 (1 − a + b − ab ) V1 (1 + a + b − ab )
I sc = = =
2 −1 4 −1− b 3− b
(
− 1+ b ) 2
Therefore, the Thevenin impedance is, (Proved)
V1
Vth 2 (1 + a + b − ab ) 3 − b
Z th = = = I =5 30 A 100
I sc V1 (1 + a + b − ab ) 2 A
3− b 50 50
Problem 4.29 Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network j 50 j50
shown in Fig. 4.114 at terminals A–B.
B
Solution When the terminals A and B are open-circuited, the current Fig. 4.114
flowing through the right branch (50 j50) is
50 + j 50 100
I = 5∠30° × A
100 + 50 + j 50 + 50 + j 50
50 50
⎛ 50 + j 50
0 ⎞ ⎛ 1+ j ⎞
= 5∠30° × ⎜ ⎟ = 5∠30° × ⎜
⎝ 200 + j100 ⎠ ⎝ 4 + j 2 ⎟⎠ j 50 j 50 Zth
Therefore, the Thevenin voltage is, B

⎛ 1+ j ⎞ Fig. 4.115
Vth = I × (50 + j 50) = 5∠30° × ⎜ × (50 + j 50) = 111.8∠93.43° V
⎝ 4 + j 2 ⎟⎠
50 36.87
Thevenin impedance is given as a
) (50 + j 50) = (150 + j 50)) + (50 + j 50))

(150 + j 50 × (50 + j 50
(
Z th = 150 + j 50 111.8 93.43 V Vth
= 50∠36.87° b
Thus, Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.116. Fig. 4.116
202
Problem 4.30 For the one port shown in Fig. 4.117, i

determine the Norton’s equivalent at the terminals AB, if i A
40
the v–i characteristic is given by, 16v ⴝ 80 ⴚ 2i.
N v
Solution The v–i characteristic is given as,
V i B 0 5 v
16 v = 80 − 2i ⇒ + =1
5 40 Fig. 4.117 Fig. 4.118
Thus, short-circuit current, Isc 40 A (where v 0)
and open-circuit voltage, Voc 5 V (where i 0) A
Voc 5 1
∴ RN = = = 40A 1
I sc 40 8 8
B
Norton, equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.119.
Fig. 4.119
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

2 j6
Problem 4.31 Find the Thevenin’s equivalent between a
the points a and b for the circuit given in Fig. 4.120. What
should be the value of impedance connected between
a and b for maximum power to be transferred from the (3 j5)
100 V
sources? Obtain the amount of the maximum power.
Solution Here the current
b
100 100 Fig. 4.120
I= = = (10 − j10) A
2 + 3 + j5 5 + j5
∴Vth = I × ( 3 + j 5) = (10 − j10) × ( 3 + j 5) = (80 + j 20) = 82.46
6 ∠14° V (1.6 j 6. 4)
a
2 × ( 3 + j 5)
∴ Z th = j 6 + = (1.6 + j 6.4 )
2 + 3 + j5
82.46 14 V vth
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.121.
For maximum power transfer, the impedance should be complex conjugate
of Thevenin impedance. b
(
∴ Z L = 1.6 − j 6.4 ) Fig. 4.121
2
Vth (82.46 )2
Amount of the maximum power is, Pmax = = = 1062.5 W
4R 4 × 1.6
5 j5 3 j4
A
Problem 4.32 In the network in Fig. 4.122, two voltage
sources act on the load impedance connected to the terminals
A and B. If the load is variable in both reactance and resistance, 50 0 (V) ZL 25 90 (V)
for what load, will ZL receive maximum power? What is the value
of maximum power?
B
Solution Here, V1 = 50∠0 = 50 V; and V2 = 25∠90 = j 25 V Fig. 4.122
203
Network Theorems
Z th
50 − j 25 50 − j 25
Current in the circuit, I = = A a
5 + j5 + 3 − j 4 8 + j1
Thevenin voltage, V th
⎛ 50 − j 25 ⎞ 25 − j 75
Vth = 50 − I × (5 + j 5) = 50 − ⎜ × (5 + j 5) =
⎝ 8 + j1 ⎟⎠
b
8 + j1
Fig. 4.123
= 9.8∠ − 78.7° = (1.923 − j 9.615) V
Thevenin impedance,
(5 + j 5) × ( 3 − j 4 ) 35 − j 5
Z th = = = ( 4..23 − j1.154 )
(5 + j 5) + ( 3 − j 4 ) 8 + j1
Thus, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.123.
For maximum power transfer to the load, Z L = Z m * = ( 4.23 + j1.154 )
Vth 2 9.82
The value of the maximum power is, Pmax = = = 5.676 W
4 R 4 × 4.23
Problem 4.33 In the network shown, the power dissipated in R when E1, E1
E2 or E3 acting alone is
(a) 20 W, 80 W, and 5 W respectively E2 Resistive
R
network
(b) 30 W, 270 W, and 120 W respectively
Calculate the maximum power that R can dissipate due to the simultaneous E3
action of all the sources. Calculate both for (a) and (b). Fig. 4.124
What will be the minimum power dissipated in R when all the sources are
acting simultaneously?
P1
Solution Current for E1 at R, i1 = ±
R
P2
Current for E2 at R, i2 = ±
R
P3
Current for E3 at R, i3 = ±
R
total current flow for simultaneous action of all the three sources is
P1 P P
i = ±i1 ± i2 ± i3 = ± ± 2± 3
R R R
2
⎡ P P P ⎤ 2
∴ power, P = i R = ⎢ ± 1 ± 2 ± 3 ⎥ R = ⎡ ± P1 ± P2 ± P3 ⎤
2
⎢⎣ R R R⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎦
204
• For maximum power,

2
Pmax = ⎡ P1 + P2 + P3 ⎤
⎣ ⎦
2 2
(a) Pmax = ⎡ 20 + 80 + 5 ⎤ = ⎡ 2 5 + 4 5 + 5 ⎤ = 49 × 5 = 245 W
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
2 2
(b) Pmax = ⎡ 30 + 270 + 120 ⎤ = ⎡ 4 5 − 3 5 ⎤ = 1080 W
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
• For minimum power,

2 2
(a) Pmin = ⎡ − 20 + 80 − 5 ⎤ = ⎡ 4 5 − 3 5 ⎤ = 5 W
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
2 2
(b) Pmin = ⎡ − 30 + 270 − 120 ⎤ = ⎡ − 30 + 3 30 − 2 3 ⎤ = 0 W
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Problem 4.34 Find the value of R in the circuit of Fig. 4.124 such that maximum power transfer takes
place. What is the amount of this power?
(a) 3 1
5V 2 1 2A R
(b) R 10
5A 2 5 24 V
Fig. 4.124
Solution (a) In the network, the 2- resistor is connected in parallel with an ideal voltage source of 5 V;
hence this resistance can be removed without affecting the current flows in the other branches.
3 1 1
5V 1 2A R 5 /3 A 3 1 2A R
Fig. 4.125
Converting the voltage source into current source,
⎛5 ⎞ 11
⎜⎝ 3 + 2⎟⎠ A = 3 A
205
Network Theorems
7
For maximum power transfer, R =
4
2
⎛ 11⎞
⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
Maximum Power, Pmax = = 1⋅ 08 W
4× 7
4
1 1
3/4 7/4
11/3 A 3/4 R R 11/4 V R
11/4 V
Fig. 4.126 Rth

2 10
Fig. 4.127 (a)

10 × 5
(b) To find Rth Rth = + 2 = 5.33 2 Vo c 10
10 + 5
To find VOC
10V 5 2V
24
i =− = −1⋅ 6 A
15 i
∴ Voc = 5i + 10 = −8 + 10 = 2 V Fig. 4.127 (b)
4
∴ Pmax = = 0 ⋅188 W
4 × 5 ⋅ 33
3 3
A
Problem 4.35 In the network shown, find the
value of ZL to which the maximum power can be 5 0 (V) j3 ZL
delivered. Hence, find the value of the maximum j3
power. B
Solution With respect to terminals A and B, the Fig. 4.128
Thevenin voltage is
5∠0° ⎛ j3 ⎞ 45∠0°
Vth = ×⎜ = = 2.236 ∠ − 26.56° ( V )
j 3( 3 − j 3) ⎝ 3 + j 3 − j 3 ⎟⎠ 18 + j 9
3+
3− j3+ j3
⎛ 3 × j 3⎞
⎜⎝ 3 + 3 + j 3 ⎟⎠ × ( − j 3)
and Thevenin impedance, Z th = = 3∠ − 53.12° = (1.8 − j 2.4 )
3× j3
3+ − j3
3+ j3
206
For maximum power transfer, Z L = Z th * = (1.8 + j 2.4 )

2.236 ∠ − 26.56°
current, I = = 0.621∠ − 26.56° A
1.8 × 2
(Vth )2 ( 2.236 )2
The value of the maximum power is, P = = = 0.694 W
max
4R 4 × 1.8
Problem 4.36 A loudspeaker is connected across terminals A and B of the network. What should its
impedance be to obtain maximum power dissipation in it?
(b) j5 4 j6
A
(a)
(3 j4) 10
A 120 15 (V) 10
5 0 (A)
j5 j8
10 30 (V)
B B
Fig. 4.129
Solution (a) Equivalent impedance with respect to the terminals A and B is
( 3 + j 4 )( − j 5)
Z th = = 7.9∠ − 18.43° = (7.5 − j 2.5)
3 + j 4 − j5
For maximum power transfer, Z L = Z th * = (7.5 + j 2.4 )
(b) Equivalent impedance with respect to the terminals A and B is
⎡ (10 + j8) j 5 ⎤ ⎛ − 40 + j 50 + 40 + j 52 + j 60 − 78 ⎞
Z th = ⎢ + 4 + j 6 ⎥ 10 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ 10
⎣ 10 + j8 + j 5 ⎦ ⎝ 10 + j13
= 6.14 ∠30° = (5.316 + j 3.07)
For maximum power transfer, Z L = Z th * = 6.14 ∠ − 30° = (5.316 − j 3.07)
Problem 4.37 Two inductors each of 1-⍀ reactance and negligible resistance are connected in series
across a 2-V ac source. Find the value of resistance which should be connected across one of the inductors
for maximum power dissipation. Also, find the maximum power.
R × j1 −1 + j 2 R
Solution Here, Z = + j1 =
R + j1 R + j1
2 ∠0° 2 ∠0° × ( R + j1)
current I = =
Z −1 + j 2 R
j1 j2
current through the resistance, I R = I × =
R + j1 −1 + j 2 R
207
Network Theorems
2 4R
power, P = I R =
1 + 4 R2
dP (1 + 4 R 2 ) × 4 − 4 R × 8 R
For maximum power, =0 ⇒ = 0 ⇒ R = 0.5
dR (1 + 4 R 2 )2
4 × 0.4
maximum power, Pmax = =1W
1 + 4 × (0.5)2
Problem 4.38 A network has two output terminals. The open-circuit voltage at these terminals is 260 V.
The current flowing through the terminals is 20 A when the terminals are short circuited. Also the current is
13 A when a coil of 11-ohm reactance and negligible resistance is connected across the terminals. Find the
impedance components of the equivalent circuit feeding the terminals. What value of load impedance will
give maximum power transfer and what is the value of this power?
Solution Here, Vth = 260 V; Isc 20 A
Let the Thevenin impedance across the terminals is Z (R jX)
Vth 260
∴Z = = = 13
I sc 20
∴ R 2 + X 2 = 169 (i)
When the 11-ohm reactance is connected across the terminals, the current is 13 A.
∴
260
(
R + j X + 11
= 13 ⇒ R + j X + 11 =
) 13
(
260
= 20 )
( )
2
∴ R 2 + X + 11 = 400 (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get, R = 12 X =5
Therefore, Thevenin impedance, Z th = (12 + j 5)
For maximum power transfer, Z L = Z th * = (12 − j 5)
Vth 2 ( 260)2
Value of maximum power, Pmax = = = 1408.33 W
4 R 4 × 12
Problem 4.39 What should be the value of ZL for 3 j2 4 j3

maximum power to be delivered in the circuit shown in
Fig. 4.130?
5cos (␻t 30 ) ZL 2cos ␻t
Solution In this circuit, when the voltage sources are
replaced by their internal impedances; ie., when they are
short-circuited, the equivalent Thevenin impedance with Fig. 4.130
respect to the load terminals is given by
( 3 + j 2 ) × ( 4 − j 3) 18 − j1 ⎛ 127 11 ⎞
Z th = ( 3 + j 2 ) ( 4 − j 3) = = =⎜ +j ⎟
( 3 + j 2 ) + ( 4 − j 3) 7 − j1 ⎝ 50 50 ⎠
= ( 2.54 + j 0.22 ) = 2.55∠4.95° ( )
208
For maximum power to be delivered, the load impedance should be complex conjugate of the Thevenin imped-
ance, so that, Z L = Z th * = ( 2.54 − j 0.22 ) = 2.55∠ − 4.95° ( )
2I1
Problem 4.40 In the network shown, calculate the maximum I1 3

power that may be dissipated in the external resistor R. 10 A 4 6 R
Solution Transforming the current source into voltage source,

By KVL, 6i1 + 4i1 − 40 − 2i1 = 0 ⇒ i1 = 5 A Fig. 4.131
2i1
∴eoc = 6i1 = 30 V
For maximum power, R Req i1 3
Shorting the terminals and solving by loop method, 40 V eoc
6
4
I sc = 5 A
30 Fig. 4.132
∴ Rth = =6
5 2i1
( 30)2 900
∴ Pmax = = = 37.5 W i1
3
4 × 6 24 40 V
6 Isc
4
Reciprocity Theorem
Problem 4.41 Solve the network shown in Fig. 4.133
Fig. 4.134 (a) and hence find the zcurrent in the 2-⍀
B B
resistor in Fig. 4.134 (b) when an emf of 36 V is added
6 21 6 21
in the branch BD as shown in Fig. 4.134 (b). All values
are in ohm. A C 18 C
18 A
36 V
Solution • Solve by any method of network 6
12 12 6
analysis.
2 D 2 D
• We consider the 36-V source acting alone.
When the 72-V source is acting alone, 72V 72V
The current in 2- resistor 6 A Fig. 4.134 (a) Fig. 4.134(b)

By the reciprocity theorem, B B
2A
72 36 6 21 6 21
= ⇒ I = 0 ⋅5 A 3A 1A
1 I C 18 C
A 18 A
3A
current in the 2- resistor for simultaneous 6A 36V
6 I
action of two sources 12 12 6
4A
2 D 2 D
I = (6 − 0.5) = 5.5 A
72V
Problem 4.42 An emf source E, having negligi- Fig. 4.135 (a) Fig. 4.135(b)
ble internal impedance is connected in series with
an impedance Z1 to the input terminals 1–2 of a linear, bilateral four terminal network. It produces a current
I2 in impedance ZL connected across the output terminals 3–4. The emf source is now transferred so as to
209
Network Theorems
act, in series with Z2, between terminal 3–4. Z1 is disconnected and the input I Z1 1
terminals 1–2 are short-circuited. The short-circuited current traversing ter-
minals 1–2 is then I1. Prove that the impedance looking into terminals 1–2
E Z 12
Z 1I 2
under the first condition is, Z 12 = .
I1 − I2
Solution Let the impedance looking into terminals 1–2 be Z12. 2
Thus the network becomes as shown in Fig. 4.136. Fig. 4.136
E 1
∴I = 3
Z1 + Z12
E × Z12 V12 N Z 12
voltage across 1–2, V12 =
Z1 + Z12
So, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 4.137. 2 4
Fig. 4.137
The given network is linear and bilateral and according to the reciprocity
theorem, if the source E is put across terminals 1–2, the response current flow-
1 3
ing through Z2 will be I1 as shown in Fig. 4.138.
I1
Now, if a voltage equal to V12 is applied instead of E, the current flowing
E N Z 12
through Z2 will be,
I1 I E × Z12 Z12
× V12 = 1 × = I1 × 2 4
E E Z1 + Z12 Z1 + Z12
Fig. 4.138
But, this current is equal to I2.
Z1− 2 ⎛ ZI ⎞
∴ I 2 = I1 ⇒ Z12 = ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ (Proved
d)
Z1 + Z1− 2 ⎝ I1 − I 2 ⎠
Problem 4.43 Verify the reciprocity theorem for the ladder network shown in Fig. 4.139.
20 20
j 10 10
200 45 (V)
j10
Fig. 4.139
Solution Let the three loop currents be I1, I2, and I3. By KVL for the three loops,
20 20
I2
200 45 (V) I1 j 10 I3 10
j10
Fig. 4.140
210
( 20 + j10) I1 − j10 I 2 = 200∠45°

− j10 I1 + 20 I 2 + j10 I 3 = 0
j10 I 2 + (10 − j10) I 3 = 0
Solving for I3,
( 20 + j10) − j10 200∠45°

− j10 20 0
0 j10 0 200∠45° × 100
I3 = = = 2.169∠57.53° A ( )
( 20 + j10 ) − j10 0 ( 20 + j10)( 200 − j 200 + 100) − j10( j100 + 100)
− j10 20 j10
0 j10 (10 − j10 )
Now by interchanging the positions of the volt- 20 20
age source and the response current, we get,
By KVL, I2 200 45 (V)
I1 j10 I3
( 20 + j10) I 1
− j10 I 2 = 0 j 10 10
− j10 I1 + 20 I 2 + j10 I 3 = 0
( )
j10 I 2 + 10 − j10 I 3 = 200∠45°
Fig. 4.141
Solving for I1,
0 − j10 0
0 20 0
200∠45° j10 0
I1 = = 2.169∠57.53° ( A )
( 20 + j10) − j10 0
− j10 20 j10
0 j10 (10 − j10)
Since the currents in both the cases are the same, reciprocity theorem is verified.
Problem 4.44 In the given circuit of Fig. 4.142, find the reading of
the voltmeter V. Interchange the current source and voltmeter and j1 1 /j
verify the reciprocity theorem. 1 0 (A)
Solution Here, the current 1 1 V
1 + j1
I 2 = 1∠0° × = 0.707∠45° ( A )
1 + j1 + 1 − j1 Fig. 4.142
The voltage, V = I 2 × ZC = 0.707∠45° × (1) = 0.707∠45° ( V )

211
Network Theorems
Now, interchanging the positions of the current source and the finding I1 I2
the resulting voltage, we get j1 1 /j
1 1 0 (A)
I1 = 1∠0° × = 0.5∠0° ( A )
1 − j1 + j1 + 1 1 1 V
the voltage,
Fig. 4.143 (a)
V = 0.5∠0° × (1 + j1) = 0.5∠ − 23.2° × 2 ∠45° = 0.707∠45° (V V)
As ‘V’ is same as obtained before interchanging the position of the cur- I1 I2
j1 1 /j
rent source, the reciprocity theorem is verified.
V
Problem 4.45 In this circuit of Fig. 4.144, find voltage V. Interchange 1 1 1 0 (A)
the current source and resulting voltage V and show that the reciproc-
ity theorem is verified. Fig. 4.143 (b)
Solution Here, the current
I1 I2
5 + j5
I 2 = 5∠90° × = 4.64 ∠111.8° ( A ) j5 2
5 + j5 + 2 − j 2 5 90 (A)
the voltage, j2
5 V
V = I 2 × ZC = 4.64 ∠111.8° × ( − j 2 ) = 9.28∠21.8° ( V )
Now, interchanging the positions of the current source and the finding Fig. 4.144
the resulting voltage, we get,
− j2 I1 I2
I1 = 5∠90° × = 1.31∠ − 23.2° ( A ) j5 2
− j 2 + 5 + 2 + j5
V
the voltage, j2
5 5 90 (A)
V = 1.31∠ − 23.2 × (5 + j 5)
= 1.31∠ − 23.2 × 7.075∠45 = 9.28∠21.8 ( V ) Fig. 4.145
As ‘V’ is same as obtained before interchanging the position of the
current source, reciprocity theorem is verified.
Compensation Theorem
Problem 4.46 Find the current flowing in the resistor R4 of the R 1 =4 R 3= 8
network shown in Fig. 4.146. If a resistance of 0.5 ⍀ is inserted in
series with R4, find, using the compensation theorem, the current
that will flow through R4. All values are in ohms.
12 V R 2 =16 R 4 =8
Solution Solving the network by any method of network analy-
sis, I 0.5 A
Now z = 0.5 Fig. 4.146
0.25
∴ Vc = I . Z = 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25 V ⇒ I= A = 0.01269 A
19.7
∴ I ′ = ( I − I ) = (0.5 − 0.01269) A = 0.4873 A
212
4 8
4 8
16.5 8
I
16 8 I
12 V
0.025 V
Fig. 4.147
Problem 4.47 Find the current through the 10-ohm resistance 10

in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.148. If the impedance (3 ⴙ j4) ohms
is changed to (4 ⴙ j4) ohms, find the new current in the 10-ohms 3
resistance using compensation theorem. 50 0 (V) j5
j4
Solution Before changing the impedance the current through
the 10- resistance is given as
Fig. 4.148
10 10
I1 I2 I2 Vc
3
50 0 (V) j5 j5
4
j4
j4
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.149
50 50( 3 + j 9) 50
I1 = = = = 4.5∠ − 13° ( A )
( j 5) × ( 3 + j 4 ) 10 + j105 11.1∠130
10 +
j5 + 3 + j 4
Now before changing the impedance,. The current through the ( 3 + j 4 ) Ω branch is
⎛ j5 ⎞ 50( 3 + j 9) ⎛ j 5 ⎞ j 250
I 2 = I1 × ⎜ ⎟ = ×⎜ ⎟ = = 2.37∠5.44° ( A )
⎝ j 5 + 3 + j 4 ⎠ 10 + j105 ⎝ 3 + j 9 ⎠ 10 + j105
Now Z = ( 4 + j 4 ) − ( 3 + j 4 ) = 1
∴Vc = I ⋅ Z = 2.37∠5.44° × 1 = 2.37∠5.44° V
The compensating circuit is shown in Fig. 4.149 (b).
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2.37∠5.44° ⎟ ⎛ j 5 ⎞ 11.85∠95.44°
⇒ I1 = ⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ = 20 + j110 = 0.106 ∠15.74° A
⎜ ( 4 + j 4 ) + 10 × j 5 ⎟ ⎝ 10 + j 5 ⎠
⎜⎝ 10 + j 5 ⎠⎟
∴ I1′ = ( I1 − I1 ) = ( 4.5∠ − 13° − 0.106 ∠15.74° ) A = 4.39∠ − 12.93° A
213
Network Theorems
Millman’s Theorem
I
Problem 4.48 Calculate the load current I in the circuit in Fig. 4.150 2 2 5
by Millman’s theorem. 15
+
Solution By Millman’s Theorem, equivalent voltage, 2V 3V - 5V
2 3 5
∑ EY 2 + 2 + 5 35
V= = = = 2.91667 V Fig. 4.150
∑ Y 1 + 1 + 1 12
2 2 5
and equivalent impedance,
1 1 10
Z=
= = = 0.833
∑ Y 1 1
+ +
1 12
2 2 5
Therefore the current through the load resistance,
V 2.91667
I= = = 0.184 A
Z + 15 0.833 + 15
Problem 4.49 Obtain the potential of the node F with respect to the node G in the circuit of Fig. 4.151. All
values are in ohms.
1
2
3
4
5
F
1V 2V 3V 4V 5V 6
Fig. 4.151
Solution By Millman’s Theorem, equivalent voltage,
5
∑EY
i =1
i i 1 ×1− 2 × 1 + 3 × 1 − 4 × 1 + 5 × 1
2 3 4 5 = 60 V
Z
V= 5
= F
+1 +1 +1 +1 137
∑Yi
i =1
1+
2 3 4 5 V I 6
1 1 60 G
Equivalent impedance, Z = = =
Y 1+ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 137
2 3 4 5
Therefore the current through the 6 resistance, Fig. 151 (a)
60
V 137 + 60 A
I= =
Z + 6 60 + 6 882
137
214
60 60
Hence the voltage between the points F and G is, VFG = 6 × I = 6 × = V
882 147
Problem 4.50 Use Millman’s theorem to obtain an equivalent current source for the circuit shown in
Fig. 4.152. Also, obtain the equivalent voltage source.
20
10 15
100 0 mA j30 20 0 mA
j20
4 30 V
Fig. 4.152
Solution We convert the voltage source into equivalent current source as

V 4 ∠30°
I= = = 0.1108∠ − 26.3° ( A )
Z 20 + j 30
The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 4.153.
Total equivalent current source is
I = 100∠0° + 110.8∠ − 26.3° − 20∠0° = (89.33 − j 49.1) = 101.93∠ − 28.8° ( mA )
26.3 mA
10 20 15
100 0 mA 20 0 mA
j20 j30 j20
110.8
Fig. 4.153
Total equivalent impedance is obtained as
1
=
1
+
1
+
1
Z 10 + j 20 20 + j 30 15 + j 20
(
= 0.059 − j 0.095 ⇒ Z = 4.73 + j 7.57 ) ( )
Equivalent voltage source is obtained as, V = 101.93∠ − 28.8° × 10−3 × ( 4.73 + j 7.57) = 0.9∠29.2° ( V )
Problem 4.51 In the network, two voltage sources j5

j4
5 a 3
act on the load impedance connected to terminals
a, b. If the load is variable in both reactance and
resistance, what load ZL will receive the maximum
50 0 (V) ZL 25 90 (V)
power? What is the value of the maximum power?
Use Millman’s theorem.
Solution Here,
b
V1 = 50∠0° = 50 V ; Z1 = (5 + j 5) ;
Fig. 4.154
1 1
Y1 = = = (0.1 − j0.1) mho
Z1 (5 + j 5)
215
Network Theorems
1 1
V2 = 25∠90° = j 25V ; Z 2 = ( 3 − j 4 ) ; Y2 = = = (0.12 + j 0.16 ) mho
Z2 (3 − j 4)
Millman voltage source,

V1Y1 + V2Y2 50(0.1 − j 0.1) + j 25(0.12 + j 0.116 )
Vm = = = 9.807∠ − 78.65° ( V))
Y1 + Y2 (0.1 − j 0.1) + (0.12 + j 0.16 )
Millman impedance,
1 1
Zm = = = 4.385∠ − 15.25° = ( 4.23 − j1.15)
Y1 + Y2 0.22 − j 0.06
(
For maximum power transfer to the load, Z L = Z m * = 4.23 + j1.15 )
Vm 2 ( 9.807)2
Maximum power, Pmax = = = 5.68 W
4 RL 4 × 4.23
Tellegen’s Theorem
Problem 4.52 Find the current through the 1-⍀ resistor in the cir-
cuit in Fig. 4.155 using Tellegen’s theorem. 2
1A
Solution To find the current, using Tellegen’s theorem, we first find 1
the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with respect to terminals a and b. 3 2
Thevenin voltage,
2
3 4 Fig. 4.155
Vth = ×4= V
3+ 4 + 2 3
a a a
2 3
1A 3V
1A V th
3 2 3 4 4
b b b
2 2 2
Fig. 4.156
Thevenin impedance,
5 × 4 20 20
Z th = = 9
5+ 4 9
i
Thus, the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.157.
4
V 1
Now, applying Tellegen’s Theorem, 3
4 20
− × I + × I × I + 1 × I × I = 0 ⇒ I = 0.414 A
3 9 Fig. 4.157
216
Problem 4.53 Find the value of source E2 using Tellegen’s 10 5

theorem if the power absorbed by E2 is 20 W.
5
Solution We have to find out the Thevenin’s equivalent
across XY.
100 V 10
100
Here, ∴ i= =5A E2
20
∴ Voc = i × 10 = 50 V
( )
Rth = 10 10 + 10 = (5 + 10) =15 Fig. 4.158
10 5 10 5
5 5
100 V 10 X 100 V 10 X
E2
i Voc
Y Y
Fig. 4.159
10 5
Now Applying Tellegen’s Theorem to the equivalent circuit,
5
−50 I + 15 I 2 + E2 I = 0 10 X
But it is given that
Rth
Y
E2 I = 20 ⇒ 15 I − 50 I + 20 = 0 2
Fig. 4.160
⇒ 3 I − 10 I + 4 = 0
2 Rth = 15
10 ± 100 − 4 × 3 × 4 10 ± 52 5 ± 13
∴I = = =
6 6 3 50 V E2
i
= 2.8685 A or 0.4648 A
20 Fig. 4.161
So, the value of E2 = = 6.97 V or, 43.03 V
I
4A
Problem 4.54 A set of measurements is made on a linear 10 V N 4V

time-invariant resistive circuit as shown in Fig. 4.162 a. The
circuit is then reconnected as shown in Fig. 4.162 b. Find the
current through the 5-⍀ resistance. (a)
Solution By Tellegen’s theorem, if the set of voltages and

currents is taken corresponding to two different instants of time t1 5 i N 6A
and t2, then
b b
∑ v (t )i (t
b 1 b 2
) = ∑ vb (t2 )ib (t1 ) = 0 (b)
b =1 b =1 Fig. 4.162
217
Network Theorems
Here, the circuits for two different instants of time are as shown below:
4A
10 V N 4V 5 i N 6A
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.163
By Tellegen’s theorem,
2 2
∑ v (t )i (t
b =1
k 1 k 2
) = ∑ vk (t2 )ik (t1 ) ⇒ v1 (t1 )i1 (t2 ) + v2 (t1 )i2 (t2 ) = v1 (t2 )i1 (t1 ) + v2 (t2 )i2 (t1 )
b =1
Here, v1 (t1 ) = 10V ; i1 (t1 ) = − 4 A; and v2 (t1 ) = 4 V; i2 (t1 ) = 0

v1 (t2 ) = 5i; i1 (t2 ) = i and v2 (t2 ) = 0; i2 (t2 ) = 6 A
So, from (1); (10 × i ) + ( 4 × 6 ) = (5i × −4 ) + (0 × 0)
24
10 i + 24 = −20 i ⇒ i = − = −0.8 A
30 V2
I1 I2
Problem 4.55 Two sets of measurements are taken on
a resistive network shown in Fig. 4.162. Find V2. V1 N V2 R2
(a) R2 ⴝ 1 , V1 ⴝ 5 V, I1 ⴝ 2 A, V2 ⴝ 1 V
(b) R2 ⴝ 10 , V1 ⴝ 6 V, I1 ⴝ 6 A
Fig. 4.162
Solution Here,
⎡ v (t ) ⎤ ⎛ 1⎞
v1 (t1 )i1 (t2 ) + v2 (t1 )i2 (t2 ) = v1 (t2 )i1 (t1 ) + v2 (t2 )i2 (t2 ) ⇒ (5 × 6 ) + 1 × ⎢ − 2 2 ⎥ = (6 × 2 ) + v2 (t2 ) × ⎜ − ⎟
⎣ 10 ⎦ ⎝ 1⎠
v (t ) ⎪⎧ v (t ) v (t ) ⎫⎪
⇒ 30 − 2 2 = 12 − v2 (t2 ) ⎨ i2 (t2 ) = − 2 2 and i2 (t1 ) = − 2 1 ⎬
10 ⎩⎪ R (
2 2
t ) R (t ) ⎪
2 1 ⎭
18
⇒ v2 (t2 ) = − = −20 V
9
10
Summary
1. Network theorems are used to simplify a complex cir- work is equal to the summation of the component cur-
cuit to a simpler circuit and to thereby make the circuit rents (or voltages) due to one source acting alone in
analysis much easier. the network with all the remaining sources removed.
2. The superposition theorem states that in a linear 3. As per the reciprocity theorem, in any linear time-
bilateral network, the current at any point (or voltage invariant, bilateral network, the ratio of response to
between any two points) due to the simultaneous excitation remains same for an interchange of the
action of a number of independent sources in the net- position of excitation and response in the network.
218
4. Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems state that a linear parallel , then the circuit may be replaced by a single
active bilateral network can be replaced at any two ideal voltage source (V) in series with an impedance (Z);
of its terminals by the Thevenin equivalent voltage n
source, Vth, in series with an equivalent impedance, Zth, ∑V Y i i

1
or by the Norton equivalent current source, IN, in paral- where V = i =1
n
and, Z= n
.
lel with an equivalent impedance, ZN. The relations are ∑Y i ∑Y
i =1
i
i =1
V th
Z th = Z N IN = 9. The current source equivalent Millman’s theorem
Zt states that if several ideal current sources (I1, I2,…) in
5. The maximum power is absorbed by one network parallel with impedances (Z1, Z2, …) are connected in
from another connected to it at two terminals, when series, they may be replaced by a single ideal current
the impedance of one is the complex conjugate of source (I) in parallel with an impedance (Z); where,
n
Ii
the other. For dc circuits, the condition for maximum
power transfer is RL RS; and for ac circuits, the condi-
∑ Yi 1 n
I= ni =1
and, Y = n or, Z = ∑ Z i .
tion is ZL ZS*.
6. The superposition, Thevenin’s, Norton’s and maximum
∑i =1
1
Yi ∑
i =1
1
Yi
i =1
power transfer theorems are all valid for linear circuits

10. According to the compensation theorem, in any linear
only.
bilateral active network, if any branch carrying a cur-
7. Tellegen’s theorem states that the summation of rent I has its impedance Z changed by an amount ␦Z,
instantaneous powers delivered to all branches is zero. the resulting changes that occur in the other branches
8. The voltage source equivalent Millman’s theorem are the same as those which would have been caused
states that if several ideal voltage sources (V1, V2, …) by the injection of a voltage source of ( I␦Z) in the
in series with impedances (Z1, Z2,…) are connected in modified branch.
1. Under what conditions are network theorems pre- 3. Mention some limitations of the superposition
ferred over Kirchhoff’s laws in analyzing electric theorem.
circuits? (i) This theorem is not valid for power relationship.
In electric network analysis, the fundamental rules are (ii) This theorem is not applicable to circuits contain-
Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. While these humble laws ing only dependent sources. With dependent
may be applied to analyze any circuit configuration, for sources, superposition can be used only when
complex circuits, it is necessary to simplify the network the controlling functions are external to the net-
to find current or voltage in a particular branch without work-containing sources, so that the controls are
solving the entire circuit. For these complex networks, unchanged when the sources act at a time.
network theorems are preferred over Kirchhoff’s laws. (iii) This theorem is not applicable for circuits with
2. Mention some examples where the reciprocity the- non-linear elements.
orem is not applicable.
4. What is the use of superposition theorem?
(i) This theorem is inapplicable to unilateral net-
The superposition theorem is used to find the cur-
works, such as networks comprising of electron
rent or voltage in a branch when the circuit has a
tubes or other control devices.
large number of independent voltage and/or current
(ii) This theorem is inapplicable to circuits with time- sources.
varying elements.
(iii) This theorem is inapplicable to circuits with 5. Mention some examples where Thevenin’s theo-
dependent sources. rem cannot be applied.
(iv) To apply this theorem, we have to consider only (i) This theorem is inapplicable to loads which
the zero-state response by taking all the initial are magnetically coupled to other parts of the
conditions to be zero. circuit.
219
Network Theorems
(ii) This theorem is inapplicable for non-linear and Power delivered to the load is
unilateral networks.
2 E 2RL
(iii) This theorem is inapplicable for active load. P = I RL = (2)
( R + R L )2 + ( X + X L )2
(iv) To apply this theorem, the load should not con-
tain any dependent source. where, Z = R + jX , Z L = R L + jX L
6. Explain the use of Thevenin’s theorem.
∂P
For maximum power, must be zero.
Thevenin’s theorem is very useful for replacement of ∂X L
a large portion of a network with a small equivalent
circuit. This theorem is used to find the current in a ∂P −2( E )2 R L ( X L + X )
Now, = =0
particular passive element in a linear bilateral network. ∂X L [( R L + R )2 + ( X L + X )2 ]2
This theorem is also useful for calculating the load
resistance in impedance-matching problems. From which, X L + X = 0 or X L = − X
7. Show that Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are i.e., the reactance of the load impedance is of opposite
dual to each other. sign to the reactance of the source impedance.
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with respect to two E 2RL
terminals a–b is shown in Fig. 4.163 (a). Putting XL X in the equation (2) P =
( R L + R )2
Zth
For maximum power,
a
∂P E ( R L + R ) − 2 E R L ( R L + R )
2 2 2
Vth I ZL IN ZL ZL V = =0
∂R L ( R L + R )4
b
Fig. 4.163 (a) Fig. 4.163 (b) Or, E 2 ( R L + R ) − 2 E 2 R L = 0 or R L = R

Thevenin’s Norton’s equivalent The maximum power transferred will be
equivalent circuit circuit
(E 2 )
2
E2
The KVL equation for the Thevenin’s equivalent Pmax = =
circuit can be written as V th = I ( Z th + Z L ) = IZ th + IZ L 4RL RL
Replacing the voltage by current, the imped- Thus, the efficiency of the circuit is 50%.
ances by conductances, the equation becomes
9. Explain the application and limitations of Millman’s
I N = V (Y N +Y L ) = VY N +VY L theorem.
This equation is identical with the KCL equation of Applications
Norton’s equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 4.163 (b).
(i) This theorem provides the equivalent circuits
Therefore, we conclude that Thevenin’s and Norton’s
which are either Thevenin or Norton equivalent
theorems are dual to each other.
circuits.
8. Show that under the (ii) This theorem is applicable only to indepen-
condition of maxi- R RL dent voltage sources with their internal series
jX
mum power transfer, impedances connected directly in parallel, or
the efficiency of a cir- independent current sources with their inter-
E jXL
cuit is 50%. nal series admittances connected directly in
series.
Let E be the voltage
source, (R jX) the Limitations
Fig. 4.164
internal impedance of (i) This theorem is not applicable to circuits where
the source and (RL jXL) the load impedance. impedances or dependent sources are present
between the independent sources.
E E
E= = (1) (ii) This theorem is not useful for circuits with less
Z + Z L (R + R L ) + j ( X + X L ) than two independent sources.
220
10. Mention some salient features of Tellegen’s theorem. where Vk are the phasor voltages, Ik are the
(i) This theorem is applicable for any lumped phasor currents and Ik* is the complex
network having elements which are linear or conjugate of Ik.
non-linear, active or passive, time-varying or (vi) If t1 and t2 refer to two different instants of
time-invariant. observations, it still follows from Tellegen’s theo-
(ii) This theorem is completely independent of the rem that
b
nature of the elements and is only concerned
with the graph of the network.
∑v
k =1
k
(t 1 ) ⋅ i k (t 2 ) = 0
(iii) This theorem is based on two Kirchhoff’s laws,

(vii) If N1 and N2 refer to two different circuits having
i.e., KVL and KCL.
the same graph, with the same reference direc-
(iv) This theorem implies that the power delivered tions assigned to the branches in the two circuits
by independent sources of the network must be then by Tellegen’s theorem,
equal to the sum of the power absorbed (dissi-
b b
pated or stored) in all other elements in the net-
work.
∑v
k =1
1k
⋅ i 2 k = 0 and ∑v
k =1
2k
⋅ i 1k = 0
(v) If the network is in sinusoidally steady state (ac

where, v1k and i1k are the voltages and currents
circuits) then Tellegen’s theorem is given as
in N1 and v2k and i2k are the voltages
b
∑V
k =1
I *=0
k k
and currents in N2, all satisfying the
Kirchhoff’s laws.
Exercises
TELLEGEN’S THEOREM I3 V3
I1 I2
1. The circuit of Fig. 165 (a) is reconnected as of
Fig. 4.165 (b). V1 NETWORK V2
R1 R3
Fig. 4.166
Is = 1 A IL = 2 A
V1 = 5e j 5° I 1 = 12e j 40°
Vs R2 VL= 2 V R =1 − j 20°
V 2 = 15e I 2 = 8e j 10°
V3 = ? I 3 = 10e j 15°
Fig. 4.165 (a) At a frequency of 100 Hz, the readings are
V 1 ' = 10e j 20° I 1 ' = 2 j 25°
R1 R3
V 2 ' = 12e j 35 I 2 ' = 10e − j 10°
V 3 ' = 5e j 15° I 3 ' = 14.93e j 68°
Is Vs =3 V R2 VL R =2
The reading of V3 was missed. Calculate V3 using
Tellegen’s Theorem. [ 18e j 15° ]
Fig. 4.165 (b)
Reciprocity Theorem
If Vs 2 V and Is 1 A, find the voltage VL of
Fig. 4.165 (b). Use Tellegen’s Theorem. [1V] 1. In the network shown in Fig. 4.167, verify the reciprocity
theorem using a voltage source and an ammeter. What
2. The following readings were taken at a frequency of 50 are the methods of verifying the Reciprocity Theorem? All
Hz in a linear RLC network shown in figure. values are in ohms.
221
Network Theorems
2. Find the current 3 4 change in current through the 3- resistor.
in the 6- resistor [4.74 23.23 V; 0.271 159.5 A]
and the source cur- 1 2. If the 5- resistance increases to 6 , determine the
2
rent in Fig. 4.168 a. compensation source and find the current through the
Hence, determine 20
the current in the 3- 6 resistance. [1 V; A]
Fig. 4.167 23
resistor when an 2.5 3
emf of 72 V is added
in series with the 6- resistor as shown in Fig. 4.168 b.
[ 0.5 A, 6 A] 10 V 5 2
B B
A 5 3 7 C A 5 3 7 C Fig. 4.172
24 V 24 V
2 D 16 2 D 16 Millman’s Theorem
1. Find the load current using Millman’s theorem. All
6 6 72 V resistance values are in ohms. [1.176 A]
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.168 I
4 4 4
3. In this circuit, find the voltage V. Interchange the cur-
rent source and resulting voltage V and show that the 10
reciprocity theorem is verified. [9.28 21.8 (V)] 4V 2V 10V
5 2 Fig. 4.173
5 90 A
2. Using Millman’s theorem, find the current in the load
j5 j2 V impedance, ZL (2 j4) . [1.06 58.46 (A)]
5 0V
Fig. 4.169
1 0V
4. Two sets of measurements are made on a linear pas- 5 ZL
sive resistive network in Fig. 4.170 a and Fig. b. Find the
1 1 5 0A
current through the 2- resistor.
5A 2A
20 V Fig. 4.174
N 2 I N 30 V
3. Determine the current through the branch AB using
(a) (b) ⎡ 36 ⎤
Millman’s theorem. ⎢ A⎥
Fig. 4.170 ⎣ 67 ⎦
A
Compensation Theorem 4 4 4
1. The 5- resistor has 5
been changed to an 5
2
8- resistor in the cir- j5 2V 4V 6V
10 0 V
cuit. Determine the j4
compensation source B
VC and calculate the Fig. 4.171 Fig. 4.175
222
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems 5. Use Thevenin’s theorem to find the current supplied
by the battery.
1. Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit with [Rth 33.34 ; Vth 10 V; i 0.3 A]
respect to the terminals A and B for the circuit shown
in Fig. 4.176 and hence the current flowing through 10 10
10- resistor. [0.193 A]
10 V 50 50 30
A 10 B
10 V 4V 10
2 3 3 1 Fig. 4.181
6. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to
Fig. 4.176 the terminals A and B.
[a) Vth 0; Rth 10.64 ; b) Vth 0; Rth 1 ;
2. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the following
networks: c) Vth 10 0 (V); Zth 5.59 26.6 ( );
d) Vth 11.18 93.44 (V); Zth 5 36.87 ( )]
(i) 2k 3k
(a) 50
4V V x /4000 V x A
v1
100 200 0.1v1
Fig. 4.177
B
(ii) 500ix
10
A Fig. 4.182
ix
50 mA 1k 1k (b) 4 1
A
B ix
Fig. 4.178 10 ix 2
[(i) 8 V; 10 k (ii) 25V; 350 ] B
3. Determine the current in the branch AB for the cir- Fig. 4.183
cuit shown in Fig. 4.179 by using Thevenin’s theorem.
[1.818 A] (c) j10
5
15 A A
3
20 90 (V)
100 V 5 10 10 A
j4
B
B
Fig. 4.184
Fig. 4.179
(d) 10
4. Find Norton’s equivalent at terminals a–b. A
[0 A; 10.64 ] 5 5
5 30 (A)
50 j5 j5
a B
v1 200 0.1v1 Fig. 4.185
100
b 7. Compute I0 using Norton’s theorem.
Fig. 4.180 [I0 0.542 cos(2t 77.47 ) (A)]
223
Network Theorems
2 c) i1
1/4 F I0 4H 1/2 F 20 40
R
10i1 50 V
Fig. 4.186
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Fig. 4.191

4. Determine ZL so that the maximum power is absorbed
1. Determine the value of 2 4 by it. [40 0 V; (8 j20) , 50 W]
the resistor RL that will
draw maximum power VX 1 ZL
10
from the rest of the cir- 9V RL
cuit. What is the maxi- 3 VX
mum power? 40 j10 j 20
50 0 V
[4.22 , 2.901 W] Fig. 4.187
2. The circuit operates in Fig. 4.192
the sinusoidal steady state with ␻ 1000 rad/s and Is
5. Determine the value of R such that the 6- resistor
I 0 A(rms). Find the value of the load impedance for
consumes the maximum power.
maximum average power transfer. Also, find the aver-
[R 18 ]
age power absorbed by the load under this condition. R
[(1500 j1000) V; 83.33 W]
3 3
2 VR 0.5 H
10V 3 6
1k
IS VR ZL Fig. 4.193
1 F
Fig. 4.188 Superposition Theorem

3. Find the value of the resistance R for maximum power 1. Apply the superposition theorem to the circuit to
to be transferred to it. Also, find the maximum power. find I3. [ 0.75 A]
[a) 44 , 0.568 W; b) 4.5 , 1.39 W; c) 16 ]
30 30
a) 50 V
60 R 40 I3
8A 50 60
30 60 100 V 60 V
60 V 100 V
Fig. 4.194
Fig. 4.189
2. Use the superposition theorem to find the voltage Vx.
b) 1 2 [12.5 V]
20 Vx
10 V 1 R
10 V 2A 4 0.1Vx
Fig. 4.190 Fig. 4.195

224
3. Determine the voltage vx in the circuit using the super- 6. Find the current ix by the superposition theorem. [5 A]
position theorem. [ 38.5 V] ix 5 1
2 4
VX 20 V 30 A 4i x
50 V 0.1VX 100 V
Fig. 4.199
Fig. 4.196 7. Find v0 using the superposition theorem.
4. Use the superposition theorem to find the voltage vx. [v0 1 2.498 cos(2t 30.79 )
[5 2.56 sin(500t 39.8 ) (V)] 2.328 sin (5t 10 ) V]
5 1 2H vo 4
1 5V
20sin 50t (V) 2 mF vx 6V 10cos2t (V) 0.1 F
2sin 5t (A)
Fig. 4.197 Fig. 4.200

5. Find the current through the capacitor using the 8. Find the current i0 using
3 1 2 5i0
superposition theorem. [4.86 80.8 (A)] the superposition theo-
j1 rem. [ 0.4706 A] 4A i0
5 20V 4
5
j5
20 0 (V)
Fig. 4.201
10 0 (V)
Fig. 4.198
Questions
1. State and explain the substitution theorem. state the theorem which is the dual of the above
2. State and explain the superposition theorem. Give theorem.
a proof for a general n-mesh network indicating the 8. State the maximum power transfer theorem for all the
conditions under which it is applicable. various kinds of networks and loads.
3. State the reciprocity theorem as applied to a network 9. State the maximum power transfer theorem. Derive
and give a proof of the same for a general network. conditions for maximum power transfer for a resistive
Mention two networks where this theorem is not network and resistive load.
applicable.
10. State and prove the maximum power transfer
4. State Thevenin’s theorem and give a proof of the
theorem.
same. Mention one example of a network where this
theorem is not applicable. Or,
5. a) State Norton’s theorem as applied to a network and In the circuit, the
give a proof of the same. source emf ES, resis- Rs RL
jX s
tance RS and reactance
b) What is ‘dual network’? Mention the procedure for ES j XL
jXS are fixed but both
drawing the dual of a given network.
the load resistance RL
6. State and explain clearly Thevenin’s theorem as and reactance jXL are
applied in ac circuits. variable. Show that Fig. 4.202
7. State and explain Thevenin’s theorem, and specify maximum power is
the types of networks to which it is applicable. Also, consumed in the load when XL XS and RL RS.
225
Network Theorems
Prove that the load impedance which absorbs the 14. Derive the condition for maximum power transfer for
maximum power from a source is the conjugate of the (a) Load impedance with variable resistance and vari-
impedance of the source. able reactance
11. Prove the condition for maximum power transfer for (b) Load impedance with variable resistance and fixed
an ac circuit. reactance
12. A source with internal impedance RS jXS delivers 15. State and clearly prove with the help of a suitable
power to a variable load impedance RL j0. Show example the maximum power transfer theorem as
that the condition for maximum power in the load is applicable to RLC circuits excited from the sinusoidal
RL 2 = RS 2 + X S 2 . energy source. Hence explain clearly the concept and
13. State the maximum power transfer theorem and its significance in impedance matching.
verify that only 50% of the total power supplied by the 16. State and prove the following theorems:
source can be transferred to the load. ( i) Tellegen’s theorem
Or, (ii) Millman’ theorems
State and explain the maximum power transfer theo- (iii) Compensation theorem
rem. Derive the expression for efficiency for maximum
power transfer.
1. Which one of the following theorems is a manifesta- (i) voltage calculations (ii) bilateral elements
tion of the law of conservation of energy? (iii) power calculations (iv) passive elements
(i) Tellegen’s Theorem 7. Thevenin’s theorem can be applied to calculate the
(ii) Reciprocity Theorem current in
(iii) Thevenin’s Theorem (i) any load (ii) a passive load only
(iv) Norton’s Theorem (iii) a linear load only (iv) a bilateral load only
2. Tellegen’s theorem is applicable to 8. Norton’s equivalent circuit consists of a
(i) circuits having passive elements (i) voltage source in parallel with impedance
(ii) circuits having time-invariant elements only (ii) voltage source in series with impedance
(iii) circuits with linear elements only (iii) current source in parallel with impedance
(iv) circuits with active or passive, linear or non-linear (iv) current source in series with impedance
and time-invariant or time-varying elements 9. The superposition theorem is applicable to
3. In any lumped network with elements in b branches, (i) linear responses only
b (ii) linear and non-linear responses
∑k =1
k
(t ) ⋅ i k (t ) = 0 , for all t, holds good according to (iii) linear, non-linear and time-variant responses
(i) Norton’s theorem (ii) Thevenin’s theorem 10. When a source is delivering maximum power to a
(iii) Millman’s theorem (iv) Tellegen’s theorem load, the efficiency of the circuit
(i) is always 50%
4. Millman’s theorem yields
(ii) depends on the circuit parameters
(i) equivalent voltage source
(iii) is always 75%
(ii) equivalent voltage or current source
(iv) none of these.
(iii) equivalent resistance
(iv) equivalent impedance 11. Maximum power transfer occurs at a
(i) 100% efficiency (ii) 50% efficiency
5. The superposition theorem is applicable to (iii) 25% efficiency (iv) 75% efficiency
(i) current only
12. Which of the following statements is true?
(ii) voltage only (i) A Norton’s equivalent is a series circuit.
(iii) both current and voltage (ii) A Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is a parallel circuit.
(iv) current, voltage and power (iii) R-L circuit is a dual pair.
6. Superposition theorem is not applicable for (iv) L-C circuit is a dual pair.
226
13. For a linear network containing generators and imped- 2. XL XS , if only XS is varied
ances, the ratio of the voltage to the current produced
( )
2
in the other loop is the same as the ratio of voltage 3. R L = R S 2 + X S + X L , if only RL is varied.
and current obtained if the position of the voltage
source and the ammeter measuring the current are 4. Z L = Z S if the magnitude of ZL is varied, keeping
interchanged. This network theorem is known as the phase angle fixed.
(i) Millman’s theorem (ii) Norton’s theorem Among these conditions, those which are to be satis-
(iii) Tellegen’s theorem (iv) Reciprocity theorem fied for maximum power transfer from the source to
14. Under conditions of maximum power transfer from the load would include
an ac source to a variable load, (i) 2 and 3 (ii) 1 and 3
(i) the load impedance must also be inductive, if (iii) 1, 2 and 4 (iv) 2, 3 and 4
the generator impedance is inductive 19. The reciprocity theorem is applicable to a network
(ii) the sum of the source and load impedance is zero 1. which contains R, L and C as elements
(iii) the sum of the source reactance and load reac- 2. which is initially relaxed system
tance is zero 3. which has both independent and dependent
(iv) the load impedance has the same phase angle sources
as the generator impedance
Tick out the correct combination:
15. Consider the following statements: (i) 1 and 2 (ii) 1 and 3
The transfer impedances and admittances of a net- (iii) 2 and 3 (iv) 1, 2 and 3.
work remain constant when the position of excitation 20. The reciprocity theorem is applicable to
and response are interchanged if the network (i) circuits with one independent source
1. is linear (ii) circuits with only one independent source and
2. consists of bilateral elements no dependent source
3. has high impedance or admittance as the case (iii) circuits with any number of independent
may be sources
4. is resonant
(iv) circuits with any number of sources
Of these statements, 21. The substitution theorem is applicable for a network
(i) 1 and 2 are correct which has
(ii) 1, 3 and 4 are correct 1. a unique solution
(iii) 2 and 4 are correct 2. one or two non-linear elements
(iv) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct 3. one non-linear or time-varying element
16. In a linear network, the ratio of voltage excitation Choose the correct combination:
to current response is unaltered when the position (i) 1 and 2 (ii) 1 and 3
of excitation and response are interchanged. This (iii) 2 and 3 (iv) 1, 2 and 3.
assumption stems from the 22. The substitution theorem applies to
(i) principle of duality (i) linear networks
(ii) reciprocity theorem (ii) non-linear networks
(iii) principle of superposition (iii) linear time-invariant networks
(iv) equivalence theorem (iv) any network
17. If all the elements in a particular network are linear 23. Which of the following theorems is applicable for
then the superposition theorem holds when the exci- both linear and non-linear circuits?
tation is (i) Superposition (ii) Thevenin
(i) dc only (ii) ac only (iii) Norton (iv) None of these
(iii) either ac or dc (iv) an impulse. 24. A network is composed of two sub-networks N1 and
18. An ac source of voltage Es and an internal impedance N2 as shown in Fig. 4.203.
ZS (RS jXS) is connected to a load of impedance Sub-network Sub-network
ZL (RL jXL). Consider the following conditions in
N1 N2
this regard:
1. XL XS , if only XL is varied Fig. 4.203
227
Network Theorems
If the sub-network N1 contains only linear, bilateral, A
time-invariant elements then it can be replaced by 2
its Thevenin equivalent even if the sub-network N2
contains 3
1A 2
(i) a two-terminal element which is non-linear 1V
(ii) a non-linear inductance mutually coupled to an
element in N1 2
(iii) an element which is linear, but mutually coupled Fig. 4.206
to some element in N1
30. The V-I relation for the network shown in the given
(iv) a dependent source, the value of which
box is V 4I 9.
depends upon the voltage or current in some
element in N1 If now a resistor R 2 is connected across it,
25. A certain network consists of two ideal identical volt- then the value of I will be
age sources and a large number of ideal resistors. The (i) 4.5 A (ii) 1.5 A
power consumed in one of the resistors is 4 W when (iii) 1.5 A (iv) 4.5 A
either of the two sources is active and the other is I
replaced by a short-circuit. The power consumed by
the same resistor when both the sources are active N V R=2
would be
(i) zero or 16 W (ii) 4 W or 8 W
(iii) zero or 8 W (iv) 8 W or 16W Fig. 4.207
26. If a network has all linear elements except for a few 31. In the network shown i/4
in Fig. 4.208, the effec- i
non-linear ones then superposition theorem:
(i) cannot hold at all tive resistance faced by
(ii) always holds the voltage source is 4
V
(iii) may hold on careful selection of element values, (i) 4 (ii) 3
source waveform and response (iii) 2 (iv) 1
(iv) holds in case of direct current excitations 32. For the network Fig. 4.208
27. The maximum power shown in Fig. 4.209, if
that can be dissipated 3 1 Vs V1 and V 0 then I 5 A and if Vs 0, then I
in the load in the circuit ½ A. The values of Isc and R1 of the Norton’s equivalent
shown in Fig. 4.204 is 9V 6 RL across AB would be respectively
(i) 3 W (ii) 6 W (i) 5 A and 2 (ii) 10 A and 0.5
(iii) 5 A and 2 (iv) 2.5 A and 5
(iii) 6.75 W (iv) 13.5 W Fig. 4.204
28. If Rg in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.205 is variable A I
between 20 and 80 then the maximum power Resistive
transferred to the load RL will be Vs V
circuit
(i) 15 W (ii) 13.33 W
(iii) 6.67 W (iv) 2.4 W B
Rg Fig. 4.209
33. In the network shown A
in Fig. 4.210, the 10 10
RL = 60 5
40 V Thevenin source and 15V
the impedance across 10A
B
Fig. 4.205 terminals A–B will be
respectively Fig. 4.210
29. Thevenin impedance across the terminals AB of the
(i) 15 V and 13.33
given network is
(ii) 50 V and 15
(i) 10 (ii) 20 (iii) 13 (iv) 11 (iii) 115 V and 20
3 9 4 5 (iv) 100 V and 25
228
34. Which one of the fol- 1k (i) 10 V in series with the 1.2- resistance
lowing combination a (ii) 6 V in series with the 1.2- resistance
of open-circuit voltage I1 (iii) 10 V in series with the 5- resistance
and Thevenin’s equiva- 1 V 99I1 (iv) 6 V in series with the 5- resistance
lent resistance repre-
b 38. A dc current source
sents the Thevenin’s 2
equivalent of the circuit Fig. 4.211 is connected as shown a
shown in Fig. 4.211? in Fig. 4.215:
2A
(i) 1 V, 10 (ii) 1 V, 1k The Thevenin’s equi-
(iii) 1m V, 1k (iv) 1m V, 10 valent of the network at b
terminals a b Fig. 4.215
35. For the circuit shown in Fig. 4.212, the current
through R, when VA 0 and VB 15 V is I amperes. (i) will be (ii) will be
Now, if both VA and VB are increased by 15 V then the a a
current through R will be 4V 2 4V
3 R 3 b b
(iii) will be (iv) is NOT feasible
VA 3 3 VB a
2V 2
b
Fig. 4.212
39. Which one of the following impedance values of the
(i) I amperes (ii) I amperes load will cause maximum power to be transferred to
2
the load for the network shown in Fig. 4.216?
(iii) 3I amperes (iv) I amperes
3 2 j2 j2
36. Thevenin’s equiva-
lent circuit of the 6
T1 Vs j2 zL
network shown in I1
Fig. 4.213, between 40 V 0.8I1
terminals T1 and 10
T2 is T2 Fig. 4.216
Fig. 4.213 (i) (2 j2) (ii) (2 j2)
40 V T2 (iii) j2 (iv) 2
(i) T1 24
40. The Thevenin’s equiva- 2
(ii) T1 40 V 16 T2 lent resistance Rth for
the given network is 1A 2
Rth
15 V (i) 1 (ii) 2
(iii) T1 16 T2
(iii) 4 (iv) infinity 1V
(iv) T1 20 V T2 41. The Norton’s equiva- Fig. 4.217

24
lent of circuit shown in
Fig. 4.218 (a) is drawn in the circuit shown in
37. The Thevenin equivalent of the network shown in
Fig. 4.218 (b). The values of Isc and Req in Fig. 4.218 (b)
Fig. 4.214 (a) is 10 V in series with a resistance of 2
are respectively
. If now, resistance of 3 is connected across AB in
Fig. 4.214 (b), the Thevenin equivalent of the modi- 3 4/5 1
fied network across AB will be 1
A A Isc Req
2V 2
Net work Net work 3
B B 2 2
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.214 (a) Fig. 4.214 (b) Fig. 4.218 (a) Fig. 4.218 (b)
229
Network Theorems
5 2 Thevenin’s equivalent of the Zth

(i) A and 2 (ii) A and 1V
2 5 network shown in Fig. 4.222 IL
Vth
(a) would correspond to the RL
4 12 2 network shown in Fig. 4.222
(iii) A and V (iv) A and 2
5 5 5 (b), if one or more of the fol-
lowing conditions are met: Fig. 4.222 (b)
42. For the circuit shown 4 6
in Fig. 4.219, the cur- 1. IL IL
rent flowing through 2. The equivalence is valid only if the frequency of Vth
1
the 1- resistor is is maintained at 50 Hz.
adjusted to zero by
2 R 3. IL 2IL, if the voltage Vth is doubled.
varying the value of R.
What is the value of R? The correct set of conditions would include
(i) 2 10 (i) 1, 2 and 3 (ii) 1 and 2
10V
(ii) 3 (iii) 2 and 3 (iv) 1 and 3
Fig. 4.219
(iii) 4 46. In a given network of generators and impedances, the
(iv) 6 impedance ‘Z’ of the branch with current ‘I’ flowing
43. What is the Thevenin’s equivalent between A and B through it, has increased from Z to Z Z. The solu-
for the circuit shown in Fig. 4.220? tion of the network will remain the same if
(i) an emf of I Z is introduced in series with the
A
branch
1 1 (ii) the impedance of all the other branches are
4V 1 8A reduced by the same amount
(iii) the voltages of the generators in all the other
branches are increased proportionately
B
(iv) a negative resistance device is introduced in the
Fig. 4.220 network
47. Thevenin’s theorem is not applicable for circuits with
(i) 12 V, 3 Ω (ii) 4 V, 3 Ω
2 2 (i) passive load (ii) active load
(iii) bilateral load (iv) none of these
(iii) 16 V, 2 Ω (iv) 16 V , 3 Ω
3 3 3 48. In Fig. 4.223, Z1 10 60 , Z2 10 60 , Z3
44. If Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of the circuit 50 53.13 . Thevenin impedance seen from X–Y is
shown in Fig. 4.221 seen from the open terminals is
X
2 then the value of ‘R’ will be Z1 Z3
2 R 100 0 Z2
Y
5V 1A 2 Fig. 4.223
(i) 56 45 (ii) 60/300
Fig. 4.220 (iii) 70/300 (iv) 34.4/65
(i) 4 (ii) 2 49. Two ac sources feed a common variable resistive load
as shown in Fig. 4.224 . Under the maximum power
(iii) 1 (iv) zero. transfer condition, the power absorbed by the load
45. L1 R2 resistance RL is
IL 6 j8 j8
R1 L2 V 6
240 V,
RL 110 0 RL 90 0
50 Hz C1 C2
Fig. 4.222 (a) Fig. 4.224

230
(i) 2200 W (ii) 1250 W 52. In Fig. 4.227 the current source is 1 0 A, R 1 ,
(iii) 1000 W (iv) 625 W the impedances are ZC j , and ZL 2j . The
50. In Fig. 4.225, the value of R is Thevenin equivalent looking into the circuit across
X–Y is
R
X
14 1
10A 5A
2
100 V 40V
Y
Fig. 4.225 Fig. 4.227
(i) 10 (ii) 18
(iii) 24 (iv) 12 (i) 2 0 V, (1 2j )
(ii) 2 45 V, (1 2j )
51. In Fig. 4.226, the Thevenin’s equivalent pair (voltage, (iii) 2 45 V, (1 j )
impedance), as seen at the terminals P–Q, is given by
(iv) 2 45 V, (1 j)
10
P 53. A source of angular frequency of 1 rad/s has a source
Unknown impedance consisting of a 1- resistance in series
20 4 V 10 network with 1-H inductance. The load that will obtain the
Q maximum power transfer is
(i) 1 resistance
Fig. 4.226
(ii) 1- resistance in parallel with 1-H inductance
(i) (2 V, 5 ) (ii) (2 V, 7.5 ) (iii) 1- resistance in series with 1-F capacitor
(iii) (4 V, 5 ) (iv) (4 V, 7.5 ) (iv) 1- resistance in parallel with 1-F capacitor
Answers
1. (i) 12. (iv) 23. (iv) 34. (ii) 45. (i)

2. (iv) 13. (iv) 24. (i) 35. (i) 46. (i)
3. (iv) 14. (iii) 25. (i) 36. (i) 47. (ii)
4. (ii) 15. (i) 26. (i) 37. (ii) 48. (i)
5. (iii) 16. (ii) 27. (i) 38. (iv) 49. (iv)
6. (iii) 17. (iii) 28. (iii) 39. (iv) 50. (iv)
7. (i) 18. (iv) 29. (iv) 40. (ii) 51. (i)
8. (iii) 19. (i) 30. (ii) 41. (iv) 52. (iv)
9. (i) 20. (ii) 31. (iv) 42. (ii) 53. (iii)
10. (i) 21. (ii) 32. (iii) 43. (iii)
11. (ii) 22. (iv) 33. (iii) 44. (iii)
5 Laplace Transform
and Its Applications
Introduction
Classical methods of solving differential equations become quite cumbersome when used for networks
involving higher order differential equations. In such cases, the Laplace transform method is used.
The classical methods consist of three steps:
(i) determination of complementary function,
(ii) determination of particular integral, and
iii) determination of arbitrary constants.
But, these methods become difficult for the equations containing derivatives; and transform methods
prove to be superior.
The Laplace transform is an integral that transforms a time function into a new function of a
complex variable. The term Laplace comes from the name of the French mathematician Pierre Simon
Laplace (1749–1827). The transformation method is a very effective tool for solving integro-differential
equations.
Laplace transformation is also a very powerful tool for network analysis. Any linear circuit consisting
of linear circuit elements can be solved by the knowledge of Laplace transformation.
In this chapter, we will first discuss the basics of Laplace transformation and then apply this transform
method to study the transient behaviour of electric circuits.
5.1 ADVANTAGES OF LAPLACE-TRANSFORM METHOD

Laplace-transform methods offer the following advantages over the classical methods:
1. It gives complete solution.
2. Initial conditions are automatically considered in the transformed equations.
3. Much less time is involved in solving differential equations.
4. It gives systematic and routine solutions for differential equations.
232
5.2 DEFINITION OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Let f (t ) be a function of time which is zero for t 0 and which is arbitrarily defined for t 0 subject to some
mild conditions. Then the Laplace transform of the function f (t ), denoted by F (s ) is defined as
∞
L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = F ( s ) = ∫ f (t )e − st dt
0_
Thus, the operator L[ ] transforms f (t ), which is in the time domain, into F (s), which is in the complex frequency
domain, or simply the s-domain, where,
s Complex frequency (␴ j␻)
where, ␴ real part of s neper frequency
␻ Imaginary part of s radian frequency
Note The lower limit of the integration should be 0 instead of 0 or simply 0. If f (t ) is continuous at t 0,
then the value of f (0) is well-defined. But, if f (t ) is not continuous at t 0 then the meaning of f (0) becomes
ambiguous. To consider the effect of ‘instantaneous energy transfer’ we must use 0 as the lower limit to
include the impulses at t 0. The use of 0 will exclude the existence of any impulses at the origin.
So, we use 0− as the lower limit.
5.3 CONCEPT OF COMPLEX FREQUENCY

The complex frequency (s) is the sum of two frequencies the real and imaginary.
s Complex frequency (␴ j␻)
where, ␴ real part of s neper frequency
␻ imaginary part of s radian frequency
The general solution of the differential equation in time-domain is
i (t) I0est, where s (␴ j␻)
Since est is a dimensionless quantity and so, also, the product ‘st’ is a dimensionless quantity, the unit of ‘s’ must
be (time) 1 or Hz.
Here, is interpreted as radian frequency; as a radian is a ratio of two lengths, ‘␻’ is effectively (time) 1, i.e.,
frequency in Hz.
Also, as ␴ and ␻ must have the same dimension, i.e., the dimension of should be (time) 1. Also, with ␻ 0,
1 ⎡ i (t ) ⎤
I0e␴t ⇒ σ = ln ⎢
i(t) ⎥
t ⎣ I0 ⎦
Since the unit of ln of some number is neper, the unit of ␴ is neper per second.
Physical Significance of Complex Frequency

We have,
i(t) I0est I0e(␴ j␻)t
I0e␴t [cos ␻t j sin ␻t] vt vt
sin vt cos vt
If ␴ 0 then the variation of the real and imaginary parts Fig. 5.1 Variation of real and imaginary parts
of the function is shown in Fig. 5.1. with ␴ 0
233
Laplace Transform and Its Applications
If ␴ 0 then the variation of the real and imaginary parts of the function is shown in Fig. 5.2.
Damped Sinusoidal Damped Cosinusoidal
1 1
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
f(t)
f(t)
0.2
0 0
0.2
0.4 0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (second) Time (second)
Fig. 5.2 Variation of real and imaginary parts with ␴ 0
If ␴ 0 then the variation of the real and imaginary parts of the function is shown in Fig. 5.3.
Damped Sinusoidal Damped Cosinusoidal
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
f(t)
f(t)
0 0
2 2
4 4
6 6
8 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (second) Time (second)
Fig. 5.3 Variation of real and imaginary parts with ␴ 0
From these figures, it is clear that

␻ decides the number of oscillations per second
␴ decides the magnitude of these oscillations
5.4 BASIC THEOREMS OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Linearity Theorem If Laplace transform of the functions f1(t) and f2(t) are F1(s) and F2(s) respectively then
Laplace transform of the functions [K1 f1(t) K2 f2(t)] will be [K1 F1(s) K2 F2(s)].
L [K1 f1(t) K2 f2(t)] [K1 F1(s) K2 F2(s)]
where, K1 and K2 are constants.
Scaling Theorem
If Laplace transform of f (t ) is F (s ) then
1 s
L [ f (Kt )] F ( ) , where K is a constant and K 0.
K K
∞ ∞
− x( s ) dx
Proof L [ f (Kt )] ∫
0_
f ( Kt )e − st dt = ∫ f ( x )e
0_
K
K
Taking, Kt x, dx Kdt
∞
1 − x( s ) 1 s
= ∫
K 0_
f ( x )e K dx = F ( )
K K
234
Time Differentiation Theorem

If Laplace transform of f (t ) is F (s ) then,
df (t )
L[ ] = sF ( s ) − f (0− )
dt
∞ ∞
df (t ) df (t ) − st
Proof L[ ]= ∫ e dt = [ e − st f (t )]0∞_ + s ∫ f (t )e − st dt , by integration by parts
dt 0_
dt 0_
sF (s ) – f (0_)
In general, for n-th order differentiation,
df n (t )
L[
dt n
()
] = s n F s − s n−1 f (0 _) − s n− 2 f ′ (0 _) − ⋅⋅⋅ − s f n− 2 (0 _) − f n−1 (0 _)
Frequency Differentiation Theorem

dF ( s )
L ⎡⎣tf (t ) ⎤⎦ = −
ds
∞
Proof F ( s ) = ∫ f (t )e − st dt
0_
Taking derivative with respect to s,
∞ ∞
dF ( s )
ds
( ) ( )
= ∫ f (t ) −te − st dt = ∫ −tf (t ) e − s t dt = L ⎡⎣ −tf (t ) ⎤⎦
0 0
− −
Time Integration Theorem

t
F (s)
L[ ∫ f (t )dt ] =
0
s
∞
t ∞ t ⎡⎛ t ⎞ e − st ⎤ 1
∞
1 1
Proof L[ ∫ f (t )dt ] = ∫ {[ ∫ f (t )dt ]e }dt = ⎢⎜ ∫ f (t )dt ⎟
− st
⎥ + ∫ f (t )e − st dt = 0 + F ( s ) = F ( s )
0 0_ 0 ⎢⎣⎝ 0 ⎠ − s ⎥⎦0 _ s 0_
s s
In general, for nth order integration,
t1 t2 tn
F (s)
L[ ∫ ∫ ⋅⋅⋅∫ f (t )dt1dt2 ⋅⋅⋅ dtn ] =
0 0 0 sn
Shifting Theorem The shifting may be done with respect to time or frequency.
Time Shifting Theorem

If Laplace transform of f (t ) is F (s ), then
as
L[ f (t a)] e F (s )
235
Proof Let, (t a) x, dt dx and t (x a)

As, t → a, x → 0 and as t → , x →
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
∴ L[ f (t − a )] = ∫ f (t − a )e − st dt = ∫ f (t − a )e − st dt = ∫ f ( x )e − s ( x + a )t dt = e − as ∫ f ( x )e − sx dx =e − as F ( s )
0− a 0− 0−
Frequency Shifting Theorem

If Laplace transform of f (t ) is F (s ), then
at
L[e f (t)] F (s a)
∞ ∞
Proof L ⎡⎣ e − at f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ e − at f (t )e − st dt = ∫ f (t )e − ( s + a )t dt = F ( s + a )
0− 0−
Initial Value Theorem

If the Laplace transform of f (t ) is F (s ) and the first derivative of f (t ) is Laplace transformable, then, the initial
value of f (t ) is
f (0+ ) = Lt f (t ) = Lt [ sF ( s )]
t →0 s →∞
⎡d ⎤ ∞ ⎡ df (t ) ⎤ − st
Proof L ⎢ f (t ) ⎥ = ∫ ⎢ ⎥ e dt
⎣ dt ⎦ 0− ⎣ dt ⎦
∞
⎡ df (t ) ⎤ − st
Or, sF ( s ) − f (0− ) = ∫ ⎢ e dt [by time differentiation theorem]
0− ⎣
dt ⎥⎦
Taking limit s ,
∞
⎡ df (t ) ⎤ − st
Lt ⎡ sF ( s ) − f (0− ) ⎤⎦ = Lt ∫ ⎢ e dt
s →∞ ⎣ s →∞
0− ⎣
dt ⎥⎦
⎡ 0+ df (t ) ∞
df (t ) ⎤
or, Lt ⎡⎣ sF ( s ) ⎤⎦ − f (0− ) = Lt ⎢ ∫ e 0 dt + ∫ e − st dt ⎥
s →∞ s →∞
⎢⎣ 0− dt 0+
dt ⎥⎦
⎡ 0+ df (t ) ⎤
or, Lt ⎡⎣ sF ( s ) ⎤⎦ − f (0− ) = Lt ⎢ ∫ e 0 dt ⎥ [as s is not a function of time t]
s →∞ s →∞
⎢⎣ 0− dt ⎥⎦
0+
or, Lt ⎡⎣ sF ( s ) ⎤⎦ − f (0− ) = Lt ∫ df (t ) = f (0+ ) − f (0− )
s →∞ s →∞
0−
or, f (0+ ) = Lt ⎡⎣ sF ( s ) ⎤⎦
s →∞
Final Value Theorem

If a function f (t ) and its derivatives are Laplace transformable, then the final value of f (t ) is,
f (∞) = Lt f (t ) = Lt ⎡⎣ sF ( s ) ⎤⎦
t →∞ s →0
236
∞
⎡d ⎤ ⎡ df (t ) ⎤ − st
Proof L ⎢ f (t ) ⎥ = ∫ ⎢ ⎥ e dt
⎣ dt ⎦ 0− ⎣ dt ⎦
∞
⎡ df (t ) ⎤ − st
Or, sF ( s ) − f (0− ) = ∫ ⎢ e dt [by time differentiation theorem]
0− ⎣
dt ⎥⎦
Taking limit s → 0,
∞ ∞
⎡ df (t ) ⎤ − st ⎡ df (t ) ⎤ ⎛ df (t ) ⎞ t
Lt ⎡ sF ( s ) − f (0− ) ⎤⎦ = Lt ∫ ⎢ ⎥ e dt = ∫ ⎢ dt ⎥ dt = tLt
→∞ ∫ ⎜
dt
s →0 ⎣ dt ⎟⎠
0− ⎝
s →0
0− ⎣
dt ⎦ 0− ⎣ ⎦
or, Lt ⎡⎣ sF ( s ) − f (0− ) ⎤⎦ = Lt ⎡⎣ f (t ) − f (0− ) ⎤⎦

s →0 t →∞
or, Lt ⎡⎣ sF ( s ) ⎤⎦ − f (0− ) = Lt ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ − f (0− )

s →0 t →∞
or, Lt ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = Lt ⎡⎣ sF ( s ) ⎤⎦
t →∞ s →0
This theorem is only applicable if the value of the function f (t ) is finite as t becomes infinity, i.e., F (s ) has all
poles lying in the left half of the s-plane or at most one simple pole at the origin.
Example 5.1 Find the initial and final value of the functions given as
()
(a) F s =
(
4 s +1 ) (b) F s =() 5s 3 − 1600
s 2 + 4s + 6 (
s s 3 + 18 s 2 + 90 s + 800 )
Solution a) By initial-value theorem, the initial value of the function is given as
⎡ 4 ⎤
( ) ()
⎡
f 0 + = Lim ⎡⎣ sF s ⎤⎦ = Lim ⎢ s × 2
4 s +1 ⎤ (
⎥ = Lim ⎢
)
⎢ 4+
s
⎥
⎥=4
s →∞ s →∞ ⎢
⎣ s + 4 s + 6 ⎥⎦ s →∞ ⎢1+ + 6
4 ⎥
⎢⎣ s s 2 ⎥⎦
By final-value theorem, the final value of the function is given as
( ) ()
⎡ 4 s +1 ⎤
f ∞ = Lim ⎡⎣ sF s ⎤⎦ = Lim ⎢ s × 2 ⎥=0
( )
s →0
⎣ s + 4 s + 6 ⎥⎦
s →0 ⎢
(b) By initial-value theorem, the initial value of the function is given as

⎡ 5s 3 − 1600 ⎤ ⎡ 5s 3 − 1600 ⎤
( ) ()
f 0 + = Lim ⎡⎣ sF s ⎤⎦ = Lim ⎢ s × ⎥ = Lim ⎢ ⎥
s →∞ s →∞ ⎢ (
⎣ s s + 18 s + 90 s + 800
3 2
) ⎥
⎦ ⎣(
s →∞ ⎢ s + 18 s + 90 s + 800
3 2
) ⎥
⎦
⎡ 1600 ⎤
⎢ 5− 3 ⎥
= Lim ⎢ s ⎥=5
s →∞ ⎢
1+ + 2 + 3 ⎥
18 90 800
⎢⎣ s s s ⎥⎦
237
By final-value theorem, the final value of the function is given as

⎡ 5s 3 − 1600 ⎤ ⎡ 5s 3 − 1600 ⎤ −1600
( ) ()
f ∞ = Lim ⎡⎣ sF s ⎤⎦ = Lim ⎢ s × ⎥ = Lim ⎢ ⎥= = −2
s →0 s →0 ⎢ (
⎣ s s + 18ss + 90 s + 800
3 2
) ⎦ ⎣(
⎥ s→0 ⎢ s 3 + 18 s 2 + 90 s + 800 ) ⎥ 800
⎦
5.5 REGION OF CONVERGENCE (ROC)

The existence of Laplace transform X(s ) of a given x(t ) depends on whether the transform integral converges
∞ ∞
X ( s ) = ∫ x (t )e − s t dt = ∫ x (t )e − t e − jwt dt < ∞
−∞ −∞
which in turn depends on the duration and magnitude of x(t) as well as the real part of s, Re[s] ␴ (the imagi-
nary part of s Im[s] j␻ determines the frequency of a sinusoid which is bounded and has no effect on the
convergence of the integral).
This limits the variable s (␴ j␻) to a part of the complex plane. The subset of values of s for which the
Laplace transform exists is called the region of convergence (ROC) or the domain of convergence.
Thus, the Laplace transform F (s ) typically exists for all complex numbers such that Re{s} a, where a is
a real constant which depends on the growth behavior of f (t ), whereas the two-sided transform is defined in a
range a Re{s} b. In the two-sided case, it is sometimes called the strip of convergence.
Causal Signals When x(t) is right sided (i.e., x(t) 0 for t t0), it may have infinite duration for t 0, and
a positive ␴ 0 tends to attenuate x (t )e ␴t as t → .
Non-Causal Signals When x(t ) is left sided (i.e., x(t) 0 for t t0), it may have infinite duration for t 0,
and a negative ␴ 0 tends to attenuate x (t )e ␴t as t → .
Based on these observations, we can get the following properties for the ROC:
• If x(t) is absolutely integrable and of finite duration then the ROC is the entire s-plane (the Laplace trans-
form integral is finite, i.e., X(s) exists, for any s).
• The ROC of X(s) consists of strips parallel to the j␻-axis in the s-plane.
• If x(t) is right sided and Re[s] ␴0 is in the ROC, then any s to the right of ␴0 (i.e., Re[s] ␴0) is also in
the ROC, i.e., ROC is a right-sided half plane.
• If x(t) is left sided and Re[s] 0 is in the ROC then any s to the left of ␴0 (i.e., Re[s] ␴0) is also in the
ROC, i.e., ROC is a left-sided half plane.
• If x(t) is two-sided then the ROC is the intersection of the two one-sided ROCs corresponding to the two
one-sided components of x(t). This intersection can be either a vertical strip or an empty set.
• If X(s) is rational then its ROC does not contain any poles (by definition X s () s= sp
= ∞ dose not exist).
The ROC is bounded by the poles or extends to infinity.
• If X(s) is a rational Laplace transform of a right-sided function x(t) then the ROC is the half plane to the
right of the rightmost pole; if X(s) is a rational Laplace transform of a left-sided function x(t), then the
ROC is the half plane to the left of the leftmost pole.
• A signal x(t) is absolutely integrable, i.e., its Fourier transform X( j␻) exists (first Dirichlet condition,
assuming the other two are satisfied), if and only if the ROC of the corresponding Laplace transform X(s)
contains the imaginary axis Re[s] 0 or s j␻.
238
Example 5.2 Find the ROC of the function x(t) 3e2t jv

ROC
Solution Laplace transform of the function,
∞ 0 2 s
()
X s = ∫ 3e 2 t e − st dt =
3 ,
s−2
0
Fig. 5.4 Schematic
provided Re[s] 2, which defines the ROC. of Example 5.2
Example 5.3 Given the following Laplace transform, find the corresponding signal:
X (s =) ( s + 1)1( s + 2 ) = s 1+ 1 − s +1 2
and the region of convergence.
Solution There are three possible ROCs determined by the two poles sp1 −1 and sp2 −2:
• The half plane to the right of the rightmost pole sp2 −1, with the corresponding right sided time function
x(t ) [e t − e 2t ] u(t )
• The half plane to the left of the leftmost pole sp1 −2, with the corresponding left sided time function
x(t ) [−e t e 2t] u(−t )
• The vertical strip between the two poles −2 Re[s] −1, with the corresponding two-sided time function
x(t ) − e−tu(−t ) − e 2tu(t )
5.6 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF SOME BASIC FUNCTIONS

Exponential Function f (t ) eat
By definition of Laplace transform,
∞ ∞ ∞
⎡ e ( a− s )t ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
F ( s ) = L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ e ⋅ e dt = ∫ e
at − st ( a− s )t
dt = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎜0− ⎟ =
0− 0− ⎣ ( a − s ) ⎦ 0− ⎝ ( a − s ) ⎠ ( s − a )
− at 1
Similarly, for f (t ) = e , F ( s ) =
s+a
1 j t −j t
Sine Function f (t ) = sin t = ⎡e − e ⎤
2j⎣ ⎦
∞ ∞
⎡1 ⎤ 1 ⎡ (j )
−s t
⎤ ⋅dt = 1 ⎡ 1 − 1 ⎤ =
F ( s ) = L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ ⎢ ⎡⎣ e j t − e − j t ⎤⎦ ⎥ ⋅ e − st dt =
2 j 0∫− ⎣
e − e−( j + s )t
0− ⎣
2j ⎦ ⎦ 2 j ⎢⎣ s − j s + j ⎥⎦ s 2 + 2
1
Cosine Function f (t ) = cos t = ⎡⎣ e j t + e − j t ⎤⎦
2
∞ ∞
⎡1 ⎤ ) ⎤ ⋅dt = 1 ⎡ 1 + 1 ⎤ = s
F ( s ) = L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ ⎢ ⎡⎣ e j t + e − j t ⎤⎦ ⎥ .e − st dt = ∫ ⎡ e (
1 −s t
+ e−( j + s )t
j
0− ⎣ 2 ⎦ 2 0−
⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎢⎣ s − j s + j ⎥⎦ s 2 + 2
239
1
Hyperbolic Sine Function f (t ) = sinh at = ⎡⎣ e at − e − at ⎤⎦
2
∞ ∞
⎡1 ⎤ 1⎡ 1 1 ⎤
F ( s ) = L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ ⎢ ⎡⎣ e at − e − at ⎤⎦ ⎥ ⋅ e − st dt = ∫ ⎡ e ( ) − e − ( a+ s )t ⎤ ⋅dt = ⎢
1 a− s t a
− ⎥ = 2 2
⎣ ⎦ 2⎣s−a s+a⎦ s −a
0− ⎣
2 ⎦ 2 0−
1
Hyperbolic cosine function f (t ) = cosh at = ⎡⎣ e at + e − at ⎤⎦
2
∞ ∞
⎡1 ⎤ 1⎡ 1 1 ⎤
F ( s ) = L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ ⎢ ⎡⎣ e at + e − at ⎤⎦ ⎥ ⋅ e − st dt = ∫ ⎡ e ( ) + e − ( a+ s )t ⎤ ⋅dt = ⎢
1 a− s t s
+ ⎥= 2 2
⎣ ⎦ − + ⎦ s −a
0− ⎣
2 ⎦ 2 0−
2 ⎣ s a s a
⎧1 ⎫ ⎧1 ⎫
Damped sinusoidal function f (t ) = e − at sin t = e − at ⋅ ⎨ ⎡⎣ e j t − e − j t ⎤⎦ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎡⎣ e − ( a− j )t
− e − ( a+ j )t
⎤⎬
⎦
⎩2 j ⎭ ⎩2 j ⎭
∞ ∞
⎡1 ⎤ 1
F ( s ) = L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ ⎢ ⎡⎣ e − ( a− j )t − e − ( a+ j )t ⎤⎦ ⎥ ⋅ e − st dt =
2 j 0∫− ⎣
⎡ e − ( s+ a− j )t
− e − ( s+ a+ j )t
⎤ ⋅ dt
⎦
0− ⎣
2j ⎦
1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ − =
2 j ⎣ {( s + a ) − j } {( s + a ) + j } ⎥⎦ ( s + a )2 + 2
⎧1 ⎫ ⎧1 ⎫
Damped cosine function f (t ) = e − at cos t = e − at . ⎨ ⎡⎣ e j t + e − j t ⎤⎦ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎡⎣ e − ( a− j )t
+ e − ( a+ j )t
⎤⎬
⎦
⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭
∞ ∞
⎡1 ⎤ 1
F ( s ) = L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ ⎢ ⎡⎣ e − ( a− j )t + e − ( a+ j )t ⎤⎦ ⎥ ⋅ e − st dt = ∫ ⎡⎣ e − ( s + a− j )t
+ e − ( s+ a+ j )t
⎤ ⋅ dt
⎦
0− ⎣
2 ⎦ 2 0−
1⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ( s + a)
= ⎢ + =
2 ⎣ {( s + a ) − j } {( s + a ) + j } ⎥⎦ ( s + a )2 + 2
5.6.1 Singularity Functions and Waveform Synthesis

In order to synthesize any signal, there are some standard or singularity functions which can be realized in
the laboratory. Other signals can be written in terms of these singularity functions. Those singularity func-
tions are
1. Step function,
2. Ramp function,
3. Impulse function, and
4. Unit doublet function. u(t )
Step function 1
This function is also known as Heaviside unit function. It is defined as given below. t
f (t ) u(t) 1 for t > 0 0
0 for t < 0 Fig. 5.5 (a) Unit step
and is undefined at t 0. function
240
A step function of magnitude K is defined as, Ku(t)

f (t ) Ku(t) K for t > 0
K
0 for t < 0
and is undefined at t 0. 0 t
A shifted or delayed unit step function is defined as Fig. 5.5 (b) Step function
f (t ) u(t T) 1 for t > T of magnitude K
0 for t < T
and is undefined at t T. u(t T)
The Laplace transform of a unit step function is given as 1
∞ ∞ ∞
⎡ e − st ⎤ 1 1
F ( s ) = L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ u(t ) ⋅ e − st dt = ∫ 1⋅ e − st dt = ⎢ ⎥ = 0− = 0 T t
0− 0− ⎣ − s ⎦ 0− − s s
Fig. 5.5 (c) Shifted unit
K step function
Also, the Laplace transform of step function of magnitude K is L[ Ku(t )]=
s
Similarly, the Laplace transform of the shifted unit step function u(t − T) is,
e − st
L[ u(t − T )] = {by differentiation theorem}
s g(t)
Another function, called gate function can be obtained from step function as follows.
K
Therefore, g(t) Ku(t a) Ku(t b)
L ⎡⎣ g (t ) ⎤⎦ =
s
e −e (
K − as − bs
) 0 a b
Fig. 5.6 Gate function
Ramp Function
A unit ramp function is defined as r (t)
f (t ) r(t) t for t 0 1
1
t
0 for t 0 0
A ramp function of any slope K is defined as Fig. 5.7 (a) Unit
f (t ) Kr(t) Kt for t 0 ramp function
0 for t 0
Kr (t)
A shifted unit ramp function is defined as
K
f (t ) r(t T) t for t T 1
t
0 for t T 0
The Laplace transform of a unit ramp function is Fig. 5.7 (b) Ramp
∞ ∞ function
()
L ⎡⎣ r t ⎤⎦ = ∫ r (t ) ⋅ e − s t dt = ∫ te − s t dt r (t T)
0− 0−
1
Integrating by parts, let, 1
st
u t and dv e dt t
0
−st
e
then du dt and v = ∫ e − s t dt = − Fig. 5.7 (c) Shifted unit
s ramp function
241
Now,
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
⎡ t ⎤ 1 1 1
L[ r (t )] = ∫ udv = uv |0∞− − ∫ vdu = ⎢ − ( e − st ) ⎥ + ∫ e − st dt = ∫ e − st dt = 2
0− 0− ⎣ s ⎦ 0− s 0− s 0− s
K
Similarly, Laplace transform of a ramp of slope K is L ⎡⎣ Kr (t ) ⎤⎦ = 2
s
Ke − Ts
and Laplace transform of a shifted ramp function is L ⎡⎣ Kr (t − T ) ⎤⎦ = 2
s
Impulse function This function is also known as Dirac Delta function, denoted by (t). This is a function
of a real variable t, such that the function is zero everywhere except at the instant t 0. Physically, it is a very
sharp pulse of infinitesimally small width and very large magnitude, the
area under the curve being unity. f(t )
3/a
Consider a gate function as shown in Fig. 5.8.
2/a
The function is compressed along the time-axis and stretched along the
y-axis, keeping area under the pulse unity. As a → 0, the value of 1 → ∞ 1/a
and the resulting function is known as impulse. a
t
0 a /3 a/2 a
∞
It is defined as (t ) = 0 for t ≠ 0 and ∫ (t )dt = 1

Fig. 5.8 Generation of impulse
−∞
function from gate function
Also, (t ) = Lim a1 ⎡⎣ u(t ) − u(t − a) ⎤⎦
a →0
The Laplace transform of the impulse function is obtained as
⎧1 ⎫ 1 ⎡ 1 e − as ⎤ 1 − e − as se − as
()
L ⎡⎣δ t ⎤⎦ = Lim L ⎨ ⎡⎣ u(t ) − u(t − a ) ⎤⎦ ⎬ = Lim ⎢ − ⎥ = Lim = Lim =1 [by L’Hospital’s rule]
a →0 ⎩a ⎭ a →0 a ⎣ s s ⎦ a→0 as a →0 s
Unit Doublet Function The derivative of unit f (t)

1
2
impulse function with respect to time at any instant a
f(t)
of time is known as unit doublet function. It is t
a
defined as a t
d
dt ⎣
( ⎦) (
⎡δ t − T ⎤ = δ ′ t − T = 0) for t ≠ 0
a
1
2
= +∞ and − ∞ for t = T Fig. 5.9 (a) Generation

of unit doublet function Fig. 5.9 (b) Unit
The name of the function is given as doublet because
with a → 0 doublet function
it can be obtained from the function shown in
Fig. 5. 9 (a) with a → 0.
The Laplace transform of a unit doublet function is obtained as
⎡d ⎤
( ) ( ) ( )
L ⎡⎣δ ′ t − T ⎤⎦ == L ⎢ δ t − T ⎥ = sL ⎡⎣δ t − T ⎤⎦ = se − Ts
⎣ dt ⎦
242
Example 5.4 Express the function in terms of the standard signals and find its Laplace transform.
f(t)
Solution The function can be written as the summation of 1
some ramp functions as given below.
f (t ) r(t ) r (t 1) r (t 2) r (t 3)
t
0
1 e − s e −2 s e −3s 1 2 3
()
∴F s = 2 − 2 − 2 + 2
s s s s Fig. 5.10 Waveform of Example 5.4
5.7 LAPLACE TRANSFORM TABLE

Table 5.1 Standard Laplace Transforms
Sl. No. Functions [ f (t )] Laplace Transform [F (s )]

In Time (t ) Domain In Frequency (s) Domain
∞
∫ f (t )e
− st
Definition If f (t ) is Laplace transformable Then L[ f (t )] = F (s )= dt
0−
1
1 U(t ) (unit step function)
s
e − sT
2 U(t T ) (unit step function shifted/delayed by T )
s
3 (t ) (unit impulse) 1
1
4 e at (exponential function)
s−a
at 1
5 e (exponential function)
s+a
6 sin t (sine function)

s2 + 2
s
7 cos t (cosine function)
s +
2 2
n!
8 t n (n =1, 2, 3, …) (ramp function)
s n+1
1
9 t (unit ramp function)
s2
at
10 e sin t (damped sine function)
( s + a )2 + 2
243
at
( s + a)
11 e cos t (damped cosine function)
( s + a )2 + 2
at
n!
12 e t n (damped ramp function)
( s + a )n+1
13 d
f (t ) (differentiation theorem) sF ( s ) − f (0− )
dt
t
F ( s ) f (0− )
14 ∫ f (t )dt (integration theorem)
0
s
+
s
15 sinh t (hyperbolic Sine function)

s2 − 2
s
16 cosh t (hyperbolic Cosine function)
s −
2 2
at
17 e sinh t (damped hyperbolic Sine function)
( s + a )2 − 2
at
( s + a)
18 e cosh t (damped hyperbolic Cosine function)
( s + a )2 − 2
19 Initial-value theorem Lt f (t ) = Lt sF ( s )
t →0 s →∞
20 Final-value theorem Lt f (t ) = Lt sF ( s )
t →∞ s →0
± as
21 Shifting theorem f (t a) e F (s)
5.8 OTHER IMPORTANT LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
1 (t) 1
as
2 (t a) e
3 (t a) g(t) e as g(a)
Note: g(a) Not G(a)
2
−
4 n
e nt
sin n
1− 2
t n
( < 1)
1− 2
s2 + 2 n
s+ 2
n
− nt 2
e
5 1− sin( n
1− 2
t + ), n
( < 1)
1− 2
s( s 2 + 2 n
s+ 2
n
1
where cos
244
5.9 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

If f (t ) is periodic with time period T ( 0), so that f (t T) f (t ) then the Laplace transform of the function
⎛ 1 ⎞
is equal to ⎜ times the Laplace transform of the first cycle.
⎝ 1− e − Ts ⎟⎠
⎡ 1 ⎤
∴ L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = F ( s ) = F1 ( s ) ⎢ − Ts ⎥
⎣1− e ⎦
Proof Let f (t ) − be the periodic function,
T − the time period,
f1(t ), f2(t ), . . . , f n(t ) − the functions representing the first, second, . . . , nth cycle, respectively
f (t ) f1(t) f2(t ) fn(t )
f1(t) f1 (t T ) f1 (t 2T )
Taking Laplace transform,
L ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = F ( s ) = L ⎡⎣ f1 (t ) ⎤⎦ + L ⎡⎣ f1 (t − T ) ⎤⎦ + L ⎡⎣ f1 (t − 2T ) ⎤⎦ + ⋅⋅⋅
= F1 ( s ) + e − Ts F1 ( s ) + e −2Ts F1 ( s ) + ⋅⋅⋅= F1 ( s ) ⎡⎣1 + e − Ts + e −2Ts + e −3Ts + ⋅⋅⋅⎤⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤
Therefore, F ( s ) = F1 ( s ) ⎢ − Ts ⎥
⎣1− e ⎦
Example 5.5 Find the Laplace transform of the square wave.

f(t )
Solution The first cycle is shown below. 1
It can be written as f1(t ) u(t ) − 2 u(t − T ) u (t − 2T ) 0 time
T 2T 3T
1
Taking Laplace transform of the first cycle,
Fig. 5.11 (a) Square wave of
1 2 e − Ts e −2Ts 1
( )
2
F1(s) − + = 1 − e − Ts Example 5.5
s s s s
By the theory of time periodicity, the Laplace transform of the square wave is given f1(t )
1
1
( ) 1 2T
2
as, F ( s ) = 1 − e − Ts × (since time period of the square wave is 2T) 0 time
s 1 − e −2Ts 1
T
1 ⎛ 1 − e − Ts ⎞ 1 ⎛ Ts ⎞
= ⎜ = tanh ⎜ ⎟ Fig. 5.11 (b) First cycle of
s ⎝ 1 + e − Ts ⎟⎠ s ⎝ 2⎠ square wave of Fig 5.12 (a)
5.10 INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

N (s)
Let F (s ) have the general form of F ( s ) =
D( s )
where, N(s) is the numerator polynomial and D(s) is the denominator polynomial. The roots of N(s) 0 are
called the zeros of F (s ) while the roots of D(s) 0 are the poles of F (s ).
245
s −1
For example, for the function, F ( s ) = , the zero is at s 1 and the poles are at s 0, 2 and 3.
(
s s−2 s−3 )( )
We use partial fraction expansion to break F (s ) down into simple terms. Thus, there are two steps to find
inverse Laplace transform:
I. Decomposition of F (s ) into simple terms using partial fraction expansion.
II. Evaluation of the inverse of each term comparing with the standard forms of Laplace transforms.
We consider the following three cases:
N (s)
Simple poles Let F (s) =
( )( )(
s + p1 s + p2 s + p3 ⋅⋅⋅ s + pn ) ( )
where, s −p1, −p2 −p3, …, −pn are the simple poles, and pi pj for all i j (i.e., poles are distinct)
Assuming that the degree of N(s) is less than the degree of D(s)
k1 k k k
F (s) = + 2 + 3 + ⋅⋅⋅+ n (5.1)
s + p1 s + p2 s + p3 s + pn
where, expansion coefficients k1, k2, k3, …, kn are known as the residues of F (s ). These can be found out by
residue method explained below.
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (5.1), by (s p1),
( s + p )k + ( s + p )k ( s + p )k
( s + p ) F (s) = k +
1 1
s + p2
1 2
s + p3
1 3
+ ⋅⋅⋅ + n
s + pn
n
Putting s = − p1 ⇒ ( s + p ) F (s)
1 s = pi
= k1
(
In general, ki = s + pi ) s =− pi
This is known as Heaviside’s theorem.
Once the values of ki are known, the inverse Laplace is obtained as

(
f (t ) = k1e
− p1t
+ k2 e
− p2 t
+ k3e
− p3t
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ k n e
− pnt
) u(t )
2s + 1
Example 5.6 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the function, F ( s ) = .
( s + 1)( s + 2)( s + 3)
2s +1 k k k
F (s) = = 1 + 2 + 3
Solution Let
( )(
s +1 s + 2 s + 3 s)(
+ 1 s + 2 s +3 )
2s +1
( )
∴k1 = s + 1 F ( s ) s =−1 =
( s+2 s+3 )( )
=−
1
2
s =−1
2s +1
( )
∴k 2 = s + 2 F ( s ) s =−2 =
( s +1 s + 3)( )
=3
s =−2
246
2s +1
( )
∴k 3 = s + 3 F ( s ) s =−3 =
( )(
s +1 s + 2 )
=−
5
2
s =−3
1 3 5
∴ F (s) = − + −
(
2 s +1 s + 2) 2 s+3 ( )
1 5
Thus, the inverse Laplace transform is given as f (t ) = − e − t + 3e −2 t − e 3t
2 2
Repeated poles Suppose, F (s ) has ‘n’ repeated poles at s − p.
kn k n−1 k n− 2 k2 k1
∴ F (s) = + + + ⋅⋅⋅ + + + F1 ( s )
( s + p) ( s + p) ( s + p) ( s + p) ( s + p)
n n−1 n− 2 2
where, F1(s ) is the remaining part of F (s ) that does not have a pole at s − p.
( )
n
We find, k n = s + p F ( s ) s =− p
To find kn−1, kn 2,…, kn m, the procedure is
d ⎡
(
s + p F (s)⎤ )
n
k n−1 =
ds ⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥ s =− p
1 d2 ⎡
(
s + p F (s)⎤ )
n
k n− 2 = 2 ⎢
2! ds ⎣ ⎦⎥
s =− p
1 dm ⎡
(
s + p F (s)⎤ )
n
In general, k n− m = m ⎢ , where, m 1, 2, …, (n − 1).
m! ds ⎣ ⎦⎥
s =− p
Once the values of k1, k2, …, kn are known, the inverse Laplace is obtained as
⎛ k k n n−1 − pt ⎞
f (t ) = ⎜ k1e − pt + k 2 te − pt + 3 t 2 e − pt + ⋅⋅⋅+ t e ⎟ u ( t ) + f1 ( t )
⎝ 2! n −1 ! ⎠ ( )
12
Example 5.7 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the function F ( s ) = .
(s + 2) (s + 4 )
2
12 k1 k2 k
Solution Let F (s) = = + + 3
( s + 2) ( s + 4) ( s + 2) s+2 s+4
2 2
By residue method,
( ) 12
2
k1 = s + 2 F ( s ) s =−2 = =6
( s+4 ) s =−2
d ⎡ 12 ⎤
d ⎡
(
s + 2 F (s) ⎤ )
2
∴k2 = = ⎢ ⎥ = −3
⎢
ds ⎣ ⎥
⎦ s =−2 ds ⎢ s + 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ s =−2 ( )
247
( )
k 3 = s + 4 F ( s ) s =−4 =
12
=3
( s + 2)
2
s =−4
6 3 3
Thus, F (s) = − +
( s + 2) s+2 s+4
2
4t 2t 2t
Taking inverse Laplace transform, f (t ) 3e 3e 6te
Complex Poles Since N(s) and D(s) always have real coefficients and as the complex roots of polynomials
with real co-efficients occur in conjugate form, F (s ) may have the general form
A1 s + A2 k1 k2
F (s) = + F1 ( s ) = + + F1 ( s )
s + as + b
2
s+ − j s+ + j
where, F1(s ) is the remaining part of F (s ) that does not have this pair of complex poles.
Let (s 2
) (
+ as + b = s 2 + 2 s + 2
+ 2
) = (s + ) + 2 2
a2
(
s1,2 = − ± j ) = − a2 ± j b−
4
Thus, the coefficients are
( )
k1 = s − s1 F ( s ) s = s
1
and k2 k1 Complex conjugate of k1
2s + 1
Example 5.8 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the function F ( s ) = .
( s + )(
1 s 2 + 2s + 5)
2s +1 A k1 k2
Solution F (s) = = + +
( s + 1)( s )
Let 2
+ 2s + 5 s + 1 s + 1 − j 2 s + 1 + j2
2s +1
( )
∴ A = s + 1 F ( s ) s =−1 =
s + 2 s + 5 s =−1
2
=−
1
4
2s +1 ⎛1 1⎞
( )
k1 = s + 1 − j 2 F ( s ) s = −1+ j 2 =
( ) s +1 s +1+ j 2 ( )( )
=⎜ − j ⎟
⎝8 2⎠
(
s = −1+ j 2 )
⎛1 1⎞
∴k 2 = k1* = ⎜ + j ⎟
⎝8 2⎠
1 1 1 1
−j +j
1⎛ 1 ⎞ 8 2 + 8 2
∴ F (s) = − ⎜ +
4 ⎝ s + 1⎟⎠ s + 1 − j 2 s + 1 + j 2
248
Taking inverse Laplace transform,

1 1
f (t ) = − ⎡⎣e −t − e −t cos 2t ⎤⎦ + e −t sin 2t = − e −t sin 2 t + e −t sin 2t
4 2
5.11 APPLICATIONS OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM

1. Solving integro-differential equations and simultaneous differential equations
2. Transient analysis of electrical circuits
5.11.1 Solving integro differential equations and simultaneous differential equations

An integro-differential equation is an integral equation in which various derivatives of the unknown function
can also be present. A standard form of an integro-differential equation is
t
() () () ()
an x n t + an−1 x n−1 t + an− 2 x n− 2 t + ⋅⋅⋅+ a0 x t + a−1 ∫ x t dt = f t() ()
0
where all the coefficients (an, an 1,..., a0 , a 1) are constants.

Another type of differential equations applicable for more than one unknown variables is known as simultane-
ous differential equation. Considering two unknowns, x(t) and y(t), the equations take the form as given below.
) ) ) )
α1 x ′ ( t + α 0 x ( t + β1 y ′ ( t + β0 y ( t = 0
γ1 x ′(t ) + γ x (t ) + δ y ′(t ) + δ y (t ) = 0
0 1 0
where, i, i, i, and i are arbitrary constants.
Using the Laplace transform of integrals and derivatives, an integro-differential equation can be solved.
Similarly, it is easier with the Laplace transform method to solve simultaneous differential equations by trans-
forming both equations and then solve the two equations in the s-domain and finally obtain the inverse to get
the solution in the time domain.
Example 5.9 (Integro-differential equation)

t
di
Solve the equation for the response i(t), given that + 2 i + 5 ∫ idt = u (t ) and i(0) 0.
dt 0
⎡ di ⎤
Solution Let L[i(t)] ∴L ⎢ ⎥ = sI ( s ) − i(0) = sI ( s ) − 0 = sI ( s )
I(s)
⎣ dt ⎦
Taking Laplace transform on both sides of the given equation,
I (s) 1
sI ( s ) + 2 I ( s ) + 5
=
s s
1 1 2
or, I (s) = 2 =
s + 2s + 5 2 s +1 + 2( ) ()
2 2
1
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get i(t ) = e − t sin 2t ( A ), t > 0
2
249
Example 5.10 (Integro-differential equation)

Solve the initial-value problem for y(t) when
d 2y
+ y (t ) = 3 sin2t and y (0) = 1, y ′(0) = −2.
dt 2
⎡d2 y ⎤ 2
Y(s). ∴L ⎢ 2 ⎥ = s Y ( s ) − sy (0) − y ′(0) = s Y ( s ) − s + 2
2
Solution Let L[y(t )]
⎣ dt ⎦
s 2
Or, Y (s) = − 2
s +1 s + 4
2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get, y (t ) (cos t sin 2t )
Example 5.11 (Simultaneous differential equations)

dx dy
Find the solution of the system − 6 x + 3 y = 8e t and − 2 x − y = 4e t with initial conditions
dt dt
x(0) 1, y(0) 0.
Solution Taking Laplace transform,
( s − 6 ) X + 3Y = −ss−+19 (i)
(
−2 X + s − 1 Y =) 4
s −1
(ii)
Solving for X and Y,

−s + 7 2 1
X= =− +
( )(
s −1 s − 4 ) s − 1 s − 4
2 −2 2
Y= = 3+ 3
( s − 1)( s − 4 ) s −1 s − 4

2 2
x (t ) = −2 e t + e 4 t and y (t ) = − e t + e 4 t
3 3
Example 5.12 (Simultaneous differential equations)

dx dy
Solve for x(t) and y(t), given that x(0) 4, y(0) 3 and + x + 4 y = 10 and x − − y =0
dt dt
Solution Following the same procedures, as in Ex. 5.11, we get,
4 s 2 + 2 s + 10 3s 2 + s + 10
X= and Y =
s s2 + 3( ) s s2 + 3 ( )
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get the desired results.
250
5.11.2 Application of Laplace Transform Method to Circuit Analysis

We now apply the mathematical tool for the analysis of electric circuits.
Transform Impedance of Network Elements
Element Time Domain s-Domain
1. Resistor (R) v(t ) Ri(t ) V(s) RI(s)
v (t) i(t) R v (s) I(s) R
2 Inductor (L) di(t ) V(s) L[sI (s) i(0 )]

v (t ) = L
dt
1
t
1 ⎡ V ( s ) i (0− ) ⎤
I (s) = +
i (t ) = ∫ v(t )dt
L −∞ L ⎢⎣ s s ⎥⎦
i(t) I(s) sL
v (t) L V(s)
Li(0 )
3 Capacitor (C ) dv (t ) I(s) sCV (s) Cv (0 )

i (t ) = C
dt
1
t
I ( s ) v (0− )
v (t ) = ∫ i(t )dt V (s) = +
C −∞ Cs s
I (s)
i(t) Z (s) 1/sC
v (t) C V (s)
v (0 )/s
Advantages of analyzing the circuits using frequency domain rather than time domain
The following are some advantages of analyzing an electrical network in s-domain rather that in t-domain:
1. Each element can easily be replaced by a transform impedance.
2. No integration or differentiation is involved in the transform equations.
3. The response obtained after solution is a complete response, i.e., both the steady state and transient
responses are obtained.
5.12 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS USING LAPLACE TRANSFORM
In electrical engineering, a transient response or natural response is the electrical response of a system to a
change from equilibrium.
The condition prevailing in an electric circuit between two steady-state conditions is known as the transient
state; it lasts for a very short time. The currents and voltages during the transient state are called transients.
In general, transient phenomena occur whenever
(i) a circuit is suddenly connected or disconnected to/from the supply,
(ii) there is a sudden change in the applied voltage from one finite value to another,
(iii) a circuit is short-circuited.
251
A simple example would be the output of a 5-volt dc power supply when it is turned on. The transient
response is from the time the switch is turned on and the output is a steady 5V. At this point, the power supply
reaches its steady-state response of a constant 5V.
The transient response is not necessarily tied to on–off events but to any event that affects the equi-
librium of the system. If in an RC circuit, the resistor or capacitor is replaced with a variable resistor
or variable capacitor (or both) then the transient response is the response to a change in the resistor or
capacitor.
The transient currents are not caused by any part of the supply voltage, but are entirely associted with the
changes in the stored energy in capacitors and inductors. As there is no energy stored in resistors, there are no
transients in purely resistive circuits.
Although transients last for a very short time, their study is very important because
• they indicate what dangerous rises in voltage or current may happen in individual sections of a circuit
• they indicate how signals are distored in waveform or amplitude as they pass through amplifiers, filters,
or other circuit elements
We consider the transient analysis for the following circuits subject to step input, impulse input and sinusoidal
input:
1. RL series circuit,
2. RC series circuit,
3. RLC series circuit, and
4. RLC parallel circuit.
5.12.1 RL Series Circuit

RL series circuit with step input
Inductors store energy in a magnetic field (produced by the current through the wire). Thus, the stored energy in
an inductor tries to maintain a constant current through its windings. Because of this, inductors oppose changes
in current, and act precisely the opposite of capacitors, which oppose changes in voltage.
A fully discharged inductor, having zero current through it, will initially act as an open-circuit when attached
to a source of voltage, dropping maximum voltage across its leads. Over time, the inductor current rises to the
maximum value allowed by the circuit, and the terminal voltage decreases correspondingly. Once the inductor
terminal voltage has decreased to a minimum (zero for an ideal inductor), the current will stay at a maximum
level, and it will behave essentially as a short-circuit.
If the switch is closed at time t 0, the voltage across the RL combi- Switch R
nation would be v(t ) which is a step of magnitude V [or Vu(t )] and not a
constant as is the supply voltage V.
v(t ) 0, for t 0 i(t) L
V, for t 0
Thus the differential equation governing the behaviour of the circuit would be
di(t ) Fig. 5.12 RL series circuit
Ri(t ) + L = Vu(t )
dt
Taking Laplace transform, we get
V
RI ( s ) + L ⎡⎣ sI ( s ) − i(0− ) ⎤⎦ =
s
252
V ⎛ ⎞
L i (0− ) V ⎜ 1 1 ⎟ i (0− )
I (s) = + = − +
( )
or
s s+ R s+ R R⎜ s s+ R ⎟ s+ R
L L ⎝ L ⎠ L
V⎛ −( R )t ⎞ −( R )t V⎛ −( R )t ⎞
i (t ) = ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ + i (0− )e L = ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ with i(0− ) = 0.
R⎝ ⎠ R⎝ ⎠
V − Rt
The transient part of the current response, itr = ⎡⎣i(t ) − is ⎤⎦ = − e L
R
From the current equation at t = =

L
R
V
( V
)
, i = 1 − e −1 = 0.63 = 0.63is
R R
When the switch is first closed, the voltage across the inductor will immediately jump to battery voltage
(acting as though it were an open-circuit) and decay down to zero over time (eventually acting as though it
were a short-circuit). The voltage across the inductor is determined by calculating how much voltage is being
dropped across R, given the current through the inductor, and subtracting that voltage value from the battery
voltage. When the switch is first closed, the current is zero, then it increases over time until it is equal to the
battery voltage divided by the series resistance. This behavior is precisely opposite that of the series resistor–
capacitor circuit, where current started at a maximum and capacitor voltage at zero.
V
The steady state part of the current response, is =
R
The variation of the current is shown in Fig. 5.13.
1.0
Current
0.63
0.5
0.0
0 s 0. 5s 1.0 s 1 .5 s 2 .0s 2. 5s 3. 0s 3 .5s 4. 0s 4.5s 5 .0 s
t L/R Time
Fig. 5.13 Variation of current with time in R-L series circuit with step input
L
The quantity = is known as the time-constant of the circuit and is defined as follows.
R
Definitions of time-constant ( )
1. It is the time taken for the current to reach 63% of its final value. Thus, it is a measure of the rapidity with
which the steady state is reached.
Also, at t 5 , i 0.993is; the transient is therefore, said to be practically disappeared in five time constants.
253
V⎛ − t⎞
R
V L
2. The tangent to the equation i = ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ at t 0, intersects the straight line, i = at t = = . Thus,
R⎝ ⎠ R R
time-constant is the time in which steady state would be reached if the current increases at the initial rate.
Physically, time-constant represents the speed of the response of a circuit. A low value of time-constant
represents a fast response and a high value of time-constant represents a sluggish response.
⎛ − t⎞
R
Calculations of the Voltage Across Elements Voltage across the resistor, VR = Ri(t ) = V ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟
⎝ ⎠
di(t ) d ⎡V ⎛ − t⎞⎤
R R
− t
Voltage across the inductor, VL = L = L ⎢ ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ ⎥ = Ve L
dt dt ⎢⎣ R ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
RL Series Circuit with impulse input By KVL, the mesh equation becomes
di(t )
Ri(t ) + L = V (t )
dt
VR/L
RI(s) sLI(s) V with i(0 ) 0 Voltage across resistor
Voltage
⎛ ⎞ across
V⎜ 1 ⎟
or, I (s) = R and L
L⎜ s+ R ⎟
⎝ L⎠
V − RL t Voltage across inductor
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t ) = e VR/L
L time
VR R
− t Fig. 5.14 Variation of voltages with time in R-L series
Voltage across the resistor, VR = Ri(t ) = e L
circuit with impulse input
L
di(t ) d ⎛ V − Rt ⎞ VR − R t
Voltage across the inductor, VL = L =L ⎜ e L ⎟ =− e L
dt dt ⎝ L ⎠ L
The plots of the voltages are shown in Fig. 5.14.
RL series circuit with sinusoidal input Here, the input voltage is given as, v(t)= V sin t
By KVL,
di(t )
Ri(t ) + L = V sin t with i(0− ) = 0
dt
V
or, I ( s ) ⎡⎣ R + sL ⎤⎦ =
s2 + 2
V ⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤
L V ⎪ 1 ⎪ V ⎢ A1 + A2 + A3 ⎥
I (s) = = ⎨ ⎬=
)( ) )( s − j )( )
or,
(s 2
+ 2
s+ R
L ⎩
(
L ⎪ s+ j s+R ⎪ L
L ⎭
⎢s− j
⎢⎣
s+ j s + R ⎥⎥
L⎦
254
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
where, (
A1 = ⎨ s − j ) 1
⎬ =
L
⎪
⎩
( s + j )( s − j )( s+ R ⎪
L ⎭s = j) 2j ( R+ j L )
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
(
A2 = ⎨ s + j ) 1
⎬ =−
L
⎪
⎩
( s + j )( s − j )( s+ R ⎪
L ⎭s =− j) 2j ( R− j L )
⎧ ⎫
and
⎪
⎪
(
A3 = ⎨ s + R
L s+ j )( 1
)( s − j )( s+ R ⎪
⎪
⎬
)
= 2
L2
R + 2 L2 ( )
⎩ L ⎭s =− R
L
⎡ ⎤
V ⎢ L L L2 ⎥
∴ I (s) = − +
L ⎢2 j
⎢⎣ ( R + j L )( s − j ) 2j ( R − j L )( s + j ) ( R 2
+ 2
L2 )( s+ R ⎥
⎥
L ⎦)
⎡ R
− t ⎤ R
− t
V ⎢ Le j t Le − j t L2 e L ⎥ V ⎡ e j t e− j t ⎤ e L
i (t ) = − + = ⎢ − ⎥ +V L 2
( ) ( )
L ⎢ 2 j R + j L 2 j R − j L R 2 + 2 L2 ⎥ 2 j ⎣ R + j L R − j L ⎦
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
R + 2 L2
⎛ L⎞
( ) ( )
Let, R + j L = Ze j and R − j L = Ze − j so t hat, Z = (R 2
+ 2
)
L2 and = tan −1 ⎜
⎝ R ⎟⎠
Putting these values,
R
) )⎤
e L V ⎡e ( −e (
− t t− −j t−
V ⎡ e j t e− j t ⎤
j
V L − Rt
i (t ) = ⎢ j − − j ⎥ + V L 2 = ⎢ ⎥+ 2 e L
2 j ⎣ Ze Ze ⎦ Z Z ⎢⎣ 2j ⎥⎦ Z
or, finally, the current is,
R
V
( ) + VZ L e
− t
i (t ) = sin t− 2
L
Z
From this result, it is clear that the current in an RL series circuit lags behind the voltage by an angle,
⎛ L⎞
= tan −1 ⎜ If the resistance R 0 then 90 as is the case for a perfect inductor.
⎝ R ⎟⎠
Example 5.13 The series RL circuit shown in Fig. 5.15 is excited by adc
Switch 5
voltage of 50 V. Assume the initial current flowing through the inductor to
be 5 A and find the current i(t) for t > 0. Use Laplace transform method.
Solution Applying KVL for the loop, we get, 50 V i(t) 1H
di(t )
Ri(t ) + L = 50
dt Fig. 5.15 Circuit of Example 5.13
255
() () ( )
RI s + L ⎡⎣ sI s − i 0 − ⎤⎦ =
50
s
() ()
⇒ 5 I s + sI s = + 5
50
s
( )()
⇒ s+5 I s = +5
50
s
⎡1 1 ⎤
⇒ I s = () 50
+
5
= 50 ⎢ − ⎥+
5
s s+5( ) (
s+5 ⎣)s s + 5 ⎦ s + 5 ( )
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get,
() ( ) (
i t = 50 1 − e −5t + 5e −5t = 50 − 45e −5t )(A) t >0
5.12.2 RC Series Circuit

RC series circuit with step input As capacitors store energy in the form of an electric field, they tend
to act like small secondary-cell batteries, being able to store and release electrical energy. A fully discharged
capacitor maintains zero volts across its terminals, and a charged capacitor maintains a steady quantity of volt-
age across its terminals, just like a battery.
When capacitors are placed in a circuit with other sources of voltage, Switch
R
they will absorb energy from those sources, just as a secondary-cell battery
will become charged as a result of being connected to a generator. A fully
discharged capacitor, having a terminal voltage of zero, will initially act as a v(t) i(t ) C
short-circuit when attached to a source of voltage, drawing maximum cur-
rent as it begins to build a charge. Over time, the capacitor terminal voltage
rises to meet the applied voltage from the source, and the current through Fig. 5.16 R-C series circuit
the capacitor decreases correspondingly. Once the capacitor has reached
the full voltage of the source, it will stop drawing current from it, and behave essentially as an open-circuit.
t
1
C ∫0
By KVL, Ri(t ) + i(t )dt = Vu(t )
1 ⎡ I ( s ) q(0− ) ⎤ V ⎡ 1 ⎤ V q(0− ) V − q(0− ) 1V −

q(0− )
RI ( s ) + ⎢ + = or, I ( s ) ⎢ R + ⎥ = − or, I ( s ) = C = C
C⎣ s s ⎥⎦ s ⎣ Cs ⎦ s Cs
(
s R+ 1
Cs ) (
R s+ 1
RC )
⎡V q(0− ) ⎤ − t RC
i (t ) = ⎢ − ⎥e , for t ≥ 0
⎣ R RC ⎦
V −t
= e RC , if q(0− ) = 0
R
The steady state part of the current response, is = 0
256
V − t RC
The transient part of the current response, itr = ⎡⎣i(t ) − is ⎤⎦ = e
R
V −1 V
From the current equation at, t = = RC , i = e = 0.37
R R
When the switch is first closed, the voltage across the capacitor is zero; thus, it first behaves as though it
were a short-circuit. Over time, the capacitor voltage will rise to equal battery voltage, ending in a condition
where the capacitor behaves as an open circuit. Current through the circuit is determined by the difference in
voltage between the battery and the capacitor, divided by the resistance. As the capacitor voltage approaches the
battery voltage (V), the current approaches zero. Once the capacitor voltage has reached V, the current will be
exactly zero.
The variation of current in the circuit is shown in Fig. 5.17.
1.0
Current
0.5
0.37
0 .0
0 s 0. 5s 1 .0s 1 .5s 2 .0s 2 .5s 3 .0 s 3.5 s 4. 0s 4. 5s 5 .0s
t RC Time
Fig. 5.17 Variation of current with time in R-C series circuit with step input
The quantity RC is known as the time-constant of the circuit and it is defined as follows.
Definitions of Time-Constant ( )
1. It is the time in which the current decays to 37% of its initial value.
V
Also, at t 5 , i = 0.07 ; the transient is therefore, said to be practically disappeared in five time
constants. R
V − t RC
2. The tangent to the equation i = e at t 0, intersects the time axis at t RC.
R
Thus, time-constant is the time in which the current would reach the steady-state zero value if the current
decays at the initial rate.
Physically, time-constant represents the speed of the response of a circuit. A low value of time-constant rep-
resents a fast response and a high value of time-constant represents a sluggish response.
Calculations of the Voltage Across Elements Voltage across the resistor, VR Ri(t) Ve t/RC
t t
⎛
i(t )dt = ∫ e RC dt = V ⎜ 1 − e RC ⎟⎞
1 1 V −t −t
Voltage across the capacitor, VC =
C0∫ C0R ⎝ ⎠
257
RC Series Circuit with Impulse Input With zero initial condition, q(0 ) 0, KVL equation becomes,
t
1
C ∫0
Ri(t ) + i(t )dt = V (t )
I (s)
RI ( s ) + =V
Cs
⎛ ⎞ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ 1 ⎥
V V⎜ s V
⎟ = ⎢1 − RC
or, I (s) = = ⎥
R+ 1 R⎜ s+ 1 ⎟ R ⎢ 1 ⎥
Cs ⎝ RC ⎠ s+
⎢⎣ RC ⎥⎦
V⎡ 1 − t RC ⎤
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t ) = ⎢ (t ) − e ⎥ , for t ≥ 0
R⎣ RC ⎦
⎡ 1 − t RC ⎤
Voltage across the resistor, VR = Ri(t ) = V ⎢ (t ) − e ⎥
⎣ RC ⎦
Voltage across the capacitor, {

VC = V (t ) − VR = } V − t RC
RC
e
These variations of the voltages are shown in V/RC

Fig. 5.18. Voltage across C
Voltage
RC Series Circuit with Sinusoidal Input across
R and C
Here, the input voltage is given as v (t) = V sin t
By KVL,
t
1
C ∫0
Ri(t ) + i(t )dt = V sin t , with q(0− ) = 0 Voltage across R
V/RC
Time
⎡ 1⎤ V Fig. 5.18 Variation of voltages with time in R-C series
or, I (s) ⎢ R + ⎥ = 2 circuit with impulse input
⎦ s +
2
⎣ Cs
⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤
V Cs V ⎪ s ⎪ V ⎢ A1 + A2 + A3 ⎥
I (s) = = ⎨ ⎬=
)( s − j )( )
or,
(s 2
+ 2
)(1+ sRC ) (
R ⎪ s+ j
⎩
s+ 1 ⎪ L
RC ⎭
⎢s− j
⎣⎢
s+ j s + R ⎥⎥
L⎦
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
(
A1 = ⎨ s − j ) 1
⎬ =
RC
( s + j )( s − j )( )
where,
⎪ s+ 1 ⎪
RC ⎭s = j
(
2 1 + j RC )
⎩
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
(
A2 = ⎨ s + j ) 1
⎬ =−
RC
⎪
⎩
( s + j )( s − j )( s+ 1 ⎪)
RC ⎭s =− j
2 1 − (
j RC )
258
⎧ ⎫ 1
−
and
⎪
⎪
(
A3 = ⎨ s + 1
RC s + j)( )( s − j )(
1
s+ 1
⎪
⎬
⎪ )
=
⎛
RC
1 ⎞
⎩ RC ⎭s =− 1 ⎜⎝
2
+ 2 2⎟
RC RC ⎠
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥
V ⎢ RC RC RC ⎥
∴ I (s) = − +
(
R ⎢ 2 1 + j RC s − j )( ) ( )(
2 1 − j RC s + j ) ⎛ 2 1 ⎞ 1
(⎥
)
⎢ ⎜⎝ + R 2C 2 ⎟⎠ s + RC ⎥
⎣ ⎦
t
⎡ ej t e− j t ⎤ −
Ve RC
i (t ) = V C ⎢ − ⎥−
( ) (
⎢⎣ 2 1 + j RC 2 1 − j RC ⎦⎥ ⎛ 1 ⎞
RC ⎜ R 2 + 2 2 ⎟
)
⎝ C ⎠
⎡ ⎤ −t
V ⎢ ej t e− j t ⎥ Ve RC
= ⎢ − ⎥ −
2 j R+ 1 R− 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢ ⎥ RC ⎜ R 2 + 2 2 ⎟
⎣ j C j C ⎦ ⎝ C ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ j ⎞ −j ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ j ⎞
⎜⎝ R + j C ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ R − C ⎟⎠ = Ze and ⎜⎝ R − j C ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ R + C ⎟⎠ = Ze so that,
j
Let,
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z = ⎜ R2 + 2⎟
and = tan −1 ⎜
⎝ 2
C ⎠ ⎝ RC ⎟⎠
) )⎤
V ⎡e ( −e (
t+ −j t+
V ⎡ e j t e− j t ⎤
j
V −t V −t
i (t ) = ⎢ − ⎥ − e RC
= ⎢ ⎥− e RC
2 j ⎣ Ze − j Ze j ⎦ CZ 2 Z ⎢⎣ 2j ⎥⎦ CZ
2
or, finally, the current is,
i (t ) =
V
Z
sin ( t+ )− V
CZ 2
−t
e RC
⎛ 1 ⎞
From this result, it is clear that the current in RC series circuit leads the voltage by an angle, = tan −1 ⎜ .
If the resistance R 0, then = 90 as is the case for a perfect capacitor. ⎝ RC ⎟⎠
Example 5.14 Find the current i(t) for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.19, if the Switch 1
voltage source is v(t) 5e 2t u(t) and vc(0 ) 0.
t
Solution Applying KVL for the loop, Ri(t ) +

1
C ∫0
i(t )dt = v (t ) = 5e −2 t u t () v( t ) i(t ) 1F
1 ⎡ I ( s ) q(0− ) ⎤ 5
Taking Laplace transform, RI ( s ) + ⎢ + ⎥ = Fig. 5.19 Circuit of
C⎣ s s ⎦ s+2 Example 5.14
259
⎡ 1⎤ 5
I ( s ) ⎢1 + ⎥ =
⎣ s⎦ s+2
(since vc(0 ) 0)
5s 10 5
I (s) = = −
( )(
s +1 s + 2 s + 2 s +1 )
2t
i(t ) 10e 5e t ; for t 0
RLC Series Circuit

RLC Series Circuit with Step Input
R L C
With zero initial conditions, the Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation becomes,
t
di(t ) 1
Ri(t ) + L + ∫ i(t )dt = Vu(t ) Vu(t) i(t)
dt C0
1 V
or, RI ( s ) + sLI ( s ) + I (s) = Fig. 5.20 RLC series circuit
Cs s
V
or, LI (s) = (5.2)
R 1
s + s+ 2
L LC
The roots of the denominator polynomial of equation are,
R 1
s2 + s+ =0
L LC
R R2 1 R R2 1
or, s1 = − + 2
− and, s2 = − − 2
−
2L 4 L LC 2L 4 L LC
1 R R C
Let 0
= and 0
= i.e. = damping ratio
LC 2L 2 L
Then, s1 = − 0
+ 0
2
−1 and s2 = − 0
− 0
2
−1
V
L A B
So, I (s) = = +
( )(
s − s1 s − s2 )
s − s1 s − s2
V V
(
A = s − s1 )( L
)(
s − s1 s − s2 )
=
(
L =
s1 − s2 2)
V
0
L 2
−1
s = s1
V V
and (
B = s − s2 )( L
)(
s − s1 s − s2 )
=
(
L =−
s2 − s1 )
V
2 0
L 2
−1
s = s2
260
Putting these values of A and B, we get,

V ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
I (s) = ⎢ − ⎥
2 0
L 2
− 1 ⎣ s − s1 s − s2 ⎦
V V ⎡ ⎛⎜⎝ 2
−1⎞⎟ t − ⎛⎜ 2
−1⎞⎟ t ⎤
i (t ) = ⎡ e s1t − e s2t ⎤ = e
− 0t
⎢e
0 ⎠
−e ⎝ 0 ⎠
⎥
⎣ ⎦
2 0
L 2
−1 2 0
L 2
−1 ⎣ ⎦
Depending upon the values of R, L and C, three cases may appear:
R 1
(a) > (overdamped condition)
2L LC 0.6
R 1 0.5
Underdamped condition
(b) < (underdamped condition)
2L LC 0.4
Critically damped condition
Amplitude
R 1 0.3
(c) = (critically damped condition) Overdamped condition
2L LC 0.2
R 1 0.1
Overdamped Condition The condition is >
2L LC 0
1
or > 1 or Q < 0.1
2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (seconds)
L 1 Fig. 5.21 Current response in RLC series circuit for
(since, quality factor, Q = 0
and 0 = )
R three different damping conditions
LC
Under this condition, the current becomes
⎡ ⎛⎝⎜ −1⎞⎟ t − ⎛⎜ −1⎞⎟ t ⎤
( )
2 2
V − ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ V −
i (t ) = 0t
−e ⎥=
0t
−1 t
0 0 2
e ⎢e e sinh 0
2 0
L 2
−1 ⎣ ⎦ 0
L 2
−1
The graphical plot for the current is shown in Fig. 5.21.
R 1 1
Critically Damped Condition The condition is = or = 1 or Q =
2L LC 2
From the equation (5.2),
V ⎛ ⎞
L V 1
I (s) = = ⎜ ⎟
s2 + 2 0 s + L⎜ s+ ( ) ⎟⎠
2 2
0 ⎝ 0
V −
Taking inverse Laplace transform i(t ) = te 0t
L
The graphical plot for the current is shown Fig. 5.21.
R 1 1
Underdamped Condition The condition is < or < 1 or Q >
2L LC 2
261
So, the current becomes

⎡ ⎛⎜ j 0 1− 2 ⎞ ⎛
−⎜
j 0 1− 2 ⎞
⎤
⎡ ⎛⎜ 2 −1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 −1 ⎞
⎤ ⎢ e⎝
⎟t
⎠ ⎝
⎟t
⎠ ⎥
−⎜
−e
0 0
V ⎟t ⎟t V
− 0t ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥= −
i (t ) = e e −e e 0t
⎢ ⎥
2 L 2
−1 ⎢ ⎥ L 1− 2
⎢ 2j ⎥
0 ⎣ ⎦ 0
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
=
0
L 1−
V
2
e
− 0t
sin ( 0
1− 2
)t
So, the circuit is oscillatory. When R 0, 0, the oscillations are undamped or sustained. The frequency of
the undamped oscillation ( 0) is known as undamped natural frequency.
RLC Series Circuit with Impulse Input
With zero initial conditions, the Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation becomes
t
di(t ) 1 1
Ri(t ) + L + ∫ i(t )dt = V (t ) or, RI ( s ) + sLI ( s ) + I (s) = V
dt C0 Cs
or, I (s) =
(V L )s (5.3)
R 1
s2 + s+
L LC
The roots of the denominator polynomial of equation are
R 1
s2 + s+ =0
L LC
R R2 1 R R2 1
or, s1 = − + 2
− and, s2 = − − 2
−
2L 4 L LC 2L 4 L LC
1 R R C
Let 0
= and 0
= i.e. = = damping ratio
LC 2L 2 L
Then, s1 = − 0
+ 0
2
−1 and s2 = − 0
− 0
2
−1
So, I (s) =
(V L )s =
A
+
B
( s − s )( s − s )
1 2
s − s1 s − s2
(
A = s − s1
(V L )s
) ( s − s )( s − s )
( )
V s
= L =
1 Vs1
1 2 (s − s )
1 2 2 0
L 2
−1
s = s1
and (
B = s − s2
(V )s
) ( s − s )L( s − s )
2
=
(V L )s = − 2 Vs2
1 2 (s 2
− s1 ) 2 0
L 2
−1
s = s2
262

V ⎡ s1 s ⎤
I (s) = ⎢ − 2 ⎥
2 0
L 2
− 1 ⎣ s − s1 s − s2 ⎦
V V ⎡ ⎛⎜⎝ 2
−1⎞⎟ t − ⎛⎜ 2
−1⎞⎟ t ⎤
i (t ) = ⎡ s1e s1t − s2 e s2t ⎤ = e
− 0t
⎢ s1e
0 ⎠
− s2 e ⎝ 0 ⎠
⎥
⎣ ⎦
2 0
L 2
−1 2 0
L 2
−1 ⎣ ⎦
⎡
( ) ( ) ⎤
⎛ 2
−1⎞⎟ t − ⎛⎜ 2
−1⎞⎟ t
V − ⎜
= 0t
⎢ − + −1 e⎝ ⎠
− − − −1 e ⎝ ⎠
2 0 2 0
e 0 0 0 0 ⎥
2 0
L 2
−1 ⎣ ⎦
Three cases are considered:
R 1
2L LC
R 1
(b) < (underdamped condition)
2L LC
R 1
(c) = (critically damped condition)
2L LC
Overdamped Condition Here, 1

The current becomes
(
⎡
) ( ) ⎤
⎛ 2
−1⎞⎟ t − ⎛⎜ 2
−1⎞⎟ t
V − ⎜
i (t ) = 0t
⎢ − + −1 e⎝ ⎠
− − − −1 e ⎝ ⎠
2 0 2 0
e 0 0 0 0 ⎥
2 0
L 2
−1 ⎣ ⎦
=
L
V
2
⎡
− 1 ⎣⎢
2
− 1 cosh ( 0
2
)
− 1 t − sinh ( 0
2
)
−1 t ⎤
⎦⎥
Critically damped condition The condition is 1

I (s) =
(V L )s =
V
⎛
⎜
s
⎞
⎟ =
⎡
V⎢ A
+
B ⎥
⎤
s2 + 2 s+ L⎜ s+ ( ) ⎢
⎟⎠ L s + ( ) s+ 0 ⎥
2 2 2
0 0 ⎝ 0 ⎣ 0 ⎦
( ) s
2
where, A= s+ =−
(s + )
0 2 0
0 s =− 0
⎡ ⎤
d ⎢
( ) s ⎥
2
and, B= s+ =1
ds ⎢ (s + ) ⎥
0 2
⎣ 0 ⎦ s =− 0
263
⎡ ⎤
So, ()
I s =
V⎢ 1
− 0 ⎥
L ⎢s+ (s + ) ⎥
2
⎣ 0
0 ⎦
V −
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t ) = ⎡1 − t ⎤⎦ e 0t
L⎣ 0
Underdamped Condition The condition is, 1

So, the current becomes
⎡
( )
⎧ ⎛⎜ −1⎞⎟ t − ⎛⎜ −1⎞⎟ t ⎪⎫ ⎧ ⎛⎝⎜ −1⎞⎟ t − ⎛⎜ −1⎞⎟ t ⎪⎫ ⎤
2 2 2 2
V −
i (t ) = 0t
− 1 ⎨e ⎝ ⎠
+e ⎝ ⎠
⎬−
⎠
−e ⎝ ⎠
2 0 0 0 0
e ⎢ 0 0 ⎨e ⎬⎥
2 0
L 2
−1 ⎢⎣ ⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎥⎦
(
⎡
)⎧⎨⎩e ⎪⎫ ⎧ ⎛⎝⎜ j ⎪⎫ ⎤
⎛j 1− 2⎞
− ⎛⎜ j 1− 2⎞
1− 2⎞
− ⎛⎜ j 1− 2⎞
V − ⎝⎜ ⎠⎟
t
⎝ ⎠⎟
t
⎠⎟
t
⎝ ⎠⎟
t
= 0t
1− +e ⎬− −e
2 0 0 0 0
e ⎢ j 0 0 ⎨e ⎬⎥
2 0
Lj 1 − 2
⎢⎣ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎥⎦
i (t ) =
L 1−
V
2
e
− t ⎡ 1−
⎢⎣
2
cos ( 0
1− 2
)t − sin( 0
1− 2
)t ⎤⎥⎦
{( ) }
V −
⎛ 1− 2 ⎞
= 1− t+ , wheree = tan −1 ⎜
t 2
e cos ⎟
L 1− 2 0
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
RLC Series Circuit with Sinusoidal Input Sinusoidal R L C

voltage v(t ) Vm sin( t ) is applied to a series RLC cir-
cuit at time t 0. We want to find the complete solution for
v(t ) V msin(vt u) i(t )
the current i(t ) using Laplace transform method.
t
di(t ) 1
By KVL, Ri(t ) + L + ∫ i(t )dt = Vm sin( t + ) Fig. 5.22 RLC series circuit with sinusoidal input
dt C −∞
Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,
⎡ 1⎤
I ( s ) ⎢ R + sL + ⎥ = Vm
s sin + cos ( )
⎣ Cs ⎦ s2 + 2
I (s) =
(
Vm s s sin + cos ) =
Vm s s sin + cos ( )
)( )( )( )
or,
(
L s2 + 2
)⎛⎜⎝ s 2
+
R
s+
1 ⎞ (
L s + j s − j s − s1 s − s2
L LC ⎟⎠
where, s1, s2 are the roots of the quadratic equation:
⎛ 2 R 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ s + L s + LC ⎟⎠ = 0
R R2 1 R R2 1
Thus, s1 = − + 2
− and, s2 = − − 2
−
2L 4L LC 2L 4L LC
264
Now, let
(
s s sin + cos ) =
K 1
+
K2
+
K3
+
K4
(s + j )( s − j )( s − s )( s − s ) s − s 1 2 1
s − s2 s + j s− j
So, by residue method, multiplying by (s – s1) and putting s s1,
K1 =
s1 s1 sin + cos
and K 2 =
(
s2 s2 sin + cos ) ( )
s1 + j s1 − j s1 − s2 ( )(
s2 + j s2 − j s2 − s1 )( ) ( )( )( )
Similarly, multiplying by (s j ) and putting s –j ,
K3 =
−j ( − j sin + cos ) =
(cos − j sin )
(− j −j )( − j
) 2( s + j )( s + j ) )(
− s1 − j − s2 1 2
j ( − sin + cos ) (coos + j sin )

and, K4 = =
( j + j )( j − s )( j − s ) 2( s − j )( s − j ) 1 2 1 2
Hence the current response becomes,
V V
i(t ) = m ⎡⎣ K1e 1 + K 2 e 2 ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ K 3 e − j t + K 4 e j t ⎤⎦ = I tr + I ss
st st
L L
Thus, the transient part of the total current is
⎡ ⎤
I tr =
⎢ s s sin + cos
Vm ⎢ 1 1
e −
s1t (
s2 s2 sin + cos
e
⎥
s2 t ⎥ ) ( )
L⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ s1 + 2
⎢⎣
R2 4
L2 LC
− s 2
2
(+ 2 R2 4
L2 LC
− ) ⎥
⎥⎦
( )
The steady-state part of the total current is obtained as follows.
V ⎡ ⎤ V ⎡ e ( ) e( ) ⎤
− j t+ j t+
e− j e− j t ej ej t
I ss = m ⎢ + ⎥= m ⎢ + ⎥
(
2 L ⎢⎣ s1 + j s2 + j )(
s1 − j s2 − j ⎥⎦ 2 L ) ( )( ) (
⎢⎣ s1 + j s2 + j )( ) ( )(
s1 − j s2 − j ) ⎥⎦
I ss =
(
2 L s1 + 2
Vm
2
)( s2 2 + 2
)
⎡ e − j(
⎣
t+ )
(s s −
1 2
2
− j s1 − j s2 ⎤
⎦ )
or, =
(
2 L s1 + 2
Vm
2
)( s 2
+ 2
) ⎣(
⎡ ss −
1 2
2
)2 cos( t+ )−( s1 + s2 2 sin ) ( t+ )⎤⎦
2
⎡⎛ 1 ⎤
⎞
) − ⎛⎜⎝ − R⎞
Vm
=
1
⎢⎜ − 2
⎟⎠ cos ( t+ sin ( t+ )⎥
L (s 1
2
+ 2
)( s 2
2
+ 2
) ⎣⎝ LC L ⎟⎠ ⎦
⎡ R ⎤
⎢ sin ( t+ ) − ⎛⎜⎝ 2
−
1 ⎞
LC ⎟⎠
cos ( t+ )⎥
or, I ss =
Vm ⎣ L ⎦
L ( s12 + 2
)( s2 2 + 2
)
⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎫
⎪⎪ ⎜ L− ⎟ ⎪⎪ ⎛
2
V 1 −1 C 1 ⎞
= m sin ⎨ t + − tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎬× R +⎜ L−
2
L (s 1
2
+ 2
)( s 2
2
+ 2
) ⎪ ⎜
⎝
R ⎟⎪ L
⎠
⎝ C ⎟⎠
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
265
⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎫
⎪⎪ ⎜ L− ⎪
I ss =
Vm
sin ⎨ t + − tan −1 ⎜ C⎟⎪
or, ⎟ ⎬
⎛
2
⎪ ⎜ R ⎟ ⎪
1 ⎞
R2 + ⎜ L − ⎟ ⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭
⎝ C⎠
This gives the steady-state current of the series RLC circuit to a sinusoidal voltage.
Example 5.15 Determine the current i(t) in a series RLC circuit consisting of R 5 , L 1 H and C ¼ F
when the source voltage is given as (a) ramp voltage 12r(t 2), and (b) step voltage 3u(t − 3). Assume that
the circuit is initially relaxed.
Solution Applying KVL for the series RLC circuit we get,
di t ( )+ 1
()
Ri t + L
dt C∫
()
i t dt = v t ()
( )+
di t
⇒ 5i t + () dt
1
1 ∫
()
i t dt = v t ()
4
(a) When v(t ) 12r(t 2)
di t( )+
()
5i t +
dt
1
1 ∫
()
i t dt = v t ()
4
⎛ 4⎞
Taking Laplace transform, ()
12 −2 s
⎜⎝ 5 + s + s ⎟⎠ I s = s 2 e
⎡ ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤
12 e −2 s 3e −2 s 4 e −2 s e −2 s
()
⇒ I s = = 12 e −2 s
⎢
1
⎥ = 12 e −2 s ⎢ 4 − 3 + 12 ⎥ = − +
(
s s 2 + 5s + 4 ) ( )(
⎢⎣ s s + 1 s + 4 ) ⎥⎦ ⎢ s s +1 s + 4 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
s s +1 s + 4

(t 2) 4(t 2)
i(t ) 3u(t 2) 4e e
(b) When v (t ) 3u (t 3)
di t ( )+
()
5i t +
dt
1
1 ∫
()
i t dt = v t ()
4
⎛ 4⎞
⎝ s⎠
3 −3s
Taking Laplace transform, ⎜ 5 + s + ⎟ I s = e
s
()
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
3e −3s e −3s e −3s
()
⇒ I s = = 3e −3s ⎢
1
⎥ = 3e −3s ⎢ 3 − 3 ⎥ = −
( s + 5s + 4
2
) ⎢⎣ s + 1 s + 4 ( )( ) ⎦⎥
⎢ s + 4 s + 1 ⎥ s + 4 s +1
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
(t 3) 4(t 3)
i(t ) e e
266
5.12.4 RLC Parallel Circuit

RLC Parallel Circuit with Step Current Input
Iu(t) R L C v(t)
With zero initial conditions, the Kirchhoff’s current law equa-
t
v (t ) dv (t ) 1
tion becomes +C + ∫ v (t )dt = Iu(t )
R dt L0 Fig. 5.23 RLC parallel circuit
V (s) 1 I
or, + sCV ( s ) + V ( s ) =
R sL s
I
or, C V (s) = (5.4)
1 1
s + s+ 2
RC LC
The roots of the denominator polynomial of equation are
1 1
s2 + s+ =0
RC LC
1 1 1 1 1 1
or, s1 = − + 2 2
− and, s2 = − − 2 2
−
2 RC 4R C LC 2 RC 4R C LC
1 1 1 L
Let 0
= and 0
= i.e. = damping ratio
LC 2 RC 2R C
Then, s1 = − 0
+ 0
2
−1 and s2 = − 0
− 0
2
−1
I
C A B
So, V (s) = = +
( s − s )( s − s )
1 2
s − s1 s − s2
I I
(
∴ A = s − s1 )( C
)(
s − s1 s − s2 )
=
(
C =
)
s1 − s2 2 C
I
0
2
−1
s = s1
I I
and (
∴ B = s − s2 ) ( s − s )(Cs − s ) =
(
C =−
s2 − s1)
I
1 2 2 0C 2
−1
s = s2

I ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
V (s) = ⎢ − ⎥
2 0C 2
− 1 ⎣ s − s1 s − s2 ⎦
I I ⎡ ⎛⎝⎜ 2
−1⎞⎟ t − ⎛⎜ 2
−1⎞⎟ t ⎤
v (t ) = ⎡ e s1t − e s2t ⎤ = e
− 0t
⎢e
0 ⎠
−e ⎝ 0 ⎠
⎥
⎣ ⎦
2 0C 2
−1 2 0C 2
−1 ⎣ ⎦
267
Depending upon the values of R, L and C, three cases may appear:

1 1 0.6
2 RC Underdamped condition
LC 0.5
0.4
1 1 Critically damped condition
<
Amplitude
(b) (underdamped condition) 0.3
2 RC LC Overdamped condition
0.2
1 1
(c) = (critically damped condition) 0.1
2 RC LC
0
Overdamped Condition The condition is, 0.1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 1 Time (seconds)
> or, > 1 or Q <
2 RC LC 2 Fig. 5.24 Voltage response in RLC parallel circuit
1 1 for three different damping conditions
(since, quality factor, Q = and 0 = )
0
RC LC
Under this condition, the current becomes
⎡ ⎛⎝⎜ −1⎞⎟ t − ⎛⎜ −1⎞⎟ t ⎤
( )
2 2
I − ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ I −
v (t ) = 0t
−e ⎥=
0t
−1 t
0 0 2
e ⎢e e sinh 0
2 0C 2
−1 ⎣ ⎦ 0
C 2
−1
The graphical plot for the voltage is shown in Fig. 5.24.
1 1 1
Critically Damped Condition The condition is = or = 1 or, Q =
2 RC LC 2
I ⎛ ⎞
C I 1
From the equation (5.4), V ( s ) = = ⎜ ⎟
s2 + 2 0 s + C⎜ s+ ( ) ⎟⎠
2 2
0 ⎝ 0
I − 0t
Taking inverse Laplace transform, v (t ) = te
C
The graphical plot for the voltage is shown in Fig. 5.24.
1 1 1
Underdamped Condition The condition is < or < 1 or Q >
2 RC LC 2
So, the voltage becomes,
⎡ ⎛⎜ 0
2 −1 ⎞
⎟t
⎛
−⎜ 0
2 −1 ⎞
⎟t ⎤
I −
⎢e⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥
v (t ) = e 0t
−e
2 0C 2
−1 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎛⎜ j 0 1−
2 ⎞
⎟t
⎛
−⎜
j 0 1− 2 ⎞
⎟t ⎤
⎢ e⎝ ⎥
( )t
⎠ ⎝ ⎠
I − −e I −
= e 0t
⎢ ⎥= e 0t
sin 0
1− 2
C 1− 2
⎢ 2j ⎥ C 1− 2
0 0
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
268
Similarly, we can find out the impulse response and sinusoidal response of a parallel RLC circuit using Laplace
transform method as for the series RLC circuit.
Example 5.16 For the RC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 5.25, deter-
mine the voltage across the capacitor using Laplace transform method.
Assume the capacitor to be initially relaxed. 10 A 5 1F
( ) + C dv (t ) = i t =10
v t
Solution Applying KCL at the upper node,
R dt
()
Taking Laplace transform and putting the values of R and C,
⎡ ⎤
( ) + sV
V s
()
⎢1 1 ⎥
()
s =
10
⇒ V s =
10
⎛ 1⎞
= 50 ⎢ − ⎥
5 s
s⎜ s + ⎟ ⎢s s+ 1 ⎥
⎝ 5⎠ ⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
⎛
v t = 50 ⎜ 1 − e 5 ⎞⎟ V
() ( )
−t
⎝ ⎠
5.13 RESPONSE WITH PULSE INPUT VOLTAGE

5.13.1 RC Series Circuit v( t )
If a voltage pulse of width T as shown in Fig. 5.26 is applied to an RC series circuit

V
1
then by KVL, Ri(t ) + ∫ i(t )dt = v(t )
C
Taking Laplace transform with zero initial condition,
0 T t
1 V Ve − sT V 1 − e − sT
RI ( s ) + I (s) = − or, I ( s ) = Fig. 5.26 Pulse Voltage
Cs s s R s+ 1
RC
V ⎡ − t RC −(t −T ) RC ⎤
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i (t ) = ⎢e −e ⎥
R⎣ ⎦
⎡ −t −
( t −T ) ⎤
Hence the voltage across the resistance is given as vR (t ) = Ri(t ) = V ⎢ e RC − e RC
⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ −t −
( t −T ) ⎤
and the voltage across the capacitor is given as vc (t ) = V − vR (t ) = V ⎢1 − e RC + e RC
⎥
⎣ ⎦
To plot the two voltages with varying time, we have the following observations:
i. At t 0, all the voltage appears across the resistance R and thus,
vR V and vC 0
ii. As the time increases, the voltage vC grows and the voltage vR decays exponentially, with time-constant
RC.
269
Voltage
Vo l t a g e a c r o s s C
across
R and C
Vo l t a g e a c r o s s R
Time
Fig. 5.27 Voltage response of RC series circuit with pulse input
iii. At t T, voltage across the network drops abruptly to zero from V. Again this entire drop is instanta-
neously felt across the resistance R.
iv. For time t T, total voltage across the circuit is zero. So, at any instant of time t, vR (t) vC (t) 0 and
both vR and vC asymptotically approach zero.
Case (1): If time-constant ( RC) << pulse-width ( T ) The voltage across the resistance vR will con-
sist of two trigger pulses, one positive and the other negative, of height V at the points where the voltage across
the network changes abruptly (i.e., t 0 and T ).
In this case, the voltage across capacitor attains the steady state very quickly, i.e., vc V.
dvC dV dV
vR = Ri = RC ≈ RC or, vR = RC
dt dt dt
Thus, the voltage vR is the differentiation of the input voltage and hence the circuit acts as a differentiator.
1.0V
Voltage
0.5V across C
Voltages
0V
0.5V Voltage
across R
1.0V
0s 2s 4s 6s 8s 10s 12s 14s 16s 18s 20s
Time
Fig. 5.28 Voltage response of RC series circuit ( RC T) with
pulse input
Case (2): If time-constant ( RC) >> pulse-width (T ) In this case, the voltage across the capacitor
varies with time almost linearly and the value is far from the steady state value V; i.e., vR V.
t t t t
1 1 v 1 1
vC =
C0∫ idt = ∫ R dt ≈
C0 R RC ∫0
Vdt or, vC ≈
RC ∫0
Vdt
Thus, the voltage vC is the integration of the input voltage and hence the circuit acts as an integrator.
270
1.0V
0.8V
Voltage across R
0.6V
Voltages
0.4V
across
Voltage across C
resistor and 0.2V
capacitor 0V
0.2V
0s 2s 4s 6s 8s 10s 12s 14s 16s 18s 20S
Time
Fig. 5.29 Voltage response of RC series circuit ( RC T) with pulse input
5.13.2 RL series circuit

di
If a similar pulse voltage is applied to an RL series circuit then the KVL equation will be, Ri(t ) + L = v (t )
dt
Taking Laplace transform with zero initial condition,
⎡ ⎤
V Ve − sT V⎢ 1 e − sT ⎥
RI ( s ) + sLI ( s ) = − I (s) = ⎢ −
( ) ( )
or, ⎥
s s L s s+ R s s+ R
⎢⎣ L L ⎥⎦
V ⎡⎛ − t⎞
R
⎛ − ( t −T ) ⎞
R ⎤
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t ) = ⎢ ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ u(t ) − ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ u(t − T ) ⎥
R ⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
The variation of the two voltages is shown in Fig. 5.30.
1.0V
Voltage across R
0.5V
Voltage
across
resistor 0V
and
inductor 0.5V Voltage across L
1.0V
0s 0.5s 1.0s 1.5s 2.0s 2.5s 3.0s 3.5s 4.0s 4.5s 5.0s
Time
Fig. 5.30 Voltage response of RL series circuit with pulse input
Case (1): If time-constant ( L /R ) << pulse-width ( T ) In this case, the voltage across resistor attains
the steady state very quickly, i.e., vR V.
di d ⎛v ⎞ d ⎛ V ⎞ L dV L dV
vL = L =L ⎜ R⎟=L ⎜ ⎟≈ or, vL =
dt dt ⎝ R ⎠ dt ⎝ R ⎠ R dt R dt
Thus, the voltage v L is the differentiation of the input voltage and hence the circuit acts as a
differentiator.
271
1.0V
0.5V Voltage across R

voltage
across 0V
resistors
inductor 0.5V Voltage across L
1.0V
0s 2s 4s 6s 8s 10s 12s 14s 16s 18s 20s
Time
Fig. 5.31 Voltage response of RL series circuit ( L/R T) with pulse input
Case (2): If time-constant ( L /R ) >> pulse-width ( T ) In this case, the voltage across the resistor
varies with time almost linearly and the value is far from the steady-state value V; i.e., vL V.
t t t
1 R R
vR = Ri = R
L0∫ vL dt ≈ ∫Vdt
L0
or, ∴ vR ≈
L ∫0
Vdt
Thus, the voltage vR is the integration of the input voltage and hence the circuit acts as an integrator.
1.0V
Voltages 0.8V
0.6V Voltage across L Voltage across R
0.4V
0.2V
0V
0.2V
0s 2s 4s 6s 8s 10s 12s 14s 16s 18s 20s
Time
Fig. 5.32 Voltage response of RL series circuit ( L/R T) with pulse input
5.14 STEPS FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS USING LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD

1. All circuit elements are transformed from time-domain to Laplace domain with initial conditions.
2. Excitation function is transformed into Laplace domain.
3. The circuit is solved using different circuit analysis techniques, such as mesh analysis, node analysis, etc.
4. Time domain solution is obtained by taking inverse Laplace transform of the solution.
5.15 CONCEPT OF CONVOLUTION THEOREM

Convolution Integral If h(t ) is the impulse response of a linear network then the response of the same
network y (t ) subject to any arbitrary input w (t ) is given by the convolution integral as
∞ ∞
y (t ) = ∫ h( )w (t − )d = ∫ w ( ) h(t − )d
−∞ −∞
Thus, if the impulse response of any linear time-invariant system is known, we can obtain the zero-state response
of the system to any other type of input.
272
Convolution Theorem
If f1(t ) and f2(t ) are two functions of time which are zero for t 0, and if their Laplace transforms are F1(s) and
F2(s), respectively then the convolution theorem states that the Laplace transform of the convolution of f1(t ) and
f2(t ) is given by the product F1(s) F2(s).
Mathematically, the convolution of f1(t ) and f2(t ) is written as
t t
() ()
f1 t * f 2 t = ∫ f1 () ( f2 t − ) d = ∫ f1 t − ( ) f ( )d
2 () ()
= f 2 t * f1 t
0 0
Where is a dummy variable for time t, the convolution theorem is written as, L ⎡⎣ f1 t * f 2 t ⎤⎦ = F1 s F2 s () () () ()
Proof By the definition of convolution,
⎡t ⎤ ∞⎡ t ⎤
() () () ( )
L ⎡⎣ f1 t * f 2 t ⎤⎦ = L ⎢ ∫ f1 f 2 t − d ⎥ = ∫ ⎢ ∫ f1 t − f 2 d ⎥ e − st dt ( ) () (5.5)
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ 0 ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Also, by the definition of a shifted unit step function, using dummy variable,
u(t ) 1; for t
1; for t
t ∞
∫ ( f1 t − ) ()
f2 d = ∫ f1 t − ( )u ( t − ) f ( ) d
2
0 0
⎡
∞ ∞
⎤ − st
() ()
Putting this in (5.5), we get, L ⎡⎣ f1 t * f 2 t ⎤⎦ = ∫ ⎢ ∫ f1 t − ( )u ( t − ) f ( ) d
2 ⎥ e dt (5.6)
0⎢⎣0 ⎥⎦
Now, let (t ) x dt dx,
t 0
x
From (5.6), we get,
⎡
∞ ∞
⎤ − s( x + )
() () ( ) ( ) ( )d
L ⎡⎣ f1 t * f 2 t ⎤⎦ = ∫ ⎢ ∫ f1 x u x f 2 ⎥e dx
0⎢⎣− ⎥⎦
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
−
()() ()
= ∫ f1 x u x f 2 e − sx dx ∫ f 2
0
() ()
d e − s d = ∫ f1 x e − sx dx ∫ f 2
0 0
( )e −s
d { u( x ) = 0 for x < 0}
() ()
∴ L ⎡⎣ f1 t * f 2 t ⎤⎦ = F1 s F2 s () ()
Thus, the convolution in time domain becomes multiplication in the frequency domain, and vice-versa.
Application of Convolution Theorem The convolution theorem is used to find the response of a linear
system to any arbitrary excitation if the impulse response of the system is known.
We know that the transfer function is defined as the ratio of response transform to excitation transform with
zero initial conditions. Thus,
Laplace transform of response
Transfer function
Laplace transform of Excitation all initial conditions reduced to zero
273
()
Y s
or, ()
H s =
W (s)
IC =0
Thus, Y(s) H(s)W(s)

Here, W(s) L[w(t )], is the input Laplace transform and Y(s) L[y(t )], is the output Laplace transform.
Now, if the input is an impulse function then w(t ) (t ) or W(s) 1
Y(s) H(s)W(s) H(s)
y(t ) h(t )
Thus, h(t ) is the impulse response of the system. If this impulse response of the system is known, we can find
out the response of the system due to any arbitrary input w(t ) from the following relation:
t t
()
Y s =H s W s () () or () () ()
y t = h t *w t = ∫ h ( )w (t − )d = ∫ h(t − )w ( )d
0 0
at
Example 5.17 Find the convolution integral when f1( t ) e and f2 ( t ) t.
Solution Here, the convolution integral is given as
t t
t t
⎡ ea ea ⎤ ⎡ ea ea ⎤
() ()
f1 t * f 2 t = ∫ e ( )
−a t−
d =e − at
∫ e d =e
a − at
⎢ − ∫ 1⋅ d ⎥ = e − at ⎢ − 2 ⎥
0 0 ⎣ a a ⎦0 ⎣ a a ⎦0
⎡ te at e at 1 ⎤ 1
= e − at ⎢ − 2 + 2 ⎥ = 2 ⎡⎣ at − 1 + e − at ⎤⎦ .
⎣ a a a ⎦ a
Solved Problems
Problem 5.1 (a) Find the initial value of the function whose Laplace transform is
( s + a ) sin + b cos
V (s ) = A.
( s + a )2 + b 2
Check the result by solving it for v(t).
s +6
(b) Find the final value of the function whose Laplace Transform is I (s ) =
s (s + 3 )
Solution
(a) By initial value theorem,
⎛ a⎞ b
( s + a )sin + b cos ⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ sin + s cos
V (0+ ) = Lim sV ( s ) = Lim sA = Lim A = Asin
( s + a) + b
2 2 2
s →∞ s →∞ 2 s →∞ ⎛ a⎞ ⎛ b⎞
1+ +
⎝⎜ s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠
274
In order to check this result, we find v(t) and then put t 0.
v (t ) = L−1 ⎢ A
(
⎡ s + a sin + b cos ⎤ ) ⎡ s + a sin
⎥ = AL−1 ⎢ +
b cos ( ⎤
⎥ )
⎢ ( ⎥ ) (
⎢ s + a 2 + b2 s + a 2 + b2 ⎥ ) ( )
2
⎣ s + s + b2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
= A ⎡⎣sin e − at
cos bt + cos e − at
sin bt ⎤⎦ = Ae − at
(
sin bt + )
At t 0, v(0 ) Ae sin (0 ) = A sin
(b) By final-value theorem,
s+6 s+6
I (∞) = Lim sI ( s ) = Lim s = Lim =2
s →0 s →0
(
s s+3 )s → 0 s+3 ( )
⎡ s + 6 ⎤ −1 ⎡ 2 1 ⎤
For checking it, i(t ) = L−1 ⎢ ⎥= L ⎢ − ⎥=2−e
−3t
⎢⎣ s s +(3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ )
s s + 3 ⎦
At t , i( ) 2 e =2
Problem 5.2 a) Obtain the Laplace transform of a square wave of unit amplitude and periodic time 2T,
as shown in Fig. 5.33 (a).
f(t )
f(t )
1 1
0 T 2T 3T time
1 t
0
1/2 1
Fig. 5.33(a) Fig. 5.33(b)
b) Find the Laplace Transform of the function, shown in Fig. 5.33 (b).
Solution
(a) The equation of the square wave is
f (t ) = u(t ) − u(t − T ) − u(t − T ) + u(t − 2T ) + u(t − 2T ) − u(t − 3T ) − ⋅⋅⋅
= u(t ) − 2 u(t − T ) + 2 u(t − 2T ) − 2 u(t − 3T ) + ⋅⋅⋅
1 2 e − Ts 2 e −2Ts 2 e −3Ts
F (s) = −
s s
+
s
−
s
1
s
(
+ ⋅⋅⋅= ⎡⎣1 − 2 e − Ts 1 − e − Ts + e −2Ts − e −3Ts + ⋅⋅⋅ ⎤⎦ )
1 ⎡ 2e − Ts
⎤ ⎡
1 1− e − Ts
⎤ ⎧ 1 ⎫
= ⎢1 − ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎨ sum of G.P. series = ⎬
s ⎣ 1 + e − Ts ⎦ s ⎣ 1 + e − Ts ⎦ ⎩ 1 + e − Ts ⎭
1 ⎛ Ts ⎞
F ( s ) = tanh ⎜ ⎟
s ⎝ 2⎠
1
(b) The equation can be written as f (t ) = 2 r (t ) − 4 r (t − ) + 2 r (t − 1)
2
275
1
− s
1 4e 2 2e − s 2
2
Taking Laplace transform, F ( s ) = 2 2 − 2 + 2 = 2 ⎡⎢1 − 2 e 2 + e − s ⎤⎥ = 2 ⎡⎢1 − e 2 ⎤⎥
−s 2 −s
s s s s ⎣ ⎦ s ⎣ ⎦
Problem 5.3 Find the current i( t) flowing through the circuit 5

if the circuit is initially relaxed. Find the voltage across the capac-
itor vc( t) also. What is the value of the steady-state current? 1
10V F V c ( t)
2
⎛ ⎞
Solution By KVL, ⎜ 5 +
⎜
1 ⎟
s ⎟
I s =
10
s
()
⇒ I s 5s + 2 = 10 ( )( ) Fig. 5.34
⎝ 2⎠
I s =
10
=
2
5s + 2 s + 2
()
5 2t
−
Taking inverse Laplace transform, the current in the circuit i t = 2 e 5 A () ( )
⎛ ⎞
Voltage across the capacitor is VC s = I s × () ()
1 2
= ×
2
=
4 ⎜
= 10 −
1 1 ⎟
1
2
s
s s+ 2
5
s s+ 2
5
⎜ s s+ 2 ⎟
⎝ 5⎠ ( )
Taking inverse Laplace transform, VC t = 10 ⎡⎢1 − e 5 ⎤⎥ V
() ( )
−2t
⎣ ⎦
From the current expression, as t → , i(t) → 0. So, the steady state value of the current is, zero.
t Close 0
Problem 5.4 A sinusoidal voltage 25sin10t is applied at time t 0 1 2 R
to a circuit as shown in Fig. 5.35. Find the current i(t) by Laplace trans-
form method. R 5 and L 1 H.
25sin10t i(t) L
10
Solution By KVL, RI ( s ) + sLI ( s ) = 25 2 with zero initial
condition. s + 100 Fig. 5.35
250 250 ⎡ A A2 A3 ⎤
I (s) = = = 250 ⎢ 1 + + ⎥
( s + 5)( s 2
+ 100 ) ( )(
s + 5 s + j10 s − j10)( ⎣ s + 5 s )
+ j10 s − j10 ⎦
(
A1 = s + 5 ) s + 5 s1 + 100 =
1
( )( 2
) s =−5
125
where, (
A2 = s + j10 ) ( s + 5)( s + j110)( s − j10) =−
(
1
j 20 5 − j10
=−
)
1
100( 2 + j )
s =− j 10
(
A3 = s − j10 ) ( s + 5)( s + j110)( s − j10) =
1
100( −2 + j )
s = j 10
276
⎡ A A2 A3 ⎤
Substituting these, I ( s ) = 250 ⎢ 1 + + ⎥
⎣ s + 5 s + j10 s − j10 ⎦
⎧ 1 1 ⎫
i(t ) = 250 ⎡⎣ A1e −5t + A2 e − j10t + A3 e j10t ⎤⎦ = 2 e −5t + 250 ⎨− e − j10t + e j10t ⎬
⎩ 100( 2 + j ) 100 ( − 2 + j ) ⎭
⎧ (
5⎪ 2− j e ) − j 10 t
( )
−2 − j e ⎪ j 10 t
⎫
= 2 e −5t − ⎨
2⎪ 5
−
5
−5t
⎬ = 2e − 2e
1
2
{
− j 10 t
− je − j10t + 2 e j10t + je j10t }
⎩ ⎪
⎭
5t
or, i(t) 2e 2cos10t sin 10t (A)
Problem 5.5 The circuit was in steady state with the switch in the
position 1. Find the current i(t) for t 0 if the switch is moved from the 1 2
position 1 to 2 at t 0. 10
Solution When the switch is in the position 1, steady state exists 10 V 50 V

0.5 H
10
and the initial current through the inductor is, i(0− ) = = 1 A
10 Fig. 5.36
After the switch is moved to the position 2, the KVL gives in Laplace transform,
50 100 1 ⎡1 1 ⎤ 1
10 I ( s ) + 0.5sI ( s ) − 0.5 × 1 = or, I ( s ) = + = 5⎢ − ⎥+
s ( )
s s + 20 s + 20 ⎣ s s + 20 ⎦ s + 20
20t
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t) 5 4e (A); t 0;
Problem 5.6 (a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.37, the switch S has been thrown to the position 1 for a long
period of time. Find the complete expression for the current after R1 1
throwing the switch S to 2 which removes R1 from the circuit. R2 S
(b) If the values of V, R1, R2 and L be 10 V, 1 ohm, 2 ohm and 1 H
t 0
respectively, calculate
(i) the steady-state current V 2 L
(ii) the energy stored in the inductance at steady-state period
(iii) time constant of the circuit for both the positions of the Fig. 5.37
switch S
Also, calculate the voltage across the resistor R2 and inductor L, at 0.05 seconds after the switch S has been
thrown to the position 2.
Solution
(a) For t 0, as the circuit was in steady state with the switch in the position 1, the circuit becomes as shown in
Fig 5.38 (a)
R1 R2 R2
V V L
i (0 ) i(t)
Circuit for t 0 Circuit for t 0

Fig. 5.38 (a) Fig. 5.38 (b)
277
( )
i 0− =
V
R1 + R2
For t 0, the circuit becomes as shown, in Fig. 5.38 (b).
By KVL, () () ( )
R2 I s + sLI s − Li 0 − =
V
s
V
⇒ ⎡⎣ R2 + sL ⎤⎦ I s = + ()
VL
s R1 + R2
⎡ ⎤ ⎛ ⎞
⎢ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
()
⇒ I s =
V ⎢ 1 ⎥+ V
⎜
1
R2 ⎢ ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎥ R1 + R2 ⎜ ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎟
⎟
⎢ s⎜ s + L ⎟ ⎥ ⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ s + L ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
V ⎛ −⎜ 2 ⎟ t ⎞
⎛R ⎞ ⎛R ⎞
−⎜ 2 ⎟ t
()
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i t = ⎜ 1 − e
R2 ⎝
⎝ L⎠
⎟+
R
V
+ R
e ⎝ ⎠
L
( A ), t > 0
⎠ 1 2
(b) V 10 V, R1 1 ohm, R22 ohm and L 1H

V 10
(i) Steady-state current, I ss = = = 5 A
R2 2
1 1
(ii) Energy stored in the inductance at steady-state period, W = LI 2 = × 1 × 52 = 12.5 W
2 2
L 1
(iii) Time constant of the circuit for switch in the position 1 is, = = = 0.33 second
1
R1 + R2 1 + 2
L 1
Time constant of the circuit for switch in the position 2 is, 2
= = = 0.5 second
R2 2
⎡ ⎤
For t
2
⎣
( 20
3
)
0.05, voltage across the resistor, VR = i × R2 = ⎢5 1 − e −2 t + e −2 t ⎥
⎦t =0.05
×2=7 V
and voltage across the inductor, VL (10 7) 3 V R
Problem 5.7 The circuit of Fig. 5.39 is initially in the steady state.
The switch S is closed at t 0. R
V S C Vc(t )
(a) Find VC ( t).
1
R
(b) Determine the final value of VC ( t) and verify it from the final-value
2
theorem of laplace transform.

Solution At steady-state before closing the switch, the capacitor becomes Fig. 5.39
2 R
open-circuited. So, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 5.40. v(0+ ) = V
3
R
For t 0, by KVL, (
RI1 + R I1 − I 2 =
V
s
)
⇒ 2 RI1 − RI 2 =
V
s
(i)
V v(0 )
⎛ 1⎞ R
and
1
Cs 2
(
I + R I 2 − I1 = − )
2V
3s
⇒ − RI1 + ⎜ R + ⎟ I 2 = −
⎝ Cs ⎠
2V
3s
(ii)
Fig. 5.40
278
Solving equations (i) and (ii),

2R V
s
−R − 2V − 4VR + VR
I2 = 3s = 3s s = − V ⎛ Cs ⎞
2R −R
(
2 R R + 1 − R2 )
3s ⎜⎝ 2 + RCs ⎟⎠
( )
Cs
−R R+ 1
Cs
⎛ ⎞
1 2V V 2V V ⎡ 1 ⎤ V V⎜ 1 ⎟
∴Vc ( s ) = I 2 × + =− + = ⎢2 − ⎥ = +
Cs 3s ( )
3s 2 + RCs 3s 3s ⎣ RCs + 2 ⎦ 2 s 6 ⎜ s + 2
⎝
⎟
RC ⎠
V V − 2 t RC
Taking inverse Laplace transform, vc (t ) = + e ( V ), t > 0
2 6
V
Thus, the final value of the voltage, vc (∞) = Lim vc (t ) =
t →∞ 2
⎛ ⎞
SVc ( s ) = Lim ⎜ + ⎟ =V
V Vs
By final-value theorem, vc (∞) = Lim
s →0 s →0 ⎜ 2
⎜⎝ 6 s+ 2
RC ( ) ⎟ 2
⎟⎠
1k
Problem 5.8 The circuit given in Fig. 5.41 is initially at steady state with
1k 1 F
the switch ‘ K’ open. If the switch is closed at time t 0, find the voltage ‘VC( t)’
6V Vc( t)
across the capacitor.
1k
Solution At steady-state before closing the switch, the capacitor becomes open-
Fig. 5.41
2
circuited. So, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 5.42. v(0− ) = × 6 = 4 V 1k
3
For t 0, by KVL,
1k
( 6
s
)
1 × 103 × I1 + 1 × 103 × I1 − I 2 = ⇒ 2000 I1 − 1000 I 2 =
6
s
(i) 6V v (0 )
1k
106 ⎛ 106 ⎞
and
s
( 4
s
)
I 2 + 1 × 103 × I 2 − I1 = − ⇒ − 1000 I1 + ⎜ 1000 +
⎝
I =−
s ⎟⎠ 2
4
s
(ii) Fig. 5.42
2000 6
s
−1000 − 4
s 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Solving equations (i) and (ii), I2 = =−
2000 −1000 1000 ⎝ s + 2000 ⎟⎠
⎜
−1000 (1000 +10 Cs) 6
106 4 2000 4 3 1
∴Vc ( s ) = I 2 × + =− + = +
s s (
s s + 2000 s s s + 2000 )
2000t
Taking inverse Laplace transform, vc(t) 3 e (V), t 0
279
Problem 5.9 In the circuit in Fig. 5.43, the steady state exists when 10
the switch S is in the position a for a considerable period of time. Find the a
current response after throwing the switch from the position a to b. What
20V b
will be the steady-state value of the current?
1H
100 F
Solution When the switch is in the position a, steady state exists and the
20
initial current through the inductor is i(0− ) = = 2 A Fig. 5.43
10
After the switch is moved to the position b, the KVL gives, in Laplace 10
i
transform, s
104
1 2 2s 20V s
I ( s ) + 1sI ( s ) − 1 × 2 = 0 or, I ( s ) = = 2
100 × 10−6 s
s+
104 (s + 104 ) 2V
s
Fig. 5.44 Fig. 5.45
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t) 2cos100t (A); t 0
The steady state current will oscillate sinusoidally following the relation i(t) 2 cos100t with a peak mag-
nitude of 2 A and frequency of 100 rad/s or 15.9 Hz.
Problem 5.10 In the network shown in Fig. 5.46, the switch S is 1 2

closed and a steady state is attained. At t 0, the switch is opened. S
R = 2.50hm
Determine the current through the inductor for t > 0. 5V L = 0.5 H
C = 200 uF
Solution When the switch S is closed and the steady-state exists,
V 5 Fig. 5.46
the current through the inductor is, i(0− ) = = =2 A
R 2.5
The voltage across the capacitor, Vc(t) 0 as it is shorted.
t
di 1
dt C ∫0
For t 0, the switch is opened. By KVL, L + idt = 0
I (s) ⎡ 1⎤
Taking Laplace transform, L ⎡⎣ sI ( s ) − i(0− ) ⎤⎦ + = 0 or, I ( s ) ⎢ sL + ⎥ = Li(0− )
Cs ⎣ Cs ⎦
s
Putting the values, I ( s ) = 2
s 2 + 104
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t) 2 cos100t (A); t 0
Problem 5.11 The circuit shown in Fig. 5.47 is initially in the steady state with
R3
the switch S open. At t 0, the switch S is closed. Obtain the current through the
1
inductor for t 0. Take R1 R2 R4 1- and R3 2- and L 1-H. R1 S R2

1V 2 L
Solution When the switch S is open and steady state exists, the current through the R4
1
inductor is i2 (0− ) = =1 A
R3
(
R1 + R2 ) Fig. 5.47
R3 + R1 + R2
280
After S is closed, for t 0, by KVL, 2i1 − i2 − i3 = 1

di2
−i1 + 2i2 + −i =0
dt 3
−i1 − i2 + 4i3 = 0
1
Taking Laplace transform, 2 I1 ( s ) − I 2 ( s ) − I 3 ( s ) =
s
− I1 ( s ) + I 2 ( s ) ⎡⎣ s + 2 ⎤⎦ − I 3 ( s ) = i2 (0− ) = 1
− I1 ( s ) − I 2 ( s ) + 4 I 3 ( s ) = 0
2 1 −1
s
−1 1 −1
−1 0 4 1 5
By Cramer’s rule, I2 (s) = = 6+ 6
2 −1 −1 s s+ 6
7
−1 ( s + 2 ) −1
−1 −1 4
5 1 −6 t
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i2 (t ) = + e 7 ( A ); t > 0
6 6
Problem 5.12 A series R-L-C circuit with R 3 , L 1 H and C 0.5 F is excited with a unit step voltage.
Obtain an expression for the current using Laplace transform. Assume that the circuit is relaxed initially.
1 Q (0− ) 1
Solution By KVL, RI ( s ) + sLI ( s ) − Li(0− ) + I (s) + =
sC sC s
Since the circuit is initially relaxed,
i(0 ) 0 and Q(0 ) 0
⎡ 2⎤ 1
Putting the values, I (s) ⎢3 + s + ⎥ =
⎣ s⎦ s
1 1 A A
or, I (s) = = = 1 + 2
( )(
s + 3s + 2 s + 1 s + 2 s + 1 s + 2
2
)
1 1
where, A1 = = 1 and A2 = = −1
s + 2 s =−1 s + 1 s =−2
1 1
I (s) = −
s +1 s + 2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t ) = e − t + e −2 t ( A ) = 2 e

− 3t
2
( 2 ) ( A)
sinh t
281
Problem 5.13 The switch S in the figure is opened at t 0. Determine the voltage v(t), for t 0. What is
the nature of the response?
(a) (b)
L = 0.5 H
R = 0.5
L = 1H
I = 2A S C = 0.5 F I = 2A S C = 1F
R=1
Fig. 5.48 Fig. 5.49
Solution
t
v (t ) 1 dv
(a) By KCL, + i(0− ) + ∫ vdt + C = I
R L0 dt
⎡1 1 ⎤ I
Taking Laplace transform, V ( s ) ⎢ + + sC ⎥ =
⎣ R sL ⎦ s
⎡ 2 s⎤ 2 4 4
Putting the values, V ( s ) ⎢ 2 + + ⎥ = or, V ( s ) = 2 =
+ + ( )
2
⎣ s 2 ⎦ s s 4 s 4 s+2
2t
Taking inverse Laplace transform, v(t ) 4te (V ), t 0
The response is critically damped ( 1)
(b) Proceeding in the same way as Prob. 5.13(a),
⎛ 3 ⎞
1 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 2
V (s) = 2 = ×
s + s +1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 2 2
3
⎜⎝ s + 2 ⎟⎠ + ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2 −t ⎛ 3 ⎞
⇒ v (t ) = e 2
sin ⎜ t ⎟ ( V ); t > 0
3 ⎝ 2 ⎠
The response is under-damped ( 1)
Problem 5.14 In the R-C series circuit of Fig. 5.50, the capacitor has 1 2
10
an initial charge of 2.5 mC. At t 0, the switch is closed and a constant
S
voltage source of V 100 V is applied. Use the Laplace transform
i(t) 50 uF Q0
method to find the current i( t) in the circuit. 100 V
Solution By KVL, after the switch is closed,
1⎡ ⎤
t Fig. 5.50
Ri(t ) + ⎢Q(0− ) + ∫ i(t )dt ⎥ = V
C ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
I (s) 2.5 × 10−3 100 15

Taking Laplace transform, 10 I ( s ) + − = or,, I ( s ) =
50 × 10 s 50 × 10−6 s
−6
s s + 2 × 103
2 103t
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t ) 15e (A); t 0
282
Problem 5.15 In the R-L circuit as shown, in Fig. 5.51, the switch is in the posi-
tion 1 long enough to establish steady-state condition and at t 0 it is switched 1 2
25
to the position 2. Find the resulting current, i( t).
Solution When the switch is in the position 1, steady-state exists and the initial 50 V
100 V 0.01 H
50
current through the inductor is i(0− ) = = 2 A
25 Fig. 5.51
After the switch is moved to the position 2, the KVL gives in Laplace transform,
100
25 I ( s ) + 0.01sI ( s ) − 0.01 × 2 =
s
104 2 A A2 2
or, I ( s ) = − = 1+ −
( )
s s + 2500 s + 2500 s s + 2500 s + 2500
104 104
where, A1 = = 4 and A2 = = −4
( s + 2500 ) s =0
s s =−2500
4 4 2 4 6
I (s) = − − = −
s s + 2500 s + 2500 s s + 2500
2500t
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t ) 4 6e (A); t 0
Problem 5.16 In the series R-L-C circuit as shown, there 1 2

is no initial charge on the capacitor. If the switch is closed S 1H
2
50V 0.5 F
at t 0, determine the resulting current at i( t).
Solution By KVL, for t 0,
di 1
t Fig. 5.52
dt C ∫0
Ri + L + idt = V ⎡⎣ i(0− ) = 0 ⎤⎦
I (s) V
Taking Laplace transform, RI ( s ) + sLI ( s ) + =
Cs s
I ( s ) 50 50 50 50
Putting the values, 2 I ( s ) + sI ( s ) + 2 = or, I (s) = = =
s s 2
(
s + 2s + s s +1+ j s +1− j )(
2
s +1 +1 ) ( )
j 25 j 25
By partial fraction expansion, I (s) = −
s +1+ j s +1− j
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t ) j25 e( 1 j)t
e( 1 j)t
50e t sin t (A); t 0
Problem 5. 17 In the two-mesh network shown in Fig. 5.53, 10 i2(t)

1 2
there is no initial charge on the capacitor. Find the loop currents
i1( t) and i2( t) which result when the switch is closed at t 0. S
50 V i1(t ) 0.2 F 40
Solution Writing the two mesh equations,
t
1
0.2 0∫− 1
10i1 (t ) + i (t )dt + 10i2 (t ) = 50 and 50i2 (t ) + 10i1 (t ) = 50 Fig. 5.53
283
I1 ( s ) 50 ⎡ 5⎤ 50
Taking Laplace transform, 10 I1 ( s ) + + 10 I 2 ( s ) = ⇒ I1 ( s ) ⎢10 + ⎥ + 10 I 2 ( s ) =
0.2 s s ⎣ s ⎦ s
50
and 10 I1 ( s ) + 50 I 2 ( s ) =
s
5 1 1
Solving, I1 ( s ) = and I 2 ( s ) = −
s + 0.625 s s + 0.625
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i1 (t ) = 5e − 0.625t ( A ) and i2 (t ) = 1 − e − 0.625t ( A ), t > 0
Problem 5. 18 Find using final-value theorem, the steady-state value of i2( t )
2
in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.54. Switch S is closed at t 0. The inductor is initially S 2 2
1
de-energized. i 2(t)
2
24 V
Solution Circuit for t 0 is shown in Fig. 5.55. 0.5 H
24
By KVL, in Laplace transform, I1 ( s ) ⎡⎣ 2 + 2 + 0.5s ⎤⎦ − ⎡⎣ 2 + 0.5s ⎤⎦ I 3 ( s ) = Fig. 5.54
s
48
or, I1 ( s ) ⎡⎣ s + 8 ⎤⎦ − ⎡⎣ s + 4 ⎤⎦ I 3 ( s ) = (i)
s
2
and − I1 ( s ) ⎡⎣ 2 + 0.5s ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ 4 + 0.5s ⎤⎦ I 3 ( s ) = 0
i2(t)
or, − I1 ( s ) ⎡⎣ s + 4 ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ s + 8 ⎤⎦ I 3 ( s ) = 0 (ii) i1
2
i3 2
24 V
48
s
(
− s+4 ) 0.5 H
Solving (i) and (ii), I1 ( s ) =

0 s +8 ( )
=
6 s +8
Fig. 5.55
s +8 −( s + 4) s( s + 6)
(
− s+4 ) s +8
s +8 48
s
and I3 (s) =
(
− s+4 ) 0 ( )
=
6 s+4
s +8 −( s + 4) s( s + 6)
(
− s+4 ) s +8
I 2 ( s ) = I1 ( s ) − I 3 ( s ) =
( ) − 6( s + 4 ) = 24
6 s +8
s( s + 6) s( s + 6) s( s + 6)
24
final value of the current, i2 (∞) = Lim sI 2 ( s ) = Lim =4 A
s →0 s →0 s+6
284
Problem 5.19 In a series LC circuit, the supply voltage being v Vmcos( t ), find i( t ) with zero initial con-
ditions. Assume L 1H, C 1F.
⎡ 1 ⎤ sV
Solution By KVL, for t 0, I ( s ) ⎢ sL + ⎥ = 2 m
⎣ Cs ⎦ s + 1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
sVm s2 s2
or, I (s) = = Vm ⎢ ⎥ =V ⎢ ⎥
( ⎛ 1⎞
s2 +1 ⎜ s + ⎟ )
⎢ 2
⎢⎣ s + 1 ( )
2 ⎥
⎥⎦
m
( )( )(
⎢⎣ s + j s − j s + j s − j ⎥⎦ )( )
⎝ s⎠
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ K1* K 2* ⎤⎥
s2 ⎥ = V ⎢ K1 K2
= Vm ⎢ + + +
( )(
⎢ s+ j 2 s− j 2 ⎥ m ⎢ s− j ) ( ) (s + j) (s − j) ( s+ j ⎥ )
2 2
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
( ) 1
2
where, K1 = I ( s ) × s − j =
s= j 4
( ) ( )
2
s + j 2s − s2 × 2 s + j
1 d
( ) j
2
K2 = s − j I (s) = =−
(
2 −1 ! ds ) s= j s+ j
4
4 ( )
1 j
K1* = ; and K 2* =
4 4
V ⎡ 1 1 j j ⎥
⎤
Thus, I (s) = m ⎢ + − +
⎣ (
4 ⎢ s− j 2
s+ j ) ( ) (
2
s− j ) (
s+ j ⎥
⎦
)
Vm V
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i (t ) = ⎡te jt + te − jt − je jt + je jt ⎤ = m ⎡⎣t cos t + sin t ⎤⎦ ( A ); t > 0
4 ⎣ ⎦ 4
Problem 5.20 The series RC circuit of Fig. 5.56 has a sinusoidal voltage
source, v 180sin(2000 t )( V) and an initial charge on the capacitor
Q 0 1.25 mC with polarity as shown. Determine the current if the switch 40
is closed at a time corresponding to 90 . What is the current at time v(t) i(t)
t 0? 25 F Q0
Solution By KVL, for t 0, Fig. 5.56
1 ⎡ t
⎤
∫
−3
40i(t ) + −6 ⎢1 .25 × 10 + i(t )dt ⎥ = 180 cos 2000t
25 × 10 ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
1.25 × 10−3 4 × 104 180 s

Taking Laplace transform, 40 I ( s ) + −6
+ I (s) = 2
25 × 10 s s s + 4 × 106
4.5s 2 1.25
⇒ I (s) = −
(s 2
+ 4 × 10 6
)( s + 10 )
3
s + 103
285
Applying Heaviside expansion formula to find the first term on the right-hand side, we have,
P( s ) = 4.5s 2 , Q( s ) = s 3 + 103 s 2 + 4 × 106 s + 4 × 109 , Q ′( s ) = 3s 2 + 2 × 103 s + 4 × 106 ,
a1 = − j 2 × 103 ; a2 = j 2 × 103 and a3 = −103
Then,
i (t ) =
( P − j 2 × 103)e − j 2 ×103 t
+
(
P j 2 × 103 )e j 2 ×103 t
+
( )e
P −103 −103 t 3
− 1.25e −10 t
Q ′ ( − j 2 × 10 )3
Q ′ ( j 2 × 10 )
3
Q ′ ( −10 ) 3
( ) ( )
3 3 3
= 1.8 − j 0.9 e − j 2 ×10 t + 1.8 + j 0.9 e j 2 ×10 t − 0.35e −10 t
( )
3 3
= −1.8 sin 2000t + 3.6 cos 2000t − 0.35e −10 t = 4.02 sin 2000t + 116.6° − 0.35e −10 t ( A ); t > 0
Problem 5.21 In the RL circuit of Fig.5.57, the source is v 100sin(500 t ).

Determine the resulting current if the switch is closed at a time correspond-
ing to 0. 5
v(t ) i(t)
Solution By KVL, RI ( s ) + sLI ( s ) − Li(0− ) = V ( s ) 0.0 H
100 × 500 Fig. 5.57

or, 5 I ( s ) + 0.01sI ( s ) = [ i(0 ) 0]
s + 25 × 104
2
5 × 106
I (s) =
or,
(s 2
+ 25 × 104 s + 500 )( )
⎛ −1 + j ⎞ ⎛ −1 − j ⎞ 10
By partial fraction expansion, I ( s ) = 5⎜ ⎟ + 5⎜ ⎟ +
⎝ s + j 500 ⎠ ⎝ s − j 500 ⎠ s + 500
(
i(t ) = 10 sin 500t − 10 cos 500t + 10e −500t = 14.14 sin 500t − 45° + 10e − 500t ( A ); t > 0 )
Problem 5.22 A dc voltage applied to a coil of inductance L and resistance R is suddenly changed from
V1 to V2. (a) Find an expression for current in the circuit. (b) If R 10 , L 1 H, V1 100 V, and V2 200 V,
find current at t 0.5 s. (c) If R 10 , L 1 H, V1 200 V, and V2 100 V, find current at t 0.5 s.
( )
V1
Solution Here, initial current in the circuit, i 0− =
R
di t ()
(a) After changing the voltage, the KVL equations is Ri t + L
dt
= V2 u t () ()
() () ( ) ()
V V VL
RI s + L ⎡⎣ sI s − i 0 − ⎤⎦ = 2 ⇒ I s ⎡⎣ R + sL ⎤⎦ = 2 + 1
s s R
V2 ⎛ V1 ⎞
V1 L ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟
()
V2 L R
⇒ I s = + = +⎜
s R + sL ( )
R ⎜⎝ R + sL ⎟⎠ s s + R
L ⎜⎝
s+ R ⎟
L ⎟⎠ ( )
286

V2 ⎡ −( R )t ⎤ V −( R )t ⎛ V V ⎞ −( R )t
()
V
i t = ⎢1− e L ⎥ + 1 e L = 2 +⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ e L
R⎣ ⎦ R R ⎝ R R⎠
(b) If R 10 ,L 1 H, V1 100 V, and V2 200 V, we get the current at t 0.5 s as
200 ⎛ 100 200 ⎞ −(101 )×0.5
()
i t = + −
10 ⎜⎝ 10 10 ⎟⎠
e = 20 − 10e −5 = 19.93 A
(c) If R 10 ,L 1 H, V1 200 V, and V2 100 V, we get the current at t 0.5 s as

200 ⎛ 200 100 ⎞ −(101 )×0.5
()
i t = + −
10 ⎜⎝ 10 10 ⎟⎠
e = 10 + 10e −5 = 10.07 A
Problem 5.23 A 50 F capacitor and 20000- resistor are connected in series across a 100-V bat-
tery at t 0. At t 0.5 s, the battery voltage is suddenly increased to 150 V. Find the charge on capacitor
at t 0.75 s.
Solution When the circuit is connected to a 100-V supply, the equation of voltage across the capacitor is
⎛ ⎞
( )
t
⎛ −
vC = E ⎜ 1 − e RC ⎞⎟ = 100 ⎜ 1 − e
−t 20000 × 50 × 10−6 −t
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎟⎠ = 100 1 − e
0.5
At t 0.5 s, the voltage across the capacitor is vC 100(1 e ) 39.347 V
At t 0.5 s, charge on the capacitor is, q = CvC = 50 × 10−6 × 39.347 = 1967.35 × 10−6 C
This charge is the initial charge q0 when the battery voltage is suddenly increased to 150 V.
When the circuit is connected to 150 V, the KVL equation becomes,
t
()
Ri t +
1
C ∫0
()
i t dt = Vu t ()
V q0
()
1 ⎡ I s q0 ⎤ V
−
()
RI s + ⎢
C ⎢⎣ s
+ ⎥=
s ⎥⎦ s
⇒ I s = R RC
1
()
s+
RC
⎡V q ⎤ − t
i(t ) = ⎢ − 0 ⎥ e RC
⎣ R RC ⎦
Therefore, the voltage across the capacitor,
1 ⎛ V q0 ⎞ − t RC
t t
⎛
dt = V ⎜ 1 − e RC ⎞⎟ + 0 e RC
1 −t q −t
Vc =
C0∫ i ( t ) dt = ∫ ⎜ − ⎟
C 0 ⎝ R RC ⎠
e
⎝ ⎠ RC
287
Substituting the values, the voltage across the capacitor at t 0.75 s i.e., 0.25 second after changing the battery
voltage,
1967.35 × 10−6 − 0.25
⎛
⎝
−t
⎠ RC (
VC = V ⎜ 1 − e RC ⎞⎟ + 0 e RC = 150 1 − e − 0.25 +
q −t
1
) e = 63.82 V
charge on the capacitor is, q = CvC = 50 × 10− 6 × 63.82 = 3.19 × 10−3 C

Problem 5.24 For the circuit shown in figure, find an expres-
sion for the current supplied by the source. How much time it will
t=0
take for the current to reach 25 mA? Assume the circuit to be ini-
tially relaxed. 10 V 700
500 i2
Solution Applying KVL for the two meshes, we get i1 100 F
500i1 − 500i2 = 10
t Fig. 5.58
1
100 × 10−6 ∫0 2
−500i1 + 1200i2 + i dt = 0
()
500 I1 s − 500 I 2 s =
10
s
()
⎛ 104 ⎞
⎝
()
−500 I1 s + ⎜ 1200 + I s =0
s ⎟⎠ 2
()
Solving for I1(s), we get
10 −500
s
⎛ 104 ⎞
0 ⎜⎝ 1200 +
s ⎟⎠ 24 s + 200
()
I1 s = = =
24
+
200
500 −500 (
s 700 s + 104 ) (
700 s + 104 s 700 s + 104 )
⎛ 104 ⎞
−500 ⎜ 1200 +
⎝ s ⎟⎠
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
=
24 ⎜ 1 ⎟+ ⎜
2 1 ⎟ = 1 ⎛ 1⎞ + 1 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ 7⎠ ⎝ (
700 ⎜ s + 100 ⎟ 7 ⎜⎜ s s + 100
7 ) ⎟ 50 ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ 70 ⎜ s + 100 ⎟
⎟⎠ ⎝ 7⎠
()
i1 t =
1 1 −100t 7
+ e
50 70
A ( )
For the current to be 25mA, we get,
1 1 −100t 7
25 × 10−3 = + e ⇒ t = 0.0735 second
50 70
288
Problem 5.25 Figure 5.59 shows a parallel RLC cir-

cuit fed from a dc current source through a switch. The
circuit elements are R 400 , L 25 mH, C 25 nF. I S R L C v( t )
The source current is 24 mA. The switch which has been
in the closed position for a long time is opened at t 0.
(a) What is the initial value of current iL (i. e., at t 0)? Fig. 5.59
(b) What is the initial value of voltage across L at t 0?
(c) What is the expression for current through inductance, capacitance and resistance?
(d) What is the final value of iL?
(e) What happens to iL(t) if R is increased from 400 to 625 ? Assume that initial energy is zero.
t
v (t ) 1 dv
R L ∫0
Solution Applying KCL for the node, we get + vdt + C = I
dt
⎡1 1 ⎤ I
Taking Laplace transform, V ( s ) ⎢ + + sC ⎥ = ⇒ V s =
⎛
I
1 ⎞
()
⎣ R sL ⎦ s C ⎜ s2 +
s
+
⎝ RC LC ⎟⎠
Substituting the values,
24 × 10−3 24 × 106
()
V s = =
⎛
25 × 10−9 ⎜ s 2 +
s
−9
+ −3
1 ⎞ 25 s 2 + 105 s + 16 × 108
−9 ⎟
( )
⎝ 400 × 25 × 10 25 × 10 × 25 × 10 ⎠
24 × 106 16 16
= = −
( )(
25 s + 2 × 104 s + 8 × 104 ) s + 2 × 104 s + 8 × 104
4 4
Taking inverse Laplace transform, v (t ) = 16 e −2 ×10 t − 16 e −8×10 t ( V )
( )=
V s V s () 24 × 106
Also, the current through the inductor, ()
IL s = =
sL 25 × 10−3 s ( )(
25 × 10−3 × 25s s + 2 × 104 s + 8 × 104 )
384 × 10 5
=
( )(
s s + 2 × 104 s + 8 × 104 )
24 32 8
= − +
(
1000 s 1000 s + 2 × 10 4
1000 s + 8 × 104 ) ( )
() ( mA )
4 4
Taking inverse Laplace transform, iL t = 24 − 32 e −2 ×10 t + 8e −8×10 t
(a) At t 0, we get, iL(0) 0

(b) At t 0, we get, v(0) 0
(c) Current through inductance
() ( mA )
4 4
iL t = 24 − 32 e −2 ×10 t + 8e −8×10 t
dv (t ) d 4 4 4 4
Current through capacitance, iC (t ) = C = 25 × 10−9 [16 e −2 ×10 t − 16 e −8×10 t ] = 32 e −8×10 t − 8e −2 ×10 t ( mA )
dt dt
289
( )=
v t
() 1 ⎡ 1
× 16 e −2 ×10 t − 16 e −8×10 t ⎤ = ⎡ e −2 ×10 t − 16 e −8×10 t ⎤ A ( )
4 4 4 4
Current through resistance, iR t =
R 400 ⎣ ⎦ 25 ⎣ ⎦
(d) At t , the final value of iL is, ( )

iL ∞ = 24 − 32 e −∞ + 8e −∞ = 24 mA ( )
(e) Putting the value of resistance R 625 in the expression of iL, we get,
( )=
V s
()
IL s =
sL ⎛
I
s 1 ⎞
sLC ⎜ s 2 + +
⎝ RC LC ⎟⎠
24 × 10−3 384 × 105
= =
⎛
s × 25 × 10−3 × 25 × 10−9 ⎜ s 2 +
s
+
1 (
⎞ s s 2 + 64 × 103 s + 16 × 108 )
⎝ 625 × 25 × 10−9 25 × 10−3 × 25 × 10−9 ⎟⎠
()
Taking inverse Laplace transform and simplifying, we get, iL t = 106.67 × 109 e −32 ×10 t sin 14.4 × 103 t A
3
( ) ( )
Here, with R 400 , the circuit was in overdamped condition. As the value of the resistance is increased to
625 , the circuit becomes underdamped. 1000
Problem 5.26 In the network of Fig. 5.60, the switch S has been closed
3000 S
for a long time. The switch is suddenly opened at t 0 and reclosed at t V0
20 s. Find the expression for the voltage V0 for t 20 s and t > 20 s. 120V
Solution With the switch closed, the initial voltage across the capacitor is 2000 0.001 F
vC 0 − = ( )
120
1000 + 2000
× 2000 = 80 V Fig. 5.60
1000
After the switch is opened, the transformed circuit is shown in Fig. 5.62
below.
Applying KCL at node X, we get VX s −
120
V
s + X +
() VX −
80
s =0
120V 2000 VC(0 )
4000 2000 1
Fig. 5.61
10−8 s
1000
⎡ 1 1 ⎤ 120 0.03
⇒ VX ⎢ + + 18−8 s ⎥ = + 80 × 100−8 = + 80 × 100−8
⎣ 4000 2000 ⎦ 4000 s s 3000
X V0(s)
0.03 80 × 100−8 120/s
⇒ VX = + 1/10 8s
( )
s 0.00075 + 10−8 s 0.00075 + 10 s
−8
2000 80/s
40 40 80 40 40
= − + = +
s s + 0.075 × 106 s + 0.075 × 106 s s + 0.075 × 106 Fig. 5.62
()
6
Taking inverse Laplace transform, VX t = 40 + 40e − 0.075 × 10 t
120 − VX (t ) 6
Therefore, the desired voltage is V0 (t ) = VX (t ) + × 3000 = 100 + 10e − 0.075 × 10 t for 0 t 20 s
4000
6
× 20 ×10−6
At t 20 s, the voltage of node X is VX = 40 + 40e −0.075×10 = 48.925 V
290
When the switch is reclosed at t 20 s, the voltage across the capacitor 1000
will be 48.925 V. After reclosing the switch, the transformed circuit is shown
in Fig. 5.63.
X Vx
Now let the voltage of node X be VX . Applying KCL at node X, we get 120/s 1 V0(s)
() ()
120 48.925 10 8s
VX′ s − () V′ s −
s + VX′ s + X s =0
2000
48.925/s
1000 2000 1
Fig. 5.63
10−8 s
⎡ 1 ⎤ 120
()
⇒ VX′ s ⎢ +
1
+ 10−8 s ⎥ = + 48.925 × 10−8
⎣ 1000 2000 ⎦ 1000 s
()
⇒ VX′ s ⎡⎣0.0015 + 10−8 s ⎤⎦ =
0.12
s
+ 48.925 × 10−8
48.925 × 10−8
()
⇒ VX′ s =
0.12
+ =
0.12
+
48.925
( −8
) −8
s 0.0015 + 10 s 0.0015 + 10 s s s + 0.15 × 10 6
(
s + 0.15 × 106 )
()
⇒ VX ′ s =
80
−
31.075
s s + 0.15 × 106
()
6
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get VX′ t = 80 − 31.075e − 0.15 × 10 t
In this case, the output voltage V0 is equal to VX (t). Since time t is to be counted from the instant the switch
is reclosed, t is replaced by (t 20 10 6 ).
() ( t − 20 × 10− 6 )
6
∴V0 t = 80 − 31.075e − 0.15 × 10 for t 20 s
S
Problem 5.27 In the circuit of Fig. 5.64 the switch S is closed at t 0 and opened L
again at t seconds. Prior to closing the switch at t 0, vC 10 V while L and
C2 do not have any stored energy. Find the voltages vC1 and vC2 at t seconds.
C1 vc C2 vc
C1 C2 1F; C 2H 1 2
Solution After closing the switch, applying KVL in the circuit, we get
( )+ 1 t t
Fig. 5.64
di t
L
dt C1 −∞
()
∫ i t dt +
1
()
∫ i t dt = 0
C2 −∞
I s( ) − 10 + I ( s ) = 0
Since initial voltage across C1 is 10 V, we get, ()
2 sI s +
s s s
⎡ 2 ⎤ 10
()
⇒ I s ⎢2s + ⎥ = ⇒ ()
I s =
5
s +1
2
⎣ s⎦ s
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get i(t) 5sint
∴ vC
1
() 1
t = −10 + ∫ 5sin tdt = −10 + −5csot 0 = 0
C1 0
∴ vC t =
2
() 1
C2 ∫0
5sin tdt = −5csot 0 = 10 V
291
Problem 5.28 The network shown in Fig. 5.65 is in 2 2H

steady state with S1 closed and S2 open. At t t1, S1 is S1 S2
opened and S2 is closed. Find current through capaci-
tor for t t1. 10 V 3H
1 F
Solution When switch S1 is closed and S2 is
opened, the initial current through the 3-H inductor is
Fig. 5.65
( ) 10
i 0 − = = 5 A . Initial voltage across the capacitor is
2
zero.
When the switch S1 is opened and S2 is closed, the current through the capacitor is given by the KVL equa-
( )+
di t t
tion as 3
dt
1
1 × 10−6 ∫0
()
i t dt = 0
1 I s()
3sI s − 3 × 5 +
10 −6
s
=0 ⇒ I s = 2
15s
()
3s + 106
=
5s
106
s2 +
3
⎡⎛ 106 ⎞ ⎤
Taking inverse Laplace transform we get i t = 5cos ⎢⎜()
⎢⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥
⎟ t ⎥ = 5cos 577.35t ( )
⎣ ⎦
Since the switch is closed at t t1, the time will be shifted by (t t1) so that the current through the capacitor
is given as i(t) 5 cos[577.35(t t1)] for t t1
500 x 103 B
Problem 5.29 The switch in Fig. 5.66 has been in the
A
position A for a long time. At t 0 it is moved to B and at t
1 second it is moved to A again. Find the voltage across the 10V 1 F vc
capacitor after a further lapse of 1 millisecond. 1500
Solution As the switch is in the position A for a long time,

the initial charge across the capacitor is zero. Fig. 5.66
When the switch is moved to the position B, the current in the circuit is obtained from the KVL equation as
⎛ 1 ⎞ 10 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
()
I s ⎜ 500 × 103 + = ⇒ I s =
10
() =
⎝ 1 × 10−6 s ⎟⎠ s (
500 × 103 s + 2 5 × 104 ⎜⎝ s + 2 ⎟⎠ )
Taking inverse Laplace transform, ()
i t =
1
5 × 104
( )
e −2 t A
Therefore, voltage across the capacitor is
() ( )() (
vC t = 10 − 500 × 103 i t = 10 − 500 × 103 ) 5 ×110 4 (
e −2 t = 10 1 − e −2 t ) (V)
Therefore, voltage across the capacitor at t 1second is vc(t) 10(1 e 2) 8.65 ( V )
At t 1second, the switch is moved to position A, so that the KVL equation becomes,
t
1
1 × 10−6 ∫0
()
i t dt + 1500i t = 0 ()
292
⎡ ⎤ 8.65
Taking Laplace transform, I s ⎢1500 + () 1
−6 ⎥
1 × 10 s ⎦
= since initial voltage across the capacitor is 8.65 V.
⎣ s
8.65 ⎛ ⎞
⇒ I s =
1
()
1500 ⎝ s + 666.67 ⎟⎠
⎜

i t =
8.65 − 666.67t
1500
e A ( )
()
Hence, the voltage across the capacitor is vC t = 1500i t = 1500 × () 8.65 − 666.67t
1500
e = 8.65e − 666.67t
At t 1ms, the voltage is, vC = 8.65e − 666.67 × 10 × − 3 = 4.44 V
2 − 2 e −t
Problem 5.30 Determine the Laplace transform of f (t ) = .
t
2 − 2e − t 2 2 ⎛ ⎞
Solution ()
f t =
t t
( )
2
te
( te ⎝
)t2 t3 t4 t5
= 1 − e − t = t e t − 1 = t ⎜ 1 + t + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅− 1⎟
2! 3! 4! 5! ⎠
(expanding et )
2 ⎛ t2 t3 t4 t5 ⎞
()
∴f t = t ⎜
t + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅⎟
te ⎝ 2! 3! 4! 5! ⎠
⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞
= 2 ⎜ e − t + te − t + t 2 e − t + t 3 e − t + t 4 e − t + ⋅⋅⋅⎟
⎝ 2! 3! 4! 5! ⎠
Taking Laplace transform of each term, we get
⎡ ⎤
()
F s = 2⎢
1
+
1 1!
+
1 2!
+
1 3!
+ ⋅⋅⋅ ⎥
( )
⎢ s + 1 2! s + 1 2 3! s + 1 3 4! s + 1 4
⎣ ( ) ⎥
⎦ ( )
⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎛ 1⎞ 1 1⎞ 1 1⎞ 1
= 2⎢ +⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ + ⋅⋅⋅ ⎥
⎢ s + 1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜ s + 1 2 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜ s + 1 3 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎜ s + 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ⎟⎠ ⎥
4
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎦
Problem 5.31 Express the following functions in terms of singularity functions and find their Laplace transform:
(a) f(t ) (b) f (t ) (c) f (t ) (d) f (t )
1
K e t /2
Vm K
K(2 t )2
t Kt 2
t 0 1 t
0 t
0 1 2 0 1 23 4 56
Fig. 5.67 f (t )
Vm
Solution
(a) Here, the signal can be expressed in terms of step signal as,
t
⎛ T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
() ()
f t = Vm sin t u t + Vm sin ⎜ t − ⎟ u ⎜ t − ⎟ = Vm sin t u t + Vm sin
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
() ( t− )(
u t− ) 0
Fig. 5.68
293
Taking Laplace transform of individual terms, we get the Laplace transform of the functions as,
V e− s
()
V
F s = 2 m + m2
V
= 2 m 1+ e− s
s +1 s +1 s +1
( )
(b) Here, the signal starts with a straight line of slope K passing through origin and then f(t )
comes to zero at t 1. Hence the signal can be expressed in terms of ramp and step signals K
() ()
as f t = Kr t − Kr t − 1 − Ku t − 1( ) ( )
Taking Laplace transform of individual terms, we get the Laplace transform of the func- 0 1 t
K Ke − s Ke − s K
()
tions as, F s = 2 − 2 −
s s s
= 2 ⎡⎣1 − 1 + s e − s ⎤⎦
s
( ) Fig. 5.69
f(t )
(c) The function can be written as
K
() () ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
f t = Kt u t − Kt u t − 1 + K 2 − t u t − 1 − K 2 − t u t − 2
2 2
Kt 2
K(2 t )2
= Kt u ( t ) − K ⎡t − ( 2 − t ) ⎤ u ( t − 1) − K ( 2 − t ) u ( t − 2 )
2 2 2 2 t
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ 0
1 2
= Kt u ( t ) − K 4 ( t − 1) u ( t − 1) − K ( 2 − t ) u ( t − 2 )
2 2
Fig. 5.70
Taking Laplace transform of individual terms, we get the Laplace transform

⎡ 2 4 e − s 2 e −2 s ⎤
() 2
of the functions as F s = K ⎢ 3 − 2 − 3 ⎥ = K 3 ⎡⎣1 − 2 se − s − e −2 s ⎤⎦ f (t )
⎣s s s ⎦ s 1
i 2
(d) The function can be written as e
()
f t =e
−t
2
⎣ () ( )
⎡u t − u t −1 ⎤ + e
⎦
−t
2 ⎡ u ( t − 2 ) − u ( t − 3) ⎤ + e ⎡ u ( t − 4 ) − u ( t − 5) ⎤ + ⋅⋅⋅
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
−t
2
⎦ t
=e
−t
2 ⎡ ⎡ u ( t ) − u ( t − 1) ⎤ + u ( t − 2 ) − u ( t − 3) + u ( t − 4 ) − u ( t − 5) + ⋅⋅⋅⎤ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
⎣⎣ ⎦ ⎦
Fig. 5.71
Taking Laplace transform of individual terms, we get the Laplace transform
of the functions as
(
− s+ 1 ) (
−2 s + 1 ) (
−3 s + 1 )
()
2 2 2
1 e e e
F s = − + − + ⋅⋅⋅
s+ 1 s+ 1 s+ 1 s+ 1
2 2 2 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 ⎟⎡ −( s + 1 ) −2( s + 1 ) −3( s + 1 ) ⎤ ⎜ 1 ⎟⎛ 1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎢ 1 − e 2
+ e 2
− e 2
+ ⋅⋅⋅ ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ s+ 1 ⎟ ⎣ ⎦ ⎜ s + 1 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 1 + e −( s + 2 ) ⎟⎠
1
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
Problem 5.32 Determine the Laplace transform of the fol- f (t )

lowing periodic waveform. 1
Solution Let for the first half sine wave, the transform is F1(s). t(second )
0 2 3 4
Now, f1(t) sin tu(t) sin(t ) u (t )
1 e− s 1+ e− s Fig. 5.72
Taking Laplace transform, F1 ( s ) = 2 + 2 =
s +1 s +1 s2 +1
294
By the theory of periodicity of Laplace transform, the Laplace transform of the full periodic waveform will be,
1 1+ e− s 1
F ( s ) = F1 ( s ) × = × [ T for the waveform given]
1 − e − Ts s2 +1 1− e− s
⎛ 1+ e− s ⎞ 1 1 ⎛ s⎞
=⎜ − s⎟ 2
= 2 coth ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1− e ⎠ s +1 s +1 ⎝ 2⎠
f(t)
Problem 5.33 Determine the Laplace transform of the sawtooth
waveform as shown in Fig. 5.73. 1
1 1
Solution For the first cycle, f1 ( t ) = r (t ) − u(t − T ) − r (t − T ) t
T T 0 T 2T 3T 4T
Fig. 5.73
1 1 1 − Ts 1 1 − Ts 1
F1 ( s ) =
T s2 s
− e −
T s2
e = 2 ⎡⎣1 − 1 + Ts e −TTs ⎤⎦
Ts
( )
By Scalling theorem (the theory of periodicity), the Laplace transform of the given periodic function is
e − Ts
F ( s ) = F1 ( s ) ×
1 1
( )
= 2 ⎡⎣1 − 1 + Ts e − Ts ⎤⎦ ×
1 1
= 2−
1− e − Ts
Ts 1− e − Ts
Ts s 1 − e − Ts ( )
Problem 5.34 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform V (t )
2 4 2
Solution Here, v1 (t ) = r (t ) − r (t − a ) + r (t − a )
a a 2 a t
0 a/2 a 2a
− as
2 1 4 e 2 2 e − as Fig. 5.74
Taking Laplace transform, V1 ( s ) = − +
a s2 a s2 a s2
2
2 ⎛ 2 ⎛
1 − 2 e 2 + e − as ⎞⎟ = 2 ⎜ 1 − e 2 ⎞⎟
− as − as
2 ⎜
=
as ⎝ ⎠ as ⎝ ⎠
By Scalling theorem (the theory of periodicity), the Laplace transform of the given periodic function is,
⎛
2 1− e 2 ⎞
− as
1 2 ⎛ − as ⎞
2
1 2 ⎛ as ⎞
V ( s ) = V1 ( s ) × = 2 ⎜1− e ⎟ ×2
= 2⎜ ⎟ = 2 tanh ⎜ ⎟
1− e − Ts
as ⎝ ⎠ 1− e − as
as ⎜⎝ 1 + e 2 ⎟⎠ as
− as
⎝ 4⎠
Problem 5.35 A pulse voltage of width a and magnitude 10 V is applied at time t 0 to a series RL circuit
consisting of a resistance R 4 and an inductor L 2 H. Find the current i( t). Assume zero current through
the inductor L before application of the voltage pulse.
Solution The pulse voltage can be written as v(t) 10u(t) 10u(t a)
( )=v t
di t
Applying KVL for the RL series circuit with the pulse voltage, ()
Ri t + L
dt
()
295
Taking Laplace transform, RI(s) L[sI(s) i(0 )] V(s)
()
With zero initial current, substituting the values we get 4 I s + 2 sI s = () 10
s
(
1 − e − as )
()
⇒ I s = =
(
10 ⎛ 1 − e − as ⎞ 5 1 − e
− as
) (
=
5
− − as ⎡ 1
) −
1 ⎤ 5 ⎡1
= −
1
−
e − as e − ass ⎤
+
1 e ⎢
⎢s s+2⎥ 2 s s+2 ⎥
s ⎜⎝ 2 s + 4 ⎟⎠ (
s s+2 ) 2 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ s s+2⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform, () ( ) () (

i t = ⎡⎢ 1 − e −2 t u t − 1 − e ( ) u t − a ⎤⎥
5
2⎣
−2 t − a
⎦ )( )
Problem 5.36 A voltage pulse of width b and magnitude 10 V is applied at time t 0 to a series RC circuit
1
consisting of a resistor R 1 and a capacitor C = F . Find the current i(t). Assume zero charge across
4
the capacitor C before application of the voltage pulse.
Solution The pulse voltage can be written as v(t) 10u(t) 10u(t b)
t
Applying KVL for the RC series circuit with the pulse voltage, () 1
()
Ri t + ∫ i t dt = v t
C −∞
()
( ) ( ) ⎤⎥ = V
1 ⎡ I s v 0−
RI s + ⎢
C ⎢⎣ s
+ (s)
s ⎥⎦
( ) = 10 1 − e
)
I s
With zero initial voltage, substituting the values we get 4 I s + ()
s1 s
( − bs
()
⎛ 1 − e − bs ⎞ 10 1 − e
⇒ I s = 10 ⎜
( − bs
) = ⎡ 10
10e − bs ⎤
⎟= ⎢ − ⎥
⎝ s+4 ⎠ s+4 ⎣s+4 s+4 ⎦
() ()
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i t = 10 ⎡ e − 4 t u t − e ( ) u t − b ⎤
⎣
− 4 t −b
⎦ ( )
Problem 5.37 Find the response current of a series RL circuit consisting of a resistor R 3 and an
inductor L 1 H when each of the following driving force voltage is applied:
(a) unit ramp voltage , r(t 2)
(b) unit impulse voltage (t 2)
(c) unit step voltage u(t 2)
(d) unit doublet voltage (t 2)
(e) pulse of width a and magnitude 1 V beginning at time t 2 second
Solution
(a) Unit ramp voltage
Applying KVL to RL series circuit,

di
Ri + L
dt
() (
=v t =r t−2 )
e −2 s
Taking Laplace transform, ( )() s
1
R + sL I s = 2 e −2 s ⇒ I s = 2 ()
s sL + R ( )
296
e −2 s ⎡K K K ⎤
Substituting the values, ()
I s = = e −2 s ⎢ 21 + 2 + 3 ⎥
s s+3
2
( ) ⎣s s s + 3⎦
1 1
∴ K1 = =
s + 3 s =0 3
d ⎡ 1 ⎤ 1 1
∴ K2 = =− =−
ds ⎢⎣ s + 3 ⎥⎦ s =0 s+3( )
2
9
s =0
1 1
∴ K3 = 2 =
s s =−3
9
⎡1 −1 1 ⎤
()
I s = e −2 s ⎢ 23 +
⎢s s
9+ 9 ⎥
s + 3⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform, () ( )

i t = − u t − 2 + r t − 2 + e ( )u t − 2
1
9
1
3
1 −3 t − 2
9
( ) ( )
(b) Unit impulse voltage (t 2)
di
In this case, Ri + L = v t =
dt
( ) (t − 2 )
e −2 s e −2 s
Taking Laplace transform, ( R + sL ) I ( s ) = e −2 s
⇒ I s = () =
( sL + R) ( s+3 )
i t = e ( )u t − 2
−3 t − 2
( )
(c) Unit step voltage u(t 2)
di
In this case, Ri + L = v (t ) = u(t − 2 )
dt
−2 s
e −2 s e −2 s ⎡1 ⎤
Taking Laplace transform, ( R + sL ) I ( s ) = e s ⇒ I s = () =
1
= e −2 s ⎢ −
1
⎥
( ) (
sL + R s s + 3 3 ) (
⎢⎣ s s + 3 ) ⎥⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform, () ( )

i t = u t − 2 − e ( )u t − 2
1
3
1 −3 t − 2
3
( )
(d) Unit doublet voltage (t 2)
In this case, Ri + L
di
dt
()
=v t = ′ t−2 ( )
e −2 s se −2 s ⎡ ⎤
Taking Laplace transform, ( R + sL ) I ( s ) = se −2 s
⇒ I s = () = = e −2 s ⎢1 −
3
⎥
sL + R s+3 ( ) ( )
⎢⎣ s+3 ( ) ⎥⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform, () (
i t = )(
t − 2 u t − 2 − 3e
−3( t − 2 )
)u t−2 ( )
(e) Pulse of width a and magnitude 1 V beginning at time t 2 seconds
di
() (
In this case, Ri + L = v t = u t − 2 − u t − 2 − a
dt
) ( )
297
Taking Laplace transform, ( R + sL ) I ( s ) = 1s e −2 s

− e( )
1 − 2+ a s
s
e −2 s − e ( ) ⎡ −2 s −( 2+ a )s ⎤ 1 ⎡ ⎤
− 2+ a s
()
I s = = e −e = ⎡ e −2 s − e ( ) ⎤ ⎢ −
− 2+ a s 1 1 1
⎥
(
s sL + R ) ⎣ ⎦ s s+3 ⎣ ( )⎦ 3 ⎢⎣ s s + 3 ( ) ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ e −2 s e ( ) e −2 s e ( ) ⎤
− 2+ a s − 2+ a s
= ⎢ − − + ⎥
3 ⎢⎣ s s s + 3 s + 3 ⎥⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform, () ( ) (

i t = u t − 2 − u t − 2 − a − e ( )u t − 2 + e (
1
3
−3 t − 2
)
−3 t − 2 − a )
(
u t −2−a ) ( )
Problem 5.38 Find the response current of a series RC circuit consisting of a resistor R 2 and a capac-
1
itor C = F when each of the following driving force voltage is applied:
4
(a) ramp voltage 2r( t 3)
(b) impulse voltage 2 ( t 3)
(c) step voltage 2u( t 3)
(d) doublet voltage 2 ( t 3)
Solution
(a) Ramp voltage 2r(t 3)
t
Applying KVL to RC series circuit, Ri +

1
()
∫ idt = v t = 2r t − 3
C −∞
( )
⎛ 1⎞
Taking Laplace transform, () 2 −3s
⎜⎝ R + Cs ⎟⎠ I s = s 2 e
2 e −3s 2 e −3s e −3s ⎡1 1 ⎤

()
I s = = =
1
= e −3s ⎢ −
2 ⎥⎦
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛
s2 ⎜ R + ⎟ s2 ⎜ 2 + ⎟
4 ⎞ s s+2 2 ⎣ s (
s + )
⎝ Cs ⎠ ⎝ s⎠
Taking inverse Laplace transform, () (

i t = u t − 3 − e ( )u t − 3
1
2
1 −2 t − 3
2
) ( )
(b) Impulse voltage 2 (t 3)
t
1
()
In this case, Ri + ∫ idt = v t = 2 t − 3
C −∞
( )
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ R + Cs ⎟⎠ I s = 2 e
−3 s
2 e −3s 2 e −3s se −3s ⎡ 2 ⎤

()
I s = = = = e −3s ⎢1 − ⎥
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ s+2 ⎣ s+2⎦( )
⎜⎝ R + Cs ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 + s ⎟⎠
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t) (t 3) u (t 3) 2e 2(t 3) u (t 3)
298
(c) Step voltage 2u(t 3)

t
In this case, Ri +
1
() (
∫ idt = v t = 2u t − 3
C −∞
)
⎛ 1⎞
Taking Laplace transform, () −3 s 1
⎜⎝ R + Cs ⎟⎠ I s = 2 e s
2 e −3s 2 e −3s e −3s

()
I s = = =
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛
s⎜ R + ⎟ s⎜ 2 + ⎟
4⎞ s+2 ( )
⎝ Cs ⎠ ⎝ s⎠
2(t 3)
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i(t) e u (t 3)
(d) Doublet voltage 2 ( t 3)
t
In this case, Ri +
1
C −∫∞
()
idt = v t = 2 ′ t − 3( )
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ R + Cs ⎟⎠ I s = 2 se
−3 s
2 se −3s 2 se −3s s 2 e −3s ⎡ 4 ⎤

()
I s = = = = e −3s ⎢ s − 2 +
2 ⎥⎦
⎛
R +
1⎞ ⎛
2 +
4⎞ s+2 ( ⎣ ) s +
⎜⎝ Cs ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠
Taking inverse Laplace transform, () ( ) (

i t = ′ t − 3 − 2 t − 3 + 4e ( )u t − 3 t ≥ 3
−2 t − 3
) ( )
Problem 5.39 Find the response current of a series RLC circuit consisting of a resistor R 2 , an induc-
tor L 1 H and a capacitor C = 1 F when each of the following driving force voltage is applied:
4
(a) ramp voltage 12r(t 2) (b) step voltage 3u(t 3)
(c) impulse voltage 3 (t 1) (d) doublet voltage 2 (t 3)
( )+ 1
di t
Solution Applying KVL for the series RLC circuit we get ()
Ri t + L
dt C∫
() ()
i t dt = v t
di t ( )+
⇒ 5i t + () dt
1
1 ∫
()
i t dt = v t ()
4
(a) Ramp voltage 12r(t 2)
When v(t) 12r(t 2)
di t( )+
5i t + () dt
1
1 ∫
()
i t dt = v t ()
4
⎛ 4⎞
⎝ s⎠
12
Taking Laplace transform, ⎜ 5 + s + ⎟ I s = 2 e −2 s
s
()
299
⎡ ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤
12 e −2 s 3e −2 s 4 e −2 s e −2 s
()
⇒ I s = = 12 e −2 s
⎢
1
⎥ = 12 e −2 s ⎢ 4 − 3 + 12 ⎥ = − +
(
s s 2 + 5s + 4 ) ( )(
⎢⎣ s s + 1 s + 4 ) ⎥⎦ ⎢ s s +1 s + 4 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
s s +1 s + 4
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get,

(t 2) 4(t 2)
i(t) 3u(t 2) 4e e t 2
(b) Step voltage 3u(t 3)
When v(t) 3u(t 3)
di t ( )+
()
5i t +
dt
1
1 ∫
()
i t dt = v t ()
4
⎛ 4⎞
3 −3s
⎜⎝ 5 + s + s ⎟⎠ I s = s e
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
3e −2 s e −2 s e −2 s
⇒ I s =() = 3e −2 s
⎢
1
⎥ = 3e −2 s ⎢ 3 − 3 ⎥= −
(s 2
+ 5s + 4 ) ( )(
⎢⎣ s + 1 s + 4 ) ⎥⎦ ⎢ s + 4 s + 1 ⎥ s + 4 s +1
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get ()

i t =e ( ) +e ( ) t ≥3
− t −3 −4 t − 3
(c) Impulse voltage 3 (t 1)

When v(t) 3 (t 1)
di t ( )+
()
5i t +
dt
1
1 ∫
()
i t dt = v t ()
4
⎛ 4⎞
⎜⎝ 5 + s + s ⎟⎠ I s = 3e
−s
3se − s ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ K K ⎤
⇒ I s = () = 3e −s
⎢
s
⎥ = 3e − s ⎢ 1 + 2 ⎥
( s + 5s + 4
2
) ⎢⎣ s + 1 s + 4 ( )( ) ⎥⎦ ⎣ s +1 s + 4 ⎦
⎡ s ⎤ −1
∴ K1 = ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ s + 4 ⎦ s =−1 3
⎡ s ⎤ 4
∴ K2 = ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ s + 1 ⎦ s =− 4 3
⎡ 1 4 ⎤
⎢ −3 ⎥ 4e − s e − s
∴ I s = 3e ⎢ + 3 ⎥= () −s
−
⎢ s + 1 s + 4 ⎥ s + 4 s +1
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get, i t = 4 e
−4( t −1)
− e ( ) t ≥1
− t −1
()
(d) Doublet voltage 2 (t 3)
When v(t) 2 (t 3)
300
( )+
di t
()
5i t +
dt
1
1 ∫
()
i t dt = v t ()
4
⎛ 4⎞
⎜⎝ 5 + s + s ⎟⎠ I s = 2 se
−3 s
2 s 2 e −3s ⎡ 10 s + 8 ⎤
⇒ I s = () = e −3s ⎢ 2 − 2 ⎥
( s + 5s + 4
2
)
⎣ s + 5s + 4 ⎦
10 s + 8 K K
Let, = 1 + 2
s + 5s + 4
2
s + 1 s +4
⎡ 10 s + 8 ⎤ −2
∴ K1 = ⎢ ⎥ = 3
⎣ s + 4 ⎦ s =−1
⎡ 10 s + 8 ⎤ 32
∴ K2 = ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ s + 1 ⎦ s =−4 3
⎡ 2 32 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥ 2 e −3s 32 e −3s
()
∴ I s = 2 e −3s − e −3s ⎢ 3 + 3 ⎥ = 2 e −3s + −
⎢ s +1 s + 4 ⎥ 3 s +1 3 s + 4
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get () ( )

i t =2 t−3 + e ( ) − e ( ) t ≥3
2 − t − 3 32 −4 t − 3
3 3
Problem 5.40 A voltage pulse of magnitude 6 V and duration 3 seconds to 6 seconds is applied to a
series RL circuit consisting of R 6 and L 2 H. Obtain the current i(t). Also calculate the voltage across
L and R.
Solution Applying KVL for the series RL circuit, Ri + L

di
dt
( ) ( )
= v (t ) = 6 ⎡⎣ u t − 3 − u t − 6 ⎤⎦
Taking Laplace transform, ( R + sL ) I ( s ) = 6s ⎡⎣ e −3 s

− e −6 s ⎤⎦
6 ⎡ e −3s − e −6 s ⎤ 6 ⎡ e −3s − e −6 s ⎤ 3 ⎡ e −3s − e −6 s ⎤ −6 s ⎡ 1 1 ⎤

()
⇒ I s = ⎢ ⎥= ⎢
s ⎣ R + sL ⎦ s ⎣ 6 + 2 s ⎦ s ⎣ s + 3 ⎦
⎥= ⎢ ⎥ = ⎡⎣ e − e ⎤⎦ ⎢ −
−3 s
⎥
⎣ s s + 3⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform, () ( )( )(

i t = 1− e ( ) u t − 3 − 1− e ( ) u t − 6
−3 t − 3 −3 t − 6
)( )
Voltage across inductor, vL = L
di
dt ⎣{(
= 2 ⎡⎢ − −3 e (
−3 t − 3
) )
}u(t − 3) − {−(−3)e ( ) }u(t − 6)⎤⎦⎥
−3 t − 6
( )
= 6e ( )u t − 3 − 6e ( )u t − 6
−3 t − 3 −3 t − 6
( )
Voltage across resistor, ( )(
vR = Ri = 6i = 6 ⎡⎢ 1 − e ( ) u t − 3 − 1 − e ( ) u t − 6 ⎤⎥
⎣
−3 t − 3 −3 t − 6
⎦
) ( )( )
301
Problem 5.41 Voltage having waveform of truncated ramp as shown v(t )

in Fig. 5.75 is applied to an RL series circuit consisting of a resistor R 3
and inductor L 1 H. The rise time t0 2 s. Find the current i(t). 1
Solution The applied voltage can be synthesized in terms of two ramp
() ()
functions as v t = 1 r t − 1 r t − t
t0 t0 0 ( ) t0
0 t
Applying KVL for the series RL circuit, Fig. 5.75
di
dt
1
t0
1
()
Ri + L = v t = r t − r t − t0
t0
() ( )
Taking Laplace transform, ( R + sL ) I ( s ) = t1 ⎡⎢ s1 − s1 e
2 2
− t0 s ⎤
⎥
0 ⎣ ⎦
⇒ I s = () 1 ⎡ 1 1 − t0 s ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
− e ⎥⎜
t0 ⎢⎣ s 2 s 2 ⎦ ⎝ R + sL ⎟⎠ = t 1 − e
0
− t0 s
s 2
1
s +3
( ) ( )
1 K K K
Let = 1+ 2+ 3
(
s2 s + 3 s2) s s+3
⎡ 1 ⎤ 1
∴ K1 = ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ s + 3 ⎦ s =0 3
⎡d 1 ⎤ 1
∴ K2 = ⎢ ⎥ =−
⎣ ds s + 3 ⎦ s =0 9
⎡1⎤ 1
∴ K3 = ⎢ 2 ⎥ =
⎣ s ⎦ s =−3 9
−t s ⎡ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ 1 − t0 s ⎡ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1⎛ 1 ⎞ 1⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
()
∴I s =
1
t0
( )
1− e 0 ⎢ ⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 1− e
⎣ 3 ⎝ s ⎠ 9 ⎝ s ⎠ 9 ⎝ s + 3 ⎠ ⎦ t0
(
⎢− ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ 9 ⎝ s ⎠ 3 ⎝ s ⎠ 9 ⎝ s + 3⎠ ⎦
)
1⎡ 1 1 ⎤ 1⎡ 1 1 1 −3 t −t ⎤
() ()
Taking inverse Laplace transform, i t = ⎢ − + r t + e −3t ⎥ u t − ⎢ − + r t − t0 + e ( 0 ) ⎥ u t − t0
t0 ⎣ 9 3
1
9
() ( ) ( )
where, t0 2 s. ⎦ t0 ⎣ 9 3 9 ⎦
Problem 5.42 Figure 5.76 shows a staircase voltage 5

waveform. Assuming that the staircase is not repeated,
4
express its equation in terms of step functions. If this voltage
Voltage in volt
3
is applied to a series RL circuit with R 2 ohm and L 1 H,
find an expression for the resulting current i(t); i(0 ) 0. 2
1
Solution Here, the applied voltage is a combination of sev-
eral shifted step functions and can be written as
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
() ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
v t = u t − 2 + u t − 4 + u t − 6 + u t − 8 + u t − 10 − 5u t − 12 ) ( ) Time t in seconds
Taking Laplace transform, Fig. 5.76
()
1
V s = ⎡⎣ e −2 s + e −4 s + e −6 s + e −8 s + e −10 s − 5e −12 s ⎤⎦
s
302
( )=v t
di t
If this voltage is applied to RL series circuit, applying KVL we get Ri t + L() dt
()
Taking Laplace transform, ( R + sL ) I ( s ) = V ( s ) = 1s ⎡⎣ e −2 s
+ e −4 s + e −6 s + e −8 s + e −10 s − 5e −12 s ⎤⎦
⇒ ()
I s =
1
⎡ e −2 s + e −4 s + e −6 s + e −8 s + e −10 s − 5e −12 s ⎤
(
s s+2 ⎣ ) ⎦
1 ⎡1 1 ⎤ −2 s −4 s −6 s −8 s −10 s
= ⎢ − ⎡ e + e + e + e + e − 5e −12 s ⎤
2 ⎣ s s + 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦
() 2⎣
−2 t − 2
⎦ ( 2⎣
)−2 t − 4
⎦ 2⎣
(
−2 t − 6
⎦
1
2⎣
)
i t = ⎡1 − e ( ) ⎤ u t − 2 + ⎡1 − e ( ) ⎤ u t − 4 + ⎡1 − e ( ) ⎤ u t − 6 + ⎡1 − e ( ) ⎤ u t − 8
1 1 1 −2 t −8
⎦ ( ) ( )
2⎣
−2 t −10
⎦ ( 5
2⎣
)
+ 1 − e ( ) ⎤ u t − 10 − ⎡1 − e ( ) ⎤ u t − 12
1⎡ −2 t −12
⎦ ( )
Problem 5.43 The unit step response of a network is given by (1 e bt). Determine the unit impulse
response h(t) of this network.
Solution Here, the input is, () ()

w t =u t ⇒ W s = () 1
s
() (
and the output is y t = 1 − e − bt ) ()
1
⇒ Y s = −
1
=
b
s s+b s s+b ( )
By convolution theorem, ()
Y s =H s W s () ()
= H (s) ()
b 1 b
⇒ ⇒ H s =
s( s + b) s ( s+b )
bt
Taking inverse Laplace transform, the impulse response is, h(t) be
Problem 5.44 The unit impulse response of current of a circuit having R 1 ohm and C 1 F in series is
given by [ (t) exp( t) u (t)]. Find the current expression when the circuit is driven by the voltage given as
[1 exp( 2t)] u (t).
() ()
Solution Here, the impulse response is h t = ⎡⎣ t − exp −t u t ⎤⎦ ⇒ H s = 1 −
1
=
s .
s +1 s +1
( ) () ()
() ( ) ()
The input is, w t = ⎡⎣1 − exp −2t ⎤⎦ u t
1
⇒ W s = −
1
()
=
2
s s+2 s s+2 ( )
By convolution theorem, the output is given by
() () ()
Y s =H s W s =
s
×
2
=
2
=
2
−
2
s +1 s s + 2( ) (
s +1 s + 2 s +1 s + 2 )( )
taking inverse Laplace transform, y t = 2 e − 2 e() ( −t −2 t
)
303
Problem 5.45 The response of a network to an impulse is h ( t ) = 0.18 e − 0.32 t − e −2.1 t . Find the response of ( )
the network to a step function using the convolution theorem.
Solution By convolution theorem,
⎡ 1 1 ⎤ 1 A3
() () () 0.32 A A2
Y s = H s W s = 0.18 ⎢ − ⎥ × = = 1+ +
⎣ s + 0.32 s + 2.1 ⎦ s s s + 0.32 s + 2.1 s s + 0.32 s + 2.1( )( )
0.32
∴ A1 = = 0.477
( )(
s + 0.32 s + 2.1 ) s =0
0.32
∴ A2 = = −0.562
(
s s + 2.1 ) s =−0.32
0.32
∴ A3 = = 0.0856
(
s s + 0.32 ) s =−2.1
Putting these values, Y s =

s
()
0.477 0.562 0.0856
− +
s + 0.32 s + 2.1
()
Taking inverse Laplace transform, y t = 0.477 − 0.562 e − 0.32 t + 0.0856 e −2.1t
Summary
1. Laplace transform is defined as 6. Laplace transform is a powerful transform method
∞ for solving network analysis problems. This method
L [f (t )] = F ( s ) = ∫ f (t )e − st dt is generally used to find the complete response (both
0− transient and steady state) of a circuit.
where s complex frequency ( j ), with, 7. If h(t ) is the impulse response of a linear network
Real part of s neper frequency and = then the response of the same network y (t ) subject
Imaginary part of s radian frequency. to any arbitrary input w(t ) is given by the convolution
2. Laplace transform of some functions are listed in integral as
Table 5.1. ∞ ∞
3. The Laplace transform of a periodic function is equal y (t ) = ∫ h ( )w (t − )d = ∫ w ( )h (t − )d

−∞ −∞
⎛ 1 ⎞
to ⎜ times the Laplace transform of the first
⎝ 1− e −Ts ⎟⎠ 8. If f1(t ) and f2(t ) are two functions of time which are
cycle where T is the time period of the function. zero for t 0, and if their Laplace transforms are
4. Inverse Laplace transform can be found by using F1(s) and F2(s ), respectively then the convolution
partial fraction expansion method and using Laplace theorem states that the Laplace transform of the
transform pairs as listed in Table 5.1. convolution of f1(t ) and f2(t ) is given by the product
F1(s) F2(s).
5. In Laplace transform domain, the passive circuit ele-
ments are replaced as follows. Mathematically, the convolution of f1(t ) and f2(t ) is
written as
Resistor vR Ri → VR RI
di t t
Inductor v L = L → VL sL Li(0 )
dt ) ) ) ) ) )
f 1 (t * f 2 (t = ∫ f 1 ( f 2 (t − d = ∫ f 1 (t − f 2 ( d
t 0 0
1 I v (0 − )
Capacitor v C = ∫ idt → v C = −
C −∞ sC s () ()
= f2 t * f1 t
304
1. Discuss the advantages of the Laplace transform If 0 then the variation of the real and imaginary
method over the conventional classical methods of parts of the function is shown below.
solving the linear differential equations with con-
stant coefficients. Damped sinusoidal
1
Advantages of Laplace Transform Method 0.8
0.6
1. It gives complete solution. 0.4
f(t)
2. Initial conditions are automatically considered in
0.2
the transformed equations. 0
3. Much less time is involved in solving differential
0.2
equations. 0.4
4. It gives systematic and routine solutions for differ- 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
ential equations. Time (second)
2. What do you understand by ‘complex frequency’? Damped cosinusoidal
1
Give its physical significance.
Complex frequency The complex frequency (s) is the 0.5
sum of two frequencies, the real and imaginary.
s complex frequency ( j ) f(t)
0
where, Real part of s neper frequency
Imaginary part of s radian frequency
0.5
The general solution of the differential equation in 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
time-domain is Time (second)
i(t ) I0e st, where s ( j ) Fig. 5.78
st
Since e is a dimensionless quantity and so, also, the
product ‘st ’ a dimensionless quantity, the unit of ‘s’ If 0 then the variation of the real and imaginary
must be (time) 1 or Hz. parts of the function is shown below.
Here, is interpreted as radian frequency; as Damped sinusoidal
8
radian is a ratio of two lengths, ‘ ’ is effectively (time) 1, 6
i.e. , frequency in Hz. 4
Also, as and must have the same dimension, i.e., 2
f(t)
0
the dimension of should be (time) 1. Also, with 0,
2
1 ⎡ i (t ) ⎤ 4
i(t ) I0e t
⇒ = ln ⎢ ⎥ 6
t ⎣ I0 ⎦
8
Since the unit of ln of some number is neper, the unit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (second)
of is neper per second.
Physical significance of complex frequency Damped cosinusoidal
8
We have, 6
i(t ) I0e st I0e ( j )t I0e t[cos t jsin t ] 4
If 0, then the variation of the real and imaginary 2
f(t )
0
parts of the function is shown below.
2
4
6
8
t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
sin t cos t t Time (second)
Fig. 5.77 Fig. 5.79
305
From these figures, it is clear that Thus, the Laplace transform F(s) typically exists for
decides the number of oscillations per second all complex numbers such that Re{s} a, where a is a
decides the magnitude of these oscillations real constant which depends on the growth behavior
of f(t), or precisely the condition is given as
3. Explain why the lower limit of the Laplace trans- )
f (t = k 1e k 2t where, k1 and k2 are some constants
⎛∞ ⎞
form integral ⎜ ∫ f (t )e − st dt ⎟ is taken as 0 instead For example, for the function, f (t ) = e t u (t ), Laplace
2
⎝ 0− ⎠
transform integral becomes
of 0 .
∞ ∞ ∞
∫ e e dt = ∫ e dt = ∫ e t
2 2 2
t − st t − st − t−j t
The lower limit of the integration should be 0 instead dt
of 0 or simply 0. If f (t ) is continuous at t 0 then the 0− 0− 0−
value of f (0) is well-defined. But, if f (t ) is not continu-

As t approaches infinity, the area under the curve
ous at t 0, then the meaning of f (0) becomes ambig-
(t2 t) goes to infinity. Thus, the Laplace transform of
uous. To consider the effect of ‘instantaneous energy
this function does not exist.
transfer’, we must use 0 as the lower limit to include
the impulses at t 0. The use of 0 will exclude the 6. Define ROC of Laplace transform and mention its
existence of any impulses at the origin. properties.
So, we use 0 as the lower limit. Region of Convergence (ROC ) The existence of
Laplace transform X(s) of a given x(t ) depends on
4. What is the Laplace transform of a function which
whether the transform integral converges
is non-zero for t < 0?
∞ ∞
As the lower limit of integration of Laplace transform ) )
X ( s ) = ∫ x (t e − st dt = ∫ x (t e − t e − j t dt < ∞
is 0 , the Laplace transform does not distinguish −∞ −∞
between functions that are different for t 0 bur iden- which in turn depends on the duration and magnitude
tical for t 0. of x(t ) as well as the real part of s, Re s (the imagi-
For example, the Laplace transforms of u(t ) and nary part of s Im s j determines the frequency of
u(t 1) will be same. a sinusoid which is bounded and has no effect on the
However, t 0 is physically the starting time of a convergence of the integral).
circuit or system and all the signals considered are usu- This limits the variable s ( j ) to a part of the
ally zero for t 0. For this reason, all will have unique complex plane. The subset of values of s for which the
(one-sided) Laplace transform. Conversely, all Laplace Laplace transform exists is called the region of conver-
transform F(s ) will have a unique time function such gence (ROC) or the domain of convergence.
that f (t ) 0 for t 0. Thus, the Laplace transform F(s) typically exists for
all complex numbers such that Re{s} a, where a is a
5. Does every signal f (t ), such that f (t ) 0 for t < 0,
real constant which depends on the growth behavior
have a Laplace transform?
of f (t ), whereas the two-sided transform is defined in a
The existence of Laplace transform X(s) of a given x(t ) range a Re{s} b. In the two-sided case, it is some-
depends on whether the transform integral converges times called the strip of convergence.
∞ ∞
) ) )
X ( s = ∫ x (t dte − st dt = ∫ x (t dte − t e − j t dt < ∞
Properties of region of convergence
−∞ −∞ 1. If x(t ) is absolutely integrable and of finite dura-
tion then the ROC is the entire s-plane (the Laplace
which in turn depends on the duration and magnitude
transform integral is finite, i.e., X(s) exists, for any s).
of x(t ) as well as the real part of s, Re s (the imagi-
nary part of s Im s j determines the frequency of 2. The ROC of X(s) consists of strips parallel to the
a sinusoid which is bounded and has no effect on the j -axis in the s-plane.
convergence of the integral). 3. If x(t ) is right sided and Re s 0 is in the ROC then
This limits the variable s ( j ) to a part any s to the right of 0 (i.e., Re s 0 ) is also in the
of the complex plane. The subset of values of s for ROC, i.e., ROC is a right-sided half plane.
which the Laplace transform exists is called the 4. If x(t ) is left sided and Re s 0 is in the ROC then
region of convergence (ROC) or the domain of con- any s to the left of 0 (i.e., Re s 0 ) is also in the
vergence. ROC, i.e., ROC is a left-sided half plane.

306
∞
5. If x(t ) is two-sided then the ROC is the intersection
of the two one-sided ROCs corresponding to the (t ) 0 for t 0 and ∫
−∞
(t )dt = 1
two one-sided components of x(t ). This intersection We see that an impulse function is the derivative of
can be either a vertical strip or an empty set. a step function. Hence, by differentiation property
6. If X(s) is rational then its ROC does not contain any of Laplace transform, the Laplace transform of unit
poles (by definition X s ()
= ∞ dose not exist). The
s =s p
impulse function is obtained as
⎡d ⎤
ROC is bounded by the poles or extends to infinity.
) ) )
L ⎡⎣ (t ⎤⎦ = L ⎢ u (t ⎥ = sL ⎡⎣u (t ⎤⎦ = s × = 1
1
7. If X(s) is a rational Laplace transform of a right-sided ⎣d ⎦ s
function x(t ) then the ROC is the half plane to the
right of the rightmost pole; if X(s) is a rational Laplace 8. Explain gate function. g(t)
transform of a left-sided function x(t ) then the ROC Obtain the equation of a K
is the half plane to the left of the leftmost pole. gate function starting at
origin and duration T.
8. A signal x(t ) is absolutely integrable, i.e., its Fou-
Gate function A gate 0 a b
rier transform X( j ) exists (first Dirichlet condition,
assuming the other two are satisfied), if and only if function is shown in figure. Fig. 5.81 Gate function
the ROC of the corresponding Laplace transform It can be obtained from step function as follows.
X(s) contains the imaginary axis Re s 0 or s j . Therefore, g(t ) Ku(t a) Ku(t b)
The Laplace transform of the gate function is
7. Derive from the first principle the Laplace trans-
form of a unit step function. Hence or otherwise, obtained as L ⎡⎣ g (t ) ⎤⎦ =
s
(
K − as
e − e − bs )
determine the Laplace transform of unit ramp
function and unit impulse function. 9. What do you understand by transient and steady-
state response? How can they be identified in a
A unit step function is defined as given below.
general solution?
f (t ) u(t ) 1 for t 0 u(t)
1 In electrical engineering, a transient response or nat-
0 for t 0
ural response is the electrical response of a system to
and is undefined at t 0. 0 t
a change from equilibrium.
The Laplace transform of a unit Fig. 5.80 (a)
The condition prevailing in an electric circuit between
step function is given as, Unit step
two steady-state conditions is known as the transient
∞ ∞ function
)
L ⎡⎣u (t ⎤⎦ = ∫ u (t ).e − st dt = ∫ 1.e − st dt
state; it lasts for a very short time. The currents and volt-
ages during the transient state are called transients.
0− 0−
∞ In general, transient phenomena occur whenever
⎡ e − st ⎤ 1 1
=⎢ ⎥ =0− = (i) a circuit is suddenly connected or disconnected
⎣ − s ⎦0 − − s s
to/from the supply,
A unit ramp function is defined as r(t) (ii) there is a sudden change in the applied voltage
f (t ) r(t ) t for t 0 1 from one finite value to another, or
1 (iii) a circuit is short-circuited.
0 for t 0 t
0
We see that unit ramp func- The transient currents are not caused by any part of
Fig. 5.80 (b) the supply voltage, but are entirely associted with the
tion is the integrations of unit
Unit ramp changes in the stored energy in capacitors and induc-
step function. Hence, by inte-
gration property of Laplace function tors. As there is no energy stored in resistors, there are
transform, the Laplace trans- no transients in purely resistive circuits.
form of unit ramp function is When the transient phenomena die out, the circuit
obtained as becomes steady and the state of the circuit is called
‘steady state’.
) ) 1
s
)
L ⎡⎣ r (t ⎤⎦ = L ⎡⎣ ∫ u (t dt ⎤⎦ = L ⎡⎣u (t ⎤⎦ = × = 2
1 1 1
s s s
In electrical engineering, a simple example would
be the output of a 5-volt dc power supply. when it is
A unit impulse function is defined as turned on; the transient response is from the time the
307
1.0 A
0.5 A
0A
0s 0.5 s 1. 0s 1.5s 2.0s 2. 5s 3 .0s 3.5 s 4.0s 4.5s 5 .0 s
I( R1) Time
Fig. 5.82
switch is turned on and the output is a steady 5 volts. 2. No integration or differentiation is involved in the
At this point, the power supply reaches its steady-state transform equations.
response of a constant 5 volts. 3. The response obtained after solution is a complete
Another practical example will be an RC series cir- response, i.e., both the steady state and transient
cuit. When it is suddenly switched to a dc supply, the responses are obtained.
transient current through the circuit is the maximum
and it gradually decreases so that the steady state cur- 12. Define and distinguish between zero Input
rent in the circuit becomes zero. Response (ZIR) and Zero State Response (ZSR).
In a general solution, the part of the solution that Zero Input Response (ZIR) In circuit thory, the
diminishes with time is identified as the transient part, Zero Input Response or ZIR is the behavior or
and the part that exists with time is identified as the response of a circuit with zero inputs. The ZIR
steady-state part. For example, for the general solu- results only from the initial state of the circuit and
tion, f (t ) A Be t, the transient response is Be t and not from any external source or forcing function.
steady state response is A. The ZIR is also called the natural response, and the
resonant frequencies of the ZIR are called the natu-
10. What do you understand by initial conditions ral frequencies.
before and after switching? Zero State Response (ZSR) In electrical circuit theory,
It is possible that a capacitor or an inductor might have the Zero State Response or ZSR is the behavior or
been used in some other circuit earlier, where it absorbed response of a circuit with zero initial conditions. The
some energy and then it was disconnected. Because of ZSR results only from the external inputs or driving
its non-dissipative nature, the energy was stored within functions of the circuit and not from the initial condi-
the capacitor (or the inductor). Now, as this capacitor tions. Such a network is said to be an initially relaxed
(or inductor) is connected to a circuit, it gets some path network. The ZSR is also called the forced or driven
to release its stored energy. This stored energy is repre- response of the circuit.
sented by the initial voltage VC(0) or initial current IL(0). The total response of the circuit is the superposi-
tion of the ZSR and the ZIR.
11. Discuss the advantages of analyzing the circuits using
frequency domain rather than the time domain. 13. Explain under what condition, an RC series circuit
The following are some advantages of analyzing an behaves as
electrical network in s-domain rather that in t- domain: a) Differentiator c) Coupling network
1. Each element can easily be replaced by a transform b) Low-pass filter d) Integrator
impedance. We consider the RC series circuit.
308
(a) RC series cir- R 1
cuit as differentia- V out IX C C
g≡ = =
tor We have an ac V in IZ
( C)
2
source with voltage

Vi(t) i C R + 1
2
vin(t), input to an RC
series circuit. This Fig. 5.83 1
∴g =
time the output is the 1+ ( RC )2
voltage across the resistor.
We consider only low frequencies << 1/RC, so Here, at low frequencies, the capacitive reactance
that the capacitor has time to charge up until its volt- ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ X C = j 2 fC ⎟⎠ is very high and therefore the circuit
age almost equals that of the source.
2
can be considered as an open circuit. Under these
⎛ 1 ⎞ conditions, the input signal is equal to output signal.
V in = IZ = I R 2 + ⎜
⎝ C ⎟⎠ At very high frequencies, the capacitive reactance
I ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ X C = j 2 fC ⎟⎠ is very low and therefore the output
1
But, R << , so V in =
C C
signal is very small as compared with the input signal.
C i Thus, the circuit acts as low pass filter with the fre-
quency characteristics as shown in Fig. 5.86.
i
Vin VC vOut RC dvin /dt Gain
V0 Actual characteristics
R
( << 1/RC) Vi 1
Fig. 5.84 0.707
1 Pass-band Stop-band
For frequencies, << , V ≅V
RC in C
dq d 0 fc Frequency
∴V out = V R = iR = R = R CVC
dt dt Fig. 5.86
d c) RC series circuit as coupling network A cou-
∴V out ≅ RC V
dt in pling network is used for coupling a signal at a fre-
quency from a voltage source to a load. The voltage
Thus, the output is the differentiation of the input
source has a source resistance. The load has a load
and the RC series circuit acts as differentiator.
resistance and a load reactance. The ratio of the load
(b) RC series circuit as low pass filter If the RC series reactance to the load resistance is greater than 100.
circuit is supplied with a frequency-varying source The coupling network includes a reactive element
then it will act as a low-pass filter if the output is taken and a delay circuit. The reactive element is arranged
as the voltage across the capacitor. in series with the load to resonate with the load reac-
I tance at the frequency. The delay circuit is between
The voltage across the capacitor is IX C = C . the reactive element and the source, has a delay
The voltage across the series combination is: equivalent to a quarter wavelength transmission line
2 at the frequency and has a characteristic impedance
⎛ 1 ⎞
IZ = I R 2 + ⎜ , so the gain is equal to the square root of the product of the values
⎝ C ⎟⎠ of the load resistance and the source-required resis-
R i tance.
Thus, an RC series circuit will act as coupling net-
i
work only when the ratio of load resistance to load
Vin Vseries VOut VC reactance is greater than 100 and the suply fre-
C
quency is such that the capacitor resonates at that
Fig. 5.85 frequency.
309
d) RC series circuit as integrator We have an ac 1 1 V
C∫
source with voltage vin(t), input to an RC series circuit. V out = VC = idt ≅ ∫ in dt
C R
The output is the voltage across the capacitor.
We consider only high frequencies 1/RC, so 1
RC ∫ in
that the capacitor has insufficient time to charge up,
Vout ≅ V dt
its voltage is small, so the input voltage approximately
R i
equals the voltage across the resistor.
i
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ Vin iR VOut 1/RC Vindt
V in = IZ = I R + ⎜ 2
⎝ C ⎟⎠
C
(v >> 1/RC)
But, C >> 1 , so V in ≅ IR Fig. 5.87

R
Thus, the voltage vC is the integration of the input
1
For frequencies, >> , V ≅V voltage and hence the RC series circuit acts as an
RC in R integrator.
Exercises
1. (a) Find the initial values of the functions: 10
()
(i) f t = e − at
cos tu t () [(i) 1, (ii) 2] i2(t)
()
(ii) F s =
(
2 s +1 ) 100 V
1H 100␮F
s + 2s + 5
2
(b) Find the final value of the functions: Fig. 5.89

7
()
(ii) F s =
7
[(i) , (ii) 0] 4. Find for the circuit shown, the current through C using
( ) 9
2
s s +3 Laplace transform. The switch is closed at t 0 and the
initial charge in the capacitor, i.e., at t 0 is zero.
s −1
(ii) F ( s =)(s + 1 (s + 2 ) )
[10sin 100t (A)]
2
2. Obtain the Laplace transform of the following functions:
S
V
()
[(i) F s = 2 (1− e −Ts − se −Ts )
Ts
10 V
100␮F
A
()
(ii) F s = 2 (1− e −Ts −Te −Ts ) ]
Ts
Fig. 5.90
5. The circuit of Fig. 5.91 was initially in the steady state with
(i) f(t ) (ii) f(t)
the switch S in the position a. At t 0, the switch goes from
a to b. Find an expression for the voltage v0(t) for t 0.
V A Take the initial current in the inductor L2 to be zero.
1 − 3t
[ v 0 (t ) = e 2 ( V ) ]
0 1 2 t 2
a b
V 0 T t
R1 2
Fig. 5.88(a) Fig. 5.88(b)
L2 1H V
3. In the network shown, the switch is closed and a steady 2V R2 1 0
L1 2H
state is reached in the network. At time t 0, the switch
is opened. Find an expression for the current through
the inductor i2(t). [10 cos 100t (A)] Fig. 5.91
310
6. In the circuit of Fig. 5.92, the applied voltage is v(t) (b) determine i2(t), using the Laplace transform
10sin(10t ␲/6), R 1 ,C 1 F. Using Laplace method if k1 3.
Transformation, find complete solution for current i(t). (a) va(t) 4 e 0.75t (1.5cos0.25t 0.5sin0.25t)
Switch K is closed at time t 0. Assume zero charge 0.707t 0.707t
(b) i2(t) 5 16.3375e 1.3375e (A)]
across the capacitor before switching.
5 100 k1i1
[ i (t ) = (1− 10 3 )e −t + cos(10t − 54° 8 ')( A ) ] i1 Va
101 101 1H
1
1 2 1 1
v1(t) 5u(t) 1
V K 1
1F
1F i2(t)
i(t )
Fig. 5.95
Fig. 5.92
11. The network shown in Fig. 5.96, has reached steady
7. A series RLC circuit, with R 5⍀, L 0.1 H and C state when the switch S moves from a to b.
500 μF, has a sinusoidal voltage source, v
1000 sin250t. Find the resulting current if the switch (i) Determine initial values for iL(t) and Vc(t) with switch
is closed at t 0. in the position b.
[i(t) e 25t (5.42cos139t 1.89sin 139t) 5.65sin(250t (ii) Determine Vc(t) for t 0. Sketch Vc(t) as a function
73.6 ) (A)] of time.
8. The two-mesh network shown in Fig. 5.93 contains a (iii) Determine damping ratio, undamped and damped
sinusoidal voltage source, v 100 sin(200t ␾)(V). natural frequencies.
The switch is closed at an instant when the voltage −t ⎛ 3 ⎞ 20 − t ⎛ 3 ⎞
is increasing at its maximum rate. Find the resulting [(i) 5 A, 5 V; (ii) 15 − 10e 2
cos ⎜ t⎟− e 2 sin⎜ t ⎟ (V))]
mesh currents, with directions as shown in the figure. ⎝ 2 ⎠ 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠
[i1(t) 3.01e 100t 8.96 sin(200t 63.4 )
b s 1H
i2(t) 1.505e 100t 4.48 sin(200t 63.4 )]
a
50 mH 10 V iL(t ) 1F 1
1 2 Vc(t)
5V
10 Fig. 5.96
V 10
i1 i2
12. Find the source current after the switch is closed at
t 0. Take initial current to be zero. [(3 e 25t)(A)]
Fig. 5.93
9. Find i2(t) for t 0; assume the all initial conditions to be 100
zero.
10 5 −30t
[ i 2 (t ) = + e − 5e −10t , for t 0] t 0
3 3 50 4H
100 V
2
10 1H 1H
10 10
1 Fig. 5.97
100 V i2(t)
13. Find an expression for the current in the inductor at time
t after the switch is closed. What is the final value of the
Fig. 5.94
current and how long will it take for the inductor current
10. In the network shown, in Fig. 5.95, to reach 95% of its final value?
(a) determine Va(t), using the Laplace transform
[ 2 ⎛⎜ 1− e 6 ⎞⎟ A ; 2 A, 0.36 second]
( )
− 50 t
method if k1 3. ⎝ ⎠
311
iL [(a) e 2(t 3)
u(t 3) ; (b)
1
2
( )
u t − 3 − e ( )u t − 3 ]
1 −2 t − 3
2
( )
50 t 0
100 4H
18. Show that the Laplace transform of the square wave is
100 V
1
F (s ) =
s (1+ e − as )
Fig. 5.98
f(t)
14. In the circuit, find the initial and final values of currents
i1 and i2 when the switch is closed at t 0. Use initial- 1
value and final-value theorems.
[i1(0) 7.14 A, i1 ( ) 10 A; i2 (0) 7.14 A, i2( ) 0 A]
15 0 a 2a 3a 4a t (second)
Fig. 5.102
t 0 19. Determine the current response of a series RL circuit
150 V 30 mH i2 6 with R 6 and L 3 H for each of the following driv-
i1 ing voltages:
(a) a step voltage 2u(t 2)
Fig. 5.99 (b) a ramp voltage 2r(t 3)
15. In the network shown in Fig. 5.100, the switch is closed at Assume that the circuit is initially relaxed.
t 0, prior to which the circuit is in the zero state. Using
Thevenin’s theorem, transform the circuit to the left of
[(a);
3
1
1− e ( ) u t − 2 ;
−2 t − 2
( ) ( )
points A and B into its Thevenin equivalent in frequency
2⎡ 1 −2(t − 3)u (t − 3) ⎤
domain and find the current in the 30- resistance. Con- (b)
3⎣
( 1
4
)
⎢2 r t − 3 − u t − 3 + e
4
( ) ⎥]
vert the expression for current in the time domain. ⎦
13.14t 41.86t
[0.1818 0.265e 0.083e (A)] 20. A series RL circuit has a resistor R 4 and an induc-
10 1H A 2H tor L 2 H. A pulse of magnitude 10 V and duration
5 ms is applied to the circuit at t 3 ms. Find i(t).
t 0 Assume that the circuit was initially relaxed.
20 30
10 V ⎡5
( ) (
⎢ ⎡⎣u t − 0.003 − u t − 0.008 ⎤⎦ − )
⎣2
B
Fig. 5.100 5 −2 t − 0.003)
− ⎡e (
2⎣
( )
−2 t − 0.008 )
u t − 0.003 − e ( u t − 0.008 ( )⎤⎦ ⎤⎥
16. The network shown in Fig. 5.101 is in steady state with ⎦
switches S1 and S2 open. At t t1, S1 is opened and S2 is 21. A voltage pulse of 20-V magnitude and 10-μs dura-
closed. Find the current through the capacitor for t t1. tion is applied to an RC circuit. Determine the current.
[i(t) 5cos{0.577 103(t t1)} for t t1] Assume that the circuit was initially relaxed. Take R
2 2 H 10- and C 10 μF.
−10 −4 (t −10 −5 ) ⎤
S1
⎡ ⎡ −10−4 t
⎢⎣2 ⎣⎢e −e
⎦⎥
( ⎤
u t − 10 −5 ⎥
⎦
)
S2
3H 1 F
10 V 22. A unit doublet voltage ␦’(t 5)is applied at t 0 to a
series RLC circuit consisting of a resistor R 4 , L 1 H
1
and C F. Determine i(t). Assume that the circuit was
Fig. 5.101 3
17. An RC series circuit has R 2 , C 0.25 F. Find the cur- initially relaxed.
rent response if the driving voltage is (a) step voltage ⎡ ⎤
2u(t 3), and (b) ramp voltage 2r(t 3). ( )
1 −(t − 5)
⎢ t −5 + e
2
(
u t − 5 − e ( )u t − 5 ⎥
9 −3 t − 5
2
) ( )
⎣ ⎦
312
23. Figure 5.103 shows a staircase voltage waveform. 1
C farad when each of the following driving volt-
Assuming that the staircase is not repeated, express its 3
equation in terms of step functions. If this voltage is ages is applied:
applied to a series RL circuit with R 4 ohms and L 2 (a) ramp voltage 9r (t 2) (b) step voltage 4u (t 3)
H, find an expression for the resulting current i(t); (c) impulse voltage 9␦ (t 1).
i(0 ) 0
⎡ ⎡ 9 −(t −2 ) 3 −3(t −2 ) ⎤ ⎤
⎢(a ) ⎢3 − e
2
− e
2
( )
⎥u t − 2 ; ⎥
⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
4 ⎢ (b ) 2
⎣ (
⎡e −(t − 3) − e −3(t − 3) ⎤u t − 3 ;
⎦ ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
( ) ( )
Voltage in volts
−3(t −1) − (t −1)

⎢(c ) 3e u t −1 −e u t −1 ⎥
3 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2
25. Verify that the convolution between two functions
1 2
f1(t) 2u(t) and f2(t) exp ( 3t)u(t) is [1 exp( 3t)];t > 0
3
where u(t) is the unit step function.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time t in seconds 26. Find the response of the network shown in Fig. 5.104 when
Fig. 5.103 the input voltage is (a) unit impulse, and (b) vi(t) e 2t.
[(a) e t; (b) (e t
e 2t)]
⎢
() ⎣ ⎦ ( ⎣ ) (
⎡ i t = ⎡1− e −2(t −2 ) ⎤u t − 2 + ⎡1− e −2(t − 4 ) ⎤u t − 4
⎦ )⎤⎥ R 1
⎢ ⎡ ⎥
⎢ + ⎣1− e
−2(t − 6 )
(⎤
⎦ )
⎡
u t − 6 + 1− e
⎣ (
−2(t − 8 )
⎤
⎦
u t −8) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎣
(
⎢ − 4 ⎡1− e −2(t −10 ) ⎤u t − 10
⎦ ) ⎥
⎦
Vi(t ) C 1F V0(t)
24. Find the current i(t) in a series RLC circuit comprising

resistor R 4 , inductor L 1 henry and capacitor Fig. 5.104
Questions
1. (a) What do you understand by complex frequency? 4. Explain why the lower limit of the Laplace transform
Give its physical significance. ⎡∞ ⎤
integral ⎢ ∫ f (t )e dt ⎥ is taken as 0 instead of 0 .
− st
(b) Define Laplace transform of a function f (t ). What ⎢⎣ 0 − ⎥⎦
are the advantages of Laplace transform?
5. What is the Laplace transform of a function which is
Or,
non-zero for t 0?
Discuss the advantages of Laplace transform method
over the conventional classical methods of solving dif- 6. Does every signal f (t ), such f (t ) 0 for t 0, have a
ferential equations with constant coefficient. Laplace transform?
(c) State and deduce initial-value and final-value theo- 7. (a) Define unit-step, unit ramp and unit impulse functions
rems. and derive their Laplace transform from first principles.
(d) Write notes on application of Laplace transform to (b) Define ROC of Laplace transform and mention its
network analysis. properties.
2. What is Laplace transformation? Give reasons for its 8. Define and sketch ramp, unit step and unit impulse
wide use in the electric circuit analysis. functions.
3. Discuss the advantages of analyzing circuits using 9. Derive from the first principle the Laplace transform
frequency domain rather than time domain. How can of a unit step function. Hence or otherwise, determine
the initial conditions of a circuit be incorporated using the Laplace transform of a unit ramp function and a
Laplace transform? unit impulse function.
313
10. Explain gate function. Obtain the equation of a gate (b) Derive an expression for the current i(t) flowing
function starting at origin and duration T. through an RLC series circuit. Explain with suitable
11. (a) Find the current i(t) if unit step voltage is applied to sketches the variation of current with time under
an RL circuit. three conditions:
Or, I. Underdamped II. Critically damped
Derive an expression for the current response in III. Overdamped

an R-L series circuit excited with constant voltage 14. What do you understand by the impulse response of
source. a network? Briefly explain its importance in network
(b) Define the term ‘time-constant’ of a circuit. What is analysis.
the physical significance of time-constant of a cir- 15. What do you understand by transient and steady-state
cuit? Find its value for an R-L series circuit. parts of response? How can they be identified in a gen-
eral solution?
12. (a) Derive an expression for the decay current in an RC
circuit excited by a unit step voltage. What is the Or,
time-constant of the circuit? Discuss the natural and steady-state response of an
Also, determine the nature of the voltage response electrical circuit with illustrative examples.
across the capacitor. Or,
(b) Under what conditions an RC series circuit will act Write notes on (a) Transient and steady state response
as: i) a differentiator? ii) an integrator? (b) Free and forced response
13. (a) Explain the terms ‘critical resistance’, ‘damping ratio’ 16. State and prove convolution theorem.What is the neces-
and ‘frequency’ as applied to the study of RLC series sity of the convolution theorem in circuit analysis?
circuit. How do they help in simplifying the analysis
of the circuit?
1. The condition for over-damped response of an RLC 5. Laplace transform of a delayed unit impulse function
series circuit is ␦s(t) ␦(t 1) is
R2 1 R2 1 (i) unity (ii) zero
i) 2
= ii) 2
> (iii) e s (iv) s
4L LC 4L LC
R2 1 R2 1 6. The condition for under-damped response of an RLC
iii) < iv) ≤
2
4 L LC 4 L2 LC series circuit is
2. Transient current in an RLC circuit is oscillatory when R2 1 R2 1
i) = ii) >
L L 4 L2 LC 4 L2 LC
(i) R = 2 (ii) R > 2
C C 2 R2 1
iii) R < 1 iv) 2
≤
4L2
LC 4 L LC
L
(iii) R < 2 (iv) R = 0. 7. The value of the impulse function ␦(t) at t 0 is
C
(i) 0 (ii) (iii) 1 (iv) indeterminate
3. Laplace transform analysis gives
(i) time domain response only 8. The value of the ramp function at t is
(ii) frequency domain response only (i) infinity (ii) unity (iii) zero (iv) indeterminate
(iii) both (i) and (ii) 9. The value of the ramp function at t is
(iv) none of these (i) 0 (ii)
4. A function f(t) is shifted by a then it is correctly repre- (iii) (iv) 1
sented as 10. The value of the impulse function ␦(t) for t 0 is
(i) f(t a)u(t) (ii) f(t)u(t a) (i) zero (ii) unity
(iii) f(t a)u(t a) (iv) f(t a)(t a) (iii) k, where k is a constant (iv) infinity
314
11. The free response of RL and RC series networks having 21. If f(t) and its first derivative are Laplace transformable
a time constant is of the form then the final value of f(t) is given by
t t
− − Lt f (t ) = Lt sF ( s )
(i) A + Be (ii) Ae (i) t →∞ s →0
t F (s )
( A + Bt )e Lt f (t ) = Lt
t t −
− − (ii)
(iii) Ae + Be (iv) t →∞ s →∞ s
12. In the complex frequency s ␴ j␻, ␻ has the units F (s )
(iii) Lt f (t ) = Lt
of rad/s and ␴ has the units of t →∞ s →0 s
(i) Hz (ii) neper/s (iii) rad/s (iv) rad
(iv) Lt f (t ) = Lt sF ( s )
t →∞ s →∞
13. Time constant of a series RC circuit is
(i) C/R (ii) R/C (iii) RC (iv) 1/RC 22. At t 0 with zero initial condition which of the fol-
lowing will act as a short circuit?
14. Time constant of a series RL circuit is
(i) Inductor (ii) Capacitor
(i) L/R (ii) R/L (iii) LR (iv) 1/LR
(iii) Resistor (iv) None of these
15. A coil with a certain number of turns has a specified
23. At t 0 with zero initial condition which of the fol-
time constant. If the number of turns is doubled, its
lowing will act as an open circuit?
time constant would
(i) Inductor (ii) Capacitor
(i) remain unaffected (ii) become doubled
(iii) Resistor (iv) None of these
(iii) become four-fold (iv) get halved
24. A capacitor at time t 0 with zero initial charge acts
16. An RLC series circuit has R 1 , L 1 H and C 1 F.
as a
Damping ratio of the circuit will be
(i) short circuit (ii) open circuit
(i) more than unity (ii) unity (iii) 0.5 (iv) zero
(iii) current source (iv) voltage source
17. A step-function voltage is applied to an RLC series cir- 25. A series RC circuit is suddenly connected to a dc volt-
cuit having R 2 , L 1 H and C 1 F. The transient age of V volts. The current in the series circuit just after
current response of the circuit would be the switch is closed is equal to
(i) over-damped
V VC V
(ii) critically damped (i) zero (ii) (iii) (iv)
(iii) under damped RC R R
(iv) over, under or critically damped depending upon 26. A series LC circuit is suddenly connected to a dc volt-
magnitude of the step voltage age of V volts. The current in the series circuit just after
the switch is closed is equal to
18. For an RC circuit comprising a capacitor C 2 μF in
V V
series with a resistance R 1 M , the period 6 seconds (i) (ii) (iii) zero (iv) V
will be equal to L C LC
(i) one time constant (ii) two time constants 27. The steady-state current in the RC series circuit, on
(iii) three time constants (iv) four time constants the application of a step voltage of magnitude E
19. A series RL circuit with R 100 ohms; L 50 H, is sup- will be
E
plied to a dc source of 100 V. The time taken for the (i) zero (ii)
R
current to rise 70% of its steady-state value is E − t CR E −t
(i) 0.3 s (ii) 0.6 s (iii) e (iv) e
R RC
(iii) 2.4 s
28. A 10- resistor, a 1-H inductor and a 1-F capacitor are
(iv) 70% of time required to reach steady state
connected in parallel. The combination is driven by a
20. If f(t) and its first derivative are Laplace transformable unit step current. Under steady-state conditions, the
then the initial value of f(t) is given by source current flows through the
(i) Lt f (t ) = Lt sF ( s ) (i) resistor (ii) inductor
t →0 s →0
(iii) capacitor only (iv) all the three elements
F (s )
(ii) Lt f (t ) = Lt 29. When a unit impulse voltage is applied to an inductor
t →0 s s →∞
F (s ) of 1 H, the energy supplied by the source is

(iii) Lt f (t ) = Lt (i) (ii) 1 Joule
t →0 s →0 s
Lt f (t ) = Lt sF ( s ) (iii) 1 Joule (iv) 0

(iv) t →0 s →∞ 2
315
30. Which of the following conditions are necessary for 40. A series circuit containing R, L and C is excited by a
validity of the initial value theorem: Lim sF ( s ) = Limf (t )? step voltage input. The voltage across the capacitance
s →∞ t →0
exhibits oscillations. The damping coefficient (ratio) of
(i) f(t) and its derivative f’(t) must have Laplace this circuit is given by
transform. R R
(ii) If the Laplace transform of f(t) is F(s) then Lim (i) = (ii) =
2 LC LC
sF(s) must exist.
R R
(iii) Only f(t) must have Laplace transform. (iii) = (iv) =
(iv) (i) and (ii) both. 2 C 2 L
1 L C
31. Inverse Laplace transform of is
s −a 41. Consider the following statements:
(i) sin at (ii) cos at (iii) e at
(iv) e at A unit impulse ␦(t) is mathematically defined as
1. ␦(t) 0, t 0
32. The impulse response of an RL circuit is a ∞
(i) rising exponential function 2. ∫ (t )dt = 1

0+
(ii) decaying exponential function ∞
(iii) step function
(iv) parabolic function
3. ∫ (t )dt = 1
−∞
33. Laplace transform of the output response of a linear Of these statements,

system is the system transfer function when the input is (i) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (ii) 1 and 2 are correct
(i) a step signal (ii) a ramp signal (iii) 2 and 3 are correct (iv) 1 and 3 are correct
(iii) an impulse signal (iv) a sinusoidal signal 42. With symbols having their usual meanings, the
34. An initially relaxed RC series network with R 2 M , Laplace transform of u(t a) is
− as as
1 1
and C 1 ␮F is switched on to a 10-V step input. The (i) (ii) (iii) e (iv) e
voltage across the capacitor after 2 seconds will be s s −a s s
(i) zero (ii) 3.68 V (iii) 6.32 V (iv) 10 V 43. Two coils having equal resistances but different induc-
tances are connected in series. The time constant of
( s + 2) the series combination is the
35. For V ( s ) = , the initial and final values of v(t)
s ( s + 1) (i) sum of the time constants of the individual coils
will be respectively (ii) average of the time constants of the individual
(i) 1 and 1 (ii) 2 and 2 (iii) 2 and 1 (iv) 1 and 2 coils
(iii) geometric mean of the time constants of the
36. The Laplace transform of the function i(t) is
10 s + 4 individual coils
()
I s = . Its final value will be:
( )(
s s + 1 s 2 + 4s + 5 ) (iv) product of the time constants of the individual coils
44. If the step response of an initially relaxed circuit is
(i) 4 5 (ii) 5 4 (iii) 4 (iv) 5 known then the ramp response can be obtained by
(i) integrating the step response
37. An initially relaxed 100-mH inductor is switched ‘ON’
(ii) differentiating the step response
at t 1 second to an ideal 2-A dc current source. The
(iii) integrating the step response twice
voltage across the inductor would be
(iv) differentiating the step response twice
(i) zero (ii) 0.2␦(t) V
(iii) 0.2␦(t 1) V (iv) 0.2tu (t 1) V 45. If a capacitor is energized by a symmetrical square-
t wave current source then the steady state voltage
38. If the unit step response of a network is (1 e ) then
across the capacitor will be a
its unit impulse response will be
(i) square wave (ii) triangular wave
1 −t
(i) e t (ii) e (iii) step function (iv) impulse function
1 −t t
46. A square wave is fed to an RC circuit. Then
(iii) e (iv) (1 )e
(i) voltage across R is square and across C is not
39. The response of an initially relaxed system to a square
unit ramp excitation is (1 e t) . Its step response (ii) voltage across C is not square and across R is not
will be square
1 2 −t (iii) voltage across both R and C is square
(i) t −e (ii) 1 e t (iii) e t (iv) t
2 (iv) voltage across both R and C is not square
316
47. A step voltage is applied to an under-damped series 2. The output is a ramp for rectangular input
RLC circuit with variable R. Which of the following pulse.
statements correctly describes the behaviour of the 3. The output has zero average for all inputs.
circuit? Of these statements,
1. If R is increased, the steady-state voltage across C (i) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
will be reduced (ii) 1 and 2 are correct
2. If R is increased, the frequency of transient oscilla- (iii) 2 and 3 are correct
tion across C will be reduced. (iv) 1 and 3 are correct
3. If R is reduced, the transient oscillation will die 54. The Laplace transform method enables one to find
down faster. the response in
4. If R is reduced to zero, the peak amplitude of the volt- (i) the transient state only
age across C will be double the input step voltage. (ii) the steady state only
Select the correct answer using the codes given (iii) both transient and steady states
below: (iv) the transient state provided sinusoidal forcing
Codes: (i) 1 and 2 (ii) 2 and 3 functions do not exist.
(iii) 2 and 4 (iv) 1, 3 and 4
55. The convolution of a function f(t) with the unit impulse
48. The number of turns of a coil having a time constant T function ␦(t) is
is doubled. Then the new time constant will be (i) ␦(t) (ii) f(t)␦(t) (iii) f(t) (iv) f( )␦(t)
(i) T (ii) 2T (iii) 4T (iv) T/2 56. The dc gain of a system represented by the transfer
25
function is
( )( )
st
49. The response of a network is of the form ke ,where s +2 s +3
s ␴ j␻. Then ␴ is known as
(i) radian frequency (ii) neper frequency (i) 25 (ii) 25/6 (iii) 5 (iv) 10
(iii) complex frequency (iv) none of these 57. Consider the following statements:
50. In a Laplace transform the variable ‘s’ equals (␴ j␻). The impulse response of a linear network can be
Which of the following represent the true nature of ␴ ? used to determine the
1. ␴ has a damping effect. 1. step response
2. ␴ is responsible for convergence of integral 2. response of the sinusoidal input
∞
3. elements of the network uniquely
∫ f (t )e
− st
dt . 4. interconnection of network elements
0
Which of these statements are correct?
3. ␴ has a value less than zero.
(i) 1 and 2 (ii) 2 and 3
Select the correct answer using the coeds given below:
(iii) 3 and 4 (iv) 1 and 4
Codes:
(i) 1, 2 and 3 (ii) 1 and 2 58. Double integration of a unit step function would lead to
(iii) 2 and 3 (iv) 1 and 3 (i) an impulse (ii) a parabola
(iii) a ramp (iv) zero
51. Laplace transform of tn e at
is
n n! 59. Which of the following integrals represents the con-
(i) (ii) volution of two functions f1(t) and f2(t)?
( ) (s + a )
n +1 n +1
s −a
t t
(iii) n! (iv) n! (i) ∫ f (t )f (

1 2
−t d) (ii) ∫ f (t − )f ( )d
1 2
(s − a ) (s − a )
n n +1 0 0
t t
s (iii) )
∫ f 1 (t − f 2 (t dt ) (iv) ∫f ( ) ( )dt
− t f2
52.
( ) is the Laplace transform of
1
s2 + 2
0 0
(i) sin␻t (ii) cos␻t (iii) cosh␻t (iv) sinh␻t

60. If F s = () 1 (s + 1 ) 1
and f(t) as t → is then the value
53. Consider the following statements regarding an RC
differentiating network:
s (s + k ) 2
1. For an applied rectangular pulse, the output is of K is

spiky in nature for RC << pulse duration. (i) ½ (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (v)
317
61. The transient response of the initially relaxed network 66. The time constant of the network shown in Fig. 5.106 is
shown in Fig. 5.105 is C
R
Switch
R
R C
V
V i(t) C
Fig. 5.106
(i) CR (iii) CR
Fig. 5.105 4
(ii) 2CR (iv) CR
(i) i t =( ) VR e −t
RC
2
67. A non-linear system cannot be analyzed by Laplace
i (t ) = e
V t
RC transform because
(ii)
R (i) it has no zero initial conditions
V⎛ (ii) superposition law cannot be applied
()
(iii) i t =
−t ⎞
⎜ 1− e RC ⎠⎟
R⎝
(iii) non-linearity is generally not well defined
(iv) all of the above
V⎛
()
(iv) i t =
R
−t ⎞
⎜⎝ 1+ e RC ⎟⎠
68. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.107, the response i(t) is
Switch R
62. A first-order linear system is initially relaxed. For a unit
step signal u(t), the response is v1(t) (1 e 3t) for
t 0. If a signal 3u(t) ␦ (t) is applied to the same V (t ) i(t) C
initially relaxed systems, the response will be
(i) (3 6e 3t)u(t) (ii) (3 3e 3t)u(t)
(iii) 3u(t) (iv) (3 3e 3t)u(t) Fig. 5.107
63. A unit impulse input to a linear network has a response
R(t) and a unit step input to the same network has V ⎛ t ⎞
(i) exp ⎜ −
response S(t). The response R(t) R ⎝ RC ⎟⎠
(i) equals
dS
dt
(t ) (ii)
V
R
)
(t
(ii) equals the integral of S(t)
V ⎡ ⎛ t ⎞⎤
(iii) is the reciprocal of S(t) (iii)
R⎣
⎢ (t − ) 1
RC
exp ⎜ − ⎥
⎝ RC ⎠⎟ ⎦
(iv) has no relation with S(t)
V ⎡ ⎛ t ⎞⎤
64. The response of an initially relaxed linear circuit (iv)
R⎣
)
⎢ (t − exp ⎜ − ⎥
⎝ RC ⎟⎠ ⎦
to a signal VS is e 2t u(t). If the signal is changed to
⎛ dV S ⎞ , the response would be 69. A voltage v(t) 6e 2t is applied at t 0 to a series RL
⎜V S + 2 dt ⎟ circuit with L 1 H. If i(t) 6[e 2t e 3t] then R will
⎝ ⎠
(i) 4e 2tu(t) (ii) 3e 2tu(t) have a value of
1
2t
(iii) 4e u(t) (iv) 5e 2tu(t) (i) 2 (ii) 1 (iii) 3 (iv) Ω
3 3
65. The impulse response of a circuit is given by 70. The Laplace transform of the signal described in
1 −R t
() ()
h t = e L u t . Its step response is given as
L
Fig. 5.108 is
f( t)
⎛ − t⎞
R
1⎛ − t⎞
R
(i) ⎜ 1− e L ⎟ u t ()
(ii) ⎜
R⎝
1− e L ⎟ u t
⎠
()
⎝ ⎠
t
L⎛ − t⎞
R
(iii)
R ⎜⎝
1− e L ⎟ u (t
⎠
) (iv) none of these
a b
Fig. 5.108
318
− bs
(i) e − as (ii) e S
s s2
(iii) ( e − as + e − bs ) (iv) (e − as
− e − bs ) 1 1
s s
1F 1 3 8A
71. If a pulse voltage v(t) of
4-V magnitude and 2-second I
duration is applied to a pure v (t) 1H
inductor of 1 H, with zero ini- Fig. 5.112
tial current, the current (in A) 76. The circuit shown in Fig. 5.113 is in steady state with
drawn at t 3 seconds, will be Fig. 5.109 the switch ‘S’ open. The switch is closed at t 0. The
(i) zero (ii) 2 (iii) 4 values of VC(0 ) and VC( ) will be respectively
(iv) 8 (i) 2 V, 0 V (ii) 0 V, 2 V
72. At a certain current, the energy stored in an iron-cored (iii) 2 V, 2 V (iv) 0 V, 0 V
coil is 1000 J and its copper loss is 2000 W. The time
constant (in second) of the coil is 1/2 F
Vc
(i) 0.25 (ii) 0.5 S
2A 1
(iii) 1.0 (iv) 2.0
73. Consider the voltage waveform shown in Fig. 5.110. 1
v (t)
3 Fig. 5.113
2 77. In the circuit shown, the switch is opened at t 0.
1 Prior to that switch was closed, i(t) at t 0 is
0 (i) 2 A (ii) 3 A
0 1 2 3 4 5 t sec 3 2
Fig. 5.110 1
(iii) A (iv) 1 A.
3
The equation for v(t) is
( ) ( ) ( )
(i) u t − 1 + u t − 2 + u t − 3
Switch
(ii) u (t − 1) + 2u (t − 2 ) + 3u (t − 3 )
u (t ) + u (t − 1) + u (t − 2 ) + u (t − 4 )
2 i (t)
(iii) 1
(iv) u (t − 1) + u (t − 2 ) + u (t − 3 ) − 3u (t − 4 ) 2
74. For the circuit given in Fig. 5.111 V0 2 V and inductor 4V 1F
is initially relaxed. The switch S is closed at t 0. The
value of v at t 0 is Fig. 5.114
∞
S 78. Given the Laplace transform L ⎡⎣v t ⎤⎦ = ∫ e − st v t dt , () ()
the inverse transform v(t) is 0
+ j∞ + j∞
V
V0 = 2 V C
0.25 H 0.25
(i) ∫ )
e stV ( s ds (ii) 1
∫ e stV ( s ds )
− j∞ 2 j − j∞
∞ + j∞
Fig. 5.111 (iii)

2
1
j∫
e V ( s )ds
st (iv)
1
2 j ∫ e − stV ( s ds )
0 − j∞
(i) 3 V (ii) 2 V
79. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.115, switch ‘S’ is closed at
(iii) 0.5 V (iv) 0.25 V
t 0. After some time when the current in the induc-
75. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.112, S is open for a long tor was 6 A, the rate of change of current through it
time and steady state is reached. S is closed at t 0. was 4 A/s. The value of the inductor is
The current I at t 0 is (i) indeterminate (ii) 1.5 H
(i) 4 A (ii) 3 A (iii) 1.0 H (iv) 0.5 H
(iii) 2 A (iv) 2 A
319
t= 0 5 2F
S
L Vs(t) 10
20 V 10 V
1H
3 Fig. 5.119
Fig. 5.115 84. The steady state in the circuit, shown in Fig. 5.120 is
80. A circuit consisting of a 1- resistor and a 2-F capaci- reached with S open. S is closed at t 0. The current I
tor in series is excited from a voltage source with the at t 0 is
voltage expressed as 3e t, as shown in Fig. 5.116. If (i) 1 A (ii) 2 A (iii) 3 A (iv) 4 A
i(0 ) and vc(0 ) are both zero then the values of i(0 )
and i( ) will be respectively 1 S
(i) 3 A and 1.5 A (ii) 1.5 A and zero
(iii) 3 A and zero (iv) 1.5 A and 3 A
1 2V 2 C 2
I
t
3e 2F Fig. 5.120
Vc(t)
i(t)
85. For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.121, the current through
Fig. 5.116 L and the voltage across C2 are respectively
(i) zero and RI (ii) I and zero
81. The time constant associated with the capacitor
(iii) Zero and zero (iv) I and RI
charging in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.117 is
(i) 6 ␮s (ii) 10 ␮s (iii) 15 ␮s (iv) 25 ␮s L
2
I C1 C2 R
Vdc 3
5 F
Fig. 5.121
Fig. 5.117
86. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.122, the switch is closed at
82. In the network shown in Fig. 5.118, the switch ‘S’ is t 0. The current through the capacitor will decrease
closed and a steady state is attained. If the switch exponentially with a time constant
is opened at t 0, then the current i(t) through the
inductor will be t=0
1
(i) cos 50t A (ii) 2 A
(iii) 2 cos 100t A (iv) 2sin50t A
2.5 1 1F
S 10 V
i(t)
Fig. 5.122
0.5H (i) 0.5 s (ii) 1 s (iii) 2 s (iv) 10 s
5V 2 00 F
87. The Laplace transformation of f(t) is F(s). Given
Fig. 5.118 F (s = )
s2 + 2
, the final value of f(t) is
83. In the network shown, the switch is opened at t 0. (i) infinity (ii) zero
Prior to that, the network was in the steady state. Vs(t) (iii) one (iv) none of the above
at t 0 is 88. The v–i characteristics as seen from the terminal-pair
(i) 0 (ii) 5 V (iii) 10 V (iv) 15 V. (A, B) of the network of Fig. 5.123 (a) is shown in
320
Fig. 5.123 (b). If an inductance of 6-mH value is con- (i) 3 and 4 are correct (ii) 1 and 4 are correct
nected across the terminal-pair (A, B), the time con- (iii) 1 and 2 are correct (iv) 2 and 3 are correct
stant of the system will be I (t)
(i) 3 ␮s (ii) 12 s 94. An inductor with inductance
(iii) 32 s iv) unknown, unless the actual net- L and initial current I0 is
work is specified shown as Fig. 5.125 I0 L
i The correct admittance dia-
gram for it is
Fig. 5.125
i 4 mA I (s)
A
Network of
linear resistors
v
(a) 1/Ls I1(s) I0/s
and independent
sources v
B I0
(0,0) 8V
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.123 I0
(b)
1/Ls
89. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.124, it is desired to have a
constant direct current i(t) through the ideal inductor L.
The nature of the voltage source v(t) must be
(i) constant voltage
(c) Ls I0
(ii) linearly increasing voltage
(iii) an ideal impulse
(iv) exponentially increasing voltage I(s)
I(t)
I1(s) I0/s
(d) Ls I(t)
v (t) L
95. An inductor with inductance L and I0 L
initial current I0 is shown as Fig. 5.126.
The correct impedance diagram for it is Fig. 5.126
Fig. 5.124
(a) I(s) (b) I0
∞
∫ e (t − 5)dt
5t I (s)
90. The value of the integral is
−∞
I0/s
(i) 1 (ii) (e5 1 (iii) e25 (iv) zero Ls
1/Ls
91. An inductor at t 0 with initial current I0 acts as a/an
(i) voltage source (ii) current source (c) (d)
sL I(s) I(s)
(iii) open circuit (iv) short circuit
92. A capacitor at t 0 with initial charge Q0 acts as a/an
LI0 sL I0/s
(i) voltage source (ii) current source
(iii) open circuit (iv) short circuit
C
93. Consider the following statements: 96. A capacitor with
1. Current through an inductor cannot change abruptly. capacitance C and
i(t )
2. Voltage across the capacitor cannot change abruptly. initial voltage vc(t) is vc(t )
3. Initial value of a function f(t) is Lim sF ( s ) shown here.
s →0 Fig. 5.127
4. Final value of a function f(t) is Lim sF ( s ) The correct admit-
s →∞
Of these statements, tance diagram for this circuit is
321
(a) I (s) 99. Consider the following functions for the rectangular
voltage pulse shown in Fig. 5.130
v(t )
sC Cvc (0)
1
(b) I(s)
1/Cs vc (0)
a b
Fig. 5.130
(c) I(s)
(i) v(t) u(t a) u(t b)
(ii) v(t) u(b t) u(a t)
sC vc (0)/s
(iii) v(t) u(b t)·u(t a)
(iv) v(t) u(a t)·u(t b)
(d) I(s)
100. If F1 s = () 1
, F (s = 2
s +3 2
2
s +4
)
; what is the Laplace
sC Cvc (0)/s transform of the product F1(s) F2(s)?
()1
(i) f t = ⎡⎣e −t + 3 cos 2t − 2 sint ⎤⎦
5
97. Laplace transform of f(t) shown in Fig. 5.128 is
2.0
()
(ii) f t =
1
⎡2e −3t + 3 sin2t − 2 cos 2t ⎤
13 ⎣ ⎦
1.0
f (t) ()1
(iii) f t = ⎡⎣e −2t + 2 sin2t − cos 2t ⎤⎦
7
1 2 3 t
1.0
()
(iv) f t =
1 −2t
⎡e + sint − 2 sin2t ⎤
11 ⎣ ⎦
Fig. 5.128
101. The impulse response of a linear network is given
() 1 2 3
(i) F s = − e − s + e − s
s s s
by e 2t. Which one of the following gives its unit step
response?
() 1 2 − s 3 −2 s 2 −3 s
(ii) F s = − e + e − e
s s s s
(i) 1 e 2t (ii) e t e 2t
() 1 e
(iii) F s = −
−s
2 2
+ e −2 s − e −3 s
(iii)
1
2
(
1− e −2t ) (iv)
2
(
1 −t
e − e −2t )
s s s s
102.
() 1 2 −s 3 −s
(iv) F s = + e − e
s s s
2 a
K
b
98. The time constant of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.129 is

2R 1/2 2H
5V
1H
C R
2R
Fig. 5.131
t=0
The network shown in Fig. 5.131 reaches a steady state
with the switch K in the position a. At t 0, the switch
Fig. 5.129
is moved from a to b by a make-before-break mecha-
(i) RC (ii) 2 RC (iii) 3 RC (iv) 5 RC nism. Assume the initial current in the 2-H inductor as
322
zero. What is the current in the 1-H inductor at t 0 107. If f1(t ) and f2(t ) have the widths (duration) T1 and T2
and t , respectively? respectively then what is the width (duration) of
(i) 1 A and 0 A (ii) 2.5 A and 0 A f1(t)* f2(t ) (where * denotes convolution)?
(iii) 1 A and 2.5 A (iv) 2.5 A and 2.5 A (i) The larger of T1 and T2
()
103. If F s =
(
2 s +1 )
, then what are the values of f(0 )
(ii) The smaller of T1 and T2.
(iii) T1 T2
s + 2s + 5 2
(iv) T1 T2
and f( ) respectively?
108. The Laplace transform of v(t) shown in Fig. 5.135 is
(i) 0, 2 (ii) 2, 0 (iii) 0, 1 (iv) 2/5, 0
v(t )
104. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.132, the switch S is closed
at t 0. Which one of the following gives the expres- 1
sion for the voltage across the inductance as a func-
tion of time?
S 1
t
0 1 2
Fig. 5.135
1V 1H
(i) 1
s2
( 1
)
1− e − s − e −2 s
s
(ii)
1
s2
( 1
)
1− e s − e 2 s
s
Fig. 5.132
(i) e t/2
(ii) (1− e ) −t (iii)
s
1
(
2 )
1
1+ e − s + e −2 s
s
(iv)
s
1
2( 1
s
)
1+ e s + e 2 s
2
(iii) (1 e t) (iv) e t
109. If f(t) and F(s) form the Laplace transform pair then
⎛ ⎞
105. For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.133, the initial capacitor what is the Laplace transform of f ⎜ t ⎟ ?
⎝ t0 ⎠
voltage is 2 V and I is a unit step function. Then, what
is the expression for v(t) for t 0?
(i) t0F(t0s) (ii) 1
t0
F (t 0 s )
1 ⎛1 ⎞ 1 ⎛1 ⎞
I 1 (iii) t 0 F ⎜ s ⎟ (iv) F s
⎝ t0 ⎠ t 0 ⎜⎝ t 0 ⎟⎠
0.25 F v (t)
110. The switch in the circuit is closed at t 0. The current
through the battery at t 0 and t is, respectively
Fig. 5.133 1
t 2t 2t 2t
(i) 2 e (ii) 2 e (iii) 1 e (iv) 1 e
106. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.134, steady state is reached
with the switch S open. Switch S is then closed at t 0.
What is the value of voltage V under steady state (when 1V 1H 1F
t )?
5
S Fig. 5.136
5A 10 V 5 (i) 10 A and 10 A (ii) 0 A and 10 A
(iii) 10 A and 0 A (iv) 0 A and 0 A
111. The Laplace transform of the voltage across the
Fig. 5.134 s +1
(i) 50 V (ii) 12.5 V (iii) 25 V (iv) 0 V
capacitor of 0.5 F is V s = 3 2()
s + s + s +1
323
Then the value of the current through the capacitor at 118. In the given circuit, if the inductor is initially relaxed,
t 0 is given by then the current in the circuit will be
(i) 0 A (ii) 0.5 A (iii) 1.0 A (iv) 1.5 A R
112. If u(t) and ␦(t ) are the step function and the impulse
function respectively at t = 0, then the Laplace trans-
form of the function f(t ) u(t 1) ␦(t ) is equal to
1 1 d(t) L
(i) 1 (ii) (iii) 0 (iv)
s s +1
113. The step response of a system is C(t ) 1 5e t
2t 3t
10e 6e . The impulse response of the system is
(i) 5e t 20e 2t 18e 3t Fig. 5.138
(ii) 5et 20e2t 18e 3t
(iii) 5e t 20e 2t 18e 3t (i) zero (ii) L
R
(t )
(iv) 5e t 20e 2t 18e3t
1 − RtL 1⎛ − ⎞
Rt
114. The Laplace transform of e t cos t is (iii) e (iv) ⎜ 1− e L ⎟

L L⎝ ⎠
(i) (s + ) (ii)
(s − ) 119. For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.139, the switch ‘K’ was
(s + ) + (s − ) +
2 2 2
2 closed for a long time till steady-state conditions
reached. At time t 0, the switch ‘K’ is opened then
(iii) (s + ) (iv) (s − ) the current through inductor will be
(s − ) + (s + ) +
2 2
2 2 K 2
115. For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.137, the initial inductor
current is 2 A. The value of i(t ) for t 0 is
1 1H 1 F
10 V
2 Fig. 5.139
u(t ) 2
(i) 5cos10t (ii) 5cos100t

Fig. 5.137 (iii) 5cos1000t (iv) 5cos 10000t
t
(i) 0.5 0.75e (ii) 1 e t 120. The response of a system to a unit ramp input is
t t
(iii) 0.5 0.25e (iv) 0.5 0.75e 1 t 1 u(t) 1 e 4t. Which one of the following is
116. Consider a system described by the transfer function 2 8 8
the unit impulse response of the system?
2 s + 3 . It is subjected to an input f (t)
()
G s = 2
s + 2s + 5
(i) 1 e 4t
4t
(ii) 2(1 e 4t)
(iii) e (iv) 2 e 4t
10u(t). The initial and final values of the response are
given by 121. The Laplace transform of current in an RLC series circuit
1
(i) 0, 2 3 (ii) 1, 4 (iii) 0, 6 (iv) 0, 4 with R 2 , L 1 H and C
2
()
F is I s = 2
1
s + 2s + 2
.
117. The impulse response of a linear time invariant system
The voltage across the inductor ‘L’ will be
is given by h(t) 2e t u(t)
(i) e t sintu(t) (ii) e t costu(t)
t
The unit step response is given by (iii) e (sint cost)u(t) (iv) e t (cost sint)u(t)
(i) y(t) 2(1 e t )u(t) (ii) y(t) 2(e t
1)u(t) 122. For the network shown in Fig. 5.140, the initial posi-
(iii) y(t) 2(1 e 2t )u(t) (iv) y(t) 2(2 e 2t )u(t) tion of switch ‘S’ is ‘1’. After reaching steady state, if the
324
position of the switch is changed over to ‘2’, the cur- 126. In Fig. 5.143, the capacitor initially has a charge of
rent ‘i’ for t 0 will be equal to 10 couloms. The current in the circuit one second after
the switch S is closed will be
1 2R L
2
V 2
i S
100 V 0.5 F
R
Fig. 5.140 Fig. 5.143

V ⎛ Rt ⎞ V ⎛ 2 Rt ⎞ (i) 14.7 A (ii) 18.5 A (iii) 40.0 A (iv) 50.0 A
(i) exp ⎜ − ⎟ (ii) exp ⎜ −
2R ⎝ L⎠ R ⎝ L ⎟⎠
127. In Fig. 5.144, the initial capacitor voltage is zero. The
⎛ 3Rt ⎞
(iv) V exp ⎛ − 3Rt ⎞
V switch is closed at t 0. The final steady-state voltage
(iii) exp ⎜ −
R ⎝ L ⎟⎠ 2R ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ across the capacitor is
123. The correct value of the current i(t ) at any instant T=0
10
when K is switched on at t = 0 in the network shown
in Fig. 5.141 is
R 20 V 10 ␮F 10
K
E i(t) Fig. 5.144

L
(i) 20 V (ii) 10 V (iii) 5 V (iv) 0 V
128. The circuit shown in Fig. 5.145 is in steady state, when
Fig. 5.141 the switch is closed at t 0. Assuming that the induc-
tance is ideal, the current through the inductor at
E E ( R L )t
(i) E + E e ( L )t
R
(ii) − e t 0 equals
R R R R
10
E E −( R L )t E E −( R L )t
(iii) + e (iv) − e
R R R R
10 V 10 mH t=0
124. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.142, the switch S is closed
at t 0. The voltage across the inductance at t 0 is
3 Fig. 5.145
4F (i) 0 A (ii) 0.5 A

S
(iii) 1 A (iv) 2 A
10 V 4 4H
4 129. If, at t 0 , the voltage across the coil is 120 V, the
value of resistance R is
1 20
Fig. 5.142
(i) 2 V (ii) 4 V (iii) 6V (iv) 8 V S 2
10 H
120 V
125. Consider the function, F s = 5
() where R 40
s s 2 + 3s + 2 ( )
F(s) is the Laplace transform of the function f(t). The
initial value of f(t) is equal to Fig. 5.146
5 5 (i) 0 (ii) 20
(i) 5 (ii) (iii) (iv) 0
2 3 (iii) 40 (iv) 60
325
130. For the value obtained in Q. 129, the time taken for 133. The time constant for the given circuit will be
95% of the stored energy to be dissipated is close to 1F 3
(i) 0.10 second (ii) 0.15 second
(iii) 0.50 second (iv) 1.0 second
1F 1F 3 3A
131. An ideal capacitor is charged to a voltage V0 and con-
nected at t 0 across an ideal inductor L. (The circuit
now consists of a capacitor and inductor alone.) If we Fig. 5.148
1
let 0 = , the voltage across the capacitor at time 1 1
LC (i) s (ii) s (iii) 4 s (iv) 9 s
9 4
t > 0 is given by
134. The Laplace transform of i(t) is given by I s = () 2
(i) V0
(iii) V0 sin( 0t)
(ii) V0 cos( 0t)
(iv) V0e 0t cos( 0t)
s (1+ s )
As t → , the value of i(t) tends to
132. In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.147, the switch SW1 is ini- (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv)
tially CLOSED and SW2 is OPEN. The inductor L carries
a current of 10 A and the capacitor is charged to 10 V 135. In what range should Re(s) remain so that the Laplace
with polarities as indicated. SW2 is initially CLOSED at transform of the function e(a 2)t 5 exits?
t 0 and SW1 is OPENED at t 0. The current (i) Re(s) a 2 (ii) Re(s) a 7
through C and the voltage across L at t 0 is (iii) Re(s) 2 (iv) Re(s) a 5
136. A square pulse of 3-V amplitude is applied to C-R circuit
SW2 R210
shown in Fig. 5.149. The capacitor is initially uncharged.
The output voltage V0 at time t = 2 seconds is
SW1
10 A
0.1mF j2
R110 C 10 V (a) V (b)
L i
3V Vi V0
1k
t
Fig. 5.147 2 seconds
(i) 55 A, 4.5 V (ii) 5.5 A, 45 V Fig. 5.149
(iii) 45 A, 5.5 V (iv) 4.5 A, 5.5 V (i) 3 V (ii) 3V (iii) 4 V (iv) 4V
Answers
1. (ii) 17. (ii) 33. (iii) 49. (ii) 65. (ii)

2. (iii) 18. (iii) 34. (iii) 50. (ii) 66. (i)
3. (i) 19. (ii) 35. (iv) 51. (ii) 67. (i)
4. (iii) 20. (iv) 36. (i) 52. (ii) 68. (iii)
5. (iii) 21. (i) 37. (i) 53. (iv) 69. (iii)
6. (iii) 22. (ii) 38. (i) 54. (iii) 70. (iv)
7. (iii) 23. (i) 39. (iii) 55. (iii) 71. (iv)
8. (i) 24. (i) 40. (iv) 56. (ii) 72. (ii)
9. (i) 25. (iv) 41. (iv) 57. (i) 73. (iv)
10. (i) 26. (iii) 42. (iv) 58. (ii) 74. (ii)
11. (i) 27. (i) 43. (ii) 59. (ii) 75. (i)
12. (ii) 28. (ii) 44. (i) 60. (iii) 76. (ii)
13. (iii) 29. (iii) 45. (ii) 61. (i) 77. (iv)
14. (i) 30. (iv) 46. (iv) 62. (iii) 78. (ii)
15. (ii) 31. (iii) 47. (iii) 63. (i) 79. (iv)
16. (iii) 32. (ii) 48. (ii) 64. (ii) 80. (iii)
326
81. (i) 93. (iii) 105. (iii) 117. (i) 129. (i)
82. (iii) 94. (i) 106. (ii) 118. (iii) 130. (iii)
83. (ii) 95. (iii) 107. (iv) 119. (iii) 131. (ii)
84. (ii) 96. (i) 108. (i) 120. (iv) 132. (iv)
85. (iv) 97. (ii) 109. (i) 121. (iv) 133. (iii)
86. (ii) 98. (iii) 110. (i) 122. (iv) 134. (iii)
87. (iv) 99. (i) 111. (i) 123. (iv) 135. (i)
88. (i) 100. (ii) 112. (iii) 124. (ii) 136. (ii)
89. (iii) 101. (iii) 113. (i) 125. (iv)
90. (iii) 102. (ii) 114. (ii) 126. (i)
91. (ii) 103. (ii) 115. (iv) 127. (ii)
92. (i) 104. (iv) 116. (iii) 128. (iii)
6 Two-Port Network
Introduction
A port is a pair of nodes across which a device can be connected. The voltage is measured across the pair
of nodes and the current going into one node is the same as the current coming out of the other node in
the pair. These pairs are entry (or exit) points of the network.
So, a network with two input terminals and two output terminals is called a four-terminal network
or a two-port network.
It is convenient to develop special methods for the systematic treatment of networks. In the case
of a single port linear active network, we
obtained the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and I1 I2
Linear
the Norton’s equivalent circuit. When a linear passive
V1 Port 1 Port 2 V
passive network is considered, it is convenient network 2
to study its behaviour relative to a pair of des-

ignated nodes. Fig. 6.1 Block diagram of a two-port network
In a two-port network, there are two voltage
variables and two current variables. According to the choice of input and output ports, these voltage and
current variables can be arranged in different equations, giving rise to different port parameters.
In this chapter, we will discuss the behaviours of two-port networks and then will learn about some
special two-port networks.
6.1 RELATIONSHIPS OF TWO-PORT VARIABLES

In order to describe the relationships among the port voltages and currents of an n-port network, ‘n’ number
of linear equations is required. However, the choice of two independent and two dependent variables is
dependent on the particular application.
328
For an n-port network, the number of voltages and current variables is 2n. The number of ways in which
2 n! 2 n! 2 n!
these 2n variables can be arranged in two groups of n each is = . So, there will be types of
port parameters. n!× n ! ( n!) 2
( n!)2
For a two-port network (n 2), there are six types of parameters as mentioned below:
1. Open-circuit impedance parameters (z-parameters)
2. Short-circuit admittance parameters (y-parameters)
3. Transmission or chain parameters (T-parameters or ABCD–parameters)
4. Inverse transmission parameters (T -parameters)
5. Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)
6. Inverse hybrid parameters (g-parameters)
6.1.1 Open-Circuit Impedance Parameters (z-Parameters)

The impedance parameters represent the relation between the voltages and the currents in the two-port network.
The impedance parameter matrix may be written as
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ z11 z12 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I 2
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ or,
⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z21 z22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I 2
In this matrix equation, it is easily seen without even expanding the individual equations, that
V1
z11 = Driving point impedance at Port-1
I1 I 2 =0
V1
z12 = Transfer impedance
I2 I1 = 0
V2
z21 = Transfer impedance
I1 I 2 =0
V2
z22 = Driving point impedance at Port-2
I2 I1 = 0
It can be seen that the z-parameters correspond to the driving point and transfer impedances at each port with the other
port having zero current (i.e., open circuit). Thus these parameters are also referred as the open-circuit parameters.
Example 6.1 Determine the z-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 6.2.
Solution We consider two situations:
(a) When I1 0, i.e., Port-1 is open-circuited I1 I2
In this case no current will flow through the 5- resistor. 1 2
5 10
By KVL in the right mesh, we get 10 I 2 + 20 I 2 − V2 = 0 V1 20 V2
V 1 2
∴ z22 = 2 = 30
I2 I1 = 0 Fig. 6.2 Network of Example 6.1
329
Two-Port Network
From Fig. 6.3 (a), we get V2 20I1 I1 = 0 I2

1 2
V1
∴ z12 = = 20 5 10
I2 V1 20 V2
I1 = 0
1 2
(b) When I2 0, i.e., Port-2 is open-circuited
Fig. 6.3 (a) When I1 0
In this case no current will flow through the 10- resistor.
I1 I2 = 0
By KVL in the left mesh, we get 5 I1 + 20 I1 − V1 = 0 1 2
V 5 10
∴ z11 = 1 = 25 V1 20 V2
I1 I 2 =0
1 2
From Fig. 6.3 (b), we get V2 20I1 Fig. 6.3 (b) When I2 0
V2
∴ z21 = = 20
I1 I 2 =0
⎡ 25 20 ⎤
Therefore, the z-parameters of the network are ⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥( )
⎣ 20 30 ⎦
6.1.2 Short-Circuit Admittance Parameters ( y-Parameters)

The admittance parameters represent the relation between the currents and the voltages in the two-port
network.
The admittance parameter matrix may be written as
⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ y11 y12 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤ I1 = y11V1 + y12V2
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ or,
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y21 y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ I 2 = y21V1 + y22V2
The parameters y11, y12, y21, y22 can be defined in a similar manner, with either V1 or V2 on short circuit.
I1
y11 = Driving point admittance at Port-1
V1 V2 = 0
I1
y12 = Transfer admittance
V2 V1 = 0
I2
y21 = Transfer admittance
V1 V2 = 0
I2
y22 = Driving point admittance at Port-2
V2 V1 = 0
It can be seen that the y-parameters correspond to the driving point and transfer admittances at each port
with the other port having zero voltage (i.e., short circuit). Thus these parameters are also referred as the short
circuit parameters.
330
Example 6.2 Find the y-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 6.4.
50
Solution We consider two situations:
When V1 0, i.e., Port-1 is short-circuited
20 10
In this case, no current will flow through the 20- resistor. The modified
circuit is shown in Fig. 6.5 (a).
V2 − 0 V2 − 0 Fig. 6.4 Network of Example 6.2
By KCL at the node 2, + = I2
10 50
I2 1 1
∴ y22 = = + = 0.12 I1 50 2 I2
V2 V1 = 0
10 50
V1 = 0 10 V2
0 − V2
Also, from Fig. 6.5 (a) we get I1 =
50
I1 1 Fig. 6.5 (a) When V1 0
∴ y12 = = = 0.02
V2 V1 = 0
50
When V2 0, i.e., Port-2 is short-circuited

In this case, no current will flow through the 10- resistor. The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 6.5 (b).
V1 − 0 V1 − 0
By KCL at the node 1, + = I1
20 50
I1 1 50 2 I2
I 1 1
∴ y11 = 1 = + = 0.07
V1 V =0 20 50 V1 20 V2 = 0
2
0 − V1
Also, from Fig. 6.5 (b) we get I 2 = Fig. 6.5 (b) When V2 0
50
I2 1
∴ y21 = = = 0.02
V1 V2 = 0
50
⎡ 0.07 0.02 ⎤
Therefore, the y-parameters of the network are ⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0.02 0.12 ⎦
6.1.3 Transmission Parameters (ABCD-Parameters)

The ABCD parameters represent the relation between the input quantities and the output quantities in the
two-port network. They are thus voltage–current pairs.
However, as the quantities are defined as an input–output relation, the output current is marked as going
out rather than as coming into the port.
The transmission parameter matrix may be written as
331
Two-Port Network
I2
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ V2 ⎤ V1 = AV2 − BI 2 I1
Linear
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ or,
⎢⎣ I1 ⎥⎦ ⎣C D ⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ⎥⎦ I1 = CV2 − DI 2 V1 Port 1 passive Port 2 V2
network
The parameters A, B, C, D can be defined in a similar manner Fig. 6.6 Two-port current and voltage variables
with either Port 2 on short circuit or Port 2 on open circuit. for calculation of transmission line parameters
V1
A= Open-circuit reverse voltage gain
V2 I 2 =0
V1
B=− Short-circuit transfer impedance
I2 V2 = 0
I1
C= Open-circuit transfer admittance
V2 I 2 =0
I1
D=− Short-circuit reverse current gain
I2 V2 = 0
These parameters are known as transmission parameters as in a transmission line, the currents enter at one
end and leave at the other end, and we need to know a relation between the sending-end quantities and the
receiving-end quantities.
Example 6.3 For the network shown Fig. 6.7, determine the 1 2 1
I1 I2
ABCD parameters. 1 2
Solution The ABCD-parameter equations are
V1 2 2 V2
V1 AV2 BI2
1 2
I1 CV2 DI2
Fig. 6.7 Network of Example 6.3
For the network shown in Fig. 6.7, we convert the delta
consisting of the resistances of 2 each into its equivalent
I1 1 2/3 1 I2
star so that the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 6.8 (a)
1 2
and Fig. 6.8 (b). 2/3 +
V1 V2
2×2 2 2/3
r1 = r2 = r3 = =
2+2+2 3 1 2
To find the ABCD parameters, we consider two situations: Fig. 6.8 (a) Modified network of Fig. 6.7
When V2 0, i.e., port-2 is short-circuited
As shown in Fig. 6.8 (c), by KVL we get,
(
1.67 I1 + 0.67 I1 + I 2 = V1 )
or, 2.33 I1 + 0.67 I 2 = V1
332
I1 I2
and, (
0.67 I1 + I 2 + 1.67 I 2 = 0) 1
1.67 1.67
2
2.33
or, I1 = − I = −3.5 I 2 V1 0.67 V2
0.67 2
I1 1 2
∴D= − = 3.5
I2 V2 = 0
Fig. 6.8 (b)
Putting this value in the first equation, we get, I1 I2

1.67 1.67
1 2
)
V1
(
2.33 × −3.5 I 2 + 0.67 I 2 = V1 ⇒ B = −
I2
= 7.5
V1 0.67 V2 = 0
V2 = 0
When I2 0, i.e., Port-2 is open-circuited 1 2

Here, no current will flow through the right side of the 1.67 resistance. Fig. 6.8 (c)
By KVL, we get, V1 (1.67 0.67)I1 2.33I1 and, V2 0.67I1
I1 I2 = 0
I1 1 1.67 1.67
∴C = = = 1.5 1 2
V2 0.67 +
I 2 =0
V1 0.67 V2
V 2.33 I1
∴A= 1 = = 3.5
V2 I2 =0
0 .67 I1 1 2
Fig. 6.8 (d)
Therefore, the ABCD parameters of the network are A 3.5; B 7.5 ;C 1.5 ; and D 3.5
6.1.4 Inverse Transmission Parameters (A B C D -Parameters)

The inverse A B C D parameters represent the inverse relation between the input quantities and the output
quantities in the two-port network. They are also voltage–current pairs.
Here also, the output current is marked as going out rather than as coming into the port as shown in Fig. 6.6.
The inverse transmission parameter matrix may be written as
⎡V2 ⎤ ⎡ A′ B ′ ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤ V2 = A′V1 − B ′I1
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ or,
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣C ′ D ′ ⎦ ⎢⎣ − I1 ⎥⎦ I 2 = C ′ V1 − D ′I1
The parameters A , B , C , D can be defined in a similar manner with either Port 1 on short circuit or
Port 1 on open circuit.
V2
A′ = Open-circuit voltage gain
V1 I1 = 0
V2
B′ = − Short-circuit transfer impedance
I1 V1 = 0
I2
C′ = Open-circuit transfer admittance
V1 I1 = 0
333
Two-Port Network
I2
D′ = − Short-circuit current gain
I1 V1 = 0
6.1.5 Hybrid Parameters (h-Parameters)

The hybrid parameters represent a mixed or hybrid relation between the voltages and the currents in the two-
port network.
The hybrid parameter matrix may be written as
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ V1 = h11 I1 + h12V2

⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ or,
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ h21 h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ I 2 = h21 I1 + h22V2
The h-parameters can be defined in a similar manner and are commonly used in some electronic circuit analysis.
V1
h11 = Short-circuit impedance input impedance
I1 V = 0
2
V1
h12 = Open-circuit reverse voltage gain
V2 I1 = 0
I2
h21 = Short-circuit current gain
I1 V2 = 0
I2
h22 = Open-circuit output admittance
V2 I1 = 0
As the h-parameters are dimensionally mixed, they are also named mixed parameters. Transistor circuit
models are generally represented by these parameters, as the input impedance (h11) and the short-circuit cur-
rent gain (h21) can be easily measured by making the output short-circuited.
Example 6.4 Find the hybrid parameters for the network shown in I1 I2
Fig. 6.9. 1 2
10 15
Solution By KVL, 15 I1 + 5 I 2 = V1 (i)
5
5 I1 + 20 I 2 = V2 (ii)
1 2
Thus, the z-parameters are z11 (5 j10) z12 z21 5 Fig. 6.9 Network of Example 6.4
Z22 (5 j15)
The hybrid parameter equations are, V1 h11I1 h12V2 and I2 h21I1 h22V2
5 V 1 1
From Eq. (ii), we get, I2 = − I1 + 2 = − I1 + V2 (iii)
20 20 4 20
334
⎡ 1 V ⎤ 55 1
Putting this value of I2 in Eq. (i), we get,15 I1 + 5 ⎢ − I1 + 2 ⎥ = V1 ⇒ V1 = I1 + V2 (iv)
⎣ 4 20 ⎦ 4 4
Comparing Eq. (iii) and (iv) with the standard equations of h-parameters, we get,
55 1 1 1
h11 = ; h12 = ; h21 = − ; h22 =
4 4 4 20
6.1.6 Inverse Hybrid Parameters (g-Parameters)

The inverse hybrid parameters also represent a mixed or hybrid relation between the voltages and the currents
in the two-port network.
The inverse hybrid parameter matrix may be written as
⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ g11 g12 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤ I1 = g11V1 + g12 I 2
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ or,
⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ g21 g22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ V2 = g21V1 + g22 I 2
The g-parameters can be defined in a similar manner and are commonly used in some electronic circuit
analysis.
I
g11 = 1 Open-circuit input admittance
V1 I =0
2
I1
g12 = Short-circuit reverse current gain
I2 V1 = 0
V2
g21 = Open-circuit voltage gain
V1 I 2 =0
V2
g22 = Short-circuit output impedance
I2 V1 = 0
6.2 CONDITIONS FOR RECIPROCITY AND SYMMETRY

A network is said to be reciprocal if the ratio of the response transform to the excitation transform is invariant
to an interchange of the positions of the excitation and response of the network.
A two-port network will be reciprocal if the interchange of an ideal voltage source at one port with an ideal
current source at the other port does not alter the ammeter reading.
A two-port network is said to be symmetrical if the input and output ports can be interchanged without
altering the port voltages and currents.
I1 I2
1 2
Conditions in terms of z-parameters
VS N I2
Condition for Reciprocity We short-circuit Port 2 – 2 and
apply a voltage source Vs at Port 1 – 1 . 1 2
Therefore, V1 Vs, V2 0, I2 – I2 Fig. 6.10 (a) Reciprocal network
335
Two-Port Network
Writing the equations of z-parameters, 1 I1 I2

2
Vs z11 I1 z12 I2 and 0 z21 I1 z22 I2
I1 N VS
Solving these two equations for I2 ,
z21 1 2
I 2′ = Vs (6.1)
z11 z22 − z12 z21 Fig. 6.10 (b) Reciprocal network
Now, we interchange the positions of response and excitations, i.e., short

Port 1 – 1 and apply Vs at Port 2 – 2 ; V1 0, V2 Vs, I1 I1 .
Writing the equations of z-parameters,
0 z11 I1 z12 I2 and V5 z21 I1 z22 I2
Solving these two equations for I1 ,
z12
I1′ = Vs (6.2)
z11 z22 − z12 z21
For the two-port network to be reciprocal, from Eq. (6.1) and Eq. (6.2), we have the condition as z12 = z21
Condition for symmetry Applying a voltage Vs at Port 1 – 1 with Port 2 – 2 open, we have the equation,
V
Vs = z11 I1 − z12 ⋅ 0 = z11 I1 ⇒ s =z (6.3)
I1 I =0 11
2
Now, applying a voltage Vs at Port 2 – 2’ with Port 1 – 1’ open, we have the equation,
V
Vs = z21 ⋅ 0 + z22 I 2 = z22 I 2 ⇒ s =z (6.4)
I 2 I =0 22
1
For the network to be symmetrical, the voltages and currents should be same. From Eq. (6.3) and Eq. (6.4),
we have the condition for symmetry as z11 = z22
Conditions in terms of y-parameters

Condition for reciprocity From Fig. 6.10 (a), writing the y-parameter equations,
I1 = y11V I′
⇒ − 2 = y21 (6.5)
− I 2′ = y21Vs Vs
From Fig. 6.10 (b), writing the y-parameter equations,
− I1′ = y12Vs I′
⇒ − 1 = y12 (6.6)
I 2 = y22Vs Vs
From the principle of reciprocity, the condition for reciprocity is y11 = y21
Condition for symmetry As already stated, a two-port network is said to be symmetric if the ports can be
interchanged without changing the port voltages and currents, and thus the condition of symmetry becomes,
y11 = y22
336
Conditions in terms of ABCD-parameters

Condition for Reciprocity From Fig. 6.10 (a), writing the ABCD-parameter equations,
Vs = A ⋅ 0 − B( − I 2′ ) = BI 2′ I′ 1
⇒ 2= (6.7)
I1 = C ⋅ 0 − D( − I 2′ ) = DI 2′ Vs B
From Fig. 6.10 (b), writing the ABCD-parameter equations,
0 = AVs − BI 2 I ′ AD − BC
⇒ 1= (6.8)
− I1′ = CVs − DI 2 Vs B
1 ( AD − BC )
From the principle of reciprocity, the condition for reciprocity is =
B B
( AD − BC ) =1
Vs
Condition for symmetry From Eq. (6.7), I1 = DI 2′ = D (6.9)
B
I1′+ CVs 1 ⎧ ⎛ AD − BC ⎞ ⎫⎪ A
From Eq. (6.8), I2 = = ⎨Vs ⎜ ⎟⎠ + CVs ⎬ = Vs B (6.10)
D D ⎪⎩ ⎝ B ⎭
From Eq. (6.9) and Eq. (6.10), we have the condition for symmetry as A = D
Conditions in terms of h-parameters

Condition for Reciprocity From Fig. 6.10 (a), writing the h-parameter equations,
Vs = h11 I1 + h12 ⋅ 0 = h11 I1 I′ h
⇒ 2 = − 21 (6.11)
− I 2′ = h21 I1 + h22 ⋅ 0 = h21 I1 Vs
h11
From Fig. 6.10 (b), writing the h-parameter equations,
0 = − h11 I1′+ h12Vs I′ h
⇒ 1 = 12 (6.12)
I 2 = − h21 I1′+ h22Vs Vs h11
From the principle of reciprocity, the condition for reciprocity is h12 = − h21
Vs
Condition for symmetry From Eq. (6.11), I1 = (6.13)
h11
⎛h ⎞ h h −h h
From Eq. (6.12), I 2 = − h21 ⎜ 12 Vs ⎟ + h22Vs = Vs 11 22 12 21 (6.14)
⎝ h11 ⎠ h11
From Eq. (6.13) and Eq. (6.14), we have the condition for symmetry as ( h11 h22 − h12 h21 ) = 1
Conditions in terms of inverse T-parameters

Condition for Reciprocity From Fig. 6.10 (a), writing the T -parameter equations,
0 = A′Vs − B ′I1 I 2′ A′D ′ − B ′C ′
⇒ = (6.15)
− I 2′ = C ′Vs − DI1 Vs B′
337
Two-Port Network
From Fig. 6.10 (b), writing the T -parameter equations,

( )
Vs = 0 ′ − B ′ − I1′ = B ′I1′
⇒
I1′ 1
=
= 0 ′ − D ′ ( − I ′) = D ′ I ′
(6.16)
I2 1 1
Vs B ′
From the principle of reciprocity, the condition for reciprocity is ( A′D ′ − B ′C ′ ) = 1
A′
Condition for Symmetry From Eq. (6.15), I1 = V (6.17)
B′ s
D′
From Eq. (6.16), I 2 = V (6.18)
B′ s
From Eq. (6.17) and Eq. (6.18), we have the condition for symmetry as A′ = D ′
Conditions in terms of inverse hybrid (g)-parameters

Condition for reciprocity From Fig. 6.10 (a), writing the g-parameter equations,
I1 = g11Vs − g12 I 2′ I′ g
⇒ 2 = 21 (6.19)
0 = g21Vs − g22 I 2′ Vs
g22
From Fig. 6.10 (b), writing the g-parameter equations,
− I1′ = g11 0 + g12 I 2 = g12 I 2 I′ g
⇒ 1 = − 12 (6.20)
Vs = g21 0 + g22 I 2 = g22 I 2 Vs g22
From the principle of reciprocity, the condition for reciprocity is g12 = − g21
⎛ g g −g g ⎞
Condition for symmetry From Eq. (6.19), I1 = ⎜ 11 22 12 21 ⎟ Vs (6.21)
⎝ g22 ⎠
1
From Eq. (6.20), I 2 = V (6.22)
g22 s
From Eq. (6.21) and Eq. (6.22), we have the condition for symmetry as ( g11 g22 − g12 g 21 ) = 1
Table 6.1 Conditions of Reciprocity and Symmetry in Terms of Different

Two-Port Parameters
Parameter Condition of Reciprocity Condition of Symmetry

z z12 z21 z11 z22
y y12 y21 y11 y22
T (ABCD) (AD BC ) 1 A D
T (A B C D ) (A D BC) 1 A D
h h12 h21 (h11h22 h12 h21) 1
g g12 g21 (g11 g22 g12 g21) 1
338
Example 6.5 Find the z-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 6.11 and 2 2
state whether the network is reciprocal and symmetrical.
Solution By writing the KVL for the two meshes of Fig. 6.11, we get, 2
I1 I2
( )
2 + 2 + 2 I1 + 2 I 2 = V1 ⇒ V1 = 6 I1 + 2 I 2 2 2
( )
2 I1 + 2 + 2 + 2 I 2 = V2 ⇒ V2 = 2 I1 + 6 I 2 Fig. 6.11 Network of
Form these two equations; we get the z-parameters of the network as, Example 6.5
z11 6 ; z12 z21 2 ; z22 6

Since z11 z22, for this network, the network is symmetrical.
Since z11 z21, for this network, the network is reciprocal.
6.3 INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TWO-PORT PARAMETERS

Each type of two-port parameter has its own utility and is suited for certain specific applications. However, it
is sometimes necessary to convert one set of parameters to another. It is possible through simple mathemati-
cal manipulations to convert one set to any of the remaining sets. It is discussed below.
6.3.1 z-Parameters in Terms of Other Parameters

In Terms of y-parameters The z-parameter equations are
V1 = z11 I1 + z 12 I 2
(6.23)
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I 2
The y-parameter equations are
I1 = y11V1 + y12V2
(6.24)
I 2 = y21V1 + y 22V2
I 2 y21
From Eq. (6.24), V2 = − V ; substituting this in the first equation,
y22 y22 1
⎛ I y ⎞ y22 y
I1 = y11V1 + y12 ⎜ 2 − 21 V1 ⎟ or, V1 = I − 12 I 2 (6.25)
⎝ 22
y y22 ⎠ y 1 y
where, y (y11y22 y12y21)
Substituting this value in the second equation of Eq. (6.24)
⎛y y ⎞ y21 y
I 2 = y21 ⎜ 22 I1 − 12 I 2 ⎟ + y22V2 or V2 = − I1 + 11 I 2 (6.26)
⎝ y y ⎠ y y
y22 y y y
Comparing Eq. (6.23), (6.25) and (6.26), we get z11 = ; z12 = − 12 ; z21 = − 21 ; z22 = 11
y y y y
339
Two-Port Network
In Terms of transmission parameters The transmission parameter equations are,

V1 = AV2 − BI 2
(6.27)
I1 = CV2 − DI 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ D⎞
From the second equation of Eq. (6.27), V2 = ⎜ ⎟ I1 + ⎜ ⎟ I 2 (6.28)
⎝C⎠ ⎝C⎠
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ D⎞ ⎤ ⎛ A⎞ ⎛ AD − BC ⎞
From the first equation of Eq. (6.27), V1 = A ⎢⎜ ⎟ I1 + ⎜ ⎟ I 2 ⎥ − BI 2 = ⎜ ⎟ I1 + ⎜ ⎟⎠ I 2 (6.29)
⎣⎝ C ⎠ ⎝C⎠ ⎦ ⎝C⎠ ⎝ C
A AD − BC T 1 D
Comparing Eq. (6.28) and (6.29) with Eq. (6.23), we get z11 = ; z12 = = ; z21 = ; z22 =
C C C C C
In terms of hybrid parameters The hybrid parameter equations are

V1 = h11 I1 + h12V2
(6.30)
I 2 = h21 I1 + h22V2
⎛ h ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
From the second equation of Eq. (6.30), V2 = ⎜ − 21 ⎟ I1 + ⎜ ⎟ I 2 (6.31)
⎝ h22 ⎠ ⎝ h22 ⎠
From the first equation of Eq. (6.30),
⎡⎛ h ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ h h −h h ⎞ ⎛h ⎞
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 ⎢⎜ − 21 ⎟ I1 + ⎜ ⎟ I 2 ⎥ = ⎜ 11 22 12 21 ⎟ I1 + ⎜ 12 ⎟ I 2 (6.32)
⎢⎣⎝ h22 ⎠ ⎝ h22 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ h22 ⎠ ⎝ h22 ⎠
Comparing Eq. (6.31) and Eq. (6.32) with Eq. (6.23), we get
h11 h22 − h12 h21 h h h 1

z11 = = ; z12 = 12 ; z21 = 21 ; z22 =
h22 h22 h22 h22 h22
Similarly, the inter-relation of the other parameter in terms of the remaining parameters are obtained by writ-
ing the remaining parameter equations in the same format as those of the other parameter; and comparing the
coefficients of the two sets of equations, a relation is obtained.
A summary of the relationships between impedance z-parameters, admittance y-parameters,
hybrid h-parameters, and transmission ABCD-parameters is shown in Table where z (z11z22 z12z21),
h (h11h22 h12h21), T (AD BC), T (A D B C ), and g (g11g22 g12g21).
6.4 INTERCONNECTION OF TWO-PORT NETWORKS

In certain applications, it becomes necessary to connect the two-port networks together.
The common connections are (a) series connection, (b) parallel connection, (c) cascade connection
(d) series–parallel connection, and (e) parallel–series connection.
340
Table 6.2 Interrelationships Between Two-Port Parameters

[z] [y] [ABCD] [A B C D ] [h] [g]
[z] y22 y12 A T D′ 1 h h12 1 g12
− −
z11 z12 y y C C C′ C′ h22 h22 g11 g11
z21 z22 y y11 1 D T′ A′ h21 1 g21 g
− 21 −
y y C C C′ C′ h22 h22 g11 g11
[ y] z22 z12 D T A′ 1 1 h12 g g12

− − − −
z z y11 y12 B B B′ B′ h11 h11 g22 g22
z z11 y21 y22 1 A T′ D′
− 21 − − h21 h g21 1
B B B′ B′ −
z z h11 h11 g22 g22
[ABCD] z11 z y22 1 D′ B′ h h11 1 g22

− − − − −
z21 z21 y21 y21 A B T′ T′ h21 h21 g21 g21
1 z22 y y C D C′ A′ h22 1 g11 g
− − 11 − −
z21 z21 y21 y21 T′ T′ h21 h21 g21 g21
[A B C D ] z22 z y11 1 D B 1 h11 g g22
− − − −
z12 z12 y12 y12 T T A′ B ′ h22 h12 g12 g12
1 z11 y y C A C ′ D′ h22 h g11 1
− − 22 T T − −
z12 z12 y12 y12 h12 h12 g12 g12
[h] z z12 1 y12 B T B′ 1 g22 g12

− −
z22 z22 y11 y11 D D A′ A′ h11 h12 g g
z21 y21 1 C T′ D′ h21 h22 g g11
−
1 y − − − 21
z22 z22 y11 y11 D D A′ B′ g g
[g] 1 z12 y y12 C T C′ 1 h22 h12

− − − −
z11 z11 y22 y22 A A D′ D′ h h g11 g12
z21 z y21 1 1 B T′ B′ h h11 g21 g22
− − A A D′ D′ − 21
z11 z11 y22 y22 h h
6.4.1 Series Connection of Two-Port Networks

As in the case of elements, a series connection is defined when the currents in the series elements are equal
and the voltages add up to give the resultant voltage.
In the case of two-port networks, this property must be applied individually to each of the ports. Thus, if
we consider two networks r and s connected in series, at Port 1, Ir1 Is1 I1, and Vr1 Vs1 V1
Similarly, at Port 2, Ir2 Is2 I2 and Vr2 Vs2 V2
The two networks, r and s can be connected in the following manner to be in series with each other.
341
Two-Port Network
Under these conditions, Ir 1 Ir 2

Liner
V1 = (Vr 1 + Vs1 ) = ( z11r + z11s ) I1 + ( z12 r + z12 s ) I 2 Vr 1 passive Vr 2
Port r 1 Port r 2
network
V2 = (Vr 2 + Vs 2 ) = ( z21r + z21s ) I1 + ( z22 r + z22 s ) I 2 + r +
V1 Vb Is1 Is2 Va V2
Liner
It is seen that the resultant impedance parameter matrix -
passive
-
Vs1 Port s1 Port s 2 Vs2
for the series connection is the addition of the two indi- network
s
vidual impedance matrices.
[z] [zr] [zs] Fig. 6.12 Series connection of two-port networks
( ) ( ) (
∴ z11 = z11r + z11s ; z12 = z12 r + z12 s ; z21 = z21r + z21s ; z22 = z22 r + z22 s ) ( )
Note In the interconnection of series networks, there is a strong requirement of isolation, since the ground node
of upper network forms the non-ground node of the lower network. For the port properties to be valid, the
voltages Va and Vb must be identically zero for the two networks r and s to be connected in series. If Va and Vb
are not zero, then by connecting the two ports there will be a circulating current and the port property of the
individual networks r and s will be violated.
6.4.2 Parallel Connection of Two-Port Networks

As in the case of elements, a parallel connection is defined when the voltages in the parallel elements are equal
and the currents add up to give the resultant current.
In the case of two-port networks, this property must be applied individually to each of the ports.
Thus, if we consider two networks r and s connected in parallel, at Port 1, Ir1 Is1 I1 and Vr1 Vs1 V1
Similarly, at Port 2, Ir2 Is2 I2 and Vr2 Vs2 V2 Ir 1
I1 Ir2 I2
The two networks, r and s can be connected in the following manner Linear
to be in parallel with each other. passive
Vr1 Vr 2
network
Under these conditions, r
V1 Is1 Is 2 V2
I1 = ( I r 1 + I s1 ) = ( y11r + y11s )V1 + ( y12 r + y12 s )V2 Linear
passive
I 2 = ( I r 2 + I s 2 ) = ( y21r + y21s )V1 + ( y22 r + y22 s )V2 Vs1 network Vs2
s
It is seen that the resultant admittance parameter matrix for the parallel
connection is the addition of the two individual admittance matrices. Fig. 6.13 Parallel connection of
two-port networks
[Y ] [Yr] [Ys]
y11 (y11r y11s); y12 (y12r y12s); y21 (y21r y21s); y22 (y22r y22s)
Ir 1 Ir 2 I2 I1 Ir1 Ir 2
Linear Linear
passive passive
Vr 1 Vr 2 Vr1 network Vr 2
network
r r
Vb Is1 Is2
V1
Is1 Is2 Va
Linear V2 Linear
passive passive
Vs1 Vs 2 Vs1 network Vs2
network
s s
Fig. 6.14 (a) Condition of parallel Fig. 6.14 (b) Condition of parallel
connection: Vb 0 connection: Va 0
342
Note As in series connection, parallel connection is also possible under the condition that Va Vb 0; otherwise they
cannot be connected in parallel as that will violate the port properties.
6.4.3 Cascade Connection of Two-Port Networks

A cascade connection is defined when the output of one network becomes the input to the next network.
Ir 1 Ir 2 Is1 Is2
Linear Linear
Port rI Vr 1 passive Port r2 Vr2 Vs1 Port s1 passive Port s2 Vs 2
network network
Fig. 6.15 Cascade connection of two-port networks

It can be easily seen that Ir2 Is1 and Vr2 Vs1
Therefore, it can easily be seen that the ABCD parameters are the most suitable to be used for this
connection.
⎡Vr 1 ⎤ ⎡ Ar Br ⎤ ⎡Vr 2 ⎤ ⎡Vs1 ⎤ ⎡ As Bs ⎤ ⎡Vs 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥, ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I r 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Cr Dr ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I r 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I s1 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣Cs Ds ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I s 2 ⎥⎦
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡Vr 1 ⎤ ⎡ Ar Br ⎤ ⎡Vr 2 ⎤ ⎡ Ar Br ⎤ ⎡ As Bs ⎤ ⎡Vs 2 ⎤ ⎡ Ar Br ⎤ ⎡ As Bs ⎤ ⎡V2 ⎤

Br ⎤ ⎡Vs1 ⎤ ⎡ Ar
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢
⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I r 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Cr Dr ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Cs Ds ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I s 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Cr Dr ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Cs Ds ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
Dr ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I r 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Cr Dr ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I s1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Cr
Thus it is seen that the (overall ABCD matrix is the product of the two individual ABCD matrices). This is a
very useful property in practice, especially when analyzing transmission lines.
⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ Ar Br ⎤ ⎡ As Bs ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣C D ⎦ ⎢⎣Cr Dr ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Cs Ds ⎥⎦
6.4.4 Series–Parallel Connection of Two-Port Networks

Two two-port networks are said to be connected in series–parallel if the input ports are connected in series
and the output ports in parallel as shown in Fig. 6.16.
I1 Ir 1 Ir2 I2
V1 = (Vr 1 + Vs1 ) V =V =V Linear
Under these conditions, and 2 r 2 s 2
I1 = I r 1 = I s1 I 2 = ( I r 2 + I 21 ) Vr1 passive Vr 2
network
r
⎡Vr 1 ⎤ ⎡ h11r h12 r ⎤ ⎡ I r 1 ⎤
For the network r, ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ V1 V2
⎢⎣ I r 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ h21r h22 r ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vr 2 ⎥⎦ Is1 Is 2
Linear
⎡Vs1 ⎤ ⎡ h11s h12 s ⎤ ⎡ I s1 ⎤ Vs1 passive Vs2
For the network s, ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ network
⎢⎣ I s 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ h21s h22 s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vs 2 ⎥⎦ s
Fig. 6.16 Series–parallel
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡Vr 1 ⎤ ⎡Vs1 ⎤ ⎡ h11r h12 r ⎤ ⎡ I r 1 ⎤ ⎡ h11s h12 s ⎤ ⎡ I s1 ⎤
Now, ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ connection of two-port networks
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I r 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I s 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ h21r h22 r ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vr 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ h21s h22 s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vs 2 ⎥⎦
⎡h h12 r ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ h11s h12 s ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ ( h11r + h11s ) ( )
h12 r + h12 s ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤
= ⎢ 11r ⎥⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ h21r h22 r ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ h21s h22 s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ( h21r + h21s ) ( )
h22 r + h22 s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦
343
Two-Port Network
Thus, it is seen that the resultant hybrid parameter matrix for the series–parallel connection is the addition
of the two individual hybrid parameter matrices.
[h] [hr] [hs]
h11 (h11r h11s); h12 (h12r h12s); h21 (h21r h21s); h22 (h22r h22s)
6.4.5 Parallel–Series Connection of Two-Port Networks
Two two-port networks are said to be connected in parallel–series if I1 Ir1 Ir 2 I2
the input ports are connected in parallel and the output ports in series Linear
Vr 1 passive V
as shown in Fig. 6.17. network r2
V1 = Vr 1 = Vs1 V = (Vr 2 + Vs 2 ) r
Under these conditions, and 2
I1 = ( I r 1 + I s1 ) I 2 = I r 2 = I 21 V1 V2
Is1 Is2
In a similar way in series–parallel connection, it can be shown that the resul- Linear
tant inverse hybrid parameter matrix for the parallel–series connection is Vs1 passive Vs2
network
the addition of the two individual inverse hybrid parameter matrices. s
[g] [gr] [gs] Fig. 6.17 Parallel–series connection
g11 (g11r g11s); g12 (g12r g12s); of two-port network
g21 (g21r g21s); g22 (g22r g22s)
Example 6.6 Find the transmission parameters for the network

1 2 1
shown in Fig. 6.18 considering two networks connected in cascade.
Solution The network of Fig. 6.18 can be considered to be the cas- V2 V2
2
cade connection of two two-port networks as shown in Fig. 6.19.
We know that for cascade connection, the overall transmission
parameter matrix is the product of the individual transmission parameter Fig. 6.18 Network of Example 6.6
matrices.
We find the transmission parameter matrix of the individual sections.
For each section, the z-parameters are given as
Network 1 Network 2
z11 (1 2) 3 z12 z21 2 z22 (1 2) 3 1 1 1 1
By the interrelationship between z-parameters and transmis-
sion parameters, we get V2 2 2 V2
⎡ z11 z⎤ − −
⎢ ⎥
⎡ A1 B1 ⎤ ⎡ A2 B2 ⎤ ⎢ z21 z21 ⎥ Fig. 6.19 Cascade connection of two-port
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ networks
⎣⎢ 1
C D ⎥ ⎣⎢ 2
1⎦
C D ⎥ ⎢ 1
2⎦
z 22
⎥
⎢⎣ z21 z21 ⎥⎦
z11 3 z 3 × 3 − 22 5 1 1 z 3
∴ A= = ; B= = = ; C= = mho; D = 22 =
z21 2 z21 2 2 z21 2 z21 2
Therefore, the transmission parameter matrix of the network of Fig. 6.18, is
⎡3 5 ⎤ ⎡3 5 ⎤ ⎡7 15 ⎤
⎡A B⎤ ⎢ 2 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 2⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ×⎢ ⎥ =⎢
⎣C D ⎦ ⎢ 1 3 1 3 3 7 ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
344
6.5 TWO-PORT NETWORK FUNCTIONS

Two-port network functions are broadly divided into two groups:
(I) Transfer function, and
(II) Driving point function.
6.5.1 Transfer Function

It is defined as the ratio of an output transform to an input transform, with zero initial condition and with no
internal energy sources except the controlled sources.
For a two-port network, having the variables I1(s), I2(s), V1(s), and V2(s), the transfer function can take the
following four forms:
V1 ( s ) V (s)
Voltage Transfer Function G12 ( s ) = ; G21 ( s ) = 2
V2 ( s ) V1 ( s )
I1 ( s ) I (s)
Current Transfer Function 12
(s) = ; 21 ( s ) = 2
I2 (s) I1 ( s )
V1 ( s ) V (s)
Transfer Impedance Function Z12 ( s ) = ; Z 21 ( s ) = 2
I2 (s) I1 ( s )
I1 ( s ) I (s)
Transfer Admittance Function Y12 ( s ) = ; Y21 ( s ) = 2
V2 ( s ) V1 ( s )
Note (i) For a one-port network, Z(s) 1/ Y(s); but for a two-port network, in general Z12 ⬆ 1/Y12; G12 ⬆ 1/␣12.
(ii) Z and Y functions will become z and y parameters under the conditions of open-circuits or short-circuits,
respectively.
6.5.2 Driving Point Function

It takes two forms:
Driving Point Impedance [Z(s)] For a two-port network in zero state with no internal energy sources, the
driving point impedance is the ratio of transform voltage at any port to the transform current at the same port.
V (s) V (s)
Z11 ( s ) = 1 ; Z 22 ( s ) = 2
I1 ( s ) I2 (s)
Driving point admittance [Y(s)] For a two-port network in zero state with no internal energy sources, the
driving point admittance is the ratio of transform current at any port to the transform voltage at the same port.
I (s) I (s)
Y11 ( s ) = 1 ; Y22 ( s ) = 2
V1 ( s ) V2 ( s )
Note (i) Driving point impedance and admittance functions together are known as immittance function.
(ii) Z and Y functions will become z and y parameters under the conditions of open circuits or short circuits,
respectively.
345
Two-Port Network
6.6 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF TERMINATED TWO-PORT NETWORKS

A two-port network may be terminated by impedance. The impedance may be connected either in input port
or in the output port as shown in figures.
I1 I2 I1 I2
1 2 1 2
V1 N V2 ZL ZL V1 N V2
1 2 1 2
Fig. 6.20 (a) Two-port network with Fig. 6.20 (b) Two-port network with
terminted output terminated input
6.6.1 Determination of Input Impedance (Zin ) in Terms of Network Parameters and

Terminated Impedance
In terms of z-parameters In this case (Fig. 6.20 (a)), V2 I2ZL
z21
So, V2 = − I 2 Z L = z21 I1 + z22 I 2 ⇒ I 2 = − I
z22 + Z L 1
⎛ z21 ⎞
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I 2 = ⎜ z11 − I
z22 + Z L ⎟⎠ 1
Putting this value in the first equation of z-parameters,
⎝
or, Z in =
V1 (z z − z z + z11 z L
= 11 22 12 21
)
I1 z22 + Z L
Note (i) For an open-circuited output, ZL → ; then Zin z11

(ii) For a short-circuited output, ZL 0; then Zin z/z22 1/y11
In Terms of y-parameters Putting the value V2 I2ZL ⇒ , I2 YLV2 in the second equation of
y-parameters, we get
y21
I 2 = −YLV2 = y21V1 + y22V2 ⇒ V2 = − V
y22 + YL 1
Putting this value in the first equation of y-parameters, we get
y12 y21
I1 = y11V1 + y12V2 = y11V1 − V
y22 + YL 1
V1 y22 + YL
or, Z in = =
I1 y11 y22 − y12 y21 + y11YL
Note (i) For an open-circuited output, YL 0; then Zin y22/ y z11

(ii) For a short-circuited output, YL → ; then Zin 1/y11
346
In terms of ABCD-parameters Putting the value V2 I2ZL in the second equation of ABCD-parameters,
we get
I1
I1 = CV2 − DI 2 = −CI 2 Z L − DI 2 ⇒ I 2 = −
CZ L + D
Putting this value in the first equation of ABCD-parameters, we get
AZ L + B
(
V1 = AV2 − BI 2 = A( − I 2 Z L ) − BI 2 = − AZ L + B I 2 = ) I
CZ L + D 1
V1 AZ L + B
or, Z in = =
I1 CZ L + D
Note (i) For an open-circuited output, ZL → ; then Zin A/C z11

(ii) For a short-circuited output, ZL 0; then Zin B/D 1/y11
In Terms of h-parameters From the second equation of h-parameters, putting the value, V2 I2 ZL, we get
h21
I 2 = h21 I1 + h22V2 = h21 I1 + h22 ( − I 2 Z L ) ⇒ I 2 = I
1 + h22 Z L 1
Putting this value in the first equation of h-parameters,
h21
V1 = h11 I1 + h12V2 = h11 I1 + h12 ( − I 2 Z L ) = h11 I1 − h12 Z L I
1+ h22 Z L 1
or, Z in = =
( )
V1 h11 h22 − h12 h21 Z L + h11
I1 1 + h22 Z L
Note (i) For an open-circuited output, ZL → ; then Zin h/h22 z11

(ii) For a short-circuited output, ZL 0; then Zin h11 1/y11
6.6.2 Determination of Output Impedance (Zout) in terms of Network Parameters

and Terminated Impedance
In terms of z-parameters In this case (Fig. 6.20 (b)), V1 I1Z1 ⇒ I1 Y1V1
z12
So, V1 = − I1 Z1 = z11 I1 + z12 I 2 ⇒ I1 = − I
z11 + Z1 2
⎛ z ⎞
Putting this value in the second equation of z-parameters, V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I 2 = z21 ⎜ − 12 ⎟ I 2 + z22 I 2
⎝ Z1 + z11 ⎠
or Z out =
V2 (
z z − z z + z22 Z1
= 11 22 12 21
)
I2 z11 + Z1
Note (i) For an open-circuited output, Z1 → ; then Zout z22

(ii) For a short-circuited output, Z1 0; then Zout z/z11 1/y22
347
Two-Port Network
In terms of y-parameters Putting the value V1 I1ZL ⇒ I1 Y1I2 in the first equation of
y-parameters, we get
y12
I1 = −Y1V1 = y11V1 + y12V2 ⇒ V1 = − V
y11 + Y1 2
Putting this value in the second equation of y-parameters, we get
⎛ y ⎞
I 2 = y21V1 + y22V2 = y21 ⎜ − 12 ⎟ V2 + y22V2
⎝ y11 + Y1 ⎠
V2 y11 + Y1
or, Z out = =
I 2 y11 y22 − y12 y21 + y22Y1
Note (i) For an open-circuited output, Y1 0; then Zout y11/ y z22

(ii) For a short-circuited output, Y1 → ; then Zout 1/y22
In terms of ABCD-parameters Putting the value V1 I1Z1, we get

V1 = AV2 − VI 2
I1 = CV2 − DI 2
V1 AV − BI 2
= − Z1 = 2
I1 CV2 − DI 2
−CZ1V2 + DZ1 I 2 = AV2 − BI 2
I 2 ( B + DZ1 ) = V2 ( A + CZ1 )
V2 B + DZ1
or, Z out = =
I 2 A + CZ1
Note (i) For an open-circuited output, Z1 → ; then Zout D/C z22

(ii) For a short-circuited output, Z1 0; then Zout B/A 1/y22
In terms of h-parameters From the equation, putting the value V1 I1Z1 in the first equation of
h-parameters, we get
h
V1 = − I1 Z1 = h11 I1 + h12V2 ⇒ I1 = − 12 V2
h11 + Z1
⎛ h ⎞
Putting this value in the second equation of h-parameters, I 2 = h21 I1 + h22V2 = h21 ⎜ − 12 ⎟ V2 + h22V2
⎝ h11 + Z1 ⎠
V2 h11 + Z1
or, Z out = =
I 2 h11 h22 − h12 h21 + h22 Z1
Note (i) For an open-circuited output, Z1 → ; then Zout 1/ h22 z22

(ii) For a short-circuited output, Z1 0; then Zout h11 / h 1/ y22
348
Example 6.7 The currents I1 and I2 at input and output ports respectively of a two-port network are
expressed as I1 5V1 V2 and I2 V1 V2
Find the y-parameters. If a load impedance of (3 j5) is connected across the output port, find the input impedance.
Solution Comparing the equations with the standard y-parameter equations, we get
y11 5 ; y12 y21 1 ; and y22 1
Here, load impedance is ZL (3 j5)
1 1 ⎛ 3 5⎞
load admittance, YL = = =⎜ − j ⎟
ZL (
3 + j 5 ⎝ 34 34 ⎠ )
The input impedance is
3 5
V y22 + YL 1+ −j
Z in = 1 = = 34 34 = 0.248∠1.89° ( )
I1 y11 y22 − y12 y21 + y11YL ⎛ 3 5⎞
( )
2
5 × 1 − −1 + 5 × ⎜ − j ⎟
⎝ 34 34 ⎠
6.7 APPLICATION OF NETWORK PARAMETERS TO THE ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL

TWO-PORT NETWORKS
We consider six typical two-port networks
1. T network
2. ␲ network
3. Ladder network
4. Lattice network
5. Bridge-T network
6. Parallel-T or twin-T or notch-filter network
6.7.1 T or Star or Y Network

The configuration of a typical T-network is shown in Fig. 6.21.
By KVL equations for the two meshes, we get I1 I2
1 Za Zb 2
(Za Zb)I1 ZcI2 V1 and ZcI1 (Zb Zc)I2 V2
Thus, the z-parameters are Z11 (Za Zb); z12 z21 Zc; V1 Zc V2
z22 (Zb Zc)
Rearranging, Za (z11 z12); Zb (z22 z12) Zc z12 z21 1 2
From the inter-relationship, we get for T-network, the transmis- Fig. 6.21 T-network
sion parameters as
z ⎛ Z ⎞ z ⎛ Z Z ⎞ 1 1 z ⎛ Z ⎞
A = 11 = ⎜ 1 + a ⎟ ; B = = ⎜ Z a + Zb + a b ⎟ ; C = = ; D = 22 = ⎜ 1 + b ⎟
z21 ⎝ Z c ⎠ z21 ⎝ Zc ⎠ z12 Z c z12 ⎝ Z c ⎠
Conversely, Z a =
( A − 1) ; Zb =
( D − 1) ; and Z c =
1
C C C
and the y-parameters,
349
Two-Port Network
z22 Zb + Z c z − Zc z Za + Zc
y11 = = ; y12 = y21 = − 12 = ; y22 = 11 =
z Z a Zb + Zb Z c + Z c Z a z Z a Zb + Zb Z c + Z c Z a z Z a Zb + Zb Z c + Z c Z a
6.7.2 or Delta Network
The configuration of a typical ␲-network is shown in Fig. 6.22.
By KCL equations at the two nodes, we get
I2
(V −V )Y +V Y = I )
I1
1 2 c 1 a 1 (
⇒ Ya + Yc V1 − YcV2 = I1 1 2
V )Y = I
V Y + (V −V − Y V + (Y + Y )V
Yc
2 b 2 1 c 2
⇒ c 1 b c 2
= I2
V1 Ya Yb V2
Thus, the y-parameters are
( )
y11 = Ya + Yb ; y12 = y21 = −Yc ; y22 = Yb + Yc ( ) 1 2
( )
Rearranging, Ya = y11 + y12 ; Yb = y22 + y12 ; Yc = − y12 = − y21 ( ) Fig. 6.22 ␲-network
From the inter-relationship we get for ␲-network, the trans-

mission parameters as
y22 ⎛ Yb ⎞ 1 1 y ⎛ YY ⎞ y ⎛ Y ⎞
A= − = 1+ ; B=− = ; C=− = Y + Y + a b ; D = − 11 = ⎜ 1 + a ⎟
y21 ⎜⎝ Yc ⎟⎠ y21 Yc y21 ⎜⎝ a b Yc ⎟⎠ y21 ⎝ Yc ⎠
Conversely, Ya =
( D − 1) ; Yb =
( A − 1) ; and Yc =
1
B B B
6.7.3 Ladder Network
The configuration of a typical ladder-network is 1 Z1 Z3 Z5 2
shown in Fig. 6.23.
The series arms are indicated by their impedances Y2 Y4 Y6
Z1, Z3, Z5, … and the shunt arms are indicated by their
admittances Y2, Y4, Y6, … 1 2
In order to find the driving point impedance at Port- 1, Fig. 6.23 Ladder network
we start computation at Port- 2 with Y6; i.e., inverting Y6,
combining with Z5, inverting the sum, and so on.
Thus, the driving point impedance at Port 1 1 is given as
1
Z11 = Z1 +
1
Y2 +
1
Z3 +
1
Y4 +
1
Z5 +
Y6
Note This equation is known as continued fraction.
In order to find the transfer function, we again start at the output port and then proceed backward, applying
KCL and KVL where necessary.
350
6.7.4 Lattice Network I1 I2

Za
A Lattice network forms the basis of the design of most four-terminal networks
like attenuators, filters etc. Zb
V1 Zb V2
It consists of two identical impedances in series arm and two identical
impedances in shunt arm as shown in Fig. 6.24 (a).
Za
Here, Za are the series arms and Zb are the diagonal or shunt arms.
To find the z-parameters, we redraw the network as shown in Fig. 6.24 (b). Fig. 6.24 (a) Lattic network
Assuming I2 0, the current I1 enters the bridge at the point A and
divides equally between the two arms. I1 A
1
I1 I ⎛ Z − Za ⎞ Zb
∴ Z a + V2 = 1 Z b ⇒ V2 = I1 ⎜ b ⎟ Za
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ V2
V2 ⎛ Z − Za ⎞ V1 I2 2 2
∴ z21 = =⎜ b ⎟ Za
I1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ Zb
I2 =0
1
⎛ Z + Za ⎞
)
I V
Also,
2
(
V1 = 1 Z a + Z b ⇒ z11 = 1
I1
=⎜ b
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎟ Fig. 6.24 (b) Equivalent
I2 =0 network
As the network is reciprocal and symmetrical,

⎛ Z − Za ⎞ ⎛ Z + Za ⎞
∴ z21 = z12 = ⎜ b ⎟ and z11 = z22 = ⎜ b ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(
∴ Z a = z11 − z12 ) (
and Z b = z11 + z12 )
6.7.5 Bridge-T Network
The configuration of a typical bridge-T network is shown in Z4
I1 I2
Fig. 6.25. Z1 Z2
1 2
In this case, the current in the output depends on the voltages
and a number of nodes instead of one; thus, resulting in number of V2 Z3 V2
simultaneous equation.
1 2
Therefore, for such networks, analyzing either on node basis or
Fig. 6.25 Bridged T- network
on loop basis, the network function is expressed as a quotient of
determinants.
For loop basis, the admittance function, Y = kj

, where is the loop basis system determinant and kj
jk
is the cofactor. Here, Y s will be y-parameters if the output is shorted.

′
For node basis, the impedance function, Z jk = kj , where is the loop basis system determinant and kj
′
is the cofactor. Here, Z s will be z-parameters if the output is open-circuited.
V ′ I
Also, G21 = 2 = 21 21 = 2 = 21
V1 ′11 I1 11
351
Two-Port Network
Example 6.8 For the bridge-T RC network, find the transfer admit- 0.5 F
tance Y21.
1 I3 0.5
⎛ 2⎞ 1 2
2
Solution By KVL, ⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ I1 + s I 2 − I 3 = V1 0.5 F
I1 I2
1 2
2 ⎛ 1 2⎞ 1
I1 + ⎜ + ⎟ I 2 + I 3 = V2 Fig. 6.26 Network of
s ⎝ 2 s⎠ 2 Example 6.8
1 ⎛ 3 2⎞
− I1 + I 2 + ⎜ + ⎟ I 3 = 0
2 ⎝ 2 s⎠
⎛ 2⎞ 2
⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ s
−1
2 ⎛ 1 2⎞ 1 s+6
∴ = ⎜⎝ 2 + s ⎟⎠ =
s 2 s2
1 ⎛ 3 2⎞
−1 +
2 ⎝⎜ 2 s ⎟⎠
2 1
s2 + 6s + 8
( ) s 2
1+ 2
= −1 =−
12
⎛ 3 2⎞ 2s2
−1 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 2 s⎠
s2 + 6s + 8 s2 s2 + 6s + 8
∴ Y21 = 12
=− × = −
2s2 s+6 2 s+6 ( )
6.7.6 Parallel-T or Twin-T or Notch-Filter Network 2F 2F
The configuration of typical twin-T network is shown in Fig. 6.27.
2 2
In this case also, the current in the output depends on the voltages and 1 2
a number of nodes instead of one; thus, resulting in a number of simul- V1 1F 1 V2
taneous equations. We solve the network in the similar process as in the 1 2
bridge-T network. Fig. 6.27 Parallel T-network
6.8 SOME SPECIAL TWO-PORT NETWORKS

6.8.1 Gyrator
The gyrator is a two-port network that is designed to transform a load impedance into an input impedance
where the input impedance is proportional to the inverse of the load impedance. It is characterized by a single
resistance, R, known as the gyration resistance.
It can be shown that a gyrator is a non-reciprocal device.
The symbol of a gyrator is shown in Fig. 6.28 (a) and Fig. 6.28 (b). The arrow head indicates the direction
of gyration.
352
The v–i relationships for the gyrators of Fig. 6.28 (a) and (b) are given below:
For Fig. 6.28 (a),
⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − R ⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ or, v1 = − Ri2 and v2 = Ri1
⎢⎣ v2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ R 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣i2 ⎥⎦
For Fig. 6.28 (b),
⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 R ⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ or, v1 = Ri2 and v2 = − Ri1
⎢⎣ v2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ − R 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣i2 ⎥⎦
i1 R i2 i1 R i2
v1 v2 v1 v2
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.28 Symbol of gyrator
From the v–i relationships, it is clear that for a gyrator, z12 z21 and hence it is non-reciprocal.
Properties of a gyrator
Non-energic (passive) element A gyrator is a non-energic or passive element, i.e., at all times the power
delivered to the two-port is identically zero.
Total instantaneous power entering a gyrator is p(t) v1i1 v2i2 Ri2i1 Ri1i2 0
Hence it is a passive element.
Resistance gyration property When a gyrator is termi- i1 R i2
nated at the output port with a linear resistance RL, as shown
in Fig. 6.29, the input port behaves as a linear resistor with v1 v2 RL

⎛ R2 ⎞
resistance ⎜ ⎟ . This is explained below.
⎝ RL ⎠
Here, v2 i2RL
Fig. 6.29 Gyrator terminated with resistance
R R ⎛ R2 ⎞
v1 = − Ri2 = v2 = Ri1 = i
RL RL ⎜⎝ RL ⎟⎠ 1
input resistance,
v1 ⎛ R 2 ⎞
Ri = =
i1 ⎜⎝ RL ⎟⎠
Since the input resistance is inversely proportional to the load resistance, the gyrator has the property of
resistance inversion or gyration.
353
Two-Port Network
Capacitor-to-inductor mutation property If the output port i1 i2

R
of an ideal gyrator is terminated with a capacitor C as shown in
Fig. 6.30, the input port behaves like an inductor. This is explained
below. v1 v2 C
dv
Here, i2 = −C 2
dt
( )
dv2 d di di Fig. 6.30 Gyrator terminated with
∴ v1 = − Ri2 = RC = RC Ri1 = R 2C 1 = Leff 1
dt dt dt dt capacitor
Thus, at the input port the capacitor behaves as an inductor of
value Le f f R2C. This property is very useful in the design of electronic circuits where it is very difficult to
have inductances of suitable values; the inductor is simulated by using a gyrator terminated with a suitable
capacitor.
Inductor-to-capacitor mutation property If the output port
i1 R i2
of an ideal gyrator is terminated with an inductor L as shown in
Fig. 6.31, the input port behaves like a capacitor. This is explained
below. L
v1 v2
di
Here, v2 = − L 2
dt
v2 L di2 L d ⎛ v1 ⎞ L dv1 dv
∴ i1 = =− =− − = = Ceff 1 Fig. 6.31 Gyrator terminated with
R R dt R dt ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ R 2 dt dt inductor
Thus, at the input port the inductor behaves as a capacitor of

L
value Ceff = 2 .
R
Current-source-to-voltage source mutation property If

i1 R i2
the output port of an ideal gyrator is terminated with a voltage
source as shown in Fig. 6.32, the input port behaves like a current
source. Similarly, connecting a current source across the output v1 v1 E
port of a gyrator we get a voltage source at the input port.
v E
Here, i1 = 2 = = I eff .
R R
Fig. 6.32 Gyrator terminated with voltage
Driving-point-characteristic reflection property If the output source
port of a gyrator is connected across a current-controlled two-termi-
nal resistor, i.e., v2 f ( i2) then the input port becomes a voltage-
controlled resistor as shown in Fig. 6.33. The resulting voltage-controlled resistor is then the dual of the original
current-controlled resistor.
Similarly, if a voltage-controlled resistor is connected at the output port, we get its dual current-controlled
resistor at the input port.
A gyrator is a hypothetical device used for physical systems where the reciprocity condition does not hold
good.
354
i2 f ( i ) i1
i1 R i2 i1 2
⬅ f (v1)
v2 v2 = f ( i2) ⬅ V1
v1
v2
Fig. 6.33 A gyrator terminated at the output port with a current controlled resistor behaves like a voltage-controlled resistor.
6.8.2 Negative Impedance Converter (NIC)

A negative impedance converter (NIC) is a two-port device that offers negative impedance, i.e., the impedance
seen at the input port is equal to the negative of the load impedance with some conversion ratio.
It is characterized by the following v –i relationships:
v1 = kv2 ⎡ v ⎤ ⎡ 0 k ⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤ i1 i2
or, ⎢ 1 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (6.33)
i2 = ki1 ⎢⎣ i2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ k 0 ⎦ ⎣⎢ v2 ⎥⎦ v1 NIC v2 ZL
or,
v1 = − kv2 ⎡v ⎤ ⎡ 0 − k ⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤ Fig. 6.34 Negative impedance
or, ⎢ 1 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (6.34) converter (NIC)
i2 = − ki1 ⎢⎣ i2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ − k 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣ v2 ⎥⎦
where k is the conversion ratio.
From equations (6.33) and (6.34), it is seen that h12 h21; hence NIC is a non-reciprocal device.
For Eq. (6.33), it is seen that when i1 is in the reference direction, i2 is also in the reference direction and
hence current is said to be inverted. However, the voltage is not inverted. This set of equations characterizes
a current negative impedance converter (CNIC).
For Eq. (6.34), it is seen that the voltage is inverted but the current is not and hence, it characterizes a volt-
age negative impedance converter (VNIC).
Now, we study the behaviour of an NIC when terminated with a passive element. When it is terminated
di
with an inductor L, we have v2 = − L 2
dt
Putting the value of v2 in the v–i relations of equations (6.33 and (6.34), we get,
⎛ di ⎞ ⎡ ⎤
( )
d di di
v1 = ± kv2 = ± k ⎜ − L 2 ⎟ = ± k ⎢ − Lk ±i1 ⎥ = − k 2 L 1 = Leff 1
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎣ dt ⎦ dt dt
Thus, at the input port, the equivalent inductance is Leff k2L, i.e., negative of k2L.
Similar conclusions can be obtained when an NIC is terminated with a capacitor or a resistor.
6.9 IMAGE PARAMETERS OF A TWO-PORT NETWORK

We consider a two-port network. Let,
Zi 1 driving point impedance at Port 1 with impedance Zi 2 connected across Port 2, and
Zi 2 driving point impedance at Port 2 with impedance Zi 1 connected across Port 1
Then the impedances Zi 1 and Zi 2 are known as the image impedances of the two-port network.
355
Two-Port Network
I1 I2
AV2 − BI 2
From Fig. 6.35 (a), we get the input impedance, Z i1 =
CV2 − DI 2 Zi 1 V1 N V2 Zi 2
But, V2 I2Zi 2
AZ i 2 + B (a)
∴ Z i1 = (6.35)
CZ i 2 + D I1 I2
Similarly, from Fig. 6.35 (b), we get the input impedance,
Zi 1 V1 N V2 Zi 2
DZ i1 + B
∴ Zi 2 =
CZ i1 + D
(6.36) (b)
AB Fig. 6.35 Image parameters of a
From Equations (6.35) and (6.36), we get, Z i1 = two-port network
CD
BD
Zi 2 =
AC
These two expressions represent the image impedances in terms of the ABCD parameters. However, these
two image impedances do not completely define a two-port network; a third parameter, called image transfer
parameter, is needed. It is obtained as follows.
⎡ B ⎤
From Fig. 6.35 (a), V1 = AV2 − BI 2 = ⎢ A + ⎥V (6.37)
⎣ Zi 2 ⎦ 2
I1 = CV2 − DI 2 = − ⎡⎣C Z i 2 + D ⎤⎦ I 2 (6.38)
V1 ⎛ B⎞ ⎛ AC ⎞ ⎛ ABCD ⎞
From Eq. (6.37), = ⎜ A+ ⎟ = ⎜ A + B ⎟ = ⎜ A+ ⎟ (6.39)
V2 ⎝ Zi 2 ⎠ ⎝ BD ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠
⎛ BD ⎞ ⎛ ABCD ⎞
)
I1
From Eq. (6.38), −
I2
(
= D + CZ i 2 = ⎜ D + C ⎟ =⎜D+
AC ⎠ ⎝ A ⎠
⎟ (6.40)
⎝
( ) =(
2
AD + ABCD
V I
)
2
Multiplying equations (6.39) and (6.40), − 1× 1= AD + BC
V2 I 2 AD
V1 I1
− × = AD + BC = AD + AD − 1 ( AD BC 1)
V2 I 2
Let, AD = cosh , AD − 1 = sinh
V1 I1
∴ − = cosh + sinh = e
V2 I 2
V1 I1
= loge − (6.41)
V2 I 2
where, ␪ is called the image transfer parameter.
356
Here, the sign of ␪ is ambiguous, because either sign of ␪ will satisfy the equations AD = ccosh ␪, and
BC = sinh . For the direction of propagation from Port 1 to Port 2, the magnitude of V1I1 exceeds the mag-
nitude V2I2 so that the real part of ␪ is positive.
Also, V1 Zi1I1 and V2 Zi2I2
1 ⎛Z ⎞ ⎛I ⎞
Hence, the image transfer parameter can be written as, = ln ⎜ i1 ⎟ + ln ⎜ 1 ⎟ (6.42)
2 ⎝ Zi 2 ⎠ ⎝ I2 ⎠
⎛ BC ⎞
In the other way, may be written as, = cosh −1 AD = sinh −1 BC = tanh −1 ⎜ ⎟ (6.43)
⎝ AD ⎠
6.9.1 Image Parameters in Terms of Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Impedances
The general equations of ABCD parameters are, V1 AV2 BI2
I1 CV2 DI2
When Port 2 is opened, I2 0 V1 AV2 and I1 CV2
V1 A
open-circuit impedance at Port 1 is Z io = = (6.44)
I1 C
When Port 2 is shorted, V2 0 V1 BI2 and I1 DI2
V1 B
short-circuit impedance at Port 1 is Z is = = (6.45)
I1 D
When Port 1 is opened, I1 0 CV2 DI2
V2 D
open-circuit impedance at Port 2 is Z oo = = (6.46)
I2 C
When Port 1 is shorted, V1 0 AV2 BI2
V2 B
short-circuit impedance at Port 2 is Z os = = (6.47)
I2 A
AB A B
Now, image impedances are, Z i1 = = × = Z io × Z is
CD C D
Z i1 = Z io × Z is (6.48)
Similarly, Z i 2 = Z oo × Z os (6.49)
BC Z is Z os
Also, = tanh −1 = tanh −1 = tanh −1 (6.50)
AD Z io Z oo
BC
In the other way, ␪ can be evaluated as follows. tanh =
AD
357
Two-Port Network
BC e − e− e2 −1
⇒ = =
AD e + e− e2 +1
BC ( ) =(
2
AD + BC
AD +
) ( )
2 2
1
⇒ e2 = = AD + BC ⇒ = ln AD + BC { AD BC 1}
AD − BC 1 2
= ln ( AD + BC ) (6.51)
Z is Z os
Alternatively, tanh =
BC
AD
=
Z io
=
Z oo
=k (say ) [by equations (6.44), (6.45), (6.46) and (6.47)]
e − e− e2 −1 1+ k
⇒ = k ⇒ = k ⇒ e2 =
e +e −
e +1
2
1− k
1 ⎛ 1+ k ⎞ Z is Z os
= ln ⎜ where, k= = (6.52)
2 ⎝ 1 − k ⎟⎠ Z io Z oo
Equations (6.48), (6.49), (6.50) and (6.51) are used to find the image parameters Zi1, Zi2 and ␪ from physical
measurements of the open-circuit and short-circuit impedances.
In general, ␪ is a complex quantity. The real part of ␪ is called the image attenuation constant and the
imaginary part of ␪ is called the image phase constant.
Example 6.9 For the two-port network, calculate the z-parameters, I1 10 I2

20
ABCD parameters, open-circuit and short-circuit impedances and image 1 2
parameters. V1 5 V2
Solution The z-parameters for the T network are, 1 2
z11 = 15 ; z12 = z21 = 5 ; z22 = 25 Fig. 6.36 Network of
The ABCD parameters are obtained as Example 6.9
z11 15 z 15 × 25 − 52 1 1 z 25
A= = =3 B= = = 70 C= = = 0.2 mho D = 22 = = 5
z21 5 z21 5 z21 5 z21 5
Open-circuit impedance at Port 1 is, Zio z11 15
B
Short-circuit impedance at Port 1 is, Z is = =14
D
Open-circuit impedance at Port 2 is, Zoo z22 25
B
Short-circuit impedance at Port 2 is, Z os = = 23.33
A
AB 3 × 70 BD 70 × 5
Image parameters are, Z i1 = = = 14.49 Zi 2 = = = 24.15
CD 0.2 × 5 AC 3 × 0.2
= ln ( AD + BC = ln) ( 15 + 14 = 2.03 )
358
6.9.2 Symmetrical Networks

A two-port network which is symmetrical with respect to the two ports is termed as a symmetrical network.
For a symmetrical network, the image impedance is referred as the characteristic impedance or iterative
impedance, denoted by Z0. The image transfer parameter of a symmetrical network is termed as the propaga-
tion constant, denoted by ␥.
For a symmetrical network, z11 z22; y11 y22; A D; zis zos; zio zoo;
B
Also, Z i1 = Z i 2 = Z 0 =
C
V1 I1 Z 0 I12 ⎛I ⎞
And, = = ln − = ln = ln ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ I2 ⎠
2
V2 I 2 Z0 I 2
In general, ␥ is a complex quantity, expressed as, ␥ ␣ j␤
where, ␣ is known as the attenuation constant, in neper and
␤ is known as the phase constant, in radian
∴ = cosh −1 AD = cosh −1 A = sinh −1 BC
Z0 and ␥ in terms of open-circuit and short-circuit impedances Z 0 = Z is × Z io = Z os × Z oo

⎛ Z + Z ⎞
Z is Z os 1 1 ⎛ Z os + Z oo ⎞
= ln ⎜ ⎟ = ln ⎜
is io
= tanh −1 = tan −1 or ⎟
Z io Z oo 2 ⎜ Z − Z ⎟ 2 ⎜⎝ Z − Z ⎟⎠
⎝ is io ⎠ os oo
ABCD parameters in terms of Z0 and A = D = cosh , BC = sinh ␥

B
Also, = Z0
C
sinh
∴ B = Z 0 sinh , C =
Z0
Example 6.10 For the symmetrical two-port network, calculate the z-parame- I1 30 30 I2
ters and ABCD parameters. Hence or otherwise, find the characteristic impedance 1 2
and propagation constant for this network. V1 10 V2
Solution The z-parameters for the T network are z11 z22 40 ; z12 z21 10 1 2
The ABCD parameters are obtained as, Fig. 6.37 Network
of Example 6.10
z 40 z 402 − 102 1 1
A = D = 11 = = 4 B= = = 150 C= = = 0.1 mho
z21 10 z21 10 z21 10
B 150
Characteristic impedance is Z 0 = = = 38.73
C 0.1
Propagation constant is = ln ( ) (
AD + BC = ln 4 + 15 = 2.063 )
359
Two-Port Network
Solved Problems
Problem 6.1 Find the z and y parameter for the networks shown in Fig. 6.38.
(a) 1 2 (b) 1 Z 2 (c) (d) 1 2
Za Zb Y Yc
Zc Ya Yb
1 2
1 2 1 2
Fig. 6.38
Solution 1 2
Za Za
(a) By KVL, Zc
(Z a )
+ Z c I1 + Z c I 2 = V1 I1 I2
and (
Z c I1 + Z b + Z c I 2 = V2 ) 1
Fig. 6.39
2
Thus, the z-parameters are

(
z11 = Z a + Z c ) (
z12 = z21 = Z c Z 22 = Z b + Z c )
(b) By KCL, 1 Z 2
V −V 1 1
I1 = 1 2 = V1 − V2 1
Z Z Z 2
V2 − V1 1 1 Fig. 6.40
and I2 = = − V1 + V2
Z Z Z
1 1
y11 = = y22 y12 = y21 = −
Z Z
Since, y = y11 y22 − y12 y21 = 0 , the z-parameters do not exist for this network.
(c) By KVL,
I1 + I 2 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
V1 = = V2 or, V1 = ⎜ ⎟ I1 + ⎜ ⎟ I 2 and V2 = ⎜ ⎟ I1 + ⎜ ⎟ I 2
Y ⎝Y ⎠ ⎝Y ⎠ ⎝Y ⎠ ⎝Y ⎠
1 2
Thus, the z-parameters are I1 I2
Y
1
z11 = z22 = = z12 = z21 1 2
Y
Fig. 6.41
Since, z = z11 z22 − z12 z21 = 0 , the y-parameters do not exist for this network.
(d) By KCL, 1 2
( ) (
I1 = YaV1 + V1 − V2 Yc = V1 Ya + Yc − V2Yc) Ya
Yc
Yb
I 2 = YbV2 + (V 2
V )Y = −V Y + V (Y + Y )
−V 1 c 1 c 2 b c 1 2
Thus, the y-parameters are Fig. 6.42
y11 = Ya + Yc ; y12 = y21 = −Yc ; y22 = Yb + Yc
360
Problem 6.2 Obtain the z-parameters for the circuit shown in Fig. 6.43.
(a) I1 1 2 1 I2 (b) I1 2 2 I2
1 2 1 2
V1 2 2 V1 V1 4 1 V2
1 2 1 2
Fig. 6.43
Solution
(a) The given circuit can be considered as the cascade connection of the following two networks:
1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1
2 2
1 2 1 2
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.44
From Prob. 6.1 (a),
z11a = z11b = z22 a = z22 b = 3
z12 a = z21a = z12 b = z21b = 2
So, the transmission parameters are
z11 3 z 9− 4 5
∴ Aa = Ab = = ∴ Ba = Bb = = =
z21 2 z21 2 2
1 1 z 3
∴ Ca = Cb = = mho ∴ Da = Db = 22 =
z21 2 z21 2
So, the transmission parameters of the resulting network are
⎡3 5 ⎤⎡ 3 5 ⎤ ⎡7 15 ⎤
T = Ta × Tb = ⎢⎢ 2 2 ⎥⎢ 2 2⎥=⎢ 2 2⎥
1 3 ⎥⎢ 1 3 ⎥ ⎢3 7 ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎥⎦
So, the z-parameters are
A 7 ⎫
z11 = = ⎪
C 3 ⎪
T 2 ⎪
z12 = =
C 3 ⎪
⎬
1 2 ⎪
z21 = =
C 3 ⎪
D 7 ⎪
z22 = = ⎪
C 3 ⎭
b) By KVL,
V1 = 2 I1 + 4 I 3
V2 = I1 + I 2 − I 3
and ( )
2 I1 − I 3 + I1 + I 2 − I 3 − 4 I 3 = 0
361
Two-Port Network
Eliminating I3 from above equations, I1 2 2 I2

1 2
26 4 4 6 I3
V1 = I1 + I 2 and V2 = I1 + I 2
7 7 7 7 V1 4 1 V2
1 2
⎡ 26 4 ⎤
Fig. 6.45
⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎢⎢ 7 7⎥
4 6 ⎥
⎢⎣ 7 7 ⎥⎦
Problem 6.3 Find the open-circuit impedance parameters for the

10 mH
two-port network shown in Fig. 6.46. 1 2
Solution For this ␲-network, the y-parameters are given as 5 10
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞
y11 = ⎜ + ⎟ = ⎜ 0.2 + ;
s ⎟⎠
1 2
⎝ 5 0.01s ⎠ ⎝
Fig. 6.46
1 100
y12 = y21 = − =− ;
0.01s s
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞
y22 =⎜ + = 0.1 +
⎝ 10 0.01s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠
2 2
100 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞ = 0.02 + 30 + ⎛ 100 ⎞ − ⎛ − 100 ⎞ = ⎛ 0.02 + 30 ⎞
2
⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛
( )
∴ y = y11 y22 − y12 y21 = ⎜ 0.2 +
⎝
×
s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝
0 .1 + − −
s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ s ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠
Thus, the z-parameters are,
0.1 + 100 ⎫
y
z11 = 22 = s = 0.1s + 100 = 5s + 5000 ⎪
y 0.02 + 30 0.02 s + 30 s + 1500 ⎪
s ⎪
⎪
y12 −100 ⎪⎪
z12 = z21 = − =− s = 100 = 5000
⎬
y 0.02 + 30 0.02 s + 30 s + 1500 ⎪
s ⎪
0.2 + 100 ⎪
y
z22 = 11 = s = 0.2 s + 100 = 10 s + 5000 ⎪
y 0.02 + 30 0.02 s + 30 s + 1500 ⎪
s ⎪⎭
Problem 6.4 Find the open-circuit impedance parameters of the circuit I1 I2
given in Fig. 6.47. Also, find the h-parameters of the circuit. 1 2
j 10 j15
Solution By KVL,
5
( j10 + 5) I + 5 I
1 2
= V1 (i)
1 2
and 5 I + ( j15 + 5) I = V2 (ii)
1 2 Fig. 6.47
(
z11 = 5 + j10 ) z12 = z21 = 5 (
Z 22 = 5 + j15 )
362
The hybrid parameter matrix may be written as
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤

⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ h21 h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦
From Eq. (ii), we get,
5 V2 1 1
I2 = − I + =− I + V (iii)
5 + j15 1 5 + j15 1 + j 3 1 5 + j15 2
Putting this value of I2 in Eq. (i), we get,
⎡ V2 ⎤
(5 + j10) I
+ 5⎢−
5
I1 + ⎥ =V
⎣ 5 + j15 5 + j15 ⎦ 1
1
⇒ V1 =
( ) (
5 + j10 × 5 + j15 − 25 )
I1 +
5
V2 =
30 + j 25
I1 +
1
V (iv)
5 + j15 ( ) 5 + j15 1 + j 3 1 + j3 2
Comparing Eq. (iii) and (iv) with the standard equations of h-parameters, we get,
30 + j 25 1 1 1
h11 = ; h12 = ; h =− ; h =
1+ j 3 1 + j 3 21 1 + j 3 22 5 + j15
Problem 6.5 For the network shown in Fig. 6.48, find z and y-parameters.
Solution From Fig. 6.49, we can write the KVL equations, I1 2 I2
V1 = I 3 (i)
V2 = 2 I 2 − 4 I1 − 2 I 3 (ii) V1 1 2 3I1 V2
and 2 I1 − 2 I 3 + 2 I 2 − 4 I1 − 2 I 3 − I 3 = 0
Fig. 6.48
2
5
(
⇒ I 3 = I 2 − I1 ) I1 (I1 I3) (I2 3I1) I2
I3 2
2 2 V1 V2
From (i), V1 = − I1 + I 2 = −0.4 I1 + 0.4 I 2 1 2
5 5 (I2 2I1 I3) 3I1
4 4
From (ii), V2 = 2 I 2 − 4 I1 − I 2 + I1 = −3.2 I1 + 1.2 I 2 Fig. 6.49
5 5
⎡ − 0.4 0.4 ⎤
∴ ⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎢
⎣ −3.2 1.2 ⎦
⎥
( ) ( ) (
z = − 0.4 × 1.2 − 0.4 × −3.2 = 0.8 )
⎡1.2 − 0.4 ⎤
⎢
∴ ⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 0 .8 0.8 ⎥ mho = ⎡1.5 −0.5 ⎤ mho
⎢ ⎥
3.2 0.4 ⎥ ⎣ 4 −0.5 ⎦
⎢⎣ 0.8 − 0.8 ⎥⎦
363
Two-Port Network
Problem 6.6 Find the y parameters for the network shown in Fig. 6.50.
20
Solution This two-port network can be considered as the parallel con-
nection of two two-port networks as shown in Fig. 6.51 (a) & (b).
10 5
10 5 20
V1 V2 V1 40 V2
40
V1 V2
(a) (b) Fig. 6.50

Fig. 6.51
For network 6.51 (a), the z-parameters are
(
z11a = 50 ; z12 a = z21a = 40 ; z22 a = 45 ; ∴ z = 50 × 45 − 402 = 650 )
z22 a 45 9
y11a = = = mho
z 650 130
z 40 4
y12 a = y21a = − 12 = − =− mho
z 650 65
z11a 50 1
y22 a = = = mho
z 650 13
For the network 6.51 (b), the y-parameters are
1 1
y11b = y22 b = mho; y12 b = y21b = − mho
20 20
We know that for parallel connection of two two-port networks, the overall y-parameters are the summation
of individual y-parameters. Thus,
⎛ 9 1⎞
(
y11 = y11a + y11b = ⎜ ) + ⎟ = 0.119 mho
⎝ 130 20 ⎠
⎛ 4 1⎞
( )
y12 = y21 = y12 a + y12 b = ⎜ − − ⎟ = − 0.111 mho
⎝ 65 20 ⎠
⎛1 1⎞
( )
y22 = y22 a + y22 b = ⎜ + ⎟ = 0.127 mho
⎝ 13 20 ⎠
10 20 50
Problem 6.7 Obtain the ABCD parameters for the network

shown in Fig. 6.52. Input 50 20 10 Output
Solution This two-port network can be considered as the cas-

cade connection of two two-port networks as shown below. Fig. 6.52
10 20 50
50 20 10
Network (a) Network (b)

Fig. 6.53
364
For the network (a), as this is a T-network, the z-parameters are given as
(
z11 = 60 ; z12 = 50 ; z22 = 70 ; ∴ z = z11 z22 − z12 z21 = 60 × 70 − 502 = 1700 ) ( )
z11 60 6 z 1700
∴ Aa = = = Ba = = = 34
z21 50 5 z21 50
1 1 z 70 7
Ca = = mho Da = 22 = =
z21 50 z21 50 5
For the network (b), as this is a ␲-network, the y-parameters are given as
⎛ 1 1⎞ 7 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞ 3
y11 = ⎜ + ⎟ = mho; y12 = y21 = − mho; y22 = ⎜ + ⎟ = mho
⎝ 50 20 ⎠ 100 50 ⎝ 50 10 ⎠ 25
2
3 ⎛ 1⎞
(
∴ y = y11 y22 − y12 y21 = ) 7
× −⎜− ⎟ =
1
100 25 ⎝ 50 ⎠ 125
3
y22 1 1
∴ Ab = − = − 25 = 6 Bb = − =− = 50
y21 −1 y21 −1
50 50
1 7
y 125 2 y11 7
Cb = − =− = mho Db = − = − 100 =
y21 − 1 5 y21
− 1 2
50 50
For the entire network, the ABCD parameters are given as
⎡6 34 ⎤ ⎡ 6 50 ⎤ ⎡ 20.8 179 ⎤
⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ Aa Ba ⎤ ⎡ Ab Bb ⎤ ⎢ 5 ⎥×⎢
⎥=⎢ ⎥×⎢ ⎥= ⎥
⎢
Db ⎦⎥ ⎢ 1 7 ⎥ ⎢2 7 ⎥ = ⎢ 0.68 5.9 ⎥
⎣C D ⎦ ⎢⎣Ca Da ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Cb
2⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎢⎣ 50 5 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 5
Problem 6.8 Calculate the ABCD parameters of the network shown in Fig. 6.54.
j 20 j 20
1 2
30
1 2
Fig. 6.54
Solution For this T-circuit, the z-parameters are given as
(
z11 = z22 = 30 + j 20 )
z12 = z21 = 30
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
∴ z = z11 z22 − z12 z21 = 30 + j 20 − 302 = 60 + j 20 j 20 = − 400 + j1200
365
Two-Port Network
z11 30 + j 20 ⎛ 2⎞ ⎫
∴ A= = = ⎜1+ j ⎟ ⎪
( )
z 60 + j 20 j 20 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎪
⎪
z ( 60 + j 20 ) j 20 ⎛ 40 ⎞ ⎪
∴B= = = − + j 40
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
z21 30 3 ⎪
⎬
1 1 ⎪
∴C = = mho ⎪
z12 30
⎪
z22 30 + j 20 ⎛ 2⎞ ⎪
∴D= = = ⎜1+ j ⎟ ⎪
z12 30 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎭
Problem 6.9 Determine the hybrid parameters for the network in Fig. 6.55. I1 r2 I2
Solution For this ␲-network, the y-parameters are given as

V1 r1 r3 V2
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ r +r ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ r +r ⎞
y11 = ⎜ + ⎟ = ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ ; y12 = y21 = − ; y22 = ⎜ + ⎟ = ⎜ 2 3 ⎟
⎝ r1 r2 ⎠ ⎝ r1r2 ⎠ r2 ⎝ r2 r3 ⎠ ⎝ r2 r3 ⎠ Fig. 6.55
By inter-relationship, the h-parameters are obtained as
1 ⎛ r1r2 ⎞
h11 = =
y11 ⎜⎝ r1 + r2 ⎟⎠
1
−
y12 r2 r
h12 = − =− = 1
y11 ⎛ r1 + r2 ⎞ r1 + r2
⎜ rr ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
1
−
y21 r2 r
h21 = = =− 1
y11 ⎛ r1 + r2 ⎞ r1 + r2
⎜ rr ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
h22 =
( )( ) ( )(
y ⎧⎪ r1 + r2 r2 + r3 − r1r3 ⎫⎪ ⎛ r1r2 ⎞ r1 + r2 r2 + r3 − r1r3
=⎨
)
⎬×⎜ ⎟=
y11 ⎪
⎩ r1r2 2 r3 ⎭⎪ ⎝ r1 + r2 ⎠ r2 r1 + r2 ( )
Problem 6.10 Find the hybrid parameters of the circuit given in Fig. 6.56. I1 2 I2
Solution For this ␲-network, the y-parameters are given as

V1 1 3 V2
⎛ 1 1⎞ 3 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞ 5
y11 = ⎜ + ⎟ = ; y12 = y21 = − ; y22 = ⎜ + ⎟ =
⎝ 1 2⎠ 2 2 ⎝ 2 3⎠ 6
Fig. 6.56
2
3 5 ⎛ 1⎞
∴ y = y11 y22 − y12 y21 = × − ⎜ − ⎟ = 1
2 6 ⎝ 2⎠
366
By inter-relationship, the h-parameters are obtained as
y12 −1
h11 =
1 2
= h12 = − =− 2 =1
y11 3 y11 3 3
2
1
y21 − 2 1 y 3 3
h21 = = = − h22 = =1× =
y11 3 3 y11 2 2
2
Problem 6.11 Find the y-parameters for the 2-port networks shown.
0.2V2 I2 I1 12 I2 I1 1mho 1mho I2
(a) I1 5
(b) (c)
V1 20 0.4I1 V2 V112 0.25V2 3 V2 V1 1mho 3V1 2mho V2
Fig. 6.57
Solution
(a) We consider two cases to find out the y-parameters:
Case (I): Making Port-2 shorted and applying a voltage of V1 at Port- 1
5
I1 5 I2 20 0.4I1
V1 + I
− 1 − I2
V1 20 V2 = 0 8I1 +
0.4I1
Fig. 6.58
By KVL, 17 I1 + 20 I 2 = V1 and 12 I1 + 20 I 2 = 0
Solving,
V1 20
0 20
I1 = = 0.2V1 I1
17 20 ⇒ y11 = = 0.2 mho
V1 V =0
12 20 2
17 V1 I2
y21 = = − 0.12 mho
12 0 V1 V2 = 0
I2 = = − 0.12V1
17 20
12 20
Case (II): Making Port-1 shorted and applying a voltage of V2 at Port-2
I1 I2 5
5
I1 0.2 V2 I2
0.2V2 20 V2
V1 = 0 V2 8I1
20 0.4I1
Fig. 6.59
367
Two-Port Network
By KVL, 17 I1 + 20 I 2 = − 0.2V2 and 12 I1 + 20 I 2 = V2

Solving,
− 0.2V2 20
V2 20
I1 = = −0.24V2 I1
17 20 ⇒ y12 = = − 0.24 mho
12 20 V2 V1 = 0
⇒
17 − 0.2V2 I2
y22 = = 0.194 mhho
12 V2 V2 V1 = 0
I2 = = 0.194V2
17 20
12 20
⎡ 0.2 − 0.24 ⎤
Thus, ⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ mho
⎣ − 0.12 0.194 ⎦
(b) We consider two cases:
Case (I): V1 0
Case (II): V2 0
I1 I2
12 I1 I2
I1 12 I2 12
V1= 0 3 V2
0.25V2 12 V2 = 0
V1
V1 12 3 V2 0.25V2
Case (I):V1 0 Case (II):V2 = 0

Fig. 6.60 Fig. 6.61
By KCL,
⎛ 0 − V2 ⎞
V2 1 ⎫
I1 = y12V2 =
+⎜ ⎟ ⇒ y12 = mho ⎪
V1 = 0
⎝ 12 ⎠
4 6 ⎪
V V 5 ⎪
I 2 = y22V2 V =0 = 2 + 2 ⇒ y22 = mho ⎪
3 12 12 ⎪
⎬
1
⎛ 1 1⎞ 1 ⎪
I1 = y11V1 V =0 = ⎜ + ⎟ V1 ⇒ y11 = mho ⎪
2 ⎝ 12 12 ⎠ 6
⎪
V1 1 ⎪
I 2 = y21V1 V =0 = − ⇒ y21 = − mho ⎪⎭
2 12 12
(c) For V1 0, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 6.62.
( )
∴ I 2 = y22V2 = 1 + 2 V2 = 3V2 ⇒ y22 = 3 mho
I1
Also, − = V2 ⇒ y12 = −1 mho
1
368
I1 I2 I1 1mho I2
1 mho 1 mho
I1 1mho I3 1mho I2
V1 = 0 1 mho 2 mho 2 mho V2

V2 3V1 V2 = 0
V1 1mho
Fig. 6.62 Fig. 6.63

For V2 0, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 6.63.
I2
∴− = 3V1 (i)
1
I3
+ 3V1 = V1 ⇒ 2V1 = − I 3 (ii)
1
I1 = I 3 + I 4 (iii)
I4
and V1 = (iv)
1
From (i) to (iv), I1 = V1 + I 3 = V1 − 2V1 = −V1 ⇒ y11 = −1 mho

From (i), y21 3 mho
Thus, the y-parameters are:
⎡ −1 −1⎤
⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ mho
⎣ −3 3 ⎦
From the inter-relationship, we get the z-parameters as:
⎡ −1 0 ⎤
⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎢
⎢ −1
⎥
1 ⎥ ( )
⎣ 3⎦
Problem 6.12 Measurements were made on a two-port net- I1 I2

work shown in Fig. 6.64. V1 RL = 10
V2
( i) With Port-2 open, a voltage of 100∠0 volt is applied to Port-1,
resulting in I1 10∠0 amp and V2 50∠0 volt. Fig. 6.64
(ii) With Port-1 open, a voltage of 100∠0 volt is applied to Port-1,
resulting in I2 20∠0 amp and V1 50∠0 volt.
(a) Write the loop equations for the network and also find the driving point and transfer impedance.
(b) What will be the voltage across a 10- resistor connected across Port-2 if a 100∠0 volt source is con-
nected across Port-1.
Solution
(a) From the given data, we get the z-parameters as
V1 100∠0°
z11 = = = 10
I1 I 2 =0
10∠0°
369
Two-Port Network
V2 25∠0°
z21 = = = 2.5
I1 I 2 =0
10∠0°
V1 50∠0°
z12 = = = 2.5
I2 I1 = 0
20∠0°
V2 100∠0°
z22 = = =5
I2 I1 = 0
20∠0°
So, the loop equations are V1 = 10 I1 + 2.5 I 2 ⎫⎪

⎬
V2 = 2.5 I1 + 5 I 2 ⎭⎪
(b) Here, V1 = 100∠0° and V2 = − I 2 RL = −10 I 2
Putting these values in loop equations, 100 = 10 I1 + 2.5 I 2 ⇒ I1 = 10 − 0.25 I 2
and −10 I 2 = 2.5 I1 + 5 I 2
or, ( )
−110 I 2 = 2.5 10 − 0.25 I 2 + 5 I 2
or, −15 I 2 = 25 − 0.625 I 2
−25
or, I2 = = −1.74 A
14.375
voltage across the resistor = − I 2 RL = 17.4 V
Problem 6.13 Determine the h-parameter with the following data:
(i) with the output terminals short-circuited, V1 25 V, I1 1 A, I2 2 A
(ii) with the input terminals open-circuited, V1 10 V, V2 50 V, I2 2 A
Solution The h-parameter equations are,
V1 = h11 I1 + h12V2
I 2 = h21 I1 + h22V2
With output short-circuited
V2 0, given: V1 25 V, I1 1 A and I2 2A
∴ 25 = h11 × 1 ⎫⎪
and ⎬ ⇒ h11 = 25 , and h21 = 2
2 = h21 × 1⎭⎪
With input open-circuited
I1 0, given: V1 10 V, V2 50 V and I2 2A
∴ 10 = h12 × 50 ⎪⎫ 1 1
⎬ ⇒ h12 = = 0.2 and h22 = mho = 0.04 mho
and 2 = h22 × 50 ⎪⎭ 5 25
⎡ 25 0.2 ⎤
Thus, the h-parameters are ⎡⎣ h ⎤⎦ = ⎢ −1 ⎥
⎣ 2 0.04 ⎦
370
Problem 6.14 (a) The following equations give the voltages V1 and V2 at the two ports of a two-port
network,
V1 5I1 2I2 V2 2I1 I2
load resistance of 3 is connected across Port-2. Calculate the input impedance.
(b) The z-parameters of a two-port network are z11 5 , z22 2 ⍀, z12 z21 3 . A Load resistance of 4 is con-
nected across the output port. Calculate the input impedance.
Solution
(a) From the given equations,
V1 = 5 I1 + 2 I 2 (i)
V2 = 2 I1 + I 2 (ii)
At the output, V2 = − I 2 RL = −3 I 2
I1
Putting this value in (ii), −3 I 2 = 2 I1 + I 2 ⇒ I 2 = −
2
⎛−I ⎞
Putting in (i), V1 = 5 I1 + 2 ⎜ 1 ⎟⎠ = 4 I1
⎝ 2
V1
Input impedance, Z in = =4
I1
V1
(b) [Same as Prob. (a)] Z in = = 3.5 I2
I1 1 I1 2
1 V1 N V2
Problem 6.15 The y-parameters for a two-port network N are given as, 2
1
y11 4 mho, y22 5 mho, y12 y21 4 mho
Fig. 6.65
If a resistor of 1 ohm is connected across Port-1 of N then find out the output impedance.
z11 z22 − z12 z21
Solution Output impedance is given as Z out =
z11 + Z L
−1 −1 −1
Here, y11 = 4 , y12 = y21 = 4 , y22 = 5
y22 5 5
∴ z11 = = =
y 20 − 16 4
y 4
z12 = z21 = − 12 = − = −1
y 4
y 4
and z22 = 11 = = 1
y 4
5
( ) ( )
z11 z22 − z12 z21 4 × 1 − −1 × −1 + 1 × 1 5
Putting these values, Z = = =
out
z11 + Z L 5 +1 9
4
371
Two-Port Network
Problem 6.16 (a) The h-parameters of a two-port network shown in Fig. 6.66, are h11 10 , h12
20 and h22 1milimho. Find V2/V1.
0.0025, h21
1k
(b) The h-parameters of a two-port network are h11 1 , h12
h21 2, h22 1 mho. The power absorbed by a load resistance of Vi V1 N V2 RL = 2 k
1 connected across Port-2 is 100 W. The network is excited by a
voltage source of generated voltage Vs and an internal resistance
of 2 . Calculate the value of Vs. Fig. 6.66
Solution
(a) The h-parameter equations are
V1 = 100 I1 + 0.0025V2 (i)
I 2 = 20 I1 + 0.001V2 (ii)
By KVL at the output mesh, V2 = −2000 I 2 (iii)
From (i),
⎡ I − 0.001V2 ⎤ ⎛ V2 ⎞
V1 = 100 ⎢ 2 ⎥ + 0.0025V2 = 5⎜ − ⎟ − 0.005V2 + 0.0025V2
⎣ 20 ⎦ ⎝ 2000 ⎠
V2
or, = −200
V1
(b) The h-parameter equations are
V1 = I1 + 2V2 (i)
I 2 = −2 I1 + V2 (ii)
Since the load resistance of 1 is connected across Port-2,
V2 2
∴ = 100 ⇒ V2 = 10 V
1
By KVL, V2 = − I 2 RL = − I 2 ⇒ I 2 = −10 A
and 2 I1 + V1 = Vs (iii)
From (ii), putting the values of I2 and V2, −10 = −2 I1 + 10 ⇒ I1 = 10 A
From (iii), Vs = 2 × 10 + V1 = 20 + I1 + 2V2 {by (i)}

= 20 + 10 + 2 × 10
or, Vs = 50 V
Problem 6.17 The z-parameters for a network N are

1 I1 I2
⎡2 1⎤
⎢ ⎥ VS V1 N V2
⎣ 2 5⎦ 5
The terminal connections for the network are shown in Fig. 6.67. Calculate the
voltage ratio V2 / Vs , current ratio –I2 / I1 and input resistance V1 / I1. Fig. 6.67
372
Solution The z-parameter equations are

V1 = 2 I1 + I 2 (i)
V2 = 2 I1 + 5 I 2 (ii)
By KVL at the input and output circuits,
I1 + V1 = Vs ⇒ 3 I1 + I 2 = Vs {by (i)} (iii)
and 5 I 2 + V2 = 0 ⇒ 2 I1 + 10 I 2 = 0 {by (ii)} (iv)
Solving (iii) and (iv),
Vs 1 3 Vs
0 10 10 2 0 2
I1 = = Vs and I 2 = = − Vs
3 1 28 3 1 28
2 10 2 10
I2 1
∴− =
I1 5
⎛ 20 10 ⎞
Now, ( ) 10
V2 = 2 I1 + 5 I 2 = ⎜ − ⎟ Vs = Vs
⎝ 28 28 ⎠ 28
V2 5
∴ =
Vs 14
⎛ 20 2 ⎞
Again, ( ) 18
V1 = 2 I1 + I 2 = ⎜ − ⎟ Vs = Vs
⎝ 28 28 ⎠ 28
V1 9
∴ =
I1 14
I2
Problem 6.18 For the two-port network in Fig. 6.68, terminated in a
1-ohm resistance, show that
I1 V1 N 1 V2
V2 z V1 z 11 + z
= 21 and =
I1 1+ z 22 I1 1+ z 22 Fig. 6.68
Solution The z-parameter equations are
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I 2 (i)
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I 2 (ii)
By KVL at the output, V2 = − I 2 × 1 ⇒ I 2 = −V2

From (ii), ( )
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I 2 = z21 I1 + z22 −V2
or, ( )
V2 1 + z22 = z21 I1 (iii)
V2 z
or, = 21 (Proved)
I1 1 + z22
373
Two-Port Network
From (i),
⎡V 1 + z22 ⎤ ( ) ( ) {
V1 = z11 ⎢ 2 ⎥ + z12 −V2 by ( iii ) }
⎢⎣ z21 ⎥⎦
⎡z +z z −z z ⎤ ⎡z + z⎤
= V2 ⎢ 11 11 22 12 21 ⎥ = V2 ⎢ 11 ⎥
⎣ z 21 ⎦ ⎣ z21 ⎦
V1 V1 V2 z11 + z z z + z
∴ = × = × 21 = 11 (Proved)
I1 V2 I1 z21 1 + z22 1 + z22
Problem 6.19 Calculate the T-parameters for the blocks A and B separately and then using these results,
calculate the T-parameters of the whole circuit shown in Fig. 6.69 Prove any formula used.
(a) 3 5 (b) 1 1
4
1F 1F
2
2
A B A B
Fig. 6.69
Solution
(a) We consider the given network as a cascade connection of two networks as shown in Fig. 6.69.
For Block A
Opening Port-2,
⎛ 1 1⎞ 1 ⎛ ⎞
By KCL, ⎜ + ⎟ V1 − V2 = I1 and − 1V1 + 1 + s V2 = 0
⎝ 2 3⎠ 3 3 ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
⎜
2 I 1 + 3s
Solving for V1 and V2, V1 = 1
(
and V2 =
2 I1 )
1 + 5s ( )
1 + 5s ( )
I1 3 I2
⎫
)
V1
∴ Aa =
V2
(
= 1 + 3s ⎪
V1 2
1F
V2
I 2 =0 ⎪⎪
⎬
and Ca =
I1
=
( )
1 + 5s ⎪
Block A
V2 I =0 2 ⎪
2 ⎪⎭ Fig. 6.70
Short-circuiting Port-2,
I1 3 I2
V V 5
∴ I1 = 1 + 1 = V1
2 3 6
2 V2 = 0
V1
V
and V1 = −3 I 2 ⇒ Ba = − 1 =3
I2 V2 = 0
Fig. 6.71
I 5V 3 5
and Da = − 1 = 1× =
I2 V =0
6 V1 2
2
374
For Block B I1 5 I2
Opening Port-2,
1F
⎛1 ⎞ 1 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞ V1 4 V2
By KCL, ⎜ + s⎟ V1 − V2 = I1 and − V1 + ⎜ + ⎟ V2 = 0
⎝5 ⎠ 5 5 ⎝ 5 4⎠
Block B
Solving for V1 and V2,
Fig. 6.72
9 I1 4 I1
V1 = and V2 =
(1 + 9s ) (1 + 9s )
V1 ⎫ 9 I1 5 I2
∴ Ab = = ⎪
V2
I 2 =0 ⎪⎪ 4
⎬
and Cb =
I1
=
1 + 9s ⎪ ( ) V1 1F V2 = 0
V2 I =0 4 ⎪
2 ⎪⎭
Fig. 6.73
Short-circuiting Port-2,
⎛1 ⎞
∴ I1 = ⎜ + s⎟ V1
⎝5 ⎠
V1
and V1 = −5 I 2 ⇒ Bb = − =5
I2 V2 = 0
)
I1
and Db = −
I2
(
= 5s + 1
V2 = 0
Since the two networks are connected in cascade, the overall transmission parameter matrix is obtained as
(
⎡ 3s + 1
⎢
) 3 ⎤ ⎡ 9
⎥ ⎢ 4
5 ⎤
(
⎥ ⎡ 13.5s + 3 ) ( 30s + 8)⎤⎥
⎡⎣T ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣Ta ⎤⎦ × ⎡⎣Tb ⎤⎦ = ⎢⎛ 5s + 1⎞ ⎥ × ⎢⎛ 1 + 9s ⎞ ⎥=⎢
⎢⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
5 ⎢
2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ( ) (
5s + 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 11.25s + 1.75 ) ( 25s + 5)⎥⎦
⎣ ⎣ ⎥⎦
(b) [Same as Prob. (a)]
⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎡3 1⎤ ⎡3 2 ⎤
Here, ⎡⎣Ta ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ and ⎡⎣Tb ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 2 ⎥ ∴ ⎡⎣T ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣Ta ⎤⎦ × ⎡⎣Tb ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢1 3 ⎥ ⎢3 ⎥
⎣ 2 2⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 1⎦⎥ ⎣3 2 ⎦
Problem 6.20 Two identical sections of the network shown in Fig. 6.74 are connected in parallel. Obtain
the y-parameters of the resulting network and verify by direct calculation.
−1 −1 −1
Solution For the circuit of Fig. 6.74, y11 = 3 , y12 = y21 = −2 and y22 = 3 2
The y-parameters for the combination will be
(
y11 = y11′ + y11′′ = 6 ) ⎫
⎪⎪
−1
1 1
(
y12 = y21 = y12′ + y12′′ = −4 −1 ⎬ )
⎪
(
y22 = y22 ′′ = 6 −1
′ + y22 ) ⎪⎭ Fig. 6.74
375
Two-Port Network
To find the y-parameters by direct calculation, we consider the resulting network as shown in Fig. 6.75.
I1 2 I2
I1 4 I2
V1 1 1 V2
2 V1 2 2 V2
1 1
Fig. 6.75
−1 −1 −1
For the entire network, y11 = 4 + 2 = 6 ; y12 = y21 = −4 ; y22 = 4 + 2 = 6
Problem 6.21 Two networks have general ABCD parameters as shown:

Parameter Network-1 Network-2
A 1.50 5/3
B 11 4
C 0.25 siemens 1 siemens
D 2.5 3.0
If the two networks are connected with their inputs and outputs in parallel, obtain the admittance matrix of the
resulting network.
Solution For the network-1
D 2.5 5 −1
y11 = = =
B 11 22
AD − BC 1.5 × 2.5 − 11 × 0.25 1 −1
y12 = − =− =−
B 11 11
1 1 −1
y21 = − = −
B 11
A 1.5 3 −1
y22 = = =
B 11 22
For the network-2
D 3 −1
y11 = =
B 4
AD − BC 1 −1
y12 = − =−
B 4
1 1 −1
y21 = −
=−
B 4
A 5 5 −1
y22 = = =
B 3 × 4 12
So, the admittance matrix of the resulting network is
⎡ 5 −1 ⎤ ⎡ 3 − 1 ⎤ ⎡ 43 −15 ⎤
⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 22 11⎥ + ⎢ 4 4 ⎥ = ⎢ 44 44 ⎥ −1
⎢ 1 3 ⎥ ⎢ 1 5 ⎥ ⎢ −15 73 ⎥
⎢⎣ − 11 −
22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 12 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 44 132 ⎥⎦
376
Problem 6.22 Two identical sections of Fig. 6.76 are connected in series. Obtain 2 2
the z-parameters of the resulting network and verify by direct calculation.
1
Solution The z-parameters of each section:
z11 = 3 , z12 = z21 = 1 , z22 = 3
Fig. 6.76
So, the z-parameters of the combined series network are
( ) (
z11 = 3 + 3 = 6 , z12 = z21 = 1 + 1 = 2 , z22 = 3 + 3 = 6 ) ( )
To find the z-parameters by direct calculation, we consider the resulting network as shown in Fig. 6.77.
I1 2 2 I2
I1 2 2 I2
1
1
V1 2 2 V2 V1 V2
1
1
2 2
Fig. 6.77
For the resulting network,
V1 V2 ⎫
z11 = =6 z21 = =2 ⎪
I1 I 2 =0
I1 I 2 =0 ⎪⎪
⎬
V2 V1 ⎪
z22 = =6 z12 = =2 ⎪
I2 I2
I1 = 0 I1 = 0 ⎭
Problem 6.23 (a) Find out the z- and h-parameters for the circuit shown in Fig. 6.78 (a).
1 1
(b) Hence, obtain the hybrid parameters for the two-port network of 1 2
Fig. 6.78 (b).
2
Solution
1 1
(a) For Fig. 6.78 (a), the z-parameters are 1 2
(a)
V1 V2
z11 = = 4 , z12 = z21 = 2 , z11 = =4
I1 I 2 =0
I2 I1 = 0 1 1
1 2
z 16 − 4 ⎫
∴ h11 = = =3 ⎪ 2
z12 4 ⎪
1 1
z12 2 ⎪
h12 = = = 0.5 ⎪
z22 4 ⎪
⎬ 1 1
z21
= − = − 0.5 ⎪
2 2
h21 = − 1 1
z22 4 ⎪ 1 2
⎪
1 1 ⎪ (b)
h22 = = = 0.25 −1 ⎪
z12 4 Fig. 6.78
⎭
377
Two-Port Network
(b) The connection is series–parallel connection. For this connection, the overall h-parameters will be the
sum of individual h-parameters.
( )
∴ h11 = 3 + 3 = 6 ⎫
⎪
h12 = ( 0.5 + 0.5) = 1 ⎪⎪
⎬
h21 = ( −0.5 − 0.5) = −1 ⎪
−1 ⎪
h22 = ( 0.25 + 0.25) = 0.5 ⎪⎭
Problem 6.24 (a) Find the equivalent -network for the T-net-
Za = 2 Zb = 2.5
work shown in Fig. 6.79 (a). 1 2
(b) Find the equivalent T -network for the -network shown in Fig. 6.79 (b).
Zc = 5
Solution
(a) Let the equivalent -network have YC as the series admittance and YA 1 2
(a)
and YB as the shunt admittances at Port-1 and Port-2, respectively.
Now, the z-parameters are given as Y3 = 1 mho
1 2
( )
z11 = Z A + ZC = 7 , z12 = z21 = ZC = 5 , z22 = Z B + ZC = 7.5
5 ( ) Y1 = 0.2 mho Y2 = 0.5 mho
(
∴ z = 7 × 7.5 − 5 × 5 = 27.5 ) 2
1 2
(b)
z22 7.5 Fig. 6.79
∴ y11 = = mho
z 27.5
z 5
y12 = y21 = − C = − o
mho I1 I2
z 27.5
YC
z 7
y22 = 11 = mho
z 27.5 V2 YA YB V2
(
∴YA = y11 + y12 =
2.5 1
)
= mho
27.5 11
Fig. 6.80
(
∴YB = y22 + y12 =
2
27.5
)
mho
5 2
and YC = − y21 = = mho
27.5 11
Thus, the impedances of the equivalent -networks are
I1 5.5 I2
1 ⎫
Z A = = 11 , ⎪
YA ⎪
1 ⎪⎪ V1 11 13.75 V1
ZB = = 13.73 , ⎬
YB ⎪
1 ⎪
ZC = = 5.5 ⎪ Fig. 6.81 Equivalent ␲
YC ⎪⎭ network
378
Y3 1 mho Za 0.625 Zb 0.25

1 2 1 2
Y1 0.2 mho Y2 0.5 mho Zc 1.25
1 2 1 2
Fig (a) -network Fig (b) Equivalent T-network
Fig. 6.82
(b) The y-parameters,
y11 = 1.2 mho, y12 = y21 = −1 mho, and y22 = 1.5 mho
(
∴ y = 1.2 × 1.5 − 1 = 0.8 )
y22 1.5 y12 1 y11 1.2
∴ z11 = = , z12 = z21 = − = , z22 = =
y 0.8 y 0.8 y 0.8
⎫
(
∴ Z A = z11 − z12 = ) 0.5
0.8
= 0.625 ⎪
⎪
⎪
(
Z B = z22 − z12 ) =
0.2
0.8
= 0.25 ⎬
⎪
1 ⎪
ZC = z12 = = 1.25 ⎪
0.8 ⎭
Problem 6.25 The z-parameter of a 2-port network are z11 10 , z22 ZA 5 ZB 15

20 , z12 z21 5 . 1 2
Find the ABCD-parameters. Also find the equivalent T-network.

ZC 5
Solution From the inter-relationship, we get the ABCD parameters as
z11 10
A= = =2 1 2
z21 5
Fig. 6.83 Equivalent T-
z11 Z 22 − Z12 Z 21 10 × 20 − 5 × 5 network
B= = = 35
z21 5
1 1
C= = = 0.2 mho
z21 5
z22 20
D= = =4
z21 5
To find the equivalent T-network, we have the relations,
(
z11 = Z A + ZC = 10 )
⎫
⎪⎪
z12 = z21 = ZC = 5 ⎬ ⇒ ZA = 5 , Z B = 15 , ZC = 5
⎪
and ( )
z22 = Z B + ZC = 20 ⎪⎭
379
Two-Port Network
Problem 6.26 The z-parameters of the two-port net- I1 I2 ZA ZB

work N in Fig. 6.84 are z11 4s, z12 z21 3s, z22 9s. 1 2
V1 N V2 ZC
(a) Replace N by its T-equivalent.
(b) Use part a) to find the input current I1 for VS 12k 1 2
Vs cos1000t. 6k Fig. 6.85 Equivalent
Solution T-network
Fig. 6.84
⎡ 4 s 3s ⎤
(a) The z-parameters are ⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ ( )
⎣ 3s 9 s ⎦
Since the network is reciprocal, its T-equivalent exists. Its elements are
( ) ( )
Z A = z11 − z12 = s, Z B = z22 − z21 = 6 s, and ZC = z21 = z12 = 3s
So, the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.6.85.
(b) We repeatedly combine the series and parallel elements of Fig. 6.86, with resistors in k and s in krad/s
to find the input impedance, Zin in k . I1 I2
Vs
∴ Z in = = s +
(
6 s + 12 3s + 6 )(
= 3s + 4 k
) ( ) Zin s
3s 6s
I1 ( ) (
6 s + 12 + 3s + 6 ) 12k VS
or ( )
Z in ( j ) = 3 j + 4 = 5∠36.9° k 6k
vs ( t ) 1
So, the current, i1 (t ) = (
= cos 1000t − 36.9° ( mA )
Z in ( j ) 5
) Fig. 6.86
Problem 6.27 For the bridge-T RC network, find the y-parameters and its equivalent -network.
Solution The given network is the parallel combination of the two networks: 0.5 F
⎡ s −s ⎤
For the network (a), the y-parameters are ⎡⎣ ya ⎤⎦ = ⎢⎢ 2 2 ⎥ mho 1 0.5
1 2
s s ⎥
⎢⎣ − 2 2 ⎥⎦
0.5 F
( )
1 2
⎡ 1+ 2 2 ⎤
⎢ s s ⎥ Fig. 6.87
For the network (b), the z-parameters are ⎡⎣ zb ⎤⎦ = ⎢
( )
⎥ 1 2F
⎢ 2 1 +2 ⎥
⎣ s 2 s ⎦ 1 2
z
∴ y11b = 22 b =
1 +2
2 s ( =
s+4 )
zb 1 + 2
s ( 1 +2 −4
2 s )( s2
s+6
) 1
Fig. 6.88 (a) Network (a)
2
2
z s 4
∴ y12 b = y21b = − 12 b = =
zb s+6 (
s+6 ) 1
1 12
2
2s
s+2 ( ) 1 2F
z
∴ y22 b = 11b = 2 = 2 s+2 ( )
zb s+6 ( s+6) 1
Fig. 6.88 (b) Network (b)
2
2s
380
I1 I2
⎡s+4 4 ⎤ 1 2
⎢s+6 s+6 ⎥ Yc
For the network (b), the y-parameters are ⎡⎣ yb ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ Ya Yb
( )
V1 V2
⎢ 4 2 s+2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 1 2
⎣s+6 s+6 ⎦
Fig. 6.89 Equivalent π
Thus, the overall y-parameters are network
⎤ ⎡ s + 8s + 8 s2 + 6s + 8 ⎤
2
⎡s+4 4 −
⎡ s − s ⎤ ⎢s+6 ⎢ ⎥
⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ ya ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ yb ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 2 2 ⎥+ ⎢ s+6 ⎥
⎥=⎢
2 s+6 ( ) (
2 s+6 ⎥ )
⎢ s
⎢⎣ − 2
s ⎥ ⎢ 4 (
2 s+2 ⎥ ⎢
)
s2 + 6s + 8
⎥
s 2 + 10 s + 8 ⎥
2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢−
⎣s+6 s + 6 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 s + 6 ( ) (
2 s + 6 ⎥⎦ )
Equivalent π network can be found out from the following relations:
s2 + 6s + 8
(
Ya = y11 + y12 =
s
s+6
) (
; Yb = y22 + y12 =
)
2s
s+6
( ) (
; Yc = − y12 = − y21 =
2 s+6 ) ( )
2F 2F
Problem 6.28 For the notch-filter network, determine the y-parameters.
2 2
Solution The given network is the parallel combination of the two networks: 1 2
For the network (a), V1 1 F 1 V2
(
z11a = 1 + 1 =
2s )1+ 2s
2s
; z12 a = z21a = 1; z22 a = 1 + 1 =
2 s
1+ 2s
2s ( ) 1
Fig. 6.90
2
1+ 4s
∴ za =
4s2 2F 2F
z
∴ y11a = 22 a =
2s 1+ 2s( ) z
; y12 a = y21a = − 12 a = −
4s2 z
; y22 a = 11a =
2s 1+ 2s ( ) 1 2
za (
1+ 4s ) za 1+ 4s (
za )
1+ 4s ( ) 1
For network (b), z11b = 1 + 2 =

s (
1+ 2s
s ) 1
; z12 b = z21b = ; z22 b = 1 + 2 =
s s
1+ 2s
s ( ) 1 2
Fig. 6.91 (a) Network (a)
∴ zb =
(
4 s +1 )
2 2
s
1 2
z
∴ y11b = 22 b =
(
1+ 2s ) z
; y12 b = y21b = − 12 b = −
1 z
; y22 b = 11b =
1+ 2s ( ) 1F
zb 4 s + 1 ( ) zb 4 s +1 ( )
zb 4 s + 1 ( ) 1 2
Fig. 6.91 (b) Network (b)
Thus, the overall y-parameters are,
(
y11 = y22 = y11a + y11b = )
(
2s 1+ 2s ) + (1 + 2 s ) = (1 + 2 s )(8s + 12 s + 1) 2
1+ 4s 4 + 4s 4 ( s + 1)( 4 s + 1)
4s2 16 s 3 + 16 s 2 + 4 s + 1
and (
y12 = y21 = y12 a + y12 b = − ) −
1
1+ 4s 4 s +1
=−
( )
4 4ss + 1 s + 1 ( )( )
381
Two-Port Network
Problem 6.29 A network has two input terminals a, b and two output terminals c, d. The input imped-
ance with c–d open-circuited is (250 j100) ohms and with c–d short-circuited is (400 j300) ohms.
The impedance across c–d with a–b open-circuited is 200 ohms. Determine the equivalent T-network
parameters.
Solution We consider Fig. 6.21. For c–d terminals opened, (Z A ) (

+ Z B = 250 + j100 ) (i)
Z B ZC
But, for c–d terminals shorted, ZA +
Z B + ZC
(
= 400 + j 300 ) (ii)
Again, with a–b terminals opened, (Z B )

+ ZC = 200 (iii)
Z B ZC
From (ii) and (i), we get − Z B = 150 + j 200
Z B + ZC
or, Z B ZC − Z B 2 − Z B ZC = 200 150 + j 200 ( ) {by (iii)}
( )
2
or, Z B 2 = 200( −150 − j 200) = 104 1 − j 2
(
∴ Z B = 100 − j 200 ) ⎫
⎪⎪
∴ ZA = (150 + j 300 ) ⎬
⎪
and ZC = (100 + j 200 ) ⎪⎭
3 I1 I2
Problem 6.30 The z-parameters of a two-port network 1
N are given by
VS 12cost V1 N V2 1H
z11 (2s 1/s), z12 z21 2s, z22 (2s 4).
(a) Find the T-equivalent of N.
Fig. 6.92
(b) The network N is connected to a source and a load as
shown in Fig.6.92. Replace N by its T-equivalent and then find I1, I2, V1, and V2.
Solution
(a) To find the equivalent T-network, we have the relations,
⎛ 1⎞ ⎫
( ⎝
)
z11 = Z A + ZC = ⎜ 2 s + ⎟
s⎠
⎪ 1
zA 1/s zB 4
2
⎪
⎪
z12 = z21 = ZC = 2 s ⎬ zC 2s
⎪
and ( ) (
z22 = Z B + ZC = 2 s + 4 ) ⎪
⎪⎭ 1 2
1 Fig. 6.93 Equivalent

⇒ ZA = , Z B = 4 , ZC = 2 s T-network
s
382
(b) The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 6.94.

(
By KVL, I 3 + j + I j 2 = 12 ∠0°
1 2 ) ( )
( )
I1 j 2 + I 2 (5 + j 3) = 0
Solving, 12 ∠0° j2 12 ∠0° 2 ∠90°
0 ( 5 + j3 )= 5.831∠30.96°
I1 =
0
= 3.29∠ − 10.22° A ( )
(3+ j ) j2 16 + j14
j2 (5 + j 3) 3 1/s 4
(3+ j ) 12 ∠0° 1
Vs 12 0 V1 2s V2
and I2 =
j2 0
= 1.13∠ − 131.19° A ( ) s
(3+ j ) j2
j2 (5 + j 3) Fig. 6.94
∴V1 = 12 ∠0° − I1 × 3 = 12 − 3.29 × 3∠ − 10.22° = 2.28 + j1.75 = 2.88∠37.504° V ( )

and ( ) (
V2 = − I 2 1 + j = −1.13 1 + j ∠ − 131.186° = 1.59∠93.81° )
So, the currents and voltages are
(
i1 (t ) = 3.29 cos t − 10.2°) ( A ) ⎫⎪
i (t ) = 1.13cos( t − 131.2° ) ( A ) ⎪⎪
2
⎬
v (t ) = 2.88 cos( t + 37.5° ) ( A ) ⎪
1
⎪
v (t ) = 1.6 cos( t + 93.8° ) ( A ) ⎪⎭
2
Problem 6.31 For the network shown in Fig. 6.95, determine 2V3
the z and y parameters. I 1 10 2 I2
Solution By KVL for the three meshes, we get
V1 = 10 I1 + 3 I 2 + 2 I1 + I 2 ( ) ⇒ 12 I1 + 5 I 2 = V1 (i)
V1
3I2 2 V3
(
V2 = 2 I 2 − 2V3 + 2 I1 + I 2 ) ( ) ⇒ 2 I1 + 4 I 2 − 4V3 = V2 (ii)
V2
V3 = 2( I 1
+ I2 ) (iii) Fig. 6.95
From (ii) and (iii), (

V2 = 2 I1 + 4 I 2 − 4 2 I1 + 2 I 2 ) ⇒ V2 = −6 I1 − 4 I 2 (iv)
⎡12 5 ⎤
From (i) and (iv), we get, z=⎢ ⎥ ( )( )
⎣ −6 −4 ⎦
⎡ 2 5 ⎤
∴ y = ⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎢⎢ 9 18 ⎥
−1 ( )
1 ⎥
⎢⎣ − 3 −2 ⎥
3⎦
383
Two-Port Network
Problem 6.32 The h-parameters of a two-port network 500 I1 I2

shown in Fig. 6.96 are h11 1000 , h12 0.003, h21 100,
and h22 50 10 6 mho. Find V2 and z-parameters of the net- VS V2 2000
work if Vs 10 2 0 ( V).
Solution The h-parameter equations are Fig. 6.96
V1 = h11 I1 + h12V2 = 1000 I1 + 0.003V2 (i)
I 2 = h21 I1 + h22V2 = 100 I1 + 50 × 10−6 V2 (ii)
By KVL for the two meshes, V1 = Vs − 500 I1 (iii)
V2 = −200 I 2 (iv)
Vs − 500 I1 = 1000 I1 + 0.003V2
From (i) and (iii),
or, 10−2 − 1500 I1 = 0.003V2 (v)
V2
From (ii) and (iv), − = 100 I1 + 50 × 10− 6 V2
2000
or, I1 = −5.5 × 10− 6 V2 (vi)
From (v) and (i), (

0.003V2 = 10−2 + 1500 −5.5 × 10−6 V2 )
⇒ V2 = −1.905 V
The z-parameters are calculated as follows.
h h12 h21 1
z11 = = −500 z12 = = 60 z21 = − = −2 × 106 z22 = = 20 × 103
h22 h22 h22 h22
Problem 6.33 For the two-port network shown in Fig. 6.97, find the z-parameters.
Solution We consider two cases:
When I2 0
2V1 2V1
I1 1 1 1 I2 I1 1 1 I2 0
I
V1 2 2 V1 V1 (I 1 I ) 2 2 V2
Fig. 6.97 Fig. 6.98 (a)

Here, as the output port is open-circuited, no current will flow through the 1- resistor connected at Port 2.
The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 6.98 (a).
⎛2 2 ⎞
(
⎝5 5 ⎠
)
By KVL for the middle mesh, we get I + 2V1 + 2 I − 2 × I1 − I = 0 ⇒ I = ⎜ I1 − V1 ⎟ (i)
⎛2 2 ⎞
( )
By KVL for the left mesh, we get V1 = I1 + 2 × I1 − I = 3 I1 − 2 I = 3 I1 − 2 × ⎜ I1 − V1 ⎟
⎝5 5 ⎠
{by equation (i)}
384
or, V1 = 11I1
V1
∴ z11 = = 11
I1 I 2 =0
Also, by KVL for the right mesh, we get

⎛2 2 ⎞ 4 4 4 4 V2
V2 = 2 I = 2 × ⎜ I1 − V1 ⎟ = I1 − V1 = I1 − × 11 × I1 = −8 I1 ∴ z21 = = −8
⎝5 5 ⎠ 5 5 5 5 I1 I 2 =0
When I1 0
Here, as the output port is open-circuited, no current will flow through the 1- resistor connected at Port 1.
The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 6.98 (b).
2V1 I2
I1 0 1 1
V1 I V2
2 2 (I 2 I)
Fig. 6.98(b)
⎛2 2 ⎞
⎝5
(
By KVL for the middle mesh, we get I − 2V1 + 2 I − 2 × I 2 − I = 0 ⇒ I = ⎜ I 2 + V1 ⎟
5 ⎠
) (ii)
⎛2 2 ⎞ 4 4 ∴ z12 =
V1
=4
By KVL for the left mesh, we get V1 = 2 I = 2 × ⎜ I 2 + V1 ⎟ = I 2 + V1 ⇒ V1 = 4 I 2
⎝5 5 ⎠ 5 5 I2 I1 =
Also, by KVL for the right mesh, we get

⎛2 2 ⎞
( )
V2 = I 2 + 2 × I 2 − I = 3 I 2 − 2 I = 3 I 2 − 2 × ⎜ I 2 + V1 ⎟
⎝5 5 ⎠
{by equation (ii)}
11 4 11 4
= I − V = I − × 4 I2 = − I2
5 2 5 1 5 2 5
V2
∴ z22 = = −1
I2 I1 = 0
Therefore, the z-parameters of the network are

⎡ 11 4 ⎤
⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ ( ) 0.9I 1
⎣ −8 −1⎦
Problem 6.34 Find the z and y parameters of the network shown I1 1 10 I2
in Fig. 6.99.
Solution We convert the dependent current source into its equivalent V1 1 V2
voltage source as shown in fig. 6.100 below.
By KVL for the two meshes, we get Fig. 6.99
( )
I1 + 1 × I1 + I 2 = V1 ⇒ V1 = 2 I1 + I 2 (i)
385
Two-Port Network
and, ( )
10 I 2 + 9 I1 + 1 × I1 + I 2 = V2 ⇒ V2 = 10 I1 + 11I 2 I1 1
9I1
10 I2
From (i) and (ii), we get the z-parameters as

⎡2 1⎤ V1 V2
( )
1
⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣10 11⎦
Therefore, the y-parameters are Fig. 6.100
−1 ⎡ 11 −1 ⎤
−1 ⎡2 1⎤ ⎢ 12 12 ⎥
⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 10 ⎥
⎣10 11⎦ ⎢⎣ − 12
2
12 ⎥⎦
2V1
I1 1 I2
Problem 6.35 The network shown in Fig. 6.101 contains both
dependent current source and a dependent voltage source. For
V1 1 2V2 2 V2
this circuit, determine the y and z parameters.
Solution We first find out the y parameters. To find the y param-
eters, we consider two situations: Fig. 6.101
When V1 0 I1 1 I2
A
Here, Port 1 is shorted and hence, the dependent voltage source is zero, i. e.,
short-circuited. The 1- resistance in Port 1 becomes redundant. The circuit V1 0 2V2 [I 2 V2 2] 2 V2
is shown in Fig. 6.102 (a).
By KCL at the node (A), we get Fig. 6.102 (a)
⎛ V ⎞ 3V
− I1 − 2V2 − ⎜ I 2 − 2 ⎟ = 0 ⇒ I1 + I 2 = − 2 (i)
⎝ 2⎠ 2
By KVL for the outer loop, we get
⎛ V ⎞ V 3
V2 = 1 × ⎜ I 2 − 2 ⎟ = I 2 − 2 ⇒ V =I
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2 2 2
I2 3
∴ y22 = =
V2 V1 = 0
2
Substituting the value of I2 in (i), we get

3 3
I1 + V2 = − V2 ⇒ I1 = −3V2
2 2
I1
∴ y12 = = −3
V2 V1 = 0
2V1
I1 1 I2
When V2 0
Here, Port 2 is shorted and hence, the dependent current source is zero, i. e., V1 1 (I 1 I2 ) V2 0
open-circuited. The 2- resistance in Port 2 becomes redundant. The circuit
is shown in Fig. 6.102 (b). Fig. 6.102 (b)
(
By KVL for the left loop, we get V1 = I1 + I 2 ) (ii)
386
By KVL for the outer loop, we get

2V1 + I 2 + V1 = 0 ⇒ I 2 = −3V1
I2
∴ y21 = = −3
V1 V2 = 0
From (ii),
V1 = I1 − 3V1 ⇒ I1 = 4V1
I1
∴ y11 = =4
V1 V2 = 0
Therefore, the y parameters of the network is given as

⎡ 4 −3⎤
⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −3 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
Hence, the z parameters are given as
−1 ⎡ −1 ⎤
⎡ 4 −3⎤ ⎢ 2 −1 ⎥
⎡⎣ z ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ( )
−1
⎥
⎢ −3 3 ⎥ ⎢ 4⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −1 − 3 ⎥⎦
Problem 6.36 The model of a transistor in CE mode is shown I1 rb re I2

in Fig. 6.103. Determine the h parameters of the model.
I re
cb 1
Solution The equations of h parameters are V1 V2
V2
bc
V1 = h11 I1 + h12V2 and I 2 = h21 I1 + h22V2 rd
To find h parameters, we consider two cases:

Fig. 6.103
When I1 0 I1 = 0 rb I2
re
Here, the dependent current source is open-circuited. The modified circuit is
shown in Fig. 6.104 (a). re
V1 mbcV2 V2
V1
∴ V1 = V ⇒ h12 =
bc 2
= bc rd
V2 I1 = 0
Fig. 6.104 (a)
)
I
Also, (
V2 = I 2 re + rd ⇒ h22 = 2
V2
=
r
1
+ rd
I =0 e I1 rb re I2
1
When V2 0
␣cbI1
Here, the dependent voltage source is short-circuited. V1
V2 V2 = 0
The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 6.104 (b).
) )
V1
(
∴V1 = I1 rb + re ⇒ h11 =
I1
(
= rb + re
V2 = 0 Fig. 6.104 (b)
387
Two-Port Network
I2
Also, I2 = I
cb 1
⇒ h21 = = cb
I1 V2 = 0
Therefore, the h parameters for the transistor model is given as
⎢
(
⎡ rb + re ) bc
⎤
⎥
⎡⎣ h ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ cb re + rd ⎥⎦
⎣
Problem 6.37 Find the hybrid parameters for the network of I1

Fig. 6.105 (which represents a transistor).
I 1 R1 i2
Solution Case (1): When V2 0
The circuit is modified as shown in Fig. 6.106. R3
V1 R2 V2
Vx Vx R2 R3
+ + I1 = I1 ⇒ Vx = 1 −
R2 R3
( )R +R I1 Fig. 6.105
2 3 ␣I 1
By KVL,
⎛ R2 R3 ⎞
( )⎜⎝ R + R ⎟⎠ I
I1 R1 x I2 y
V1 = I1 R1 + Vx = I1 R1 + 1 − 1
2 3
R3
V
∴ h11 = 1
⎡
= ⎢ R1 +
1 − R2 R3 ⎤
⎥
( ) V1 R2 V2 0
I1 V =0 ⎢⎣ R2 + R3 ⎥⎦
2
Fig. 6.106
By KCL at the node y,
0 − Vx ⎛ R2 R3 ⎞ ⎛ R + R3 ⎞
R3
= I 2 + I1 ⇒ I 2 = − I1 − 1 − ( )⎜⎝ R + R ⎟⎠ I 1
= − I1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ R2 + R3 ⎠
2 3
I2 ⎛ R + R3 ⎞
∴ h21 = = −⎜ 2 ⎟
I1 V =0
⎝ R2 + R3 ⎠
2
Case (2): When I1 0

Here, the dependent current source is to be opened (since I1 0). I1 0 I2
The circuit is modified as shown in Fig. 6.107.
R1
)
R3
∴V2 = I 2 R2 + R3 ( and V1 = I 2 R2 V1 R2 V2
V1 R2 I 1
∴ h12 = = and h22 = 2 = Fig. 6.107
V2 I1 = 0
R2 + R3 V2 I1 = 0
R2 + R3
Therefore, the hybrid parameters are

⎡
h11 = ⎢ R1 +
(
1 − R2 R3 ⎤
⎥ ; h12 =
) R2 ⎛ R + R3 ⎞
; h21 = − ⎜ 2 ; h22 =
1
R2 + R3 ⎥⎦ R2 + R3 ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ R2 + R3 ⎠ R2 + R3
388
Problem 6.38 Determine the y and z parameters for the network 2V1
1
Solution We convert the dependent current source into equivalent
V1 1 2V2 2 V2
dependent voltage source. The modified network is shown in Fig. 6.109.
2V1
I1 1 I2
Fig. 6.108
1 I3
V1 2 V2
2V2
Fig. 6.109
By KVL for three meshes, we get
( )
V1 = 1 × I1 − I 3 + 2V2 ⇒ I 3 = I1 + 2V2 − V1 (i)
and ( ) ( )
1 × I 3 − 2V1 + 2 I 2 + I 3 − 2V2 + 1 × I 3 − I1 = 0 ⇒ 2V1 + 2V2 = − I1 + 2 I 2 + 4 I 3 (ii)
and, (
V2 = 2 × I 2 + I 3 ) (iii)
Substituting the value of I3 from (i) into (ii) and (iii), we get
(
2V1 + 2V2 = − I1 + 2 I 2 + 4 I1 + 2V2 − V1 ) ⇒ 6V1 − 6V2 = 3 I1 + 2 I 2 (iv)
and, (
V2 = 2 I 2 + I1 + 2V2 − V1 ) ⇒ 2V1 − 3V2 = 2 I1 + 2 I 2 (v)
By (iv) (v), we get I1 = 4V1 − 3V2 (vi)
Also, from (v) and (vi), we get ( ) 3

2V1 − 3V2 = 2 4V1 − 3V2 + 2 I 2 ⇒ I 2 = −3V1 + V2
2
(vii)
From (vi) and (vii), we get

⎡ 4 −3⎤
y=⎢
⎢ −3 3 ⎥
⎥ mho ( )
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
−1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎡ 4 −3⎤ ⎢− −1 ⎥
∴ z = ⎡⎣ y ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ 2 ( )
−1
⎥
⎢ −3 3 ⎥ ⎢ 4⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −1 − ⎥
3⎦
Note See Problem 6.35 and compare the two methods of solution.
I1 3 0.5 V1 I2
Problem 6.39 Find the h-parameters for the two-port network shown
in Fig. 6.110. 4
V1 V2
1
Solution To find h parameters, we consider two cases: 3I2
When I1 0
Here, no current will flow through the 3- resistance. Fig. 6.110
389
Two-Port Network
By KVL at the left mesh, we get V1 = 4 × 0.5V1 + 3 I 2 = 2V1 + 3 I 2 ( ) I1 0 3 0.5V1

X I2
⇒ V1 = −3 I 2
4
Also, by KCL at the node (X), we get V1 1 V2
3I2
)
V2
I2 =
1
+ 0.5V1 = V2 + 0.5V1 = V2 + 0.5 × −3 I 2 ( ⇒ 2.5 I 2 = V2
Fig. 6.111 (a)
I2 1
∴ h22 = = = 0.4 0.5V1
V2 2.5 I1 3 I2
I1 = 0
⎛V ⎞ 4
∴V1 = −3 I 2 = −3 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ = −1.2V2 V1 V2 = 0
⎝ 2.5 ⎠
3I2
V1
∴ h12 = = −1.2
V2 I1 = 0
Fig. 6.111 (b)
When V2 0
Here, Port 2 is short circuited. The 1- resistance becomes redundant. The modified circuit is shown in
Fig. 6.111 (b).
∴ I 2 = 0.5V1 = 0.5 × ⎡⎣ 3 I1 + 4 I1 + 4 I 2 + 3 I 2 ⎤⎦ = 3.5 I1 + 3.5 I 2 ⇒ 2.5 I 2 = −3.5 I1
I2 3.5
∴ h21 = =− = −1.4
I1 V2 = 0
2.5
Also,
(
V1 = 3 I1 + 4 I1 + 4 I 2 + 3 I 2 = 7 I1 + 7 I 2 = 7 I1 + 7 × −1.4 I1 = −2.8 I1 )
V1
∴ h11 = = −2.8
I1 V2 = 0
⎡ −2.8 −1.2 ⎤
Therefore, the h parameters of the network are given as ⎡⎣ h ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1.4 0.4 ⎦
Problem 6.40 Find the driving point impedance at the terminals 1 1’ of the ladder network shown in
Fig. 6.112.
(a) 1H 1H (b) 1 1H 1 1H 1 1H
1 2 1 2
1F 1F 1F 1F 1F
1 2 1 2
Fig. 6.112
390
Solution (a) The driving point impedance at 1 1’ is
s 4 + 3s 2 + 1
(
Z11 = s + 1 +) 1
1
=
s 2 + 2s
s+
( s + 1) + 1
1
s+
( s + 1) + 1s
(b) The driving point impedance at 1 1’ is
s 6 + 3s 5 + 8 s 4 + 11s 3 + 11s 2 + 6 s + 1
(
Z11 = s + 1 + ) 1
1
=
s 5 + 2 s 4 + 5s 3 + 4 s 2 + 3s
s+
( s + 1) + 1
1
s+
( s + 1) + 1s I1 2H
I2
V1 1F 1F V2
Problem 6.41 Determine the network functions Y21 and Z21 for the network shown.
Solution Writing two mesh equations,
Fig. 6.113
( 1
)
I1 − I 2 = V1 ⇒ I1 − I 2 = sV1
s
(i)
⎛ 2⎞
1
− I1 + ⎜ 2 s + ⎟ I 2 = 0 ⇒ − I1 + 2 s 2 + 2 I 2 = 0
s ⎝ s⎠
( ) (ii)
⎡1 −1 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ sV ⎤
⇒ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ −1 ( )
2 s + 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
2
1 sV1
−1 0 sV1
∴ I2 = =
1 −1 2s2 +1
−1 (2s 2
+2 )
I2 s
∴ Y21 = =
V1 2 s 2 + 1
sV1 −1
1 V
∴V2 = I 2 = 21 and I1 =
0 (2s 2
+2 ) = 2( s + 1) sV
2
1
s 2s +1 1 −1 2s2 +1
−1 (2s 2
+2 )
V2 V 2s +1 1 2
∴ Z 21 = = 21 × =
(
I1 2 s + 1 2 s + 1 sV1 2 s s 2 + 1
2
) ( )
391
Two-Port Network
Problem 6.42 Determine driving point impedance Z11, transfer impedance Z21 1H 1H
and voltage transfer function G21 for the network shown. 1 2
1F 1F
Solution The driving point impedance at 1 1’ is
1 2
s 4 + 3s 2 + 1
( )
Z11 = s + 1 +
1
1
= 2
s + 2s
Fig. 6.114
s+
( s + 1) + 1
1
s+
( s + 1) + 1s
To find the transfer impedance, Z21, we start from the right end,
I1 1H 1H
∴ I 2 = V2 × s 1 2
(
∴V ′ = I 2 × s + V2 = s 2 + 1 V2 ) V1 1F V 1F
I2
V2
( ) (
∴ I1 = I 2 + V ′s = V2 s + s + s V2 = s + 2 s V2
3 3
) 1 2
Fig. 6.115
V 1
∴ Z 21 = 2 = 3
I1 s + 2 s
Also, ( ) ( ) (
V1 = I1 × s + V ′ = s 4 + 2 s 2 V2 + s 2 + 1 V2 = s 4 + 3s 2 + 1 V2 )
V2 1
∴ G21 = = 4
V1 s + 3s 2 + 1 R1 1
1 2
Problem 6.43 Determine the current-transfer ratio 21 and driving I1 C1 1F C2 2F V2

point impedance Z21 for the circuit shown.
Solution By KCL at the the node 1, Fig. 6.116
V1 − V2
1
+ sV1 = I1 or, V1 1 + s − V2 = I1 ( ) (i)
By KCL at the node 2,

V2 − V1
1
+ 2 sV2 = 0 or, − V1 + V2 1 + 2 s = 0 ( ) (ii)
Solving for V2,

(1 + s ) I1
−1 0 I1
V2 = =
(1 + s ) −1 2 s + 3s
2
−1 (1 + 2 s )
V2 1 0.5
∴ Z 21 = = 2 =
I1 2 s + 3s s s + 1.5 ( )
392
I 2 V2 × 2 s 0.5 × 2 s 1
␣21 = = = =
I1 I1 s s + 1.5 s + 1.5 ( )
R R
Problem 6.44 For the notch-filter (Twin-T) network, determine
C C
(a) y-parameters,
(b) the voltage ratio transfer function V2 / V1 when no-load impedance is present, and V1 2C R 2 V2
(c) the value of the frequency at which the output voltage is zero.
Solution Fig. 6.117
(a) The given network is the parallel combination of the two networks:
C C R R
1 2 1 2
R 2 2C
1 2 1 2
Fig. 6.118 Network (a) Fig. 6.118 Network (b)
For the network (a),
(
z11a = 1
Cs
+R
2 ) = 2 +2CsRCs ; z12 a = z21a = R ; z22 a = 1 + R =
2 Cs 2 (
2 + RCs
2Cs )
1 + RCs
∴ za =
C 2 s2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Cs ⎜ 1 + Cs⎟
z
∴ y11a = 22 a =
(
RCs 2 + RCs z)
; y12 a = y21a = − 12 a = −
R 2C 2 s 2 z
; y22 a = 11a =
⎝ 2 ⎠
za 2 R 1 + RCs ( ) za 2 R 1 + RCs za ( ) (1 + RCs )
For the network (b), z = 1
11b ( 2Cs
+R =) 1 + 2 RCs
2Cs
; z12 b = z21b =
1
2Cs
; z22 b = 1 + 2 =
s 2Cs(
1 + 2 RCs
)
∴ zb =
RCs RCs + 1 ( )
C 2 s2
∴ y11b =
z22 b
=
(
1 + 2 RCs )z
; y12 b = y21b = − 12 b = −
1 z
; y22 b = 11b =
1 + 2 RCs ( )
zb 2 R RCs + 1 ( )
zb 2 R RCs + 1 zb 2 R RCs + 1 ( ) ( )
Thus, the overall y-parameters are
(1 + 2 RCs ( R C s + 4 RCs + 1)
) 2 R(1 + RCs )) + 2 R( RCs + 1)) = 2 R( RCs + 1)
( RCs 2 + RCs
2 2 2
(
y11 = y22 = y11a + y11b =
R 2C 2 s 2 R 2C 2 s 2 + 1
and (
y12 = y21 = y12 a + y12 b = − ) (
−
)
1
2 R 1 + RCs 2 R RCs + 1
=−
(2 R RCs + 1 ) ( )
(b) Now,
I1 = y11V1 + y12V2 and I 2 = y21V1 + y22V2
393
Two-Port Network
When no-load impedance is present, I2 0,
∴
V2 y
= − 21 =
R 2C 2 s 2 + 1 2 R RCs + 1
× 2 2 2 = 2 2 2
(
R 2C 2 s 2 + 1 )
V1 y22 2 R RCs + 1 ( ) (
R C s + 4 RCs + 1 R C s + 4 RCs + 1 ) ( )
(c) For V2 = 0, ⇒ 1 + R 2C 2 s 2 = 0
putting s = j , 1 − 2
R 2C 2 = 0
1
∴ =
RC
1
Thus, the notch frequency is given by, f N =
2 RC
Problem 6.45 For the given bridged T network, find the driving 1F
point admittance Y11 and the transfer admittance Y21 with a 2- load 1
resistor connected across Port 2. 1 I3 2 2
1
Solution By KVL, V 1 I1 2 F I2 2
2
⎛ 2⎞ 2 1
⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ I1 + s I 2 − I 3 = V1 Fig. 6.119
2 ⎛ 1 2⎞ 1
I1 + ⎜ + ⎟ I 2 + I 3 = V2
s ⎝ 2 s⎠ 2
1 ⎛ 3 2⎞
− I1 + I 2 + ⎜ + ⎟ I 3 = 0
2 ⎝ 2 s⎠
⎛ 1⎞ 1
⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ s
−1
1 ⎛ 1⎞ s+2
∴ = ⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ 1 =
s s2
⎛ 1⎞
−1 1 ⎜⎝ 2 + s ⎟⎠
⎛ 1⎞
⎜ 1 + s ⎟⎠
1+1 ⎝
1
s 2 + 3s + 1
11 ( )
= −1
⎛ 1⎞
=
s2
1 ⎜⎝ 2 + s ⎟⎠
1
1
s2 + 2s +1
( ) s
1+ 2
= −1 =−
12
⎛ 1⎞ s2
1 ⎜2+ ⎟
⎝ s⎠
394
1F
s 2 + 3s + 1 s 2 s 2 + 3s + 1
∴Y11 = 11
=− × = A B
s 2
s+2 s+2
1H 1F
1H
s2 + 2s +1 s2 s2 + 2s +1 1F 1H
∴ Y21 = 21 = − × =− V1 1 V2
s 2
s+2 s+2
1F
Problem 6.46 Determine the voltage transfer function of the
symmetrical lattice network shown in Fig. 6.120. C D
1H
1
s× Fig. 6.120
Solution Let Z1 Series Arm Impedance = s= s I1 A
1 I1 I
1 s2 +1
s+ I Z2
s Z1
V2
1 s2 +1 V1 B I2 2 1 D
Z2 Shunt Arm Impedance = s + = 2
Z1
s s Z2
Rearranging the figure, we have Fig. 6.121 as shown. 1
Applying KVL to the mesh 1ABDC1’, we get C
V1 ( s ) = I ′( s ) Z1 ( s ) + I 2 ( s ) × 1 + Z1 ( s ) ⎡⎣ I1 ( s ) − I ′( s ) + I 2 ( s ) ⎤⎦ Fig. 6.121 Equivalent

network
or, V1 ( s ) = I 2 ( s ) ⎡⎣ Z1 ( s ) + 1⎤⎦ + Z1 ( s ) I1 ( s ) (i)
Applying KVL to the mesh 1ADBC1’, we get
V1 ( s ) = Z 2 ( s ) ⎡⎣ I1 ( s ) − I ′( s ) ⎤⎦ − I 2 ( s ) × 1 + Z 2 ( s ) ⎡⎣ I ′( s ) − I 2 ( s ) ⎤⎦
or, V1 ( s ) = Z 2 ( s ) I1 ( s ) − ⎡⎣ Z 2 ( s ) + 1⎤⎦ I 2 ( s ) (ii)
Multiplying (i) by Z2(s) and (ii) by Z1(s) and subtracting (ii) from (i),
V1 ( s ) ⎡⎣ Z 2 ( s ) − Z1 ( s ) ⎤⎦ = I 2 ( s ) ⎡⎣ Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s ) + 2 Z1 ( s ) Z 2 ( s ) ⎤⎦
I2 (s) Z 2 ( s ) − Z1 ( s )
or, =
V1 ( s ) Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s ) + 2 Z1 ( s ) Z 2 ( s )
Now the output voltage V2 ( s ) = I 2 ( s ) × 1
s2 +1 s
V2 ( s ) Z 2 ( s ) − Z1 ( s ) − 2
= = s s +1
V1 ( s ) Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s ) + 2 Z1 ( s ) Z 2 ( s ) s s2 +1 s2 +1 s
+ +2× × 2
s +1
2
s s s +1
( s + 1) − s ( s + 1+ s )( s + 1− s )
2
2 2 2 2
= =
s + ( s + 1) + 2 s ( s + 1) ( s +1+ s )
2 2
2 2 2 2
V ( s ) ( s − s + 1)
2
⇒ 2
=
V ( s ) ( s + s + 1)
1
2
Note This symmetrical lattice network is used as all-pass network because it has the property for sinusoidal inputs
that everything which comes in goes out without any change in magnitude but distortion in phase.
395
Two-Port Network
Problem 6.47 (a) If ZaZb Z02and R0 Z0, show that the voltage transfer Za
function of the network is given by V2 = 1

R0 R0
V1 1+ Za / R 0 Zb Z0 V
V1 2
2
(b) Under the condition ZaZb R and R0
0 Z0 , show that the input impedance of the
network of Fig.6.122 is R0. Fig. 6.122
Solution Replacing the R0, R0, and Za delta by equivalent star, we have A A
2
RZ R
A= 0 a and B= B
R0 + Z a 2 R0 + Z a V1 Z0 V2
Zb
(a) Let I1 Input current,
I2 current through Z0. Fig. 6.123
∴V1 = I1 Z in = I1 Z 0
B + Zb
and V2 = I 2 Z0 = I1 Z
A + B + Z0 + Zb 0
V2 B + Zb 1 1
So, the voltage transfer function is = I1 Z0 × =
V1 A + B + Z0 + Zb I1 Z 0 A + Z0
1+
B + Zb
R0 Z a
+ Z0
A + Z0 R0 + Z a R0 Z a + 2 R0 Z 0 + Z a Z 0 R0 Z a + 2 R0 Z 0 + Z a R0
Now, = = =
B + Zb R0 2
R0 + 2 R0 Z b + Z a Z b
2
Z a Zb + 2 Z0 Zb + Z a Zb
+ Zb
2 R0 + Z a
=
(
2 R0 Z 0 + Z a ) onditions, R0 = Z 0 , Z a Z b = Z 0 2 ]
[putting the co
2Z ( Z
b 0
+Z )
a
Z Z Z
= 0 = 20 = a
Zb Z0 Z0
Za
V2 1 1
∴ = =
V1 A + Z0 Z
1+ 1+ a
B + Zb Z0
(b) So, the input impedance,
⎧⎪
= A+
A + Z0 B + Zb ( =
)( ) (
A A + B + Z0 + Zb + A + Z0 B + Zb ) ( )( )
⎨ Z in
A + Z0 + B + Zb A + B + Z0 + Zb
⎩⎪
=
( ) (
Z 0 A + B + Z 0 + Z b + 2 A B + Z b + A2 − Z 0 2 ) = Z0 +
( )
2 A B + Z b + A2 − Z 0 2
A + B + Z0 + Zb A + B + Z0 + Zb
396
2 R0 Z a ⎛ R0 2 ⎞ R0 2 Z a 2 2 R0 3 Z a 2 R0 Z a Z b R0 2 Z a 2
= Z0 + ⎜ + Zb ⎟ + − Z0 2 = Z0 + + + − Z0 2
2 R0 + Z a ⎝ 2 R0 + Z a ( ) ( ) (
2 R0 + Z a 2 R + Z )
2 2 2
⎠ 2 R0 + Z a 2 R0 + Z a 0 a
= Z0 +
2 R0 Z a 3
+
R0 Z a 2 2
+
2 R0 Z a Z b
− Z0 2 = Z0 + 0 a +
(
R Z 2 R0 + Z a 2 R0 Z a Z b
2
− Z0 2
)
(2R + Z ) (2R + Z ) 2 R0 + Z a ( + )
2 2 2
2 R0 + Z a 2 R0
Z a
0 a 0 a
2
R0 Z a 2R Z Z ⎫⎪
= Z0 + + 0 a b − Z0 2 ⎬
2 R0 + Z a 2 R0 + Z a ⎭⎪
Z0 2 Z a 2 Z0 Z0 2
Z in = Z 0 + + − Z 0 2 [ putting t he conditions, R0 = Z 0 , Z a Z b = Z 0 2 ]
2 Z0 + Z a 2 Z0 + Z a
= Z0 +
(
Z0 2 2 Z0 + Z a )−Z 2
2 Z0 + Z a 0
= Z0 + Z0 2 − Z0 2
⇒ Z in = Z 0
Problem 6.48 For the given two-port network, calculate the

I1 20 30 I2
z-parameters and the image parameters. 1 2
Solution The z-parameters for the T network are,
V1 10 V2
z11 = 30 ; z12 = z21 = 10 ; z22 = 40
1 2
The ABCD parameters are obtained as
Fig. 6.124
z 30
A = 11 = = 3
z21 10
z 30 × 40 − 102
B= = = 110
z21 10
1 1
C= = = 0.1 mho
z21 10
z22 40
D= = =4
z21 10
Image parameters are
AB 3 × 110
Z i1 = = = 28.72
CD 0.1 × 4
BD 110 × 4
Zi 2 = = = 38.3
AC 3 × 0.1
= ln ( AD + BC = ln ) ( 12 + 11 = 1.914 )
397
Two-Port Network
Problem 6.49 A two-port network has

(i) at Port 1, driving point impedances of 60 and 55 with Port 2 open circuited and short-circuited respectively.
(ii) at Port 2, driving point impedances of 80 and 73.33 with Port 1 open circuited and short-circuited respec-
tively.
Find the image parameters of the network.
Solution It is given that Z io = 60 ; Z is = 55 Z oo = 80 ; Z os = 73.33
Hence, image parameters are given as
Z i1 = Z io × Z is = 60 × 55 = 57.45
Z i 2 = Z io × Z is = 80 × 73.33 = 76.59
1 ⎛ 1+ k ⎞ 1 2
= ln ⎜
2 ⎝ 1 − k ⎟⎠ Za Za
Zb
Z is Z os 1 ⎛ 1 + 0.957 ⎞ 1 2
where, k= = = 0.957 ∴ = ln ⎜ = 1.194
Z io Z oo 2 ⎝ 1 − 0.957 ⎟⎠ Fig. 6.125 (a)
Problem 6.50 Find the characteristic impedance for (a) the symmetrical 1 2
T network, and (b) the symmetrical network. Za
Zb Zb
Solution
(a) For the symmetrical T network shown in Fig.6.125 (a), 1 2
Open-circuit input impedance, Z io = Z a + Z b Fig. 6.125 (b)
Short-circuit input impedance, Z is = Z a +

Z a Zb
= a a
(
Z Z + 2 Zb )
Z a + Zb Z a + Zb
(
characteristic impedance is Z 0 = Z is × Z io = Z a Z a + 2 Z b )
(b) For the symmetrical ␲ network shown in Fig.6. 125 (b),
Open-circuit input impedance, Z io =

(
Zb Z a + Zb )
Z a + 2 Zb
Z a Zb
Short-circuit input impedance, Z is =
Z a + Zb
characteristic impedance is
Za
Z 0 = Z is × Z io = Z b
Z a + 2 Zb
398
Summary
1. A network with two input terminals and two output 5. A two-port network is said to be symmetrical if, z11 z22,
terminals is called a four-terminal network or a two- or y11 y22, A D, or A’ D’, or (h11h22 h12h21) 1, or
port network. (g11g22 g12g21) 1.
2. There are six types of parameters in a two-port 6. The inter-relationships between six types of param-
network, as open-circuit impedance parameters eters are given in Table 6.2.
( z-parameters), short-circuit admittance param- 7. Two-port networks can be connected in series, paral-
eters ( y-parameters), transmission or chain param- lel, or in cascade. For different types of interconnec-
eters (T-parameters or ABCD-parameters), inverse tion, the parameter calculation will be as given below.
transmission parameters (T ’-parameters), hybrid For series connection z-parameters are added
parameters (h-parameters), and inverse hybrid
For parallel connection y-parameters are added
parameters (g-parameters).
For cascade connection transmission parameter matri-
3. The equations of different parameters are as given
ces are multiplied
below.
For series–parallel connection h-parameters are added
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ z 11 z 12 ⎤ ⎡ I 1 ⎤ ⎡V 2 ⎤ ⎡ A ′ B ′ ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ For parallel–series connection g-parameters are added
⎢⎣V 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z 21 z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣C ′ D ′ ⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 1 ⎥⎦ 8. Some typical two-port networks are ladder network,
lattice network, etc.
⎡ I 1 ⎤ ⎡ y 11 y 12 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎡ I 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ 9. A gyrator is a non-reciprocal two-port network that is
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y 21 y 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ h21 h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V 2 ⎦⎥ designed to transform a load impedance into an input
impedance where the input impedance is proportional to
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ V2 ⎤ ⎡ I 1 ⎤ ⎡ g11 g12 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤ the inverse of the load impedance. It is characterized by a
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ single resistance, R, known as the gyration resistance.
⎢⎣ I 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣C D ⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ g 21 g 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
10. A negative impedance converter (NIC) is a non-reciprocal
4. A two-port network is said to be reciprocal if, z12 z21, two-port device that offers negative impedance, i.e., the
or y12 y21, or (AD BC ) 1, or (A’D’ B’C ’) 1, or impedance seen at the input port is equal to the negative
h12 h21, or g12 g21. of the load impedance with some conversion ratio.
1. What are the open-circuit impedance parameters
V1
of a two-port network? Why are they so called? z 12 = = Transfer impedance
I 2 I =0
The open-circuit impedance parameters represent the 1
relation between the voltages and the currents in the V

two-port network. z 21 = 2 = Transfer impedance
I1 I2 =0
The impedance parameter equations may be
written as V2
z 22 = = Driving point impedance at Port-2
I2
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ z 11 z 12 ⎤ ⎡ I 1 ⎤ V1 = z 11I 1 + z 12 I 2 I1=0
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ or,
⎢⎣V 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z 21 z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ V 2 = z 21I 1 + z 22 I 2 It can be seen that the dimensions of all the
parameters are impedance. All the impedances cor-
In this matrix equation, it is easily seen without even respond to the driving point and transfer imped-
expanding the individual equations, that ances at each port with the other port having zero
V1 current (i.e., open circuit). For this reason, these
z 11 = = Driving point impedance at Port-1 parameters are referred as the open-circuit imped-
I1 I
2 =0 ance parameters.
399
Two-Port Network
2. Define y-parameters. Determine the relationship Comparing Eqs. (1), (2) and (4), we get,
between the z and y parameters.
y 22 y y y
The y-parameter equations may be written as z 11 = ; z = − 12 ; z 21 = − 21 ; z 22 = 11
y 12 y y y
⎡ I 1 ⎤ ⎡ y 11 y 12 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤ I 1 = y 11V1 + y 12V 2
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ or, 3. Why are the ABCD parameters termed ‘transmis-
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y 21 y 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V 2 ⎥⎦ I 2 = y 21V1 + y 22V 2 sion parameters’?
The parameters y11, y12, y21, y22 can be defined in a simi- The ABCD parameters represent the relation between
lar manner, with either V1 or V2 on short circuit. the input quantities and the output quantities in a
I1 two-port network. They are thus voltage–current
y 11 = = Driving point admittance at Port-1 pairs.
V1 V2 = 0
These parameters are known as transmission param-
I1 eters as in a transmission line, the currents enter at one
y 12 = = Transfer admittance
V2 end and leave at the other end, and we need to know a
V 1= 0
relation between the sending-end quantities and the
I2 receiving-end quantities.
y 21 = = Transfer admittance
V1 V2 = 0 4. What are transmission parameters? Where are they
most effectively used?
I
y 22 = 2 = Driving point admittance at Port-2 The transmission (or ABCD) parameters represent
V2 V1 = 0 the relation between the input quantities and the
It can be seen that the y-parameters correspond to the output quantities in a two-port network. They are
driving point and transfer admittances at each port thus voltage–current pairs.
with the other port having zero voltage (i.e., short cir- However, as the quantities are defined as an input–
cuit). For this reason, these parameters are also referred output relation, the output current is marked as going
as the short-circuit admittance parameters. out rather than as coming into the port.
Relation between z and y parameters
I1 I2
The z-parameter equations are
V1 = z 11I 1 + z 12 I 2 Linear
(1) V1 Port 1 passive Port 2 V2
V 2 = z 21I 1 + z 22 I 2 network
The y-parameter equations are
I 1 = y 11V1 + y 12V 2 (2)
I 2 = y 21V1 + y 22V 2 Fig. 6.126
From Eq. (2), V = I 2 − y 21 V ; substituting this in the The transmission parameter equations may be written as
2
y 22 y 22 1
first equation, ⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ V2 ⎤ V1 = AV 2 − B I 2
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ or,
⎛ I y ⎞ ⎢⎣ I 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣C D ⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ⎥⎦ I 1 = CV 2 − DI 2
I 1 = y 11V1 + y 12 ⎜ 2 − 21 V1⎟
⎝ y 22 y 22 ⎠ The parameters A, B, C, D can be defined in a similar
manner with either Port 2 on short circuit or Port 2 on
y 22 y
or, V1 = I − 12 I 2 (3) open circuit.
y 1 y
V1 = Open-circuit reverse voltage gain
where, y (y11y22 y12y21) A=
V2 I2 =0
Substituting this value in the second equation of Eq. (2)
⎛y y ⎞ V1 = Short-circuit transfer impedance
I 2 = y 21 ⎜ 22 I 1 − 12 I 2 ⎟ + y 22V 2 B =−
I2
⎝ y y ⎠ V2 = 0
I1 = Open-circuit transfer admittance

y 21 y C=
or, V 2 = − I + 11 I 2 (4) V2
y 1 y I2 =0
400
I1 I2
I1 = Short-circuit reverse current gain
D =− Za
I2 V2 = 0
Zb
V1 Zb V1
These parameters are most effectively used in
transmission lines. In a transmission line, the
currents enter at one end and leave at the other Za
end, and we need to know a relation between the
Fig. 6.128 (a) Lattice network
sending end-quantities and the receiving-end
quantities.
I1
1
5. How will you find the -equivalent of a given net-
work when its y-parameters are known? Za Zb
The configuration of a typical -network is shown in V2
V1
Fig. 6.127. I2 2 2
Za
Zb
I1 I2
1 2 1
YC Fig. 6.128 (b) Equivalent network
V1 Ya Yb V2 Here, Za are the series arms and Zb are the diagonal or

shunt arms.
To find the z-parameters, we redraw the network as
1 2
shown in Fig. 6.128 (b).
Fig. 6.127 Assuming I2 0, the current I1 enters the bridge
at the point A and divides equally between the two
By KCL equations at the two nodes, we get arms.
(V −V )Y +V Y
1 2 c 1 a ( )
= I 1 ⇒ Ya +Yc V1 −YcV 2 = I 1 I1 I ⎛ Z − Za ⎞
∴ Z +V = 1 Z ⇒ V 2 = I 1 ⎜ b ⎟
V Y + (V −V )Y
2 b 2 1 c (
= I 2 ⇒ −YcV1 + Yb +Yc V 2 = I 2) 2 a 2 2 b ⎝ 2 ⎠
V2 ⎛ Z − Za ⎞
Thus, the y-parameters are ∴ z 21 = =⎜ b ⎟
I1 =0
⎝ 2 ⎠
)
y 11 = (Ya +Yb ; y 12 = y 21 = −Yc ; y 22 = (Yb +Yc )
I2
I1 V1 ⎛ Z + Za ⎞
Also, V1 = (Z + Zb ) ⇒ z 11 = =⎜ b ⎟
( )
Rearranging, Ya = y 11 + y 12 ; Yb = y 22 + y 12 ; ( ) 2 a I1 I
2 =0
⎝ 2 ⎠
As the network is reciprocal and symmetrical,

Yc = − y 12 = − y 21
⎛ Z − Za ⎞ ⎛ Zb + Za ⎞
∴ z 21 = z 12 = ⎜ b ⎟ and z 11 = z 22 = ⎜ 2 ⎟
From these equations of the admittances, we can find ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
out the -equivalent of a given network when its
y-parameters are known. Hence we can write the y-parameter y12 for the lattice
network as follows.
6. Write a technical note on derivation of short-circuit ⎛ Zb − Za ⎞
admittance parameter y12 of a symmetrical and ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
reciprocal two-port lattice network. z 12
y 12 = − =− 2 2
A lattice network forms the basis of design of most z ⎛ Zb + Za ⎞ ⎛ Zb − Za ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ − ⎜ 2 ⎟
four-terminal networks like attenuators, filters, etc. It ⎝ ⎠
consists of two identical impedances in series arm and
1⎛ Z − Z b ⎞ 1⎛ 1 1⎞
two identical impedances in shunt arm as shown in = ⎜ a = −
Fig. 6.128 (a). 2 ⎝ Z a Z b ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ Z b Z a ⎟⎠
401
Two-Port Network
7. What is a gyrator? Mention some properties of 3. If the output port of an ideal gyrator is terminated with
an ideal gyrator. Show that a gyrator is a non- a capacitor, the input port behaves like an inductor.
reciprocal device. 4. If the output port of an ideal gyrator is terminated
A gyrator is a two-port network that is designed to with an inductor L, the input port behaves like a
transform a load impedance into an input impedance capacitor.
where the input impedance is proportional to the 5. If the output port of an ideal gyrator is terminated
inverse of the load impedance. It is characterized by a with a voltage source, the input port behaves like a
single resistance, R, known as the gyration resistance. current source.
It can be shown that a gyrator is a non-reciprocal 6. If the output port of a gyrator is connected across
device. a current-controlled two-terminal resistor, i.e., v2
The symbol of a gyrator is shown in Fig. 6.129 (a) and f( i2) then the input port becomes a voltage-con-
Fig. 6.129 (b). The arrow head indicates the direction trolled resistor. The resulting voltage-controlled
of gyration. resistor is then the dual of the original current-con-
The v–i relationships for the gyrators of Fig. 6.122 (a) trolled resistor.
and (b) are given below: A gyrator is a hypothetical device used for physi-
For Fig. 6.129 (a), cal systems where the reciprocity condition does not
hold good.
⎡v 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 −R ⎤ ⎡ i 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ or, v1 Ri2 and v2 Ri1
8. What is negative impedance converter (NIC)? Show
⎢⎣v 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ R 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣ i 2 ⎥⎦
that an NIC is a non-reciprocal device.
For Fig. 6.129 (b), A negative impedance converter (NIC) is a two-
port device that offers negative impedance, i.e., the
⎡v 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 R ⎤⎡ i1 ⎤ impedance seen at the input port is equal to the
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ or, v1 Ri2 and v2 Ri1
⎢⎣v 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ − R 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣ i 2 ⎥⎦ negative of the load impedance with some conver-
sion ratio.
(a) (b)
i1 i2
i1 i2 i1 i2
R R
v1 NIC v2 ZL
v1 v2 v1 v2
Fig. 6.130 Negative impedance

Fig. 6.129 Symbol of gyrator converter (NIC)
It is characterized by the v–i relationships:

From the v–i relationships, it is clear that for a gyrator,
z12 z21 and hence it is non-reciprocal. v 1 = kv 2 ⎡v 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 k ⎤⎡ i1 ⎤
i2 = k i1
or, ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (1)
Properties of a gyrator ⎢⎣ i 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ k 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣v 2 ⎥⎦
1. A gyrator is a non-energic or passive element, i.e., at all or,

times the power delivered to the two-port is identi-
cally zero. v 1 = − kv 2 ⎡v 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 −k ⎤ ⎡ i 1 ⎤
or, ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (2)
2. When a gyrator is terminated at the output port i 2 = −k i 1 ⎢⎣ i 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ − k 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣v 2 ⎥⎦
with a linear resistance RL, the input port behaves as
where, k is the conversion ratio.
⎛R2⎞
a linear resistor with resistance ⎜ ⎟ . From equations (1) and (2), it is seen that h12 h21; hence
⎝ RL ⎠ NIC is a non-reciprocal device.
402
Exercises
1. Currents I1 and I2 entering at ports 1 and 2 respectively 4. Find the open-circuit and short-circuit impedances of
of a two-port network are given by the following equa- the network shown in Fig. 6.133.
tions:
⎡ 31 −19 ⎤
I 1 = 0.5V1 − 0.2V 2 [ y = ⎢⎢
−19
44
23
44 ⎥ −1
⎥ ; ( )
I 2 = − 0.2V1 +V 2 ⎢⎣ 44 44 ⎦⎥
z-parameters do not exist]
where V1 and V2 are the voltages at ports 1 and 2
respectively. Find the y, z and ABCD parameters for the 4
network. Also find its equivalent -network.
[ y11 0.5 mho; y12 0.2 mho; y21 0.2 mho; y22
1 3
1 mho; z11 2.174 ; z12 0.435 ; z22 1.086 ; V1 V2
2
A 5; B 5 ; C 2.3 mho; D 2.5; Y1 0.3 mho;
Y2 0.2 mho; Y3 0.8 mho]
2. Determine the z- and y-parameters of the networks Fig. 6.133
shown in Fig. 6.131. 5. Find the z-parameters for the 2-port networks shown
(a) j 40 j 80 in Fig. 6.134 containing a controlled source.
1 2 ⎡ −2 −1 ⎤
1
j 60
2
[z =⎢
⎢1 3 ⎥
⎥ ( )]
⎣ 2 2⎦
(b) j 20 j 25 3V1
1 2 I1 1 I2
30
1 2
V1 2 1 V2
(c) 2H 1F
1 2
1 Fig. 6.134
1 2
6. A 2-port network made up of passive linear resistors
Fig. 6.131 ⎡ − j 120 − j 160 ⎤
[(a) z = ⎢ ⎥ ( ), is fed at Port 1 by an ideal voltage source of V volt. It is
⎣ − j 160 − j 80 ⎦ loaded at Port 2 by a resistor R.
(i) With V 10 volts and R 6 , currents at ports 1
(
⎡ 30 + j 40 ) j 40 ⎤
(b) z = ⎢ ⎥ ( ), and 2 were 1.44 A and 0.2 A respectively.
⎢⎣ j 40 ( )
30 + j 80 ⎥⎦ (ii) With V 15 volts and R 8 , current at Port 2 was
0.25 A.
⎢
(
⎡ 1+ 2 s ) 1 ⎤
⎥
Determine the -equivalent circuit of the 2-port network.
(c) z = ⎢ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎥
+
( )] [ YA 0.2 mho; YB 0.3 mho; YC 0.05 mho]
⎢ 1 1
⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ 7. Calculate the T-parameters for the blocks A and B
separately and then using these results, calculate the
3. Obtain the z-parameters for the circuit shown in Fig. 6.132 T-parameters of the whole circuit shown in Fig. 6.135.
and hence draw the z-parameter equivalent circuit. Prove any formula used.
I1 2 2 I2 ⎡14 2 ⎤ 1 1 1 1
[ z = ⎢⎢
2
5 5⎥
6 ⎥
( )] V1 2
2 V2
2 V2 ⎢⎣ 5 5 ⎥⎦
V1 1
Block A Block B
Fig. 6.132 Fig. 6.135
403
Two-Port Network
1 2 1 11. Test results for a two-port network are

(a) Port 2 open-circuited, I1 0.01 0 (A), V1
1.4 45 (V), V2 2.3 26.4 (V)
V1 2 2 V2
(b) Port 1 open-circuited, I2 0.01 0 (A), V1
1 90 (V), V2 1.5 53.1 (V)
⎡3 5 ⎤ The source frequency in both the test was 1000 Hz.
[For each block, T = ⎢⎢ 2 2⎥ ; Find z-parameters.
1 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦ ⎡ 140 ∠45° 100 ∠ − 90° ⎤
[⎢ ⎥ ( )]
⎡7 15 ⎤ ⎣230 ∠ − 26.4° 150 ∠ − 53.1° ⎦
or whole circuit, T = ⎢ 2 2⎥ ]
12. Find the z-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 6.138.
⎢3 7 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦ ⎡ ⎤
[ ⎢10 3 ⎥ ( )]
8. Find out the z-parameters of the two-port network ⎣ 3 6 ⎦
shown in Fig. 6.136. I1 4 6 I2
⎡6 2 ⎤
[z =⎢ ⎥ ] ( )
⎣2 6 ⎦ V1 9 V2
2 2 9
2 13. For the network shown in Fig. 6.139, find the

2 2 y-parameters and also the equivalent T-network.
8
Fig. 6.136
9. Find the z-parameters for the lattice network shown in
1 4
Fig. 6.137. 2 V2
V1
I1 I2
Za I1 I2
Za Fig. 6.139
Zb
Zb ⎡ ⎡ 62 −30 ⎤ ⎤
V1 V2 V1 Zb Zb V2 ⎢ ⎢ 112 112 ⎥ , Z = 8 ⎥
⎢ ⎢ −30 ,
38 ⎥ a 13 ⎥
Za Za ⎢ ⎢⎣ 112 112 ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
Fig. 6.137 ⎢ Z b = 32 , Z c = 30 ⎥
⎣ 13 13 ⎦
⎛ Z + Za ⎞ ⎛ Zb − Za ⎞
[ z 11 = z 22 = ⎜ b ⎟ , z 12 = z 21 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ and
14. Find the h-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 6.140.
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
I1 8 I2
z 11 =
(
2 Za + Zb ); z 22 =
2Z a Z b
, z 12 = z 21 =
Z b2 ]
2Z a + Z b 2Z a + Z b 2Z a + Z b
16 16
10. Currents I1 and I2 entering at Port-1 and Port-2 respec- V1 V2
tively of a two-port network are given by the follow-
ing equations: I1 0.5 V1 0.2 V2, I2 0.2 V1 V2,
where V1 and V2 are the voltages at Port-1 and Port-2 8
respectively. Find the y, z and ABCD parameters for the Fig. 6.140
network. Also find the equivalent -network.
32 1 1 1
[ h11 = ; h12 = ; h21 = − ; h22 = mho ]
⎡ ⎡ 0.5 −0.2 ⎤ −1 ⎡2.174 0.435 ⎤ ⎤
⎢y = ⎢
⎣ −0.2 1 ⎦
⎥ ( ), z =⎢
⎣ 0.435 1.087 ⎦
⎥ , ( ) ⎥
3 3 3 12
⎢ ⎥ 15. The h-parameters of a two-port network are
⎢ ⎡ 5 ⎤ ⎥
⎢T = ⎢ 5
⎢⎣ ⎣ 2.3 −1 ⎥ ; Y = 0.3 , Yb = 0.8 , Yc = 0.2
2.5 ⎦ a
( ) −1 ⎥
⎥⎦
h11
h22
35 ; h12 2.6
0.3 10 6 mho
10 4; h21 0.98;
404
The input terminals are connected to a 0.001-V sinu- 1H 1H 1H
soidal source and a 104-ohm resistance is connected 1 2
across the output port. Find the output voltage.
1F 1F
[0.26 Volt]
1 2
16. Find the y and z-parameters for the network shown in
Fig. 6.141. Fig. 6.144
I1 I2 ⎡1+ 3s 2 + s 4 3s + 4 s 3 + s 5 ⎤
1 1 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2s + s 1+ 3s 2 + s 4 ⎦
3
20. Determine the y parameters of the overall network,

V1 1 12 V2
considering two networks connected in parallel.
1
Fig. 6.141
⎡13 2 ⎤ ⎡− 3 −2 ⎤ 1 1
[⎢ 7
⎢2
7⎥
3 ⎥
( ); ⎢ 5
⎢ 2
5 ⎥ mho ]
13 ⎥
( ) V1 1 V2
⎢⎣ 7 7 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 5 5 ⎥⎦
17. Find the y-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 6.142. Fig. 6.145
0.2V2 5 4
I1 5 I2 [ y 11 = y 22 = ; y 12 = y 21 = − ]
3 3
21. Two identical sections of the circuit shown in fig. 6.146
V1 20 0.4I 2 V2 are connected in series. Obtain the z-parameters of the
combination and verify by direct calculation.
I1 1mho I2
Fig. 6.142
⎡ 0.2 − 0.24 ⎤ V1
[⎢ ⎥ ] 0.2mho 0.5 mho V2
⎣ − 0.333 0.4833 ⎦
18. Find the transmission parameters of the network
shown in Fig. 6.143. Fig. 6.146
0.3V1 [z11 z22 6 ; z12 z21 4 ]

I1 5 I2
22. The z-parameters of a two-port network are
z11 50 ; z22 30 ; z12 z21 20 ;
V1 V2 10 4 V2
Calculate the y-parameters, ABCD parameters and the
image parameters of the network.
Fig. 6.143 ⎡ y 11 = 0.0273 mho ; y 22 = 0.0454 mho ; ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎡ 55 50 ⎤ ⎢ y 12 = y 21 = − 0.01818 mho ; ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ A = 2.5 ; B = 55 ; C = 0.05 mho ; D = 1.5 ⎥
[⎢
26 13 ⎥
] ⎢ ⎥
⎢7 ⎥ ⎢⎣ Z i 1 = 42.82 ; Z i 2 = 25.69 ; = 1.28 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ 20 1⎥
⎦
23. For the symmetrical two-port network, calculate the
19. Determine the T-parameters for the network shown in z-parameters and ABCD parameters. Hence or other-
Fig. 6.144 using the concept of interconnection of two wise, find the characteristic impedance and propaga-
two-port networks. tion constant for this network.
405
Two-Port Network
I1 40 40 I2 24. A two-port network has

1 2 (i) at Port 1, driving point impedances of 60 and
V1 20 V2 respectively.
(ii) at Port 2, driving point impedances of 80 and
1 2
Fig. 6.147 respectively.
⎡ z 11 = z 22 = 60 ; z 12 = z 21 = 20 ; A = D = 3 ; ⎤ Find the image parameters of the network. Derive the
⎢ ⎥ expressions used. [54.77 , 74.83 ]
⎢⎣ B = 160 ; C = 0.05 mho; Z 0
= 56.57 ; = 1.762 ⎥⎦
Questions
1. (a) Consider a linear passive two-port network and 4. What are transmission parameters? Where are they
explain what are meant by i) open-circuit imped- most effectively used? Establish, for two-port networks,
ance parameters, and ii) short-circuit admittance the relationship between the transmission parameters
parameters. and the open-circuit impedance parameters.
(b) What are the open-circuit impedance parameters 5. (a) Two two-port networks are connected in parallel.
of a two-port network? How can the transmission Prove that the overall y-parameters are the sum of
parameters be obtained from open-circuit imped- corresponding individual y-parameters.
ance parameters? (b) Two two-port networks are connected in cascade.
(c) Establish for two-port networks, the relationship Prove that the overall transmission parameter
between the transmission parameters and the matrix is the product of individual transmission
open-circuit parameters. parameter matrices.
(d) Define z and y parameters of a typical four-termi- (c) Two two-port networks are connected in series.
nal network. Determine the relationship between Prove that the overall z-parameters are the sum of
the z and y parameters. corresponding individual z-parameters.
(e) Express h-parameters in terms of z-parameters for 6. (a) Define ‘transfer function’ and ‘driving point func-
a two-port network. tion’ of a two-port network.
(f ) Derive expressions for the y-parameters in terms of (b) Derive the expression of input impedance of a
ABCD parameters of a two-port network. two-port network terminated with a load-imped-
2. (a) What do you understand by a reciprocal network? ance ZL, in terms of its -parameters.
What is a symmetrical network? (c) Derive the expression of output impedance of a
(b) Write technical note on derivation of short-circuit two-port network terminated with a load-imped-
admittance parameter y12 of a symmetrical and ance ZL, in terms of its transmission parameters.
reciprocal two-port lattice network. 7. What is a gyrator? Mention some properties of an
(c) How will you find the ␲-equivalent of a given net- ideal gyrator. Show that a gyrator is a non-reciprocal
work when its y-parameters are known? device.
3. (a) Explain what are meant by the transmission (ABCD) 8. What is negative impedance converter (NIC)? Show
parameters of a two-port network. Derive the con- that an NIC is a non-reciprocal device.
ditions necessary to be satisfied for the network to 9. What are image parameters? Derive expression of
be i) reciprocal, and ii) symmetrical. image parameters in terms of (i) ABCD parameters
Or, (ii) open-circuit and short-circuit impedances.
Prove that for a reciprocal two-port network, T 10. What is a symmetrical network? Derive expressions for
(AD BC ) 1 characteristic impedance and propagation constant of
(b) Prove that for a symmetrical two-port network, a symmetrical networks in terms of short-circuit and
h (h11h22 h12h21) 1 open-circuit impedances.
406
1. Which one of the following pairs is correctly
⎡ A1 A2 B 1B 2 ⎤ ⎡ ( A1 A2 + C 1C 2 ) ( A A − B D ) ⎤⎥
⎥ (iv) ⎢
1 2 1 2
matched? (iii) ⎢
(i) Symmetrical two-port network: AD BC 1 ⎢⎣C 1C 2 D1D2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(C 1 A2 − D1C 2 ) (C C + D D )⎥⎦
1 2 1 2
(ii) Reciprocal two-port network: z11 z22

11. Consider the following statements:
(iii) Inverse hybrid parameters: A, B, C, D
For a bilateral network,
(iv) Hybrid parameters: (V1, I2) f (I1, V2)
1. A D 2. z12 z21 3. h12 h21
2. What is the condition for reciprocity in terms of
h-parameters? Of these statements,
(i) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (ii) 1 and 2 are correct
(i) h11 h22 ii) h12 h21 h11 h22
(iii) 1 and 3 are correct (iv) 2 and 3 are correct.
(iii) h12 h21 0 iv) h12 h21
12. In a two-port network containing linear bilateral pas-
3. For a reciprocal network, the two-port ABCD param-
sive circuit elements, which one of the following con-
eters are related as follows:
ditions for z parameters would hold?
(i) AD BC 1 (ii) AD BC 0
(i) z11 z22 (ii) z12 z21 z11 z22
(iii) AD BC 1 (iv) AC BD 1
(iii) z11 z12 z22 z21 (iv) z12 z21
4. For a symmetrical two-port network,
13. The relation AD BC 1, where A, B, C and D are the
(i) z11 z22 (ii) z12 z21 elements of a transmission matrix of a network, is
(iii) z11z22 z122 0 (iv) z11 z22 and z12 z21 valid for
5. For a two-port network to be reciprocal, it is necessary (i) any type of network
that (ii) passive but not reciprocal network
(i) z11 z22 and y12 y21 (iii) passive and reciprocal network
(ii) z11 z22 and AD BC 0 (iv) both active and passive network
(iii) h21 h12 and AD BC 0 14. When a number of two-port networks are connected
(iv) y12 y21 and h21 h12 in cascade, the individual
6. A two-port network is symmetrical if (i) Zoc matrices are added
(ii) Ysc matrices are added
(i) z11 z22 z12 z21 1 (ii) AD BC 1
(iii) chain matrices are multiplied
(iii) h11 h22 h12 h21 1 (iv) y11 y22 y12 y21 1
(iv) H-matrices are multiplied
7. A two-port network is reciprocal if and only if
15. The h parameters h11 and h22 are related to z and y
(i) z11 z22 (ii) BC AD 1
parameters as
(iii) y12 y21 (iv) h12 h21
1
8. In terms of ABCD parameters, a two-port network is (i) h11 z11 and h22 =
symmetrical if and only if z 22
(i) A B (ii) B C (iii) C D (iv) D A (ii) h11 z11 and h22 y22
9. The condition for reciprocity of a two-port network z 1

(iii) h11 = and h22 =
having different parameters are z 22 z 22
i) h12 h21 ii) g12 g21 iii) A D
1
Choose the correct combination: (iv) h11 = and h22 y22
y 11
(i) 1 and 2 (ii) 1 and 3 (iii) 2 and 3 (iv) 1, 2 and 3.
16. Two two-port networks and having A B C D param-
10. Two two-port networks with transmission parameters eters as
A1, B1, C1, D1 and A2, B2, C2, D2 respectively are cascaded. A 4 D A 3 D
The transmission parameter matrix of the cascaded
network will be B 5, C 3 and B 4, C 2
⎡ A1 B1 ⎤ ⎡ A 2 B 2 ⎤ ⎡ A1 B1 ⎤ ⎡ A 2 B 2 ⎤ are connected in cascade in the order of ␣, ␤. The

(i) ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥ (ii) ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ equivalent ‘A’ parameters of the combination is
⎢⎣C 1 D1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣C 2 D2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣C 1 D1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣C 2 D2 ⎥⎦ (i) 17 (ii) 22 (iii) 24 (iv) 31.
407
Two-Port Network
17. With the usual notation, a two-port resistive network 22. If two two-port networks are connected in series, and
3 4 if the port current requirement is satisfied, which of
satisfies the condition A = D = B = C the following is true?
2 3
The z11 of the network is (i) The z-parameter matrices add
(i) 5 (ii) 4 (iii) 2 (iv) 1 (ii) The y-parameter matrices add.
3 3 3 3 (iii) The ABCD-parameter matrices add.
18. The reciprocal of a network function is (iv) None of these.
(i) an immittance function, if the original function is 23. If two two-port networks are connected in parallel,
an immittance function and if the port current requirement is satisfied, which
(ii) a transfer function, if the original function is a of the following is true?
transfer function (i) The z-parameter matrices add
(iii) never an immittance function (ii) The y-parameter matrices add.
(iv) never a transfer function (iii) The ABCD-parameter matrices add.
19. A two-port network is defined by the relations I1 2V1 (iv) None of these.
V2, I2 2V1 3V2 . Then z12 is 24. If two two-port networks are connected in cascade,
1 1 and if the port current requirement is satisfied, which
(i) 2 (ii) 1 (iii) (iv)
2 4 of the following is true?
20. Consider the following statements: (i) The z-parameter matrices add.
1. Transfer impedance is the reciprocal of transfer (ii) The y-parameter matrices add.
admittance. (iii) The ABCD-parameter matrices add.
2. One can derive transfer impedance of a network (iv) None of these.
if its driving-point impedance and admittance are 25. The z11 and z22 parameters of the given network are
known. 3 5 4
3. Driving-point impedance is the ratio of the Laplace
transform of voltage and current functions at the
input. 10 5
Of these statements
(i) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (ii) 1 and 2 are correct Fig. 6.150
(iii) 2 and 3 are correct (iv) 3 alone is correct
(i) 8 , 7.75 (ii) 13 , 9
21. Consider the following statements: (iii) 12 , 8.5 (iv) none of the above
1. The two-port network shown below does NOT
26. For the network shown, the parameters h11 and h21 are
have an impedance matrix representation.
I1 I2
1 Z 2
1 6
V1 4 V2
1 2
Fig. 6.148
2. The two-port network shown below does NOT Fig. 6.151
have an admittance matrix representation.
(i) 5 and − 2 (ii) 3.4 and − 2
1 2 3 5
Y
(iii) 3.4 and − 3 (iv) none of the above
1 2 5
27. The maximum value of the transmission parameter
Fig. 6.149 A for a passive, reciprocal, linear two-port network is
3. A two-port network is said to be reciprocal if it sat- (i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 (iv) none of the above
isfies z12 z21 or an equivalent relationship. 28. The unique feature of ABCD parameters as compared
Of these statements to z, y and h parameters is
(i) 1 and 2 are correct (ii) 1 and 3 are correct (i) none
(iii) 1 and 3 are correct (iv) none is correct. (ii) short-circuit functions
408
(iii) open-circuit functions
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ rb + re cb
⎤
(iv) reverse transverse functions
(i) ⎢⎢ re + rd bc ⎥
⎥ (ii) ⎢⎢ 1 ⎥
⎥
29. The driving point impedance of the infinite ladder
⎢ rb + re ⎥⎦ ⎢ bc re + rd ⎥⎦
network shown in Fig. 6.152 is: ⎣ cb ⎣
R1 R1 R1 R1 R1
⎡ rb + re ⎤ ⎡ bc cb
⎤
(iv) ⎢⎢ ⎥
bc
(iii) ⎢ ⎥
1 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
r +r
R2 R2 R2 R2 ⎢ cb re + rd ⎥⎦ ⎢b e re + rd ⎥⎦
Infinity ⎣ ⎣
34. In a two-port network, the output short-circuit cur-
Fig. 6.152 rent was measured while the source voltage at the
input was 1V; the value of the output current would
(given R1 2 1.5 ) and R2
provide the parameter
(i) 3 (ii) 3.5
(i) B (ii) y12 (iii) h21 (iv) y21
⎛ 3 ⎞
(iii) 3 (iv) ln⎜ 1+ ⎟ 35. The y-parameter ‘y21’ of the network shown in Fig. 6.155
3.5 ⎝ 3.5 ⎠
30. A two-port network is described by the relations: I1 6 4 I2
V1 = 2V 2 + 0.5I 2
14 I1
I 1 = 2V 2 + I 2 V1 6 V2
What is the value of the h22 parameter of the network?

(i) 1 mho (ii) 2 (iii) −2 mho (iv) 4 Fig. 6.155
31. What are the suitable values for Z1 and Z2, to make the (i) is 2 mho (ii) is 6 mho
input impedance, Zin, of the network equal to R? (iii) is 3 mho (iv) does not exist
Z2 36. The phasor current through the inductance in the
circuit shown is
Z in R
Z1 R
Fig. 6.153 1H 2
i =10cos 2t
(i) R and R (ii) 2R and R
(iii) 3R and 2R (iv) 4R and 4R
Fig. 6.156
32. The forward voltage transfer function of a two-port
s+
network is . What will be the output voltage
s2 + 2 ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
if the input voltage is ␦(t)?
(i) ⎜ ⎟ ∠ − 45° (ii) ⎜ ⎟ ∠45°
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
(i) (
2 sin t −
4 ) (ii) cos ␻t sin ␻t
(iii) 5∠45° (iv) 5∠ − 45°
(iii) cos ␻t
4
(iv) (
2 sin t + ) 37. For the two-port network, the parameter y21 will be
33. Which one of the following gives the h-parameter 1 2

matrix for the network shown in Fig. 6.154? Y3
I1 rb re I2 V1 Y1 Y2
V1
gm
re 1 2
V1 V2 I V2
oc cb 1
rd Fig. 6.157
(i) Y2 Y3 (ii) gm Y3
Fig. 6.154 (iii) Y3 gm (iv) gm Y2 Y3
409
Two-Port Network
38. For the given two-port network, z21 will be Ri R0
2 2
1 2 Vi AVi
V1 1 2 V2
Fig. 6.161
1 2 (i) 1 V, , 10 (ii) 1 V, 0, 10
Fig. 6.158 (iii) 1 V, 0, (iv) 10 V, , 10
43. The parameter type and I1 I2
the matrix representation
(i) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 1 (iv) 4
5 5 5 5 of the relevant two-port V1 V2
39. The h-parameters for a two-port network are defined parameters that describe
⎡E ⎤ ⎡h h ⎤⎡ I ⎤ the circuit shown are
by ⎢ 1 ⎥ = ⎢ 11 12 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ . For the two-port network Fig. 6.162
(i) z parameters,
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ h21 h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ E 2 ⎥⎦
⎡0 0 ⎤
shown in Fig. 6.159, the value of h12 is given by ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 ⎦
I1 4 2 2 I2
⎡1 0⎤
(ii) h parameters, ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1⎦
E1 2 4 E2
⎡0 0 ⎤
(iii) h parameters, ⎢ ⎥
Fig. 6.159 ⎣0 0 ⎦
⎡1 0⎤
(i) 0.125 (ii) 0.167 (iii) 0.625 (iv) 0.25 (iv) z parameters, ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1⎦
40. The z matrix of a two-port network is given by
⎡0.9 0.2 ⎤ 44. The impedance parameters z11 and z12 of the two-port
⎢ ⎥ . The element y22 of the corresponding y network in Fig. 6.163 are
⎣0.2 0.6 ⎦
matrix of the same network is given by 3 5 4
(i) 1.2 (ii) 0.4 (iii) 0.4 (iv) 1.8
10 5
41. For the two-port network shown in Fig. 6.160, the
z-matrix is given by
Fig. 6.163
i1 i2
(i) z11 2.75 and z12 0.25
Z2 (ii) z11 3 and z12 0.5
v1 Z1 v2 (iii) z11 3 and z12 0.25
(iv) z11 2.25 and z12 0.5
45. For the lattice circuit shown in Fig. 6.164, Za j 2
Fig. 6.160 and Zb j 2 . The values of the open circuit imped-
⎡z z 12 ⎤
⎡ Z1 Z1 + Z2 ⎤ ⎡ Z1 Z1 ⎤ ance parameters z = ⎢ 11 ⎥ are
(i) ⎢ ⎥ (ii) ⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ z 21 z 22 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ Z 1 + Z 2 Z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z 1 + Z 2 Z 2 ⎥⎦
1 Zb 3
⎡Z ⎤
(iv) ⎡⎢ Z 1
⎤
Z2 Z1
(iii) ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎥ Za
⎢⎣ Z 2 Z 1 + Z 2 ⎥⎦ Z 1 + Z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ Z 1 Za
42. The parameters of the circuit shown in Fig. 6.161 are

Ri 1 M , R0 10 , A 106 V/V. If Vi 1 μV then 2 Zb 4
output voltage, input impedance and output imped-
ance respectively are Fig. 6.164
410
⎡1− j 1+ j ⎤ I1 I2
(i) ⎢ ⎥
⎣1+ j 1+ j ⎦
⎡ 1− j 1+ j⎤ re ␤I1 r0
(ii) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1+ j 1− j⎦
⎡1+ j 1+ j ⎤
(iii) ⎢ ⎥
⎣1− j 1− j ⎦ Fig. 6.167
⎡ 1− j −1+ j ⎤ (i) re and ␤r0 (ii) 0 and ␤r0
(iv) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1− j 1− j ⎦ (iii) 0 and ␤r0 (iv) re and ␤r0
46. The ABCD parameters of an ideal n : 1 transformer 49. A two-port network is represented by ABCD param-
⎡n 0 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ V2 ⎤
shown in Fig. 6.165 are ⎢ ⎥ The value of X will be eters given by ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣0 x ⎦ ⎢⎣ I 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣C D ⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ⎥⎦
I1 I2 If Port-2 is terminated by RL then the input impedance

seen at Port-1 is given by
V2 A + BR L
V1 (i)
C + DR L
AR L + C
n :1 (ii)
BR L + D
Fig. 6.165
DR L + A
(iii)
1 2 1 BR L + C
(i) n (ii) (iii) n (iv) 2
n n
B + AR L
47. The h-parameters of the circuit shown in Fig. 6.166 are (iv)
D + CR L
I1 I2 50. An ideal gyrator is a
10
(i) passive reciprocal device
(ii) passive and non-reciprocal device
(iii) active and reciprocal device
V1 20 (iv) active and non-reciprocal device
51. When two gyrators are connected, in cascade the
device acts as a/an
Fig. 6.166 (i) negative impedance converter
(ii) ideal transformer
(iii) perfect transformer
⎡ 0.1 0.1⎤
(i) ⎢ ⎥ (iv) none of the above
⎣ − 0.1 0.3 ⎦
52. If r1 and r2 are real numbers for a gyrator where r1 r2,
⎡10 −1 ⎤ it is a
(ii) ⎢ ⎥ (i) positive impedance converter
⎣ 1 0.05 ⎦
(ii) positive impedance inverter
⎡30 20 ⎤ (iii) negative impedance converter
(iii) ⎢ ⎥
⎣20 20 ⎦ (iv) negative impedance inverter
⎡10 1 ⎤ 53. An active gyrator is one when
(iv) ⎢ ⎥ (i) r1 r2 (ii) r1 r2
⎣ −1 0.05 ⎦
(iii) r1 r2 (iv) r1 r2
48. In the two-port network shown in Fig. 6.167 below, z12 54. An ideal impedance converter is a two-port network
and z21 are, respectively, which when terminated at one port by driving point
411
Two-Port Network
impedance ZL(s) offers at the other port an input 59. A network N with short-circuit admittance matrix
impedance that is ⎡ y 11 y 12 ⎤
(i) directly proportional to ZL(s) ⎢ ⎥ is preceded by an ideal transformer with
⎢⎣ y 21 y 22 ⎥⎦
(ii) inversely proportional to ZL(s)
1 : a ratio. The overall admittance matrix is
(iii) square root of ZL(s)
(iv) none of the above, at all frequencies ⎡ y 12 ⎤
⎢ y 11 a ⎥ ⎡a 2 y 11 ay 12 ⎤
55. An ideal transformer cannot be described by (i) ⎢ y ⎥ (ii) ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 21 a 2 y 22 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎣ ay 21 y 22 ⎥⎦
(i) h parameters (ii) ABCD parameters ⎢⎣ a ⎦
(iii) g parameters (iv) z parameters
⎡ y 11 ⎤
⎡ y 11 ay 12 ⎤ ⎢ ay 12 ⎥
⎡ z 11 z 12 ⎤ (iii) ⎢ 2 ⎥ (iv) ⎢ a ⎥
56. A network N with impedance matrix ⎢ ⎥ is ⎢⎣ay 21 a y 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ay y 22 ⎥
⎢⎣ z 21 z 22 ⎥⎦
⎣⎢ 21 a ⎥⎦
followed by an ideal transformer with 1 : a ratio. The 60. The h-parameters of a negative impedance converter
overall impedance matrix is (NIC) with k as conversion factor are
⎡az 11 z 12 ⎤ ⎡ z 11 az 12 ⎤ ⎡1
(i) ⎢ ⎥ (ii) ⎢az ⎥ ⎡k 0 ⎤ 0⎤
2
⎢⎣ 21 z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ k ⎥
⎢⎣ z 21 a z 22 ⎥⎦ (i) ⎢ ⎥ (ii) ⎢
⎢0 1 ⎥ ⎣ 0 k ⎥⎦
⎣ k⎦
⎡z az 12 ⎤ ⎡a 2 z 11 az 12 ⎤ ⎡0 1 ⎤
(iii) ⎢ 11 ⎥ (iv) ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 0 k⎤
2
⎢⎣az 21 a z 22 ⎥⎦
2
⎢⎣ az 21 a z 22 ⎥⎦ (iii) ⎢ ⎥ (iv) ⎢ k⎥
⎢1 0⎥ ⎢0 k ⎥⎦
⎣ k ⎦ ⎣
⎡ z 11 z 12 ⎤ 61. When a gyrator is connected in tandem with a passive
57. A network N with impedance matrix ⎢ ⎥ is
reciprocal network, the overall two-port network acts
⎢⎣ z 21 z 22 ⎥⎦
as a兾an
preceded by an ideal transformer with 1 : a ratio. The (i) passive reciprocal network
overall impedance matrix is (ii) active reciprocal network
⎡az 11 z 12 ⎤ ⎡ z 11 z 12 ⎤ (iii) passive non-reciprocal network
⎢ a ⎥
(i) ⎢ z ⎥ 2
(ii) ⎢ a ⎥ (iv) active non-reciprocal network
⎢⎣ 21 az 22 ⎥⎦
⎢ 21
z
z 22 ⎥⎥ 62. When a gyrator with gyration resistance r is termi-
⎢⎣ a ⎦
nated through a resistor R, the equivalent element at
⎡ z 11 ⎤ the input terminals is
⎡a 2 z 11 az 12 ⎤
(iii) ⎢ ⎥ (iv) ⎢ a az 12 ⎥
⎢⎣ az 21 z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥ r2 R
(i) r 2 R (ii) rR (iii) (iv) 2
⎢⎣ az 21 z 22 ⎥⎦ R r
63. When a gyrator with gyration resistance r is termi-
58. A network N with short-circuit admittance matrix
nated through a capacitor C, the equivalent element
⎡ y 11 y 12 ⎤ at the input terminals is
⎢ ⎥ is followed by an ideal transformer with
⎢⎣ y 21 y 22 ⎥⎦ (i) a capacitor with value r C
1 : a ratio. The overall admittance matrix is (ii) a capacitor with value r2C
⎡ y 11 ⎤ (iii) an inductor with value r C
⎡ y 11 ay 12 ⎤ ⎢ ay 12 ⎥ (iv) none of the above
(i) ⎢ ⎥ (ii) ⎢ a ⎥
⎢⎣ay 21 y 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ay 21 ay 22 ⎥⎦ 64. When a negative impedance converter (NIC) with
conversion ratio k is terminated through an imped-
⎡ y 12 ⎤ ⎡ y 12 ⎤ ance ZL, the equivalent element at the input termi-
⎢ y 11 a ⎥ ⎢ y 11 a ⎥ nals is
(iii) ⎢ ⎥ (iv) ⎢ ⎥ k2
⎢ y 21 y 22 ⎥ ⎢ y 21 ay 22 ⎥⎥ (i) kZL (ii) k 2 ZL (iii) k ZL (iv) −
⎢⎣ a 2⎥
a ⎦ ⎢⎣ a ⎦ ZL
412
Answers
1. (iv) 14. (iii) 27. (iv) 40. (iv) 53. (ii)

2. (iii) 15. (iii) 28. (iv) 41. (iv) 54. (i)
3. (i) 16. (ii) 29. (i) 42. (i) 55. (iv)
4. (i) 17. (ii) 30. (iii) 43. (iii) 56. (iii)
5. (iv) 18. (i) 31. (i) 44. (i) 57. (ii)
6. (iii) 19. (iv) 32. (iv) 45. (iv) 58. (iii)
7. (ii) 20. (iv) 33. (iii) 46. (ii) 59. (ii)
8. (iv) 21. (ii) 34. (iv) 47. (iv) 60. (iii)
9. (i) 22. (i) 35. (iv) 48. (ii) 61. (iii)
10. (ii) 23. (ii) 36. (i) 49. (iv) 62. (iii)
11. (iv) 24. (iv) 37. (ii) 50. (ii) 63. (iv)
12. (iv) 25. (i) 38. (i) 51. (ii) 64. (iii)
13. (iii) 26. (ii) 39. (iv) 52. (ii)
7 Fourier Series
and Fourier Transform
PART I: FOURIER SERIES
Introduction
In 1807, the French mathematician Joseph Fourier (1768–1830) submitted a paper to the Academy of
Sciences in Paris. In it he presented a mathematical description of problems involving heat conduction.
Although the paper was at first rejected, it contained ideas that would develop into an important area
of mathematics named in his honour, Fourier analysis. One surprising ramification of Fourier’s work was
that many familiar functions can be expanded in infinite series and integrals involving trigonometric
functions. The idea today is important in modeling many phenomena in physics and engineering.
In this chapter, in the first part, we will discuss the basic concepts of Fourier series. Then we will apply
this concept to find the steady-state response of an electric circuit subject to a periodic excitation. A
function of time f(t) is said to be periodic if f(t) f (t nT ); where, n is a positive integer and T is the
period. Thus, a periodic function repeats itself every T second.
v(t )
t
2T T 0 T 2T 3T 4T
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.1 Periodic function
In the second part of this chapter, we will learn about another transform method, namely Fourier
transform, which is used to find the steady-state response of a network to aperiodic excitation.
414
7.1 DEFINITION OF FOURIER SERIES

French mathematician J B J Fourier first studied the periodic function in 1822 and published his theorem
which states that
“Any arbitrary periodic function can be represented by an infinite series of sinusoids of harmonically
related frequencies.” This infinite series is known as Fourier series.
Thus, if f (t) is a periodic function then the Fourier series is
f (t ) = a0 + a1 cos t + a2 cos 2 t + ⋅⋅⋅+ an cos n t + ⋅⋅⋅+ b1 sin t + b2 sin 2 t + ⋅⋅⋅+ bn sin n t + ⋅⋅⋅
∞
() (
∴ f t = a0 + ∑ an cos n t + bn sin n t ) (7.1)
n=1
2
where, — the fundamental frequency
T
th
n — the n harmonic of fundamental frequency
a0, an, bn—the Fourier coefficients
7.2 DIRICHLET’S CONDITIONS

The conditions under which a periodic function f (t) can be expanded in a convergent Fourier series, are
known as Dirichlet’s conditions.
These are as follows:
(i) f (t) is a single-valued function.
(ii) f (t) has a finite number of discontinuities in each period, T.
(iii) f (t) has a finite number of maxima & minima in each period, T.
T T
∫ ∫ ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ dt < ∞.
2
(iv) The integral, f (t ) dt exists and is finite or in other way,
0 0
T
2
Note If f (t) is current or voltage, ∫ ⎡⎣ f ( t) ⎤⎦ dt
0
represents energy which would be supplied by the source in one cycle.
That means the energy in the waveform for each cycle must be finite. All physical waveforms would, of course,
satisfy this criterion.
Therefore, in practical engineering problems, it is not necessary to check whether a function satisfies the
Dirichlet condition.
7.3 CONVERGENCE OF FOURIER SERIES

There are three factors involved in the convergence of Fourier series, viz.,
• Can we find the co-efficients, an and bn?
• Can we sum the resulting series for f (t)?
• Can we approximate f ((t) with a small number of terms of the series?
415
Weak dirichlet conditions These are the conditions for being able to find an and bn. These conditions
do not restrict f (t) to be finite. In particular, they allow impulses to be present which have infinite value but
finite areas under them.
Whenever f (t) is infinite, Fourier series will not converge at that point. Therefore, if f (t) satisfies weak
Dirichlet condition it is possible to find an and bn, but it may not be possible to sum the series
Strong Dirichlet Conditions These are conditions for the convergence
of f (t) everywhere. For these, f (t) must be finite. If a function satisfies these f (t )
conditions, it is possible to find the series and to find its sum.
T/2
For example, consider f (t) as the square wave. t
0 T
4⎛ cos 3t cos 5t cos 7t ⎞
f (t ) = ⎜⎝ cos t − 3 + 5 − 7 + ⋅⋅⋅⎟⎠
f (t)
1
4⎛ sin 3t sin 5t sin 7t ⎞ t
f −1 (t ) = ⎜⎝ sin t − 32 + 52 − 72 + ⋅⋅⋅⎟⎠ 1
1
f (t )1
T
t
f ′(t ) =
4
( − sin t + sin 3t − sin 5t + sin 7t − ⋅⋅⋅ ) 0
1
T/2 2T
Functions f (t) and f 1(t) satisfies strong D. conditions; and the series for Fig. 7.2 Illustration of
strong dirichlet’s condition
them are uniformly convergent. But, f (t) satisfies only week D. conditions
and the series for it is not convergent at point t T/2, 3T/2, 5T/2, …
7.4 FOURIER ANALYSIS
This involves two operations:

1. The evaluation of the coefficient a0, an and bn.
2. Truncation of the infinite series after a finite number of terms so that f (t) is represented within allow-
able error.
7.4.1 Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients

∞
(
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n t + bn sin n t ) (7.2)
n=1
From (7.2),
T T ∞ T
∫ ( )
f (t )dt = a0 ∫ dt + ∑ ∫ an cos n t + bn sin n t dt = a0T
0 0 n=1 0
⎧⎪ t0 + T t0 + T
⎫⎪
⎨ ∫ sin m tdt = 0 for all m; and ∫ cos n tdt = 0 for all n;⎬
⎩⎪ t0 t0 ⎭⎪
1 T
T ∫0
∴ a0 = f (t )dt (7.3)
416
This shows that a0 is the average value of f (t) over a period; therefore, it is called the dc value of the signal.
Now from Eq. (7.2),
T T ∞ T
∫ f (t )cos k (
tdt = ∫ a0 cos k tdt + ∑ ∫ an cos k t cos n t + bn cos k t sin n t dt = 0 + ak ) T
2
+0
0 0 n=1 0
⎧ t0 + T t0 + T
⎫
⎪
⎪ ∫ sin n t sin m tdt = 0 for m ≠ n and ∫ cos n t cos m tdt = 0 for n ≠ m ⎪
⎪
⎨ t0 t0
⎬
⎪ T T ⎪
⎪ = for n = m = for n = m ⎪
⎩ 2 2 ⎭
T
2
T ∫0
∴ ak = f (t )cos k tdt (7.4)
T T ∞ T
Again from Eq. (7.2), ∫ (
f (t )sin k tdt = ∫ a0 sin k tdt + ∑ ∫ an sin k t cos n t + bn sin k t sin n t dt = 0 + 0 + bk ) T
2
0 0 n=1 0
T
2
T ∫0
∴ bk = f (t )sin k tdt (7.5)
Example 7.1 For the periodic waveform shown in Fig. 7.3, find the Fourier series expansion.
Solution Here, v(t) V, for 0 t T/2
v (t )
0, for T/2 t T
T
T 2 V
1 1 V
a0 = ∫ v (t )dt = ∫ Vdt = 2 t
T0 T 0 0 T/2 T 3T/2
T Fig. 7.3 Periodic function
2
T
2 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ of Example 7.1
an = ∫ v (t )cos n tdt = ∫ V cos ⎜ n ⎟⎠ ddt 0
T0 T 0 ⎝ T
T
T
⎛ 2 ⎞
2
T0
2 2
bn = ∫ v (t )sin n tdt = ∫ V sin ⎜ n ⎟ dt =
T 0 ⎝ T ⎠
V
n
1 − cos n ( ); n = ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ⋅⋅⋅
and,
= 0; for even n
V
= ; for odd n
n
⎡1 2 2 2 ⎤
So, the Fourier series of the square wave is given as v (t ) = V ⎢ + sin t + sin 3 t + sin 5 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎥
⎣2 3 5 ⎦
7.4.2 EXPONENTIAL FORM OF FOURIER SERIES

∞
We have the trigonometric Fourier series, f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n t + bn sin n t ( )
n=1
417
e jn t − e − jn t
e jn t + e − jn t
We know that, sin n t = and cosn t =
2j 2
Thus,
∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an⎢
(
⎡ e jn t + e − jn t
+ bn
) (
e jn t − e − jn t ) ⎤⎥
n=1 ⎢ 2 2j ⎥
⎣ ⎦
∞ ⎡⎛
a − jbn ⎞ jn t ⎛ an + jbn ⎞ − jn t ⎤
= a0 + ∑ ⎢⎜ n ⎟ e +⎜ 2 ⎟ e ⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠
n=1 ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
∞
1 ⎡⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎤
= a0 + ∑ ⎢⎜ an + n ⎟ e jn t + ⎜ an − n ⎟ e − jn t ⎥
⎣⎝
n=1 2 ⎢ j⎠ ⎝ j⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ a − jbn ⎞ ⎛ a + jbn ⎞
Let, C0 = a0 , Cn = ⎜ n ⎟ and Cn* ( or C− n ) = ⎜ n ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
∞
Thus the series becomes, f (t ) = C0 + ∑ ⎡⎣Cn e jn t + C− n e − jn t ⎤⎦
n=1
∞
or, f (t ) = C0 + ∑ Cn e jn t
(7.6)
n=− ∞
This is the exponential form of the Fourier series.

an − jbn 1 ⎡ 2 T T
⎤ 1T
Now, C n=
2
= ⎢ ∫ f (t )cos n tdt − j ∫ f (t )sin n tdt ⎥ = ∫ f (t ) cos n t − j sin n t dt
2 ⎢⎣ T 0
( )
2 T0 ⎥⎦ T 0
T
1
T ∫0
Thus, Cn = f (t )e − jn t dt (7.7)
This equation is valid for both positive, negative and zero values of n.
Example 7.2 For the square wave shown in Example 7.1, find the exponential Fourier series.
Solution f (t) v(t) V, for 0 t T/2
0, for T/2 t T
T
1 1 T
So, Cn =
T0∫ f (t )e − jn t dt = ∫ 2 Ve − jn t dt
T 0
T
2
1 V
For n 0, C0 =
T ∫ Vdt = 2
0
T
2
V 1 ⎡ − jn
− 1⎤⎥ =
1 T jV
∫ Ve ⎡ e − jn − 1⎤
− jn t
For n 0 Cn = dt = e 2
(since T 2 )
T 0
T − jn ⎢⎣ ⎦ 2 n⎣ ⎦
418
Or, Cn = 0 for even n

jV
=− for odd n
n
Thus, the exponential Fourier series becomes,
jV − j 5 t jV − j 3 t jV − j t V jV j t jV j 3 t jV j 5 t
v (t ) = ⋅⋅⋅+ e + e + e + − e − e − e − ⋅⋅⋅
5 3 2 3 5
7.4.3 Amplitude and Phase Spectrum

From the trigonometric Fourier series,
∞ ∞
( )
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n t + bn sin n t = A0 + ∑ An cos n t − ( n )
n=1 n=1
⎛b ⎞
where, A0 = a0 , An = an 2 + bn 2 ; = tan −1 ⎜ n ⎟
⎝ an ⎠
n
Also, for exponential form, Cn is complex and we may write it as,

1 A ⎛ b ⎞
Cn = Cn e and Cn = an 2 + bn 2 = n and = tan −1 ⎜ − n ⎟
j n
⎝ an ⎠
n
2 2
The quantities An and n are called the amplitude and the phase of the nth harmonic, respectively.
• Variation of An with n (or n ) is known as the amplitude spectrum or frequency spectrum.
• Variation of n with n (or n ) is known as the phase-spectrum of the signal.
As both An and n occurs at discrete values of the frequency, i.e., n 1, 2, 3, etc., these spectra we called
line spectra.
A
Since Cn = n ; there is a scale factor of ½ for the amplitude spectrum for exponential form of the Fourier
2
series compared to the trigonometric form for all lines except the one for n 0. Also, in the case of exponen-
tial form spectral lines one drawn for both for positive and negative values of n.
Example 7.3 For the square wave shown in Example 7.1, draw the ampli- Amplitude
tude and phase spectra.
V/2
Solution From the results of Example 7.1, we have,
⎡1 2 2 2 ⎤ 0 1 2 3 4 n (or n )
v (t ) = V ⎢ + sin t + sin 3 t + sin 5 t + ⋅⋅⋅ ⎥
⎣2 3 5 ⎦ (a) Amplitude spectrum
Phase
V 2V 2V
Magnitudes V0 = ∠0 ; V1 = ∠90 ; V2 = 0; V3 = ∠90
2 3 /2
[since the cosine components are all zero, the phase angle will be
0 1 2 3 4 5 n (or n )
⎛b ⎞
−1
⎝ 0⎠
( )
tan ⎜ n ⎟ = tan −1 ∞ = 90° ] (b) Phase spectrum
Fig. 7.4 Amplitude and phase
So, the line spectra are shown in Fig. 7.4. spectra of Example 7.3
419
Significance for Line Spectra The amplitude-spectrum renders valuable information as to where to
truncate the infinite series and yet maintain a good approximation to the original waveform.
7.4.4 Effective Value of a Periodic Function
The effective (or rms ) value of a periodic function f (t) is defined as
2
1 ⎡ ∞
⎤ 1⎡ 2 ∞
T⎤
T T
1
T ∫0 ⎣
(
∑ A cos n t − )⎥ ∑
2
T ∫0 ⎣ 0 n=1 n
Feff ( Frms ) = ⎡ f ( t ) ⎤
⎦ dt = ⎢ A + n
dt = ⎢ 0
A T + An2 ⎥
⎦ T⎣ n=1 2⎦
2
∞ ⎛
A ⎞
Feff ( Frms ) = A0 2 + ∑ ⎜ n ⎟ (7.8)
n=1 ⎝ 2⎠
This shows that the effective value of a periodic function is the square root of the effective values of the
harmonic components and the square of the dc value.
7.5 WAVEFORM SYMMETRY
There are few methods by which the evaluation of Fourier coefficients is simplified by symmetry consideration.
These methods reduce the amount of labour involved in finding out the coefficients.
T ⎡ 0 T
2 ⎤
1 1⎢ ⎥
a0 = ∫ f (t )dt =
T ⎢ −T∫ ∫0
Now, f ( t ) dt + f ( t ) dt
T0 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
Putting t x in the first integrand and t x in the second integrand, we get
⎡T ⎤
1⎢ 2 ⎥
T ⎢ ∫0 ⎣
a0 = ⎡ f ( x ) + f ( − x ) ⎤ dx
⎦ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
T ⎡T 0 ⎤
2 2⎢ 2 2
Now, an = ∫ f (t )cos n tdt = ∫ f (t )cos n tdt + ∫ f (t ) cosn tdt ⎥ = ⎡⎣ I1 + I 2 ⎤⎦
T0 ⎢
T 0 ⎥ T
⎣ −T
2 ⎦
Since the variable ‘t’ in I1 and I2 integrals is dummy variable, let x t in I1 and x t in I2.
⎡T T
⎤
2⎢ 2 2
⎥
T ⎢ ∫0 ∫0
∴ an = f ( x )cos n xdx − f ( − x )cos n x ( − dx )
⎥
⎣ ⎦
T
2
2
Thus, an =
T ∫ ⎡⎣ f ( x ) + f (− x ) ⎤⎦ cos n
0
xdx
T
2
2
Similarly, bn =
T ∫ ⎡⎣ f ( x ) − f (− x ) ⎤⎦ sin n
0
xdx
The following symmetries are considered

1. Odd or rotation symmetry,
2. Even or mirror symmetry,
420
3. Half- wave, or alternation symmetry, and

4. Quarter-wave symmetry.
Odd symmetry A function f (x) is said to be odd if, V (t )

V
f (x) f ( x)
T/2
t
Hence, for odd functions a0 0 and an 0 and T T/2 0 T/4 T
T V
4 2
T ∫0
bn = f ( x )sin n x Fig. 7.5 Odd function
Thus, the Fourier series expansion of an odd function contains only the sine terms, the constant and the
cosine terms being zero.
Even symmetry A function f (x) is said to be even, if f (x) f ( x)

T
2 2 f ( t)
∴ a0 =
T ∫
0
f ( x )dx V
T t
2 T/2 0 T/2
4
an =
T ∫
0
f ( x )cos n xdx V
Fig. 7.6 Even function
and bn 0
Thus, the Fourier series expansion of an even periodic function contains only the cosine terms plus a
constant, all sine terms being zero.
Half-wave or alternation symmetry A periodic function f (t) is said to have half-wave symmetry if it
satisfies the condition
f (t) f (t T ), where T is the time period of the function
2
⎡ 0 T
2 ⎤
1⎢ ⎥ = 1 ⎡I + I ⎤
T ⎢ −T∫ ∫0
∴a0 = f ( t ) dt + f ( t ) dt x T/2 0
⎥ T ⎣ 1 2⎦
⎣ 2 ⎦ t 0 T/2
For I1, let x (t T/2); so, f (t) f (x T/2) f (x) and dt dx
T T
0 2 2
∴ I1 = ∫ f (t )dt = ∫ − f ( x )dx = − ∫ f ( x )dx
−T 0 0
2
⎡ T T
⎤ ⎡T T
⎤
1⎢ 2 2
⎥ 1⎢ 2 2
⎥=0
∴ a0 = − ∫ f ( x )dx + ∫ f (t )dt = =
⎥ T ⎢ ∫0 ∫0
f ( x ) dx − f ( x ) dx
T⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
0
⎡T ⎤ ⎡ 0 T
⎤
2⎢ 2 2
⎥= ⎢
2
⎥ = 2 ⎡I + I ⎤
T ⎢ −T∫ ⎥ T ⎢ T∫ ∫0
∴ an = f ( t )cos n tdt f ( t )cos n tdt + f ( t )cos n tdt
⎥ T ⎣ 1 2⎦
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣− 2 ⎦
421
Again putting x (t T/2) and following the same procedure,

T T
( x − T 2 )dx = ∫ − f ( x)cos(n
0
)dx
2 2
I1 = ∫ f (t )cos n tdt = ∫ − f ( x )cos n x−n
−T 0 0
2
T T
2 2
= ∫ − f ( x )cos n
0
cos n xdx = ∫ − f (t )cos n
0
cos n tdt
) ∫ f (t )cos n
2
2
an = 1 − cos n
T
( tdt
0
0; for even n, and

T
2
4
=
T ∫
0
f (t )cos n tdt , for odd n.
Similarly, bn 0, for even n; and

T
2
4
=
T ∫
0
f (t )sin n tdt , for odd n.
Thus, the Fourier series expansion of a periodic function having half-wave symmetry contains only odd har-
monics, the constant term being zero.
Quarter–wave symmetry The symmetry may

be regarded as a combination of the first three kinds
of symmetry provided that the origin is properly t t
chosen.
Fig. 7.7 (a) sin t: Fig. 7.7 (b) cos t:
For Fig. 7.7 (a), the wave has alternation and odd combination of half-wave combination of half-wave
symmetry; thus the Fourier series consists of odd sine and odd symmetry and even symmetry
terms only.
T
4
8
a0 0; an 0; and bn =
T ∫ 0
f (t )sin n tdt , n being odd only.
For Fig. 7.7 (b), the origin, having chosen one quarter cycle away, as in Fig. 7.7 (a), the wave has alternation
and even symmetry; thus the Fourier series consists of odd cosine terms only.
T
4
8
a0 0; bn 0; and an =
T ∫
0
f (t )cos n tdt , n being odd only.
Note (i) The sum or product of two or more even functions is an even function, and with the addition of a constant,
the even nature of the function is still preserved.
(ii) The sum of two or more odd functions is an odd function, but the addition of a constant removes the odd
nature of the function. The product of two odd functions is an even function.
422
7.6 TRUNCATING FOURIER SERIES

When a periodic function is represented by a Fourier series, the series is truncated after a finite number of terms.
So, the periodic function is approximated by a trigonometric series of (2N 1) terms as,
( )
N
S N (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n t + bn sin n t (7.9)
n=1
such that the coefficients a0, an and bn are chosen to give the least mean square error.
The truncation error is
() ()
eN t = f t − S N t () (7.10)
So, the mean square error or figure of merit or the cost criterion for optimal minimal error is
T
1
∫
2
EN = eN2 (t ) = ⎡⎣ eN (t ) ⎤⎦ dt (7.11)
T0
where, EN is a function of a0 , an and bn, but not of ‘t’.
Example 7.4 Show that the mean square error is a minimum if the coefficients in the approximated trigo-
nometric series SN (t) are the Fourier coefficients.
Solution In order to make ‘EN’ minimum, the necessary conditions are
∂EN
= 0 for n = 0, 1, 2 (7.12a)
∂an
∂EN
and = 0 for n = 1, 2 (7.12b)
∂bn
These two equations give (2N 1) equations from which (N 1) number of an for n 0, 1, 2, …, N and ‘N’
number of bn for n 1, 2, …, N can be determined.
From equations (7.11) and (7.12a)
∂EN 2 T ∂e (t ) 2
T
= ∫ eN (t ) N dt = ∫ ⎡⎣ f (t ) − S N (t )⎤⎤⎦ cos n tdt = 0

∂an T 0 ∂an T0
T T T
⎡ ⎤ T
( )
N
T
or, ∫ f (t )cos n tdt = ∫ S N (t )cos n tdt = ∫ ⎢ a0 + ∑ an cos n t + bn sin n t ⎥ cos n tdt = ∫ an cos 2 n tdt = an
0⎣ ⎦
0 0 n=1 0
2
T
2
T ∫0
or, ∴ an = f (t )cos n tdt (n 0, 1, 2, …, N)
T
2
T ∫0
Similarly, from Eq. (7.12b), we get ∴ bn = f (t )sin n tdt (n 1, 2, …, N)
Therefore, it is proved that a Fourier series with a finite number of terms represents the best approximation
for a given periodic function by any trigonometric series with the same number of terms.
However, there is no analytical method for the evaluation of estimation of error due to truncation of
infinite series; i.e., we cannot predict the number of minimum terms to be retained in the series within a
423
prescribed accuracy. The minimization of error is done by trial and error method, using more terms until
specifications are met.
It is observed that when a periodic waveform is truncated by a Fourier series with a finite number of terms,
there is a considerable amount of error near the points of discntinuity of the wave. The amount of error is
decreased with the increase of number of terms included in the truncated Fourier series. This phenomenon is
known as Gibb’s phenomenon.
For example, we consider a square wave as shown in Fig. 7.8. A general approximation of the wave can be
obtained by taking more and more number of terms of the Fourier series expansion.
Figure 7.8 shows the wave-shapes taking the first term, first 5 terms, first 11 terms and first 49 terms,
respectively. The rate of oscillation of ripples increases near the points of discontinuity as the contribution
of more harmonics is taken into consideration. The wave-shape tends to perfectly match the given waveform
when a large number of harmonics is considered.
If we consider a point where the waveform f (t) is discontinuous, with different limits to the right and left
of as f ( ) and f ( ), respectively then the value of the function at will be,
1 K=1 1 K=5
0 t 0 t
1 1
1 K = 11 1 K = 49
0 t 0 t
1 1
Fig. 7.8 Fourier series approximation of square wave; number of terms in Fourier sum is
indicated as K in each plot
f ( +)+ f ( −)
f ( )=2
or, f −f − =f ( ) ( ) ( +)− f ( )
The truncated Fourier series must pass through these three points, f ( ), f ( ) and f ( ) for correct representa-
tion of the wave.
8
Example 7.5 If f (t) is approximated by sin ␻t , i.e., the first f (t)
␲2 V
term in the Fourier series, find the mean square error. T/2
t
T T/2 0 T/4 T
8
Solution Truncation error, eN = f (t ) − 2
sin t V
Mean square error, Fig. 7.9 Waveform of Example 7.5

T 2 T 2
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 4t 8 ⎤
T 4 4
1 4 8 4
EN = e N 2
= ∫ eN 2 (t )dt = ∫ ⎢ f (t ) − 2 sin t ⎥ dt = T ∫ ⎢ T − 2 sin t ⎥ dt = 0.0047
T0 T 0 ⎣ ⎦ 0 ⎣ ⎦
424
7.7 STEADY-STATE RESPONSE OF NETWORK TO PERIODIC SIGNALS

∞
The voltage (periodic) is v (t ) = A0 + ∑ An cos n t − ( n )
n=1
We want to find out the steady state current, i(t). Phasors corresponding to terms in right-hand side are,
−j
V0 = A0 e j 0 and Vn = An e n
Let, Z( j ) Impedance phasor of the network at any frequency .

So, the current phasors are,
V A e j0
I0 = 0 = 0 = I0 e j 0
Z ( j 0) Z ( j 0)
−j
Vn Ae n −j
In = = 0 = In e n
Z( j ) Z( j )
By superposition principle, the net current phasor is i(t ) = I 0 + I1 + I 2 + ⋅⋅⋅
∞
So, transforming from frequency domain to time domain, i(t ) = I 0 + ∑ I n cos n t − ( n )
n=1
7.7.1 Average Power Calculation

∞ ∞
Let, v (t ) = V0 + ∑Vn cos n t −( n ) and i(t ) = I 0 + ∑ I n cos n t − ( n )
n=1 n=1
Here, V0dc voltage component

Vnthe amplitude of the nth harmonic voltage,
n the phase angle of the nth harmonic voltage,
I0 dc current component,
In the amplitude of the nth harmonic current,
n the phase angle of the nth harmonic current
Instantaneous power, P(t) v(t) i(t)
1 ⎡⎛ ∞
⎞⎛ ∞
⎞⎤
T T
Average power, Pav =

1
T ∫0
v ( t )i ( t ) = V ∑V cos n t −
T ∫0 ⎣⎜⎝ 0 n=1 n
⎢ + ( n )⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ I + ∑ I
0 n (
cos n t − n )⎟⎠ ⎥ dt
n=1 ⎦
∞ T
or, Pav = V0 I 0 + ∑ ∫Vn I n cos n t − ( n )cos( n t− n )dt
n=1 0
( )
Vn I n
or, Pav = V0 I 0 + ∑ cos n
− n
(7.13)
n=1 2
7.8 STEPS FOR APPLICATION OF FOURIER SERIES TO CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

1. Fourier series of the given periodic excitation function is obtained.
2. The circuit elements are transformed from time domain to frequency domain (i.e., R → R, L → j nL,
1
C→ for nth harmonic).
j nC
425
3. The Fourier series of the dc and ac components of the response are calculated.
4. Using superposition, the Fourier series of the response is obtained by summing up the individual dc
and ac response components.
7.9 POWER SPECTRUM

It is the distribution of the average power over the different frequency components.
Let Pn the average power for the nth harmonic component.
Note Pn is always positive so that only a magnitude spectrum is possible.
Another form of a line spectrum for power is also pos- Pav Pav
sible [Fig. 7.10 (b)]; obtained by assuming half of Pn to the P1
positive frequency n and half to the negative frequency. P2 P0
P0 P3
P4
0 v 2v 3v 4v v 3v 2v v 0 v 2v 3v v
(a) Power (b) Power spectrum
spectrum for for both positive and
positive netgative
Fig. 7.10 Power spectra
PART II: FOURIER TRANSFORM
Introduction
The Fourier series representation of a period function describes the function in the frequency domain in
terms of amplitude and phase spectra. The Fourier transform extends this frequency domain description
to functions that are not periodic.
Fourier transform is a powerful tool in the study of power spectra, correlation functions, noise and
other advanced problems
7.10 DEFINITION OF FOURIER TRANSFORM

The Fourier transform or the Fourier integral of a function f (t) is denoted by F ( j ) and is defined by
∞
( ) = F ⎡⎣ f (t )⎤⎦ = ∫ f (t )e
F j −j t
dt (7.14)
−∞
and the inverse Fourier transform is defined by

∞ ∞
() ( )
f t = F −1 ⎡⎣ F j ⎤⎦ =
1
2 −∫∞
F ( j ) e j t
d = ∫ F j 2 f e df
j2 f
( ) (7.15)
−∞
Equations (7.14) & (7.15) form the Fourier transform pair.

426
Explanation
∞
Consider the exponential Fourier series, f (t ) = ∑ Cn e jn t
(7.6)
−∞
T
1 2
where, Cn = ∫ f (t )e − jn t dt (7.7)
T −T
2
If the period T becomes infinite, the function does not repeat itself and becomes aperiodic or non-periodic.
So, the interval between adjacent harmonic frequencies is = n +1 − n = =

2
T
( )
1
or, = = (7.16)
T 2 2
As T → , → d and the frequency goes from a discrete variable over to a continuous variable.
1 d
→ and n → (7.17)
T 2
∞
From (7.7) and (7.17), CnT → ∫ f (t )e − j t dt

−∞
This is the Fourier transform of f (t) i.e., F ( j ). F ( j ) = F ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt

−∞
∞
⎛ 1⎞
So, from Eq. (7.6), ( )
f (t ) = ∑ CnT e jn t ⎜ ⎟
⎝T⎠
(7.18)
−∞
∑ → ∫ (summation approaches integration). Thus,

1 d
As T → , CnT → F ( j ), n → and → and
T 2
from (7.18),
∞
1
f (t ) =
2 ∫ F( j
−∞
)e j t d
Spectra Let, F ( j ) F (j ) ej␾ (␻)

The variation of F (j ) with ‘ ’ is referred to as the amplitude spectrum.
The variation of ␾ ( ) with ‘ ’ is returned to as the phase-spectrum.
Since F (j ) is a continuous function, the corresponding amplitude and phase spectra are continuous spectra.
7.11 CONVERGENCE OF FOURIER TRANSFORM

When f (t) is a singlevalued function and is different from zero over an infinite interval of time, the behavior of
f (t) as t → determines the convergence of the Fourier transform.
∞
The Fourier transform will exist if ∫

−∞
f (t ) dt < ∞
427
7.12 FOURIER TRANSFORM OF SOME FUNCTIONS

f (t) ⴝ Aeⴚat u(t), a > 0 Fourier transform will exist if a 0
∞
e( )
∞ ∞ − a+ j t
A
∴ F ( j ) = F ⎡⎣ f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ f (t )e −j t
dt = A ∫ e e − at −j t
dt = A =
−∞ 0 (
− a+ j ) 0
a+ j
A f (t )
Amplitude, F( j ) = K
a2 + 2
⎛ ⎞
Phase, ( j ) = − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ 0 time,t
⎝ a⎠ (a) Double exponential
function
f (t) ⴝ Keⴚa t , for all Values of t (Double Exponential Function) F( jv) 2K
∞ 0 ∞ a
F ( j ) = F ⎡ Ke
−a t
⎤ = Ke − a t e − j t dt = Ke ( a− j )t dt + Ke −( a+ j )t dt
⎣ ⎦ −∫∞ ∫
−∞
∫0
0 v
K K 2 Ka
= + = 2 (b) Fourier transform
a− j a+ j a + 2 Fig. 7.11 Double
Thus the Fourier transform of the double exponential function has zero phase exponential function and its
for all values of ␻ and the magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 7.11 Fourier transform
Note There are some important functions which do not have Fourier transforms in a strict sense; because they do
∞
not satisfy the Dirichlet’s condition, i.e., ∫ f (t ) dt
−∞
is infinite (such as, the step function and sinusoidal function).
However, the Fourier transform of these function are evaluated by approximating these functions in time
domain as the limiting value of another function which possesses Fourier transform.
Fourier transform of some constant, K; for all values of t Here, we can approximate the constant as
∞
2 Ka
f (t ) = Lt ⎡ Ke ⎤ ∴ F ⎡⎣ K ⎤⎦ = Lt ∫ Ke e − j t dt = Lt 2
−a t −a t
a →0 ⎣ ⎦ a →0 a →0 a + 2
−∞
∴ F ⎡⎣ K ⎤⎦ = 0; for ≠0
= ∞ ; for =0
[by L Hospital’s rule, i.e., differentiating both numerator and denominator with respect to ‘a’]
Thus, F [K ] is an impulse function at 0. The strength (amplitude) of the impulse function is
obtained as
∞ ∞
2 Ka
∫ F ⎡⎣ K ⎤⎦ d
−∞
=∫
− ∞a +
2 2
d =2 K
∴ F ⎡⎣ K ⎤⎦ = 2 K ( )
428
Thus, F [K ] is an impulse function at ␻ 0. The strength f (t) F ( jv)

2pKd( v)
(amplitude) of the impuse function is obtained as,
∞ ∞ K
2 Ka
∫ F [ K ]d = ∫
−∞ −∞ a 2
+ 2
d =2 K
0 time,t 0 v
(a) Constant K (b) Magnitude spectrum
∴ F [ K ]d = 2 K ( )
of constant K
Hence, Fourier transform of a constant K is an Fig. 7.12 Constant K and its magnitude
impulse of magnitude 2␲K as shown in Fi.g 7.12
Unit impulse function or dirac delta function, ␦(t) Some problems involve the concept of an impulse,
which may be intuitively thought of as a force of very large magnitude impacting just for an instant.
∞
∴ F ⎡⎣ (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ (t )e − j t dt
−∞
We use shifting property of impulse function as explained below. F (j v)

d(t)
The product of any arbitrary function f (t) with unit impulse function ␦(t) pro-
vides the function ␦(t) to exist only at t 0. Mathematically,
∞
∫ f (t )
−∞
(t ) = f (t ) t = 0 0
(a) Impulse function
Time, t
F ( jv)
This shifting property can also be applied at any instant of time, say t t0 , so
that we can write,
∞ 1
−∞
∫ f (t ) (t − t )dt = f (t ) t =t = f (t0 )
0
0 v
(b) Fourier transform of
Using this property, we have the Fourier transform of unit impulse function as,
impulse function
∞
Fig. 7.13 Impulse
∴ f [ (t )] = ∫ (t )e − j t dt = e 0 = 1 function and its Fourier
−∞
transform
Thus, Fourier transform of an impuse function is unity as shown in Fig. 7.13
F (t )
Fourier transform of signum function, sgn( t) A signum function is defined as
Sgn(t) 1 for t 0 1
0 for t 0
1 for t 0 0 Time, t
∞ 1
∴ ∫ SSgn(t)dt is infinite, direct evaluation of Fourier transform is not possible. Transform is not
−∞ Fig. 7.14 (a) Sgn(t)
Therefore, the given function has to be expressed as a limiting case of some other function and then the
Fourier transform is computed. Let the Sgn(t) be multiplied by eⴚa t and a → 0.
∞
⎡ 0 a− j t ∞
⎤ ⎡ −1 1 ⎤
Sgn(t )e − j t dt = Lim ⎢ − ∫ e ( ) dt + ∫ e ( ) dt ⎥ = Lim ⎢
−a t
F ⎡⎣Sgn (t ) ⎤⎦ = Lim ∫ e
− a+ j t
+
a →0
−∞
a →0
⎢⎣ − ∞ 0 ⎥⎦ a →0 a − j
⎣ a + j ⎥⎦
429
2 F ( jv)
or, F ⎡⎣ Sgn(t ) ⎤⎦ = 2
jv
j
Fig. 7.14 shows the magnitude and phase spectrum of Signum function.
0 time,t
Fourier Transform of Unit Step Function, u(t) (b) Magnitude spectrum of
Sgn(t)
u(t) 1 for t 0
F( jv)
0 for t 0
∞
∫ u(t )dt
p
Since is infinite, direct evaluation of Fourier transform is imposible. 2
−∞
p 0 v
2
1 1
Let, u(t ) = + Sgn(t) (c) Phase spectrum of
2 2
Sgn(t)
⎡1⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ 1 1 2 Fig. 7.14 Signum function
∴ F ⎡⎣ u(t ) ⎤⎦ = F ⎢ ⎥ + F ⎢ Sgn (t ) ⎥ = 2 × ( ) + × and its magnitude spectrum
⎣ ⎦
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦ 2 2 j
or, ()
F ⎡⎣ u t ⎤⎦ = ( ) + j1 F ( j␻)
1
j␻
␲
Thus, the amplitude of unit step function u(t) in Frequency domain will be a
combination of rectangular hyperbola and impulse function (of strength ␲ at 0 time,␻
␻ 0) as shown in Fig. 7.15. Fig. 7.15 Magnitude
spectrum of unit step function
7.13 PROPERTIES OF FOURIER TRANSFORMS
Linearity If ␣, ␤ ⑀ C then F{␣f (t) ␤g(t)} ␣F{f (t) ␤F{g(t)} ␣F (␻) ␤G(␻)
provided the Fourier transform of f (t) and g(t) exist.
1 ⎛ ⎞
Scaling If, F{f (t)} F (␻) and c ⑀ R, then {
F cf (t ) = } F
c ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠
Time shifting
If F{f (t)} F(␻) F(␻) and t0 ⑀ R, then
F{f (t t0)} e jvt0 F(␻)
∞ ∞
Proof { (
F f t − t0 )} = ∫ f (t − t )e
−∞
0
−j t
dt = e
− j t0
−∞
∫ f ( u )e
−j u
du
Frequency shifting
If F{f (t)} F (␻) and ␻ ⑀ R, then
F ( − 0 ) = F {e j 0
}
f (t )
∞
Proof F e { j 0
}
f (t ) = ∫ e
−∞
j 0t
f (t )dt =F ( − 0 )
430
Symmetry
If F{f (t)} F (␻), then F {F (t)} 2␲f ( ␻)
Proof Use the formula for the inverse Fourier transform
∞ ∞
()
f t = F −1 F{ ( )} =
2
1
∫F
−∞
( ) e j td =
2
1
∫ F ( x )e
−∞
jxt
dx
∞ ∞
Then 2 f − ( ) ()
= ∫ F x e − jxt d = ∫ F t e − j t dt =F F t
−∞ −∞
() { ( )}
Modulation
If F {f (t)} F (␻) and ␻0 ⑀ R, then
{ ( ) ( t )} = 12 ⎡⎣ F (
F f t cos 0
+ 0 )+ F( − 0 )⎤⎦
F { f ( t )sin ( t )} = ⎡⎣ F ( )− F( )⎤⎦
1
0
+ 0
− 0
2
Proof Use the frequency-shifting theorem to get
{ ( ) ( t )} = 12 ⎡⎣ F {e
F f t cos 0
j 0t
( )}
f t +F e { −j 0t
( )}
⎦ 2
1
f t ⎤ = ⎡⎣ F ( + 0 )+ F( − 0 )⎤⎦
Differentiation in time
Let n ⑀ N, and suppose that f (n) is piecewise continuous. Assume that Lim f ( ) t = 0 , then
k
t →∞
()
{
F f( ) t
n
( )} = ( j ) F ( )
n
In particular { ( )} = j F ( )
F f′ t
and F { f ′′ ( t )} = − F ( ) 2
Proof Assume n 1. The general case can be proved by induction.

∞ ∞
∫ () () ( )( )e ( )
∞
f ′ t e − j t dt = f t e − j t
−∫ f t −j −j t
dt = j F
−∞
−∞ −∞
Frequency differentiation
Let n ⑀ N and suppose that f is piecewise continuous. Then { }
F t n f (t ) = j n F ( )
n
( )
In particular { ( )} = jF ′( )
F tf t
and F {t f ( t )} = − F ′′ ( )
2
431
Proof We will prove the theorem for n 1. The argument for larger n is a repetition of this.
∞ ∞
F′ ( ) = ∫ ⎡⎣ f (t )e
−∞
−j t
⎦ ⎣
−∞
()
⎤dt = − j ∫ ⎡tf t e − j t ⎤dt = − jF tf t
⎦ { ( )}
These properties can be tabulated as follows.
Table 7.1 Properties of Fourier Transforms

∞ ∞
1
Sl No. Time domain f ( t ) =
2 ∫ F( j
−∞
)e j t dt Frequency domain F ( j ) = ∫ f ( t )e − j t dt
−∞
1 f (t) real F (j ) F* ( j )
2 f (t) even, f (t) f ( t) F (j ) F ( j ), F ( j ) is real
3 f (t) odd, f (t) f ( t) F(j ) F ( j ), F ( j )is imaginary,
4 y(t) tn f (t) dnF( j )
Y ( j ) = ( j )n
d n
5 y(t) f (at) 1 ⎛j ⎞
Y( j )= F⎜ ⎟⎠ , a > 0
a ⎝ a
6 y(t) f (t t0) − j t0
Y( j )=e F( j )
( ) F( j )
n
d n f (t ) Y( j )= j
7 y (t ) =
dt n
∞
F( j )
8 y (t ) = ∫ f (t )dt Y( j )=
−∞
j
9 y (t ) = f (t )e
j 0t
Y ( j ) = F ⎡⎣ j ( − 0 )⎤⎦
Example 7.6 Show that when f (t) is an even function of t, its Fourier transform F (j␻) is a function of and is
real; while when f (t) is an odd function of t, its Fourier transform F (j␻) is an odd function of ␻ and is imaginary.
Solution From the definition,
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
( )
F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt = ∫ f (t ) cos t − j sin t dt = ∫ f (t )cos tdt − j ∫ f (t )sin tdt = P( ) + jQ( )
−∞ −∞ −∞ −∞
∞
where, P( ) = ∫ f (t )cos tdt = Even f unction of i.e., P( ) = P( − )
−∞
∞
and Q( ) = ∫ f (t )sin tdt = Odd f unction of i.e., Q( ) = −Q( − )
−∞
F( j ) = F( j ) e ( )
j
Now,
432
F ( j ) = P1 ( ) + Q 2 ( ) = Even f unction of
⎡Q ( ) ⎤⎥ = Odd f unction of
and ( ) = tan −1
⎢
⎢⎣ P ( ) ⎥⎦
When f (t) is an even function
– f (t) cos t is an even function
– f (t) sin t is odd function.
∞
∴P ( ) = 2 ∫ f (t )cos tdt
0
Q ( )=0
So, ( ) = P ( ) = Even and Real
F j
• When f (t) is an odd function

– f (t) cos ␻t is an odd function
– f (t) sin ␻t is an even function
P(␻) 0
∞
and ∴Q ( ) = −2 ∫ f (t )sin tdt
0
So, F j( ) = jQ( ) = Odd and Imaginary (Proved)
7.14 ENERGY DENSITY AND PARSEVAL’S THEOREM

This theorem states that the energy content (W) of a waveform (periodic or non-periodic) over the whole
frequency band is
∞ ∞
1
W = ∫ f 2 (t )dt = ∫ F( j
2
) d
−∞
2 −∞
∞ ∞ ∞
⎡ 1 ∞ ⎤
Proof We have, W = ∫ f 2 (t )dt = ∫ f (t ) ⋅⎡⎣ f (t )dt ⎤⎦ = ∫ f (t ) ⎢ ∫ F ( j ) e j t
d ⎥ dt
−∞ −∞ −∞ ⎢⎣ 2 − ∞ ⎥⎦
1
∞
⎡ ∞
⎤ 1
∞
1
∞
∫ F ( j ) ⎢ ∫ f (t )e j t dt ⎥ d = ∫ ∫ F( j
2
= F ( j ) ⋅ F ( − j )dd = ) d
2 −∞ ⎢⎣ − ∞ ⎥⎦ 2 −∞
2 −∞
∞ ∞
1
W = ∫ f 2 (t ) dt == ∫ F( j
2
or, ) d (Proved)
−∞
2 −∞
433
Note (i) Since F ( j ) is an even function of ,

∞ ∞
1 2
W = ∫ f 2 (t )dt == ∫ F( j ) d
−∞ 0
(ii) Since 2 f, where f is the frequency,

∞ ∞ ∞
2 2
W = ∫ f 2 (t )dt == ∫ F ( j 2 f ) df = 2 ∫ F ( j 2 f ) df
−∞ −∞ 0
The quantity F ( j2 f) 2 df is the energy in an infinitesimal band of frequency df. It represents the energy density
in the frequency domain and has a unit of Joule/Hertz.
Total energy content within the frequency band f1 and f2 is
f2
( )
2
Wb = 2 ∫ F j 2 f df
f1
For the integration range to , the total energy is,

− f2 f2
∫ F ( j2 f ) ( )
2 2
Wb = df + ∫ F j 2 f df
− f1 f1
(iii) If f (t) is the voltage across a 1- resistance or current through the same resistance, then Wb is known as
1- energy.
Example 7.7 The current in a 10- resistor is i (t ) =10 e −2 t u (t ) ( A ) . What is the energy associated with the
frequency band 0 2 rad/s?
Solution Here, f (t ) = i(t ) = 10e −2 t u(t )
10
∴ F( j ) =
2+ j
So, the energy associated with the given frequency band is
2
103 ⎡ 1 −1 ⎛ ⎞ ⎤ 103 ⎡ ⎤
2 2
10 10 100d
∫ F( j ) d = ∫
2
W= = ⎢ tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢ 8 ⎥ = 125 Joule
0 0 4+
2
⎣2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦0 ⎣ ⎦
7.15 COMPARISON BETWEEN FOURIER TRANSFORM AND LAPLACE TRANSFORM

∞ ∞
The defining equations are F ( s ) = ∫ f (t )e − st dt and F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt

0 −∞
The Followings are some differences and similarities
1. Laplace transform is one-sided in the interval 0 t ∞ and Fourier transform is double-sided in the
interval ∞ t ∞. Thus, Laplace transform is applicable for positive time function, f (t), t 0;
while Fourier Transform is applicable for functions defined for all times.
434
2. Laplace transform includes the initial conditions and is applicable for transient analysis; while Fourier
transform is only applicable for steady-state analysis.
∞
3. For functions f (t) 0 for t 0 and ∫

0
f (t ) dt < ∞, the two transforms are related as F ( j ) = F ( s ) s = j
Thus, Laplace transform is associated with the entire s-plane, while, Fourier transform is restricted to
the imaginary (j ) axis.
4. Laplace transform is applicable to a wider range of functions than the Fourier transform. On the other hand,
Fourier transforms exist for signals that are not physically realizable and have no Laplace transform.
7.16 STEPS FOR APPLICATION OF FOURIER TRANSFORM TO CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
By Fourier transform, we can find the response of a circuit due to non-periodic functions. The general pro-
cedure is described below.
1. Fourier transform of the given excitation function is obtained.
1
2. Fourier transform of the circuit elements is obtained (i.e., R → R, L → j L, C → ).
j C
Y( j )
3. The transfer function in Fourier transform domain is defined as, H ( j ) = or, Y ( j ) =
X(j )
H ( j ) ⋅ X ( j ) ; where, Y(j ) is the response transform and X(j ) is the excitation transform.
4. Taking the inverse Fourier Transform of the product H ( j ) ⋅ X ( j ) , we get the response y(t).
Solved Problems
PART I FOURIER SERIES
Problem 7.1 Determine the Fourier series for the square waveform shown below and plot the magni-
tude and the phase spectra.
Solution The waveform, ()

f t =V ; 0 < t < T
4
= −V ; T < t < 3T
4 4
= V ; 3T
<t <T
4
Obviously, the given function is an even function. bn 0 f (t )
T T T V
∫ f (t )dt = T ∫ Vdt = − T ∫ Vdt = 0

2 4 2
2 2 2
Now, a0 = T T/ 2 0 T/ 2 T
t
T 0 0 T
4
T
⎡T T
⎤ V
∫ ()
2
4 4⎢ 4 2
⎥
T ⎢ ∫0 ∫
an = f t cos n tdt = V cos n tdt − V cos n tdt Fig. 7.16
T ⎥
⎣ ⎦
0 T
4
4V ⎡ ⎛ n T ⎞ ⎛n T⎞ ⎛ n T ⎞ ⎤ 4V ⎡ ⎛n ⎞⎤
= ⎢sin − sin ⎜ + sin ⎜ ⎥= ⎢ 2 sin ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥ [ ␻T 2␲]
n T ⎣ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎦ n2 ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎦
435
4V n 4V
= sin = ; for n 1, 5, 9, . . .
n 2 n
4V
=− ; for n 3, 7, 11, . . .
n
0; for n 2, 4, 6, . . .
4V ⎛ ⎞
So, ()
f t =
1 1 1 1
⎜⎝ cos t − 3 cos 3 t + 5 cos 5 t − 7 cos 7 t + 9 cos9 t ⋅⋅⋅⎟⎠
Magnitude spectra
C1
F
C3
C5 C7
␻
0 1␻ 2␻ 3␻ 4␻ 5␻ 6␻ 7␻
Fig. 7.17
Phase spectra
Phase, ␾
␻
0 1␻ 3␻ 5␻ 7␻
Fig. 7.18
Problem 7.2 Find the Fourier series of the function whose f (t )

periodic waveform is shown in Fig. 7.19 and plot its frequency
V
spectra.
Solution The function is even bn 0 t
T T T T/ 2 0 T/ 2 T
∫ ()
2 4
2 2 2V T V
∴ a0 =
T 0
f t dt =
T ∫0 Vdt = T × 4 = 2 Fig. 7.19
T T
∫ () ∫ f (t )cos n
2 4
4 4V
∴ an = f t cos n tdt = tdt
T 0
T 0
⎡⎛ ⎞
T
4 ⎤
4V ⎢ sin n t ⎥ ⎡
= T = 2 ⎤⎦
T ⎢⎜⎝ n ⎟⎠ 0 ⎥ ⎣
⎣ ⎦
4V ⎡ ⎛ n T ⎞ ⎤ = 4V ⋅ sin n = 2V
= ⎢sin ⎥ ; n 1, 5, 9 …
n T ⎣ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎦ 2 n 2 n
2V
=− ; n = 3, 7, 11, …
n
436
V 2V ⎛ ⎞
∴f t =() 2
+ ⎜
⎝
1
3
1
5
1
cos t − cos 3 t + cos 5 t − cos 7 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎟
7 ⎠
Line spectra
C1
F
Phase,
C0=V/2 C3 C5 ␲
C7
␻ ␻
0 1␻ 2␻ 3␻ 4␻ 5␻ 6␻ 7␻ 0 1␻ 3␻ 5␻ 7␻
Fig. 7.20 Fig. 7.21
Problem 7.3 Find the Fourier series for the train of pulses shown in f (t )
Fig. 7.22 and draw the amplitude and the phase spectra.
V
Solution Here, v(t) V; for 0 < t < T
2
T 0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T t
0; for < t < T
2 Fig. 7.22
T
T
()
2
1 1 V
∴a0 = ∫V t dt = ∫ Vdt = 2
T0 T 0
2V ⎡ ⎛ n T ⎞ ⎤
T T /2
2 2
T ∫0 ∫ V cos n
and an = V (t )cos n tdt = tdt = ⎢sin ⎥ = 0 [ ␻T 2␲]
T 0 n T ⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎦
2V ⎡ ⎛n T⎞⎤ V
T T /2
and bn =
2
T0∫ V (t )sin n tdt =
2V
T ∫ sin n tdt =
n T⎣
⎢1 − cos ⎜ ⎥=
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎦ n
1 − cos n ( )[ ␻T 2␲]
0
bn
0, for n even
2V , for n odd
=
n
⎡1 2 2 2 ⎤
∴V (t ) = V ⎢ + sin t + sin 3 t + sin 5 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎥
⎣2 3 5 ⎦
Amplitude spectra
C1
F
C0=V/2 C3 C5
C7
␻
0 1␻ 2␻ 3␻ 4␻ 5␻ 6␻ 7␻
Fig. 7.23
Phase spectra
Phase, ␾
␲2
␻
0 1␻ 3␻ 5␻ 7␻
Fig. 7.24
437
Problem 7.4 For the periodic function shown in Fig.7.25, determine the f (t)
exponential form of Fourier series and show the line spectra. Also, find its V
trigonometric form.
vt
0 2p 3p
Solution The function is defined as, V
p
f (t) V, 0 t [T 2 ]
Fig. 7.25
V, t 2
Since the function is odd, the coefficients Cn will be purely imaginary.
1
2
1 ⎡ 2
⎤
∴ Cn =
2 ∫
0
f (t )e − jn t dt =
2
⎢ ∫Ve
⎢⎣ 0
− jn t
dt − V ∫ e − jn t dt ⎥ ; for
⎥⎦
n 0
2
1 ⎡ V ⎤ V ⎡ 1 − jn t ⎤
=
2 ⎢⎣ − jn
e − jn t ⎥ −
⎦0 2 ⎢ − jn e
⎣ ⎦
V
⎥ = j2 n (1− e − jn
) + j 2V n ( e − jn 2
− e jn )[ T 2 , 1]
=
V
j2 n
( )
1 − e − jn +
V
j2 n
(
e − jn 2 − e jn )
( )
n
Now, e − jn = cos n − j sin n = −1 and e − j 2 n = cos 2 n − jsin2 n = 1
2V ⎡
( )
1 − −1 ⎤ ; n
n
∴ Cn = 0
⎢
j 2n ⎣ ⎥⎦
2V
Cn = ; for n odd
jn
0; for n even
2V
C− n = −
jn
1 ⎡ ⎤
2 2
∫ ()
1
For n 0, C0 = f t dt = ⎢∫ Vdt − ∫ Vdt ⎥ = 0
2 0
2 ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
exponential form of Fourier series is,
2V ∞ 1 jn t
()
f t = ∑ e ; n odd only
j n=1 n
2V ⎡ j t 1 3 j t 1 j5 t 1 j7 t ⎤
= ⎢e + 3 e + 5 e + e + ⋅⋅⋅⎥
j ⎣ 7 ⎦
To find trigonometric form,
a0 0, a0 = 0, an = Cn + C− n = ( ) 2V
jn
−
2V
jn
=0
⎡ 2V 2V ⎤ 4V
(
bn = j Cn − C− n = j ⎢ ) + =
jn ⎥⎦ n
for n odd.
⎣ jn
4V ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
∴ f (t ) = ⎢sin t + 3 sin 3 t + 5 sin 5 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎥
⎣ ⎦
438
Amplitude spectra
C1
F
C3 C5
C7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 7.26
Phase spectra
Phase,
0 1 3 5 7
Fig. 7.27
Problem 7.5 The waveform shown in Fig. 7.28 is used v(t )

as ‘sweep’ in radar and television circuits. Find the Fourier
V
series and plot the line spectra.
V
Solution The function, V (t ) = t ; 0<t <T 2T T 0 T 2T 3T 4T
t
T
T Fig. 7.28
1 V
∴ Cn = ∫ te − jn t dt ; n ≠ 0
T 0T
⎡ ⎤
(e )
T
⎥ V ⎡⎢ T e −1 ⎤
T − j 2n
V ⎡ te jn t e − jn t ⎤ V ⎢ Te − jn T
e − jn T 2 − j2 n
= 2⎢ +∫ ⎥ = − = + ⎥ [ T 2 ]
T ⎣ − jn jn ⎦0 T 2 ⎢ − jn ( jn )
2 ⎥ T 2 ⎢ − j 2n n 2 2
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ 0 ⎦
jV − j 2 n V V
= e + 2 2
e− j 2n −
2n 4n 4 n2 2
Since, (
e − j 2 n = cos 2 n − j sin 2 n ) =1
jV
∴ Cn = ; for n ≠ 0
2n
T
V V
2 ∫
For n 0, C0 = tdt =
T 0 2
exponential form,
jV − j 3 t jV − j 2 t jV − j t V jV j t jV j 2 t jV j 3 t
v (t ) = ⋅⋅⋅− e − e − e + + e + e + e + ⋅⋅⋅
6 4 2 2 2 4 6
• To convert into trigonometric form;
jV jV
Here, Cn = , C− n = −
2n 2n
439
V
( )
, an = Cn + C− n = 0 and bn = j Cn − C− n = −
∴ a0 = C0 =
2
V
n
( )
V V⎡ ⎤
() 1 1
∴V t = − ⎢sin t + sin 2 t + sin 3 t + ⋅⋅⋅ ⎥
2 ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
Line spectra
F Phase, f
V 2 p2
4 3 2 1
0 1 2 3 4 v
n
4 3 2 10 1 2 3 4 p2
Fig. 7.29
Problem 7.6 Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the waveform shown in Fig. 7.30 and sketch the spectra.
Solution Here, f t =
V
() t ; for 0 < t < and
0 ; for < t<2

V
⇒ a0 =
4 v (t)
V
1 V
⇒ an = ∫ t cos n td ( t) vt
0
2V ; for n odd 0 p 2p 3 p 4p
=− Fig. 7.30
n2 2
0; for n even
1 V
⇒ bn = ∫
0
t sin n td ( t )
V
− ; for n even
n
V
; for n odd
n
V 2V ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ V ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
∴ f (t ) = − 2 ⎢cos t + 9 cos 3 t + 25 cos 5 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎥ + ⎢sin t − 2 sin 2 t + 3 sin 3 t − ⋅⋅⋅⎥
4 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Line spectra
The even harmonic amplitudes are given directly by bn coefficients, since there are no even cosine terms.
But, the odd harmonic amplitudes are given by computation: C 1
F
Cn = an 2 + bn 2
2 2 V/4 C3 C5
⎛ 2V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
∴ C1 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ (0.377) V
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 0 1␻ 2␻ 3␻ 4␻ 5␻
␻
C3 (0.109)V, C5 (0.064)V Fig. 7.31

440
Problem 7.7 Find the Fourier series expansion of the rectified sine waveforms shown in Fig.7.32.
Solution Here, f t = Asin t ; () for 0< t < f (t )

1
= − Asin t ; for < t<2
vt
() ( )
Since, f t = f −t ⇒ The function is even. 0 p 2p 3p 4p
bn 0 Fig. 7.32
T
∫ f (t )cos n td ( t )
2
4
∴ an =
T 0
4 A A
=
2 ∫ Asin
0
t cos n td ( t ) = ∫ 2 sin t cos n td ( t ) = ∫ ⎡⎣sin(n + 1) t − sin( n − 1) t ⎤⎦ d ( t )
0 0
A ⎡ − cos( n + 1) t cos( n − 1) t ⎤
= ⎢ + ⎥ ; for n ≠ 1
⎣ n +1 n −1 ⎦0
A ⎡⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
For odd n; an = ⎢⎜ − + ⎟ +⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ ; n ≠1 = 0
⎣ ⎝ n + 1 n + 1⎠ ⎝ n − 1 n − 1⎠ ⎦
A ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎤ A ⎡ 2n − 2 − 2n − 2 ⎤ 4A
For even n; an = ⎢⎜ + ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥=−
⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ n + 1⎠ ⎝ n − 1⎠ ⎦ ⎢⎣ n + 1 n + 1 ⎥⎦ ( )( ) ( n − 1)2
∫ f (t )cos
2
4
For n = 1, a1 = td ( t )
T 0
4 A A A
=
2 ∫ Asin
0
t cos td ( t ) = ∫ sin 2
0
td ( t ) = −
2 ⎣
⎡cos 2 t ⎤⎦ = −
0 2 ⎣
⎡cos 2 − 1⎤⎦ = 0
T
2
2 2 A 2A
Also, a0 =
T ∫0
f (t )dt =
2 ∫ Asin
0
td ( t ) = − ⎡⎣cos t ⎤⎦ =
0
So, the Fourier series is

2A 4A⎛ 1 ⎞
()
f t =
2A 4A
− ∑
cos n t
= −
1 1
⎜⎝ 3 cos 2 t + 15 cos 4 t + 35 cos 6 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎟⎠
n = 2 , 4 ,6 ( n − 1)
2
Spectra
F C2
2 A/␲
C4
C6
␻
0 1␻ 2␻ 3␻ 4␻ 5␻ 6␻
Fig. 7.33
441
Problem 7.8 Determine the Fourier series of voltage response obtained at the output of a half-wave
rectifier shown in Fig. 7.34. Plot the discrete spectrum of the waveform.
Solution Here, time period T 0.4 second; V (t )
1 2 2 Vm
∴f= = 2.5Hz; = = 5 rrad/s
T T 0.4
The function v(t) Vm cos 5 t ; 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.1
0.4 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 t
0 ; 0.1 ≤ t ≤ 0.3 Fig. 7.34
Vm cos 5 t ; 0.3 ≤ t ≤ 0.4
If the period extending from t 0.1 to t 0.3 is taken, it will result in fewer equations and hence, fewer
integrals.
()
∴ v t = Vm cos5 t ; − 0.1 ≤ t ≤ 0.1
0; 0.1 ≤ t ≤ 0.3
1 ⎡ ⎤ V
0.3 0.1 0.3
a0 =
1
∫ v t ()
dt = ⎢∫ m
0.4 ⎣⎢ −0.1
V cos 5 dt + ∫ ()
0 dt ⎥ = m
0.4 −0.1 0.1 ⎥⎦
0.3
2
0.4 −∫0.1 m
∴ an = V cos 5 ntdt ;n ≠1
0.1
1
= 5Vm ∫ cos 5 t cos 5 ntdt = 5Vm ∫ ⎡⎣cos 5
0.1
(1 + n)t + cos 5 ( )
1 − n t ⎤⎦ dt =
2Vm cos ( n 2 ) ; n ≠1
−0.1 −0.1
2 1 − n2
0.1
Vm
a1 = 5Vm ∫ cos 5 tdt =
2
For, n 1,
−0.1
2
Similarly, bn 0 for any value of n, and the Fourier series thus contains no sine terms.
()
V V 2V 2V 2V
∴ v t = m + m cos 5 t + m cos10 t − m cos 20 t + m cos 30 t − ⋅⋅⋅
2 3 15 35
Spectra
F
0.5Vm
0.4Vm
0.3Vm
0.2Vm
0.1Vm
f (H z )
0 2.5 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 7.35
Problem 7.9 Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the half-wave rectified sine-wave shown in Fig.
7.36 and sketch the spectrum.
Solution Here, the wave is, f (t ) = V sin t ; 0 t
0; t 2
442
1 V f (t)
∴ a0 =
2 ∫V sin
0
t=
V
1
∴ an = ∫V sin t cos n td ( t ) n ≠1
0
0 t
) )
2 3 4
=
V
2 ∫ ⎡⎣sin 1 + n( (
t + sin 1 − n t ⎤⎦ d t Fig. 7.36
0
=
V ⎡ − cos 1 + n
⎢
( ) t
−
(
cos 1 − n ) t⎤
⎥
2 ⎢
⎣ 1+ n 1− n ⎥⎦0
=
V
(1 + cos n ) ; n ≠1
( )
0; for n odd
1 − n2
2V
=
(1− n ) 2
; for n even.
F V/2
1
For n 1, a1 = ∫V sin
0
t cos td ( t ) = 0
V/p
1
Similarly, bn = ∫V sin
0
t sin n td ( t ) = 0; n 1
0 1 2 4 6 8 10
n
Fig. 7.37
For n 1, b1 =
1
∫V sin td
2
( t ) = V2
0
V ⎛2 ⎞
So the series is, f t = () V
+
V
2
2 2
sin t − ⎜ cos 2 t + cos 4 t + cos66 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎟
⎝3 15 35 ⎠
Problem 7.10 A square wave has a value 10 from − ␲ to ␲ , zero from ␲ to 3 ␲ , 10 from 3 ␲ to 5 ␲
2 2 2 2 2 2
and so on. Find the Fourier series expansion of the wave.
Solution For the square wave given, time period is 2 . The Fourier coefficients are evaluated as
∫ ( )d
2 2
1 1
a0 =
2
f =
2 ∫ 10d =5
− −
2 2
20 ⎛ n ⎞
∫ f ( )cos nd
2 2
1 1 10
an = = ∫ 10cos n d =
n
sin n −
2
2
=
n
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
− −
2 2
20 20
∴a1 = ; a2 = 0; a3 = − ; a4 = 0
3
∫ f ( )sin nd
2 2
1 1 10
bn = = ∫ 10sin n d =−
n
cos n −
2
2
=0
− −
2 2
443
Therefore, the Fourier series is given as

20 20 20
v = 5+ cos − cos 3 + cos 5 − ⋅⋅⋅
3 5
Problem 7.11 State and prove Parseval’s theorem useful in computing the effective value of a given
periodic function, f(t).
Or,
A periodic function f( ) with period 2␲ is expressed in Fourier series as follows:
∞
a
f ( ) = 0 + ∑ (a n cos n + bn sin n )
2 n =1
2
⎛a ⎞ 1 ∞
1
∫ () ⎤ d = ⎜ 0 ⎟ + ∑ a n 2 + bn 2 ( )
2
Prove that, ⎡f
2 ⎣ ⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 n =1
−
( ) = 2 + ∑ ( a cos n )
a0
Solution f n
+ bn sin n
n=1
Since, ∫ cos n sin n d = ∫ cos n d = ∫ sin n d =0

− − −
⎡⎛ a ⎞ 2 ∞ ∞ ⎤
∫ ⎡⎣ f ( ) ⎢ 0 ⎟ + a 2 cos 2 n + b 2 sin 2 ⎥d
1 1
∑ ∑
2
∴
2
⎤ d =
⎦ 2 ∫ ⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ n=1 n
⎜
n=1
n ⎥
− −
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
2
1 ⎛a ⎞ 1 an 2 1 bn 2
=
2 ∫− ⎜⎝ 20 ⎟⎠ d + 2 ∑
n=1 2 ∫ 2 cos 2 n d +
2
∑
n=1 2 ∫ 2 siin 2 n d
− −
2
1 ⎛ a0 ⎞ an 2 1 bn 2 1
= ⎜ 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
⋅ 2 + . ∑
2 2 n=1 −∫
1 + cos 2 n d + (⋅ ⋅ ∑ 1 − cos 2 n d
2 2 n=1 −∫
) ( )
2 2
⎛a ⎞ ⎡ 2 ⎧ sin 2 n ⎫ 2⎧ sin 2 n ⎫ ⎤ ⎛ a0 ⎞
∑ ⎡⎣ a ( 2 ) + b ( 2 )⎤⎦
1 1
=⎜ 0⎟ +
⎝ 2⎠ 4
∑ ⎢ an ⎨ + ⎬ + bn ⎨ −
−
⎬ ⎥ =⎜ ⎟ +
− ⎝ ⎠
n
2
n
2
n=1 ⎣ ⎩ 2 n ⎭ ⎩ 2 n ⎭ ⎦ 2 4 n=1
2
⎛a ⎞ 1 ∞
1
∫ ⎡⎣ f ( ) ⎤ d = ⎜ 0 ⎟ + ∑ an 2 + bn 2 ( )
2
∴ ⎦ (Proved)
2 − ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 n=1
Note For statement and proof of this theorem consult the text earlier.
Problem 7.12 If v ( t ) =10 + 6 cos( t + 45 ° ) +1.8 cos(2 t −10 ° ) volt and i( t ) = 3 +1.4 cos( t + 20 ° ) + 0.5 cos 2 t
mA, calculate the average power in watt. Determine also the effective voltage and effective current.
VM 1 I M 1 VM 2 I M 2 VM 3 I M 3
Solution Average power cos 1
+ cos 2
+ cos 3
2 2 2
444
6 × 1⋅ 4 1⋅ 8 × 0 ⋅ 5
= 10 × 3 +
2
(
cos 45° − 20° +
2
) cos10° 34.25W
( )
2
6 2 + 1⋅ 8
Effective voltage 10 +
2
= 12.58 V
2
Effective current 32 +
1
2
( )
1⋅ 4 2 + 0 ⋅ 52 = 3⋅178 A
Problem 7.13 Determine the effective voltage, effective current, and average power supplied to a
passive network if the supplied voltage is, v ( t ) =100 + 50 cos(10 t + 30 ° ) + 25 cos(30 t + 60 ° ) V and the resulting
current is, i( t ) = 2 cos(10 t + 75 ° ) + 3 cos(30 t + 78 ° ) A .
v(t )
Solution Same as Prob. 7.12. Ans: 107.53V; 2.55A; 71.02 W V
T/2 T/2
Problem 7.14 (a) Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the trian- t
T 0 T/4 T
gular waveform shown in Fig. 7.38
8V V
(b) If this voltage is approximated by 2 sin t , find the mean-square Fig. 7.38
error.
(c) If this voltage waveform is applied to the network in Fig. 7.39, then find the current i(t) and draw the
magnitude and phase spectra of i(t). Take ␻0 1 radian/second for the waveform.
Solution a) The wave is an odd function and has half-wave symmetry.
1
∴ an = 0 and a0 = 0
4V V (t)
Now, V (t ) = t ; 0<t <T i (t ) 1F
T 4
4V 3T Fig. 7.39
= − t + 2V ; T < t <
T 4 4
T
∫ f (t )sin n
4
8
∴ bn = tdt ; n is odd only.
T 0
T T
⎡ T
⎤
8 4
4V 32V ⎡ −t cos n t cos n t ⎤ 4 16V ⎢ − T cos n + sin n t
4
⎥
=
T ∫ T
t sin n tdt = 2 ⎢
T ⎣ n
+∫
n
dt ⎥ =
⎦0 n T ⎢ 4 2 n ⎥
0
⎣ 0
⎦
16 ⎡ T T n ⎤ 8V n
= ⎢ − ×0+ sin ⎥ = 2 2 sin
n T⎣ 4 2n 2 ⎦ n 2
8V
∴ bn = ,n 1, 5, 9, … { T 2 }
n2 2
8V
=− ,n 3, 7, 11, …
n2 2
445
8V ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
Hence, V (t ) = 2 ⎜
sin t − 2 sin 3 t + 2 sin 5 t − 2 sin 7 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎟
⎝ 3 5 7 ⎠
(b) The error is (t ) = v (t ) − 8V sin 2

t
The main square error is EN =

1
T ∫0
2
(t )dt
T
∫ (t )dt
4
4
Since the wave has half-wave symmetry, ∴ EN = 2
T 0
Now, ()
v t =
4V
T
t ; for 0 < t < T
4
T 2
4 4
⎡ 4V 8V ⎤
∴ EN = ∫ ⎢ T t − 2 sin t ⎥ dt = 0.0047 V
2
T 0 ⎣ ⎦
( ) = V (n ) ( ) ∠ tan
( 1n )
Vi n
( )
nVi n
(c) Here, i n = i
= −1
Z (n ) 1− j 1+ n 2
∴i n =( ) n
1 + n2
×
8V
sin ⎡ nt + tan −1 1 ⎤ ; for n
n2 2 ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ ( ) 1, 5, 9, …
=
2
8V
n 1+ n
sin ⎡ nt + tan −1
⎣⎢ 2
( 1 n )⎤⎦⎥
and i(n ) =
2
8V
n 1+ n
sin ⎡ nt + + tan −1 1 ⎤ ; for n
⎣⎢
2 n ⎦⎥ ( ) 3, 7, 11, ...
∴ i1 =
8V
2
(
sin t + 45° = 0 ⋅ 707 ) 8V
2 (
sin t + 45° )
2
∴ i3 =
2
8V
(
sin 3t + 180° + 18 ⋅ 44° = 0 ⋅ 949 ) 8V
2 2
3
(
siin 3t + 198 ⋅ 44° )
3 10
∴ i5 =
2
8V
(
sin 5t + 11⋅ 31° = 0 ⋅ 98 ) 8V
2 2
5
(
sin 5t + 11⋅ 31° )
5 26
8V
∴ i (t ) = 2
⎡⎣0.707 sin(t + 45° ) + 0.105sin( 3t + 198.44° ) + 0.039 sin(5t + 11.31° ) + ⋅⋅⋅⎤⎦
Problem 7.15 A series RL circuit with R 10 ohms and L 5 H contains a current

i( t ) =10 sin1000 t + 5 sin 3000 t + 3 sin 5000 t A
Find the effective voltage and the average power.
446
Solution Here, 1000 rad/s and it contains three harmonics:

For fundamental harmonic R1 = 10 , X L1 = L = 1000 × 5 = 5000
(
∴ Z1 = R1 + jX L1 = 10 + j 5000 = 5000∠89.88° )
For third harmonic R3 = 10 , X L 3 = 3 L = 15000
( )
∴ Z 3 = 10 + j15000 = 15000 ⋅ 003∠89.96°
For fifth harmonic R5 = 10 , X L 5 = 5 L = 25000

∴ Z 5 = (10 + j 25000) = 25000 ⋅ 001∠89.977°
∴ v (t ) = 10 Z1 sin(1000t − 89.88° ) + 5 Z 3 sin( 3000t − 89.96° ) + 3 Z 5 sin(5000t − 89.977° )

= 5000 ⋅ 01sin(1000t − 89 ⋅88° ) + 75000 ⋅ 015sin( 3000t − 89 ⋅ 96° ) + 75000 ⋅ 003sin(5000t − 89 ⋅ 977° )
1
1
∴ effective voltage, V = ⎡(5000 ⋅ 01)2 + (75000 ⋅ 015)2 + (75000 ⋅ 003)2 ⎤ 2 = 8 ⋅ 291 × 104 V = 82 ⋅ 91 kV
⎣ ⎦
2
Vm1 I ns VmL I m 2 Vm 3 I m 3
Average power Pav = cos 1
+ cos 2
+ cos 3
2 2 2
5000 ⋅ 01 × 10 75000 ⋅ 015 × 5 75000 ⋅ 003 × 3
= cos89 ⋅88° + cos89 ⋅ 96° + cos89 ⋅ 977° = 691⋅ 6595 W
2 2 2
Problem 7.16 A periodic current source, i(t) 10 6cos (100t 45 ) 3cos (200t 10 ) 2.1cos (300t 35 )
is the input to a parallel RC circuit with R 0.5 ohm and C 0.02 F. Calculate the steady-state response
v(t) of the circuit.
Solution {same as Prob. 7.15} Z1 = 0 ⋅ 35∠ − 45° ; Z 2 = 0 ⋅ 22 ∠ − 63.43° ; Z 3 = 0 ⋅158∠ − 71.56°
∴ v (t ) = 5 + 2 ⋅121cos100t + 0 ⋅ 671cos( 200t − 73⋅ 43° ) + 0 ⋅ 332 cos( 300t − 36 ⋅ 56° )
Problem 7.17 The square wave source, v(t) shown in Fig. 7.40 excites
v( t )
a series RL circuit with R 2 ohm and L 2 H. Determine the current V
␲
response i(t), taking ␻ 1 radian/second and V volt. T T/ 2 T/ 2 T
4 t
0
Solution [same as Prob. 7.14]
Here, from Prob.7.1 V
4V ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ Fig. 7.40
v (t ) = ⎜⎝ cos t − 3 cos 3 t + 5 cos 5 t − 7 cos 7 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎟⎠
Here, V= V
4
1 1
∴ v (t ) = cos t − cos 3 t + cos 5 t − ⋅⋅⋅
3 5
1
Y ( jn) = ⇒ Y1 = 0 ⋅ 353∠ − 45° ; V1 = 1∠0°
2 + j 2n
447
1
Y3 = 0 ⋅158∠ − 71.565° ; V3 = ∠ − 180°
3
1
Y5 = 0 ⋅ 098∠ − 78.69° ; V5 = ∠0°
5
∴ I1 = V1Y1 = 0 ⋅ 353∠ − 45°
∴ I 3 = V3Y3 = 0 ⋅ 0527∠108.435°
and I 5 = V5Y5 = 0 ⋅ 0196 ∠ − 78.69°
∴ i(t ) = 0 ⋅ 353cos(t − 45° ) + 0 ⋅ 0527 cos( 3t − 251⋅ 6° ) + 0 ⋅ 0196 cos(5t − 78 ⋅ 69° ) + ⋅⋅⋅
Problem 7.18 Determine the Fourier series of repetitive waveform of v(t )

Fig. 7.41 up to 5th harmonic, when time of repetition, T 20 ms. Calculate 100V
the fundamental frequency current in the circuit of Fig. 7.42, where
R ⴝ 10 ohms and L 0.0318 H with voltage transform of the waveform. 0 T/2 T t
Solution The wave has half-wave symmetry. 100V
an bn 0 ; for n even ; and Fig. 7.41
T T
2 2
4 4
For n odd, an =
T0∫ f (t )sin n tdt and bn = ∫ f (t )sin n tdt
T0
R L
and a0 0
200 T
Now, v(t) t; 0 ≤ t ≤ V (t)
T 2
T /2
Fig. 7.42
4 200
∴ an =
T ∫ 0
T
t cos n tdt
800 ⎡ t sin nwt sin n t ⎤ ⎡ T

2 ⎤
800 ⎢ T sin n cos n t
⎢ −∫ dt ⎥ × + 2 2 ⎥
T2 ⎣ n n ⎦ T 2
⎢ 2 n n ⎥
⎣ 0
⎦
800 800 400
⎡cos n − 1⎤⎦ ( −2 ) − 2 2
n 2T 2 ⎣
2 2
n 4 2
n
T
4 2 200 200
bn = ∫ t sin n tdt =
T0 T n
400 1 1 200 1 1
∴ v (t ) = − 2
(cos t + 2
cos 3 t + 2 cos 5 t + ⋅⋅⋅) + (sin t + sin 3 t + sin 5 t + ⋅⋅⋅)
3 5 3 5
⎛ 200 400 ⎞ 400
The fundamental frequency voltage is Vf = ⎜ sin t − 2 cos t ⎟ = 2 ( )2 + 1
⎝ ⎠ 2
Impedance, Z = ( R + j L ) = 10 + j (0 ⋅ 0318)
Vf 400 ⎛ ⎞
Current due to fundamental frequency, If = = ⎜ sin t − cos t ⎟
Z 2
(10 + j 0 ⋅ 0318 ) ⎝ 2 ⎠
448
400 1 0.0318
or, If = 2
( )2 + 1 × ∠ tan −1
2 (10) + (0 ⋅ 0318 )
2 2 10
2 2
Here, = = = 100 rad/s
T 20 × 10−3
Putting this value, ∴ I f = 5 ⋅ 33∠ − 44.9°
5 ⋅ 33
∴ I f ( rms ) = A = 3⋅ 76 A
2
Problem 7.19 An RLC series circuit with R = 25 ohms, L = 1 H, and C = 10 microfarads is energized with a
voltage source, V ( t ) =15 sin100 t +10 sin 200 t + 5 sin 300 t (V)
Find the expression for the current i(t). Determine the effective value of the current, and the average power
consumed by the circuit.
Solution [Same as Prob. 7.16]
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z1 = R + j ⎜ L − = 900 ⋅ 3∠ + 88 ⋅ 4°
⎝ C ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z2 = R + j ⎜ 3 L − = 41⋅ 62 ∠53⋅1°
⎝ 3 C ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z 3 = R + j ⎜ 3ω L − = 41 ⋅ 62∠53 ⋅ 1°
⎝ 3ωC ⎟⎠
15 10 5
∴ i (t ) = sin100t + sin 200t + sin 300t
Z1 Z2 Z3
= 0 ⋅ 0167 sin(100t + 88 ⋅ 4° ) + 0 ⋅ 0332 sin( 200t + 85 ⋅ 2° ) + 0 ⋅12 sin( 300t + 53⋅1° ) + ⋅⋅⋅
1
1 1
Irms = ⎡ I12 + I 2 2 + I 32 ⎤ 2 = 1 ⎡(0 ⋅ 0167)2 + (0 ⋅ 0332 )2 + (0 ⋅12 )2 ⎤ 2 = 0 ⋅ 088 A = 88 mA
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
2 2
15 × 0 ⋅ 0167 10 × 0 ⋅ 0332 5 × 0 ⋅12
∴ Pav = cos88 ⋅ 4° + cos85 ⋅ 2° + cos 53⋅1° = 0.197 W
2 2 2
Problem 7.20 Determine the expression for current in an impedance of R 10 ohms, L 0.0318 H with
applied emf, e( t ) = 200 sin 314 t + 40 sin(942 t + 30 ° ) +10 V
Also, calculate the rms value of voltage and current as well as the power factor of the circuit.
Solution [Same as Prob. 7.19]
200 sin 314t
i1 = = 14 ⋅14 sin 314t ∠ − 44.95°
10 + j 314 × 0 ⋅ 0318
40 sin( 942t + 30° )
i2 = = 1⋅ 28 sin( 942t + 30° )∠ − 71⋅ 54°
10 + j 942 × 0 ⋅ 0318
449
10
i0 = =1
10
i(t ) = 14 ⋅14 sin( 314t − 44 ⋅ 95° ) + 1⋅ 28 sin( 942t − 41.54° )
V12 + V2 2 2002 + 402

∴Vrms = V0 + 2 = 10 2
+ = 144 ⋅ 568 volts
2 2
I12 + I 2 2 14 ⋅14 2 + 1⋅ 282

∴ I rms = I 0 2 + = 12 + = 10.089 A
2 2
Averag Power
∴ power factor =
Apparent Power
V1 I1 VI 200 × 14 ⋅14 40 × 1⋅ 28
V0 I 0 + cos 1 + 2 2 cos 2
10 × 1 + cos 44 ⋅ 95° + cos 71⋅ 54°
= 2 2 = 2 2 = 0.69
Vrms × I rms 144 ⋅ 568 × 10 ⋅ 089
Problem 7.21 In a two-element series network, voltage v(t) is applied, which is given by
v ( t ) = 50 + 50 sin 5000 t + 30 sin10000 t + 20 sin 20000 t (V)
The resulting current is given as
i( t ) =11.2 sin(5000 t + 63.4 ° ) +10.6 sin(10000 t + 45 ° ) + 8.97 sin(20000 t + 26.6 ° ) (A)
Determine the network elements and the power dissipated in the circuit.
Solution Power dissipated,
50 × 11⋅ 2 30 × 10 ⋅ 6 8 ⋅ 97 × 20
Pav = 50 × 0 + cos 63⋅ 4° + cos 45° + cos 26 ⋅ 6° = 318 W
2 2 2
In the expression of current i(t), the dc term is missing though it is present in the applied voltage, v(t). Hence,
in the series network, there must be a capacitor which blocks dc components. Again from the expression of i(t),
we see that the current is leading by an angle less than 90 . Hence, the conclusion is the presence of a resistive
element in series with the capacitor (RC).
11⋅2 +10 ⋅ 6 2 + 8 ⋅ 972
Now, I eff = = 12 ⋅ 6 A
2
318
∴ Pav = I eff 2 R ⇒ R = =2
(12 ⋅ 6 )2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Again, at 10,000 rad/s, = 45° = tan −1 ⎜
⎝ CR ⎟⎠
1 1
⇒ C= = = 50 F
R 20, 000
Problem 7.22 In a linear circuit consisting of R 9 ⍀ and L 8 mH, a current, i = 5 + 100 sin(1000t + 45° ) +
100 sin(3000t 60 )A is flowing. Find the equation of applied voltage.
Solution Here, R 9 and L ( )

8 mH, i = 5 + 100 sin 1000t + 45° + 100 sin 3000t + 60° ( )A
450
For dc component
Current, I0 5A, Z0 R 9
∴V0 = I 0 × R = 5 × 9 = 45 V
For first-harmonic component
Current, I1 = 100∠45° A
Impedance, Z1 = R + jω L = 9 + j 2π × 1000 × 8 × 10 −3 = ( 9 + j8 ) = 12.04 ∠41.663° ( Ω )
∴ V1 = I1 Z1 = 100∠45° × 12.04 ∠41.63° = 1204 ∠86.63° V ( )

For third-harmonic component
Current, I 3 = 100∠60° A
Impedance, ( )
Z 31 = R + j 3 L = 9 + j 2 × 3 × 1000 × 8 × 10−3 = 9 + j 24 = 25.63∠69.44° ( )
∴V3 = I 3 Z 3 = 100∠60° × 25.63∠69.44° = 2563∠129.44° V ( )
applied voltage is given as
( )
v = 45 + 1204 sin 1000t + 86.63° + 2563sin 3000t + 129.44° ( )(V)
Problem 7.23 Calculate the impedance consisting of R and L and the power factor of a circuit whose
expression for voltage and current are
v (t ) = 250 sin 314t + 50 sin(942t + 30° ) (V)
i (t ) = 17.7 sin(314t − 45° ) + 1.583 sin(942t − 41.6° ) (A)
250 sin 314t

Solution The fundamental frequency current, I1 = = 17 ⋅ 7 sin( 314t − 45° ) (i)
R+ j L
50 sin( 942t + 30° )
The third harmonic current, I 3 = = 1⋅ 583sin( 942t − 41⋅ 6° ) (ii)
R + j3 L
250
Equating the magnitudes of (i), = 17.7 ⇒ R 2 + 2
L2 = 199.495 (iii)
R +
2 2
L2
Equating the angles of (i)

L L L
314t − tan −1 = 314t − 45° ⇒ tan −1 = 45° ⇒ =1 ⇒ L=R
R R R
Putting in (iii), ⇒ ( L )2 = 99 ⋅ 747 ⇒ L = 9 ⋅ 987 = R
9 ⋅ 987
∴L= = 0 ⋅ 0318
314
∴ R = 9 ⋅ 987 L = 0 ⋅ 0318H
V1 I1 VI 250 × 17 ⋅ 7 50 × 1⋅ 583
cos 1 + 3 3 cos 3 cos 45° + cos 71⋅ 6°
Average power 2 2 = 2 2 = 0.69
Power factor =
Apparent power V12 V32 I12 I 3 2 2502 + 50° 17 ⋅ 72 + 1⋅ 5832
+ × + ×
2 2 2 2 2 2
451
PART II FOURIER TRANSFORM

Problem 7.24 Determine the Fourier transform of one cycle of sine wave, f(t) = Asin␻0t.
∞ T
Solution ∴ F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt = A ∫ sin 0
te − j t dt = I (say) f (t)
−∞ 0
A
⎡ ⎛ cos 0 t ⎞
T
⎤
)
T
(
cos 0 t
= A⎢e− j t ⎜ − ⎟ − ∫ j e− j t
dt ⎥
⎢ ⎝ ⎠0 0 ⎥ t
⎣ 0 0
⎦ 0
Fig. 7.43
⎡ 1 −j T j ⎧⎪ ⎪⎫ ⎤
)
T
= A⎢−
⎢⎣ 0
e cos ( 0
T −1 − ⎨ ∫ cos 0
te − j t
dt ⎬ ⎥
⎪⎭ ⎥⎦
0 ⎪
⎩0
⎡ ⎡ T
⎤⎤
j ⎢ ⎧⎪ − j t ⎛ sin 0 t ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎛ sin 0 t ⎞
)
T
=A ⎢
⎢
1 −j T
(e + 1) − 2 ⎨e ⎜
⎢ ⎝
⎟⎬
⎠ ⎭⎪
− ∫ ⎜ ⎟ − j e −j t
dt ⎥⎥
⎥⎥ (
0 ⎢⎪ 0⎝ ⎠
⎢⎣ 0 ⎣⎩ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎦
0 0
0
A ⎡ ⎤
)
T
=
A −j T
e (
+1 + j ⎢0 +
⎢
j
∫ sin 0 te − j t dt ⎥
⎥⎦
( cos 0T cos 1)
0 0 ⎣ 0 0
⎡ ⎤ A −j T
(e ) )
2
(e
2
A A
= −j T
+1 + I or, I ⎢1 − ⎥ = (e + 1) ⇒ I = 0 −j T
+1
−
2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0
Problem 7.25 Find the Fourier transform of the single pulse shown in Fig. 7.44 draw the f (t )
continuous magnitude and phase spectra. A
Solution Here, f(t) A ; − a ≤ t ≤ 0; t
a
A ; 0≤t ≤a a
0 ; for all other values of t
∞ A
∴ F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt Fig. 7.44
−∞
0 a ⎡ je − j t
0
je − j t
a
⎤ jA
= ∫ Ae −j t
dt + ∫ − Ae −j t
dt = A ⎢ − ⎥ = ⎡⎣1 − e + j a − e − j a + 1⎤⎦
⎢ ⎥
−a 0
⎣ −a 0⎦
⇒ F j ( ) = j 2 A (1 − cos a )
⎛ a⎞
sin 2 ⎜ ⎟
2A 2 ⎛ a⎞ A a ⎝ 2 ⎠
Amplitude is F j ( ) =
2A
(
1 − cos a = sin ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 2 ⎠
)
2 ⎛ a⎞ 2
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
The amplitude is zero when 1 − cos a = 0 ⇒ ( ) a = 2n ⇒ =

2n
a
452
( )
Phase is ∠F j = + 90° when > 0 = − 90° when <0
The spectra are shown in the figures below.
F( j ) A a F( j )
2
90
90
0
4 2 0 2 4
a a a a
Fig. 7.45 Amplitude spectra Phase spectra
Problem 7.26 Find the Fourier transform of the single triangular pulse shown in Fig. 7.46 and draw the
continuous spectra.
⎡ 2 ⎤ f (t )
Solution The wave is, f(t) V0 ⎢1 − t ⎥ V0
⎣ a ⎦
⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤
i.e., f (t ) = V0 ⎢1 − t ⎥ ; for t > 0 and f (t ) = V0 ⎢1 + t ⎥ ; for t < 0 a/2 0 a/ 2 t
⎣ a ⎦ ⎣ a ⎦
∞ ∞
Fig. 7.46
⎡ 2 ⎤
∴ F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e −j t
dt = ∫ V0 ⎢1 − t ⎥ e − j t dt
−∞ −∞ ⎣ a ⎦
a a ⎡ ⎧ a
⎫⎤
2
2V 2
V0 ⎢ − j a
2V0 ⎪ 0 2
⎪⎥
= V0 ∫ e − j t
dt − 0 ∫ te
−j t
dt = t 2
− ⎨ ∫ −te dt + ∫ te dt ⎬ ⎥
−j t j t
− j ⎢⎢
e a
a
a a
−
2
a ⎪ a 0 ⎪⎥
− −
2 2 ⎣ ⎩− 2 ⎭⎦
a
V ⎛ −j a
+j
a
⎞ 2V0 0
2V 2
∫ te dt − 0 ∫ te − j t dt
−j t
= 0 ⎜e 2
−e 2
⎟+ a
−j ⎝ ⎠ a
a 0
−
2
⎛ j a −j a
⎞ ⎡ −j a ⎤ ⎡ a a
⎤
2V0 ⎜ e 2 − e e − j t ⎥ 2V0 ⎢ te − j e− j t ⎥
0
⎟ + 2V0 ⎢ te
2 t 2 t 2 2
= −∫ dt ⎥ − −∫ dt ⎥
⎜ 2j ⎟ a ⎢−j −j a ⎢−j −j
⎝ ⎠ ⎢ −
a
−
a ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ a
⎤
2V0 ⎛ a ⎞ 2V0 ⎢ ⎪⎧ a e + j al2 ⎪⎫ e = j t ⎥ − 2V0 ⎢ ⎪⎧ a e
− j al2
⎪⎫ e = j t 2
⎥
= sin ⎜ ⎟ + ⎨0 + ⎬+ 2 ⎨ − 0 ⎬+ 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎢ ⎩⎪ 2 − j ⎭⎪ a⎥ a ⎢ ⎩⎪ 2 − j ⎪⎭
⎥
⎢⎣ − ⎥
2⎦ ⎢
⎣
0 ⎥
⎦
⎛ a⎞ V + j 2V0 ⎛ ⎞ V0 − j
(e )
a a
2V0 +j 2V0 − j a/2
= sin ⎜ ⎟ − 0 e 2
+ ⎜ 1 − e 2
⎟+ j e
a/2
− −1
⎝ 2 ⎠ j a ⎝
2
⎠ a 2
453
⎛ a ⎞ 2V ⎛ e − j − e+ j ⎞ 2V0
( )
a/2 a/2
2V0 +j
= sin ⎜ ⎟ + 0 ⎜ ⎟ + a 2 1− e
a/2
− e− j a/2
+1
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2j ⎠
⎛ a ⎞ 2V ⎛ a ⎞ 2V
=
2V0
sin ⎜ ⎟ − 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ + 02 2 − e − j
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ a
( a/2
−ej a/2
)
4V0 ⎡ ⎛ e + jω a / 2 − e − jω a / 2 ⎞ ⎤ 4V0 ⎡ ⎛ a ⎞ ⎤ 4V 2 ⎛ a⎞
= 2 ⎢
1− 2⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 2 ⎢1 − cos⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 02 × 2 sin ⎜ ⎟
aω ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ a ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ a
2 ⎝ 4 ⎠
8V0 ⎛ a⎞
∴ F( j ) = sin 2 ⎜ ⎟
a 2
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎪F (j )⎮ V0a
⎛ a⎞ 2
sin
V0 a ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
Bringing it into standard form, F ( j ) =
2 ⎛ a⎞ 2
⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
Its continuous amplitude spectrum is shown. The first 0 8 4 0 4 8

a a a a
zero occurs when a = i.e., a = . Fig. 7.47
4 4
Problem 7.27 Find the Fourier transform of the existing voltage

v(t) V0e t, t 0
0, t 0
and sketch approximately its amplitude and phase spectrum.
∞ ∞ ∞
V0 ∞ V
Solution F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt = ∫ V0 e − t e − j t dt = V0 ∫ e − (1+ j )t dt = ⎡ e − (1+ j )t
⎤ = 0
−∞ −∞ −∞
(1 + j ) ⎣ ⎦ − ∞ 1+
+j
V0
The amplitude and phase are F ( j ) = and ( j ) = − tan −1 ( )
1+ 2
v 1.5
Phase,
F
0.5
0
0.5
1
0
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 1.5
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 7.48
454
Problem 7.28 In the figure, Vi(t) 10sgn(t) volt. Using the Fourier transform method, find VC (t ) and
sketch VC (t ) versus time, t. Given: R 5 ohms, C 1F.
Solution vi (t ) =10 sgn(t ) R
2 20 Vi ( j )
∴Vi ( j ) = 10 × = Vc ( j ) = × Xc V i( t ) C V C ( t)
j j z( j )
Transfer function of the circuit
V (j ) 1/ j C 1 Fig. 7.49
H( j )= c = =
Vi ( j ) R + 1 / j C 1 + j RC
where, Vc( j ) is the Fourier transform of Vc(t)
V(j ) 20 20
∴Vc ( j ) = H ( j ) × Vi ( j ) = i × XC = =
Z( j ) j (1 + j RC ) j (1 + j 5)
20 100 2 1
= − = 10( ) − 20
j 1 + ( j 5) j (1 / 5) + j
−t
vC (t ) = 10 sgn(t ) − 20e 5
u(t ) volt 10 V
Voltage
To plot this curve, we follow the following steps: 5V
0V
• From t 0, vi (t ) 10 V,
Time
vC (t) 10 V; 5V
• At t 0, vi (t ) jumps from 10 V to 10 V
and thus, vC (t) approaches its final value of 3.0s 2.0s 1.0s 0s 1.0s 2.0s 3.0s 4.0s 5.0s 6.0s 7.0s
10 V exponentially with time-constant of 5 Fig. 7.50
seconds.
Problem 7.29 Find the response voltage in the network
shown in Fig.7.51 Use Fourier transform method. 1
I1(t) = 2e tu(t) (A) 0.5F V2
v2 (t ) dv
Solution By KCL, i1 (t ) = + 0.5 2
1 dt Fig. 7.51
−t
Given: i1 (t ) = 2 e u(t )
I1 ( j ) = V2 ( j ) +
1 2 ⎡ 1 ⎤
Taking Fourier transform, j V2 ( j ) = V2 ( j ) ⎢1 + j ⎥
or,
2 1+ j ⎣ 2 ⎦
4 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
V2 ( j ) = = 4⎢ −
(1 + j )( 2 + j ) ⎣1+ j 2 + j ⎥⎦
V( t)
Taking inverse Fourier transform v2 (t ) = ( 4 e − t − 4 e −2 t )u(t )
A
Problem 7.30 Find the Fourier transform of the sine pulse shown in Fig. 7.52 t (second)
and sketch the amplitude and phase spectra. This voltage is applied to a series 0
RL circuit with R 1 ohm and L 1.0 H. Determine the amplitude and phase
spectra for the resulting current, i(t). Fig. 7.52
455
⎡ 1 + e − j ⎤ A(1 + cos ) Asin

Solution [from Prob. 7.25] ⇒ V ( j ) = A ⎢ 2 ⎥
= −j
⎣ 1− 1− 2 1− 2
⎦
(1 + cos )2 + sin 2 2(1 + cos ) cos( )

∴V( j ) = A =A = 2A 2
1− 2
1− 2 1− 2
⎛ − sin ⎞ −1 ⎛ − ⎞ −
∴ ( j ) ⎡⎣ Angle of V ( j ) ⎤⎦ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟⎠ = tan ⎜⎝ tan 2 ⎟⎠ = 2
⎝ 1 + cos
The amplitude and phase spectra are shown.
20
V(j )
Phase, 15
10
2A
5
0
5
10
15
20
0 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0
Fig. 7.53
The current in the RL series circuit,
V( j ) V( j ) ∠ ( j ) V( j ) ∠ ( j )
I( j )= = =
R+ j L L 1+ 2
∠ tan −1
R2 + 2
L2 ∠ tan −1
R
cos /2 1
= 2A ∠− − tan −1 = I ( j ) ∠ ( j )
1− 2
1+ 2 2
cos( ) 1
∴ I( j ) = 2A 2 and ( j )=− − tan −1
1− 2
1+ 2 2
Problem 7.31 The current in a 10-ohm resistor is i(t) 10 e 2tu(t) A. Calculate the total energy W dissi-
pated in the resistor during the time interval t 0 to . What is the energy W1 associated with the frequency
band 0 2 rad/s
Solution The instantaneous power, p(t ) = i 2 (t ) ⋅ R = 10 × 100e −4 t ; t > 0
Total energy dissipated
∞ ∞ ∞
⎡ e −4 t ⎤ 1000
W = ∫ p(t )dt = ∫ 1000e −4 t dt = 1000 ⎢ ⎥ =− ⎡0 − 1⎤⎦ = 250 J
−∞ 0 ⎣ − 4 ⎦0 4 ⎣
456
10
The Fourier transform of i(t)is I( j )=
2+ j
The energy associated,
⎪⎧ ⎪⎫
2 ∞
10 1
⎨ 1 Energy is, W1 = ∫ F ( j ) d
2
∫
2
W1 = I( j ) d ⎬
0 ⎪⎩ −∞ ⎪⎭
2
10
2
100 1000 ⎡ 1 −1 ⎤ 500
⎡ tan −1 (1) − tan −1 (0) ⎤ = 500 × = 125J
= ∫0 4 + 2 d = ⎢ 2 tan 2 ⎥ =
⎣ ⎦0
⎣ ⎦ 4
Problem 7.32 A voltage, v(t) 100e 25t u(t) volt is applied to the input of an ideal low-pass filter having
a cut-off frequency of 25 rad/s. Calculate the percentage of the total energy transmitted through the filter.
Solution Fourier transform of v (t )
100
V( j )=
25 + j
2 104
∴V( j ) =
625 + 2
Total 1- energy available at the filter input is

∞
104 d
1
∞
104 d
∞
104 ⎡ 1 ⎤ 104 1
Wi1 = ∫ ∫
−1
= d = ⎢ 25 tan 25 ⎥ = × × = 200 J
0 625 + 0 625 + ⎣ ⎦0
2 2
25 2
The 1- energy available at the filter output is
25
104 ⎡ 1 ⎤
25
1
25
104 d 104 1
W01 = ∫ V ( j ) d = ∫0 625 +
2 −1
2
= ⎢ 25 × tan 25 ⎥ = × × = 100 J
0 ⎣ ⎦0 25 4
percentage of the input energy appearing at the output,
W01 100
× 100 = × 100% = 50%
Wi1 200
Problem 7.33 A voltage, v(t) 4e 3t u(t) volt is applied to the input of an ideal band-pass filter having a
pass-band defined by 1 < f < 2 Hz. Calculate the total 1- energy available at the output of the filter.
Solution Let the output voltage is v0 (t ). The energy in v0(t) will be equal to the energy of that part of v(t),
having frequency components in the intervals, 1 f 2 and 2 f 1.
∞ ∞
V ( j ) = 4 ∫ e −3t u(t )e − j t dt = 4 ∫ e ( ) u(t )dt =

− 3+ j t 4
Fourier transform of input,
−∞ −∞
3+ j
∞ ∞
8
So, the total 1- energy in the input signal is, W1 = ∫ v 2 (t )dt = 16 ∫ e −6 t dt = J
−∞ 0
3
∞ ∞ ∞
16 d 16 d 16 ⎡ 1 −1 ⎤ 16 1 8
or, Wi1 = ∫0 9 + 2
= ∫0 9 + 2
= ⎢ 3 tan 3 ⎥ = × 3 × 2 = 3 J
⎣ ⎦0
457
−2 −2 −2
1 16 d 16 d 16 ⎡ 1 ⎤
Total energy in the output is W0 =
2 ∫
−4 9+ 2
=
2 −4
∫ 9+ 2
= ⎢ tan −1 ⎥
⎣3 3 ⎦− 4
16 1 ⎡ −1 ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛2 ⎞⎤
= × × ⎢ tan ⎜ − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥ = 0.358
J
3 ⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎦
Problem 7.34 The voltage, Vi (t) 5e 5t u(t) volt is applied to the input of the RC circuit shown in Fig. 7.54.
Determine the percentage of the 1-⍀ energy that is transmitted to the output.
10k
1 1
Solution Here, the cut-off frequency, = = 4 = 110 rad/s
c
RC 10 × 10 × 10−6
Vi( t ) 10uF V 0( t)
Fourier transform of vi(t)
5
Vi ( j ) =
5+ j Fig. 7.54
2 25
∴ Vi ( j ) =
25 + 2
Total 1- energy available at the filter input is

∞ ∞ ∞
1 25d 25 d 25 ⎡ 1 −1 ⎤ 25 1
Wi1 = ∫0 25 + 2
d = ∫0 25 + 2
d = ⎢ 5 tan 5 ⎥ = × 5 × 2 = 2.5 J
⎣ ⎦0
The 1- energy available at the filter output is
10
25 ⎡ 1 ⎤
10 10
1 25 d 25 1
∫V (j ∫0 25 +
2 −1
W01 = ) d = 2
= ⎢ 5 × tan 5 ⎥ = × 5 × 1.107 = 1.762 J
⎣ ⎦0
i
0
percentage of the input energy appearing at the output,

W01 1.762
× 100 = × 100% = 70.48%
Wi1 2.5
Problem 7.35 (a) Find the Fourier transform of the function,
)
f (t = Ae a for t ≥ 0 = 0 for t < 0
−t
1F V ( t )
3
0 for t 0 0
t
(b) Use the above transform to find the output voltage V0 in the i (t)=e u(t )( A)
Fig. 7.55.
Fig. 7.55
Solution (a) Fourier transform of the function is
∞
⎛1 ⎞
⎛1 ⎞ −⎜ + j ⎟ t
∞ ∞ ∞ ⎝a ⎠
( ) = ∫ f (t )e −t −⎜ + j ⎟ t e Aa
I j −j t
dt = ∫ Ae a
e − j t dt = A ∫ e ⎝a ⎠
dt = A =
⎛1 ⎞ 1+ j a
−∞ 0 −∞
−⎜ + j ⎟
⎝a ⎠0
458
V0 ( j ) V0 ( j ) ⎡1+ 3 j ⎤
b) By KCL, I( j )= + = V0 ( j ) ⎢ ⎥
3 1 ⎣ 3 ⎦
j
Here, ( ) = 1 +1j
I j (from result of (a) with A 1 and a 1)
1 ⎡1+ 3 j ⎤
or, = V0 ( j ) ⎢ ⎥
1+ j ⎣ 3 ⎦
⎡ 3 3 ⎤
∴V0 ( j ) =
3
= ⎢ 2 − 2 ⎥
(1 + j )(1 + j 3 ) ⎢ 1 + j 1+ j ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
3 −t 3
Taking inverse Fourier transform V0 (t ) = e 3 − e − t
2 2
Problem 7.36 (a) For the pulse shown in Fig. 7.56, prove that. f (t )
sin V
F ( j ) =V 2
t
2 ⴚ Ⲑ2 0 Ⲑ2
(b) Draw the frequency spectra of this waveform and explain how you would use this
result to estimate the bandwidth required for the transmission of such a signal. Fig. 7.56
(c) Calculate the percentage of energy associated with this pulse that lies in the
dominant portion of the amplitude spectrum.
Solution a) The pulse is f (t ) = V , − <t <

2 2
So, the Fourier transform,
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
∞ ∞ j −j sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
e 2
−e 2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt = ∫ Ve − j t dt =V = 2V = 2V ×
−∞ −∞
j ⎛ ⎞ 2
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
F(j )
⎛ ⎞ V
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
( )
∴F j =V
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
The plot of sin x versus x (here, x = ) is shown in Fig.7.57.

x 2
b) The function goes through zero when x = is an integral multiple of .
2 6 4 2 0 2 4 6
The function is unity at x 0. This form is called sampling function or inter-
polating function or filtering function, and it occurs frequently in modern Fig. 7.57
communication theory.
459
From the figure, we see that the major portion of the amplitude spectrum of the rectangular pulse spreads over
2 2
the frequency range from − to . If the pulse is carried through a transmission system, the bandwidth
(BW) of the system must accommodate the major portion of the amplitude spectrum for reasonable fidelity in
2
transmission; i.e., the cut-off frequency of the system must be at least, C = .
⎡ 2 ⎤
Thus, C × = 2 ⎢ BW = ⎥
⎣ ⎦
product of the bandwidth and pulse width is a constant.
2
(c) We know that the dominant portion of the amplitude spectrum lies in the frequency range 0 ≤ ≤ .
The Fourier transform of the rectangular voltage pulse is

⎛ ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
V ( j ) =V
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
The portion of the total 1- energy associated with v(t) that lies in the dominant portion of the amplitude
spectrum is
⎛ ⎞
2 sin 2 ⎜ ⎟
1 ⎝ 2⎠ 2V 2 sin 2 x ⎧ ⎫
W1′Ω = ∫V d = ∫ dx ⎨let , x = ,∴dx = d ⎬
2 2
2 2
0 ⎛ ⎞ 0 x ⎩ 2 2 ⎭
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
2V 2 ⎡ 2 ⎧ 1 ⎫ sin 2 x ⎤ 2V 2 ⎡ sin 2 x ⎤
= ⎢sin x ⎨− ⎬ + ∫ dx ⎥ = ⎢0 + ∫ dx ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎩ x ⎭0 0 x ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 x ⎥⎦
4V 2 sin 2 x 2V 2 sin 1
= ∫0 2 x d x = ∫
0
d [ Let , = 2 x,∴dx = d ]
2
2V 2
= × 1.418
[The value of the integral as found from the table of sine integrals is 1.418]
2V 2
∴W1′ = × 1.418
Total 1- energy for v(t) is
W1 = ∫V 2 d = V 2
0
Hence the percentage of total energy contained in the dominant portion of the amplitude spectrum is
W1′ 2 × 1.418
× 100 = × 100 = 90.2%
W1
460
Summary
1. A function of time f (t ) is said to be periodic if it repeats 7. Effective or rms value of a periodic function is given as,
itself every T seconds i.e. f (t ) f (t nT ) where n is a 2
∞ ⎛
A ⎞
positive integer and ‘T ’ is the period. Thus, a periodic Feff ⎡⎣or Fr ms ⎤⎦ = A0 2 + ∑ ⎜ n ⎟
function repeats itself every T seconds. n =1 ⎝ 2⎠
2. The conditions under which a periodic function f (t )
8. Steady-state response of a circuit with non-sinusoidal
can be expanded in a convergent Fourier series, are
periodic excitation can be found using Fourier series
known as Dirichlet’s conditions
representation.
3. Any non-sinusoidal periodic function can be repre-
sented by Fourier series expansion as 9. Fourier transform is used for aperiodic functions. It
∞
f (t ) = a 0 + (a1 cos t + a 2 cos 2 t + ⋅⋅⋅ ) is defined as F j ( ) = F ⎡⎣f (t )⎤⎦ = ∫ f (t )e −j t

dt and
−∞
(
+ ⋅⋅⋅ + b1 sin t + b2 sin2 t + ⋅⋅⋅ + ⋅⋅⋅ ) inverse Fourier transform is defined as
∞
∞
(
= a 0 + ∑ a n cos n t + bn sin n t ) ()
f t = F −1 ⎡⎣ F j ⎤⎦ =
1
( )
∫
2 −∞
F ( j )e j t d
n =1
∞
where, the Fourier coefficients are given as ( )
= ∫ F ( j 2 f e j 2 f df
T −∞
1 T 2
∴ a 0 = ∫ f (t )dt a n = ∫ f (t )cos n tdt
T 0 T 0 10. If f (t ) is a single-valued function and is different from
T
zero over an infinite interval of time then Fourier trans-
2 ∞
T ∫0
bn =
and f (t )sin n tdt form will exist if
∫ f (t ) dt < ∞.
−∞
4. For an odd function, a0 0 and an 0, for an even 11. Fourier transform of a constant is an impulse, i.e.,
function, bn 0 and for a function with half-wave sym- ∴ F ⎡⎣ K ⎤⎦ = 2 K ( )
. Fourier transform of an impulse
metry, a0 an bn 0 for even values of n.
is a constant, i.e. ∴ F ⎡⎣ K (t ) ⎤⎦ = K .
5. The exponential form of Fourier series expansion is
∞ T 12. Fourier transform of a unit step function u(t ) is a com-
1
f (t ) = C 0 + ∑C n
e jn t
where, Cn =
T ∫0
f (t )e − jn t dt . bination of rectangular hyperbola and impulse func-
n =− ∞
tion (of strength at 0), i.e. F ⎡u t ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ ()+
j
1 .
( )
6. If a periodic function is written as
∞ 13. Some important properties of Fourier transform are
f (t ) = A0 + ∑ An cos ( n t − n ) listed in Table 7.1.
n =1
14. The relation between a function f (t ) and its Fourier
then variation of An with n (or n ) is known as the ampli- transform is given by Parseval’s theorem, given as
tude spectrum or frequency-spectrum and variation of ∞
1
∞
2
n with n (or n ) is known as the phase-spectrum of W = ∫ f 2 (t )dt = ∫ F(j ) d .
−∞
2 −∞
the signal.
1. What are the conditions which a periodic function (ii) f (t ) has a finite number of discontinuities in each
must satisfy to have its Fourier series expansion? period, T.
(iii) f (t ) has a finite number of maxima and minima in
The conditions under which a periodic function f(t) can
each period, T.
be expanded in a convergent Fourier series are known T
as Dirichlet’s conditions. (iv) The integral,
∫ f (t ) dt
0
exists and is finite or in
These are as follows: T
another way, ⎡f (t ) ⎤2dt < ∞ .
(i) f (t ) is a single-valued function. ∫⎣ ⎦ 0
461
2. Derive an expression for the effective value of a T
2
2
non-sinusoidal periodic waveform. Thus, an =
T ∫ ⎡⎣f ( x ) + f (− x ) ⎤⎦ cos n
0
xdx
Or,
T
2
2
Discuss the method of computing the effective
value of a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform.
Similarly, bn =
T ∫ ⎡⎣f ( x ) − f (− x ) ⎤⎦ sinn
0
xdx
The effective (or rms) value of a periodic function f (t ) is For an odd function f (x ),
defined as f (x ) f ( x)
Feff ( Fr ms ) Hence, for odd functions a0 0 and an 0
T
2
2 4
1 ⎡ ⎤ ∫ f ( x )sinn
T T ∞
bn =
1
⎢ A0 + ∑ An cos n t − ( ) and x
2
= ∫
T 0
⎡⎣f (t ) ⎤⎦ dt = ∫
T 0⎣ n =1
n ⎥ dt
⎦
T 0
Thus, the Fourier series expansion of an odd function

1⎡ 2 ∞
2T ⎤
⎢ A T + ∑ An ⎥
= contains only the sine terms, the constant and the
T ⎣ 0 n =1 2⎦ cosine terms being zero.
2
4. Show that the Fourier-series expansion of a peri-
∞⎛A ⎞ odic function with even (mirror) symmetry con-
Feff ( Fr ms ) = A0 + ∑ ⎜ n ⎟
2
n =1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ tains only the cosine terms plus a constant.

The Fourier coefficients are obtained as follows.
This shows that the effective value of a periodic func-
tion is the square root of the effective values of the har- T ⎡ 0 T
2 ⎤
1 1⎢
monic components and the square of the dc value. a 0 = ∫ f (t )dt = ∫ f (t )dt + ∫ f (t )dt ⎥
T 0 T ⎢ −T ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
0
3. Show that the Fourier series expansion of a peri-
odic function with odd (rotation) symmetry con- Putting t x in the first integrand and t x in the
tains only the sine terms. second integrand, we get
The Fourier coefficients are obtained as follows. ⎡T ⎤
1⎢ 2
a0 = ∫ ⎡⎣f ( x ) + f ( − x ) ⎤⎦dx ⎥
T ⎡ 0 T
2 ⎤ ⎢
T 0 ⎥
1 1⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
T ∫0 T ⎢ −T∫ ∫0
a0 = f (t )dt = f (t )dt + f (t )dt
⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦ Now,
T
Putting t x in the first integrand and t x in the 2
T ∫0
second integrand, we get an = f (t )cos n tdt
⎡T ⎤
1 2 ⎡T ⎤
a 0 = ⎢ ∫ ⎡⎣f ( x ) + f ( − x ) ⎤⎦dx ⎥
0
2⎢ 2 2
T ⎢0 ⎥ = ∫ f (t )cos n tdt + ∫ f (t ) cos n tdt ⎥ = ⎡⎣ I 1 + I 2 ⎤⎦
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ T ⎢0 ⎥ T
⎢⎣ −T
2 ⎥⎦
Now,
T
Since the variable ‘t ’ in I1 and I2 integrals is a dummy
2
T ∫0
an = f (t )cos n tdt variable, let x t in I1 and x t in I2.
⎡T T
⎤
2⎢ 2 2
⎡T
2 2
0 ⎤ ∴ an = ∫ f ( x )cos n xdx − ∫ f ( − x )cos n x ( −dx ) ⎥
2
= ⎢ ∫ f (t )cos n tdt + ∫ f (t ) cos n tdt ⎥ = ⎡⎣ I 1 + I 2 ⎤⎦ T ⎢0 ⎥
T ⎢0 ⎥ T ⎢⎣ 0
⎥⎦
⎢⎣ −T
2 ⎥⎦
T
2
Since the variable ‘t ’ in I1 and I2 integrals is a dummy 2
variable, let x t in I1 and x t in I2.
Thus, an =
T ∫ ⎡⎣f ( x ) + f (− x ) ⎤⎦ cos n
0
xdx
⎡T T
⎤
2⎢ 2 2
f ( − x )cos n x ( −dx ) ⎥
T
∴ an =
T ⎢0 ∫ f ( x )cos n xdx − ∫ ⎥ 2 2
⎢⎣ 0
⎥⎦
Similarly, bn =
T ∫ ⎡⎣f ( x ) − f (− x ) ⎤⎦ sinn
0
xdx
462
For an even function f (x ), T
2
T
2
f (x )
T
f ( x) = ∫ −f ( x )cos n
0
cos n xdx = ∫ −f (t )cos n
0
cos n tdt
2
2
∴ a0 =
T ∫ f ( x )dx T
2
T
0
an =
2
T
(
1− cos n ) ∫ f (t )cos n tdt 0; for even n, and
2 0
4
T ∫0
an = f ( x )cos n xdx and bn 0 T
2
4
Thus, the Fourier series expansion of an even periodic =
T ∫ f (t )cos n
0
tdt , for odd n.
function contains only the cosine terms plus a con-
stant, all sine terms being zero. Similarly, bn 0, for even n; and
T
5. Show that the Fourier series expansion of a peri- 4 2
odic function with half-wave symmetry contains =

T ∫ f (t )sinn
0
tdt , for odd n.
only the odd harmonics.
Thus, the Fourier-series expansion of a periodic func-
A periodic function f (t ) is said to X T/2 0
tion having half-wave symmetry contains only odd
have half-wave symmetry if it t 0 t/2 harmonics, the constant term being zero.
satisfies the condition
6. What is Gibb’s Phenomena? Explain.
f (t ) f (t T 2), where T time period of the
function In mathematics, the Gibb’s phenomenon (also known as
ringing artifacts), named after the American physicist
⎡ 0 T
2 ⎤
1⎢ 1 J Willard Gibbs, is the peculiar manner in which the Fou-
∴ a0 = ∫ f (t )dt + ∫ f (t )dt ⎥ = ⎡⎣ I 1 + I 2 ⎤⎦
T ⎢ −T ⎥ T rier series of a piecewise continuously differentiable
⎢⎣ 2 0
⎥⎦ periodic function f (t ) behaves at a jump discontinuity.
For I1, let x (t T 2); so, f (t ) f (x T 2) f(x)
and dt dx 1 K=1
T T
0 2 2
∴ I1 = ∫ f (t )dt = ∫ −f ( x )dx = − ∫ f ( x )dx 0 t
−T 0 0
2
1
⎡ T2 T
2 ⎤
1
∴ a 0 = ⎢ − ∫ f ( x )dx + ∫ f (t )dt ⎥
T ⎢ 0 ⎥ 1 K=5
⎢⎣ 0
⎥⎦
⎡ T T
⎤ 0 t
1 2 2
= ⎢ ∫ f ( x )dx − ∫ f ( x )dx ⎥ = 0
T ⎢0 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0
⎥⎦ 1
⎡ T
⎤
2⎢ 2
f (t )cos n tdt ⎥
1
∴ an =
T ⎢ −T∫ ⎥
K = 11
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ 0 t
⎡ 0 T
2 ⎤
2⎢ 2
= ∫ f (t )cos n tdt + ∫ f (t )cos n tdt ⎥ = ⎡⎣ I 1 + I 2 ⎤⎦ 1
T ⎢ −T ⎥ T
⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
0
1 K = 49
Again putting x (t T 2) and following the same
procedure, 0 t
T
( )dx
0 2
I1 = ∫ f (t )cos n tdt = ∫ −f ( x )cos n x −T
2 1
−T 0
2
T
2
Fig. 7.58 Fourier series approximation
= ∫ −f ( x )cos( n x −n )dx of square wave; number of terms in Fourier
0 sum is indicated as K in each plot
463
It is observed that when a periodic waveform is T
1 2
T −T∫
truncated by a Fourier series with a finite number of where, Cn = f (t )e − j n t dt (ii)
terms, there is a considerable amount of error near
2
the points of discontinuity of the wave. The amount of
error is decreased with the increase of number of terms If the period T becomes infinite, the function does not
included in the truncated Fourier series. This phenom- repeat itself and becomes aperiodic or non-periodic.
enon is known as Gibb’s phenomenon. So, the interval between adjacent harmonic frequen-
For example, we consider a square wave as shown in cies is
Fig. 7.58. A general approximation of the wave can be
obtained by taking more and more number of terms of
(
= n +1 − n = = ) 2
T
the Fourier series expansion. 1
or, = = (iii)
The figures show the wave-shapes taking the first T 2 2
term, first 5 terms, first 11 terms and first 49 terms, As T → or → d , and the frequency goes from a
respectively. The rate of oscillation of ripples increases discrete variable over to a continuous variable.
near the points of discontinuity as the contribution of
1 d and n →
more harmonics is taken into consideration. The wave- → (iv)
shape tends to perfectly match the given waveform T 2
when a large number of harmonics is considered. From (2) and (4),
∞
If we consider a point where the waveform f (t ) is C nT → ∫ f (t )e − j t dt This is the Fourier transform of
discontinuous, with different limits to the right and left −∞ f (t ) i.e., F( j ).
of as f ( ) and f ( ), respectively then the value of ∞
the function at will be, F ( j ) = F ⎡⎣f (t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt

f ( +)+ f ( −)
−∞
f ( )= 2 So, from Eq. (1),

f ( )− f ( −) = f ( +)− f ( ) ⎛ 1⎞
∞
or, )
f (t ) = ∑ (C nT e jn t ⎜ ⎟
⎝T ⎠
(v)
−∞
The truncated Fourier series must pass through these
three points, f ( ), f ( ) and f ( ) for correct represen- 1 d
As T → , CnT → F( j ), n →
→ , and
tation of the wave. T 2
7. When do we use Fourier transform?

and ∑ ∫
→
(summation approaches integration). Thus,
Discuss that Fourier integral is the limit of from (5),

∞
Fourier series, as time period T of a repetitive 1
wave approaches infinity as the limit.
f (t ) =
2 ∫f (j
−∞
)e j t d
Or, This is the inverse Fourier transform.

How would you obtain Fourier integral from Fourier
8. What is the difference between a Fourier series and
series?
Fourier integral?
Fourier transform is an integral method for studying the
a) Fourier series is applicable for periodic function
steady-state behaviour of linear circuits. This transform
whereas Fourier integral (transform) is applicable
is used for analyzing non-periodic functions. Periodic
for non-periodic functions.
functions are analyzed by Fourier series expansion. But
b) Amplitude spectrum in case of Fourier series is a
a Fourier series becomes a Fourier transform when the
line spectrum whereas, in case of Fourier transform,
time period of the function becomes very very large,
the amplitude spectrum is a continuous spectrum.
i.e., T → or → . Under this condition, the discrete
line spectra become continuous spectra. 9. How does Fourier transform differ from Laplace
Fourier transform as a limit of Fourier series transform?
Consider the exponential Fourier series, The defining equations are,
∞ ∞ ∞
f (t ) = ∑C n e j n t
(i) F ( s ) = ∫ f (t )e − st dt and F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt
−∞ 0 −∞
464
The following are some differences and similarities: - f (t ) sin t is odd function
∞
(a) Laplace transform is one-sided in the interval
0 t and Fourier transform is double-sided in
∴P ( ) = 2 ∫ f (t )cos tdt
0
the interval t . Thus, Laplace transform
is applicable for positive time function, f (t ), t 0; Q( ) 0
while Fourier transform is applicable for functions So, F( j ) jQ( ) even and real
defined for all times. • When f (t ) is an odd function
(b) Laplace transform includes the initial conditions - f (t ) cos t is an odd function
and is applicable for transient analysis; while Fourier
- f (t ) sin t is an even function
transform is only applicable for steady-state analysis.
∞ P( ) 0
(c) For functions f (t ) 0 for t 0 and ∫ f (t ) dt < ∞,
0 and ∴ P
∞
( ) = 2 ∫ f (t )sin tdt
the two transforms are related as F ( j ) = F ( s ) s = j . 0
Thus, Laplace transform is associated with the So, F( j ) jQ( ) Odd and Imaginary
entire s-plane, while, Fourier transform is restricted 11. Prove that the Fourier transform of the convolution
to the imaginary ( j ) axis. of two time-varying functions is equal to the prod-
(d) Laplace transform is applicable to a wider range of uct of the Fourier transform of each function.
functions than the Fourier transform. On the other According to convolution integral, if h(t ) is the impulse
hand, Fourier transforms exist for signals that are not response of a linear network, then the response of the
physically realizable and have no Laplace transform. same network y(t ) subject to any arbitrary input w(t ) is
10. Show that when f (t) is an even function of t, its Fou- given by the convolution integral as,
rier transform F( j␻) is an even function of ␻ and ∞ ∞
is real; while when f (t) is an odd function of t, its y (t ) = ∫ h ( )w (t − )d = ∫ w ( )h (t − )d (i)

Fourier transform F( j␻) is an odd function of ␻ and −∞ −∞
is imaginary. If W( ), H( ) and Y( ) are the Fourier transforms of w(t ),

From the definition of Fourier transform, h(t ) and y(t ), respectively, then
∞ ∞ Y( ) = F ⎡⎣ h (t ) * w (t )⎤⎦ = H ( )W ( ) (ii)
F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt = ∫ f (t )( cos t − j sin t dt ) i.e., convolution in time-domain corresponds to multi-
−∞ −∞
∞ ∞ plication in frequency-domain.
= ∫ f (t )cos tdt − j ∫ f (t )sin tdt = P ( ) + jQ ( ) Proof Taking Fourier transform of both sides of (i),
−∞ −∞ ∞
where,
∞ we get, Y( ) = ∫ ⎡⎣ h ( )w (t − )d ⎤e − j t dt
⎦
P ( ) = ∫ f (t )cos tdt = Even function of −∞
−∞ Exchanging the order of integration and factoring h( )

i.e. , P ( ) = P ( − )
which is independent of t, we get,
∞
∞ ∞
Q ( ) = ∫ f (t )sin tdt = Odd function of
and
−∞
Y( ) = ∫ h ( ) ∫ ⎡⎣w (t − )e −j t
dt ⎤⎦d
i.e., Q ( ) = −Q ( − ) −∞ −∞
F(j )= F(j )e ( )
j For the integral within bracket, let, (t ), so that,
Now,
t ( ), and dt d
∞ ∞
F ( j ) = P 1 ( ) + Q 2 ( ) = Even function of ∴Y ( ) = ∫ h ( ) ∫ ⎡⎣w ( )e −j ( + )
d ⎤d
⎦
−∞ −∞
⎡Q ⎤ ( ) ∞ ∞
and ( ) = tan⎢ −1
⎥ = Odd function of = ∫h ( )e −j
∫ w ( )e
−j
⎢⎣ P ⎥⎦ ( ) −∞
d
−∞
d
• When f (t ) is an even function

- f (t ) cos t is an even function
Y( ) = H ( )W ( )
465
12. When a complex voltage wave is applied to a pure Hence, the current waveform is obtained by the prin-
capacitor, the current wave has more harmonics ciple of superposition considering the different har-
than the applied voltage wave. Explain why. monic components.
( ) ( )
We consider a voltage as given below be applied to a V V
∴ i = 1m sin t − 90° + 2 m sin 2 t − 90° +
pure capacitor C. L 2 L
)
v V1m sin t V2m sin 2 t V3m sin 3 t
(
V3m
sin 3 t − 90° + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
The capacitance reactances for different harmonics are 3 L
as given. From v and i, it is seen that the percentage harmon-
1 ics in the current wave is less than that in the voltage
XC = ; for fundamental wave. For nth harmonic, the percentage harmonic in the
C
current wave is 1/n -times than in the voltage wave.
1
= ; for second harmonic
2 C Respective rms values of the voltage and current are
1 given as,
= ; for third harmonic, and so on.
3 C 1
V RMS = V1m 2 +V 2 m 2 +V 3 m 2 + ⋅⋅⋅
Hence, the current waveform is obtained by the prin- 2
ciple of superposition considering the different har- 2
⎛ V1m ⎞ ⎛ V 2 m ⎞ ⎛ V 3 m ⎞
2 2
1
monic components. I RMS = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ + ⋅⋅⋅
2 ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 2 L⎠ ⎝ 3 L⎠
i V1m ( C )sin( t 90 ) V2m (2 C )sin(2 t 90 )
V3m (3 C )sin(3 t 90 ) 1 ⎛ 2 V
2
V 2 ⎞ 1
= ⎜ V1m + 2 m 4 + 3 m 9 + ⋅⋅⋅⎟
From v and i, it is seen that the percentage harmonics 2⎝ ⎠ L
in the current wave is more than that in the voltage
wave. For nth harmonic, the percentage harmonic in the From the above discussion, we conclude that when a
current wave is n times than in the voltage wave. complex voltage wave is applied to a pure inductor,
the current wave has lesser harmonics than the applied
Respective rms values of the voltage and current are
voltage wave.
given as,
14. If a voltage wave containing a dc component is
1
V r ms = V1m 2 +V 2 m 2 +V 3 m 2 + ⋅⋅⋅ applied to a series RC circuit, the current wave
2 does not contain the corresponding dc component.
1
(V ) + (2V ) + (3V ) Explain why.
2 2 2
I r ms = 1m
C 2m
C 3m
C + ⋅⋅⋅
2 We consider a voltage wave as given by
=
1
2
(V 1m
2
+ 4V 2 m + 9V 3 m + ⋅⋅⋅⋅
2 2
) C v V0 V1m sin t V3m sin 3 t V5m sin 5 t
be applied to a series RC circuit. Here, V0 is the dc com-
ponent of the voltage wave.
From the above discussion, we conclude that when a com-
plex voltage wave is applied to a pure capacitor, the current The impedance of the circuit at any frequency is
wave has more harmonics than the applied voltage wave. ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎝
)
Z (n = ⎜ R +
jn C ⎟⎠
13. When a complex voltage wave is applied to a pure
inductor, the current wave has lesser harmonics
so that the current for different harmonics will be
than the applied voltage wave. Explain why.
V0 V1 V3 V5
We consider a voltage as given below be applied to a I= + + + + ⋅⋅⋅
pure inductor L. Z (0 ) Z (1 ) Z (3 ) Z (5 )
v V1m sin t V2m sin 2 t V3m sin 3 t Now, the impedance corresponding to the dc compo-
The inductance reactances for different harmonics are nent is Z(0)
as given. Hence the dc component of the current is
XC L; for fundamental
V0 V0
2 L; for second harmonic I0 = = =0
3 L; for third harmonic, and so on. Z (0 ) ∞
466
Hence, we see that if a voltage wave containing a dc sin x
component is applied to a series RC circuit, the cur- The plot of versus x (here, x = ) is shown in
x 2
rent wave does not contain the corresponding dc
Fig. 7.60.
component.
15. Find the amplitude-frequency distribution of a F(j )

V
single non-repetitive voltage pulse of duration one
microsecond and explain how its frequency-band-
width is estimated.
Or,
Consider a periodic voltage pulse waveform of

period T (second) and width T0 (second). Find an
expression for the frequency-spectra of this wave-
form and explain how you would use this result to
estimate the bandwidth required for the transmis-
sion of such a signal.
Or,
f( t)
(a) For the pulse shown in
V
Fig. 7.59, prove that
0 6 4 0 2 4 6
t
␻␦ Fig. 7.60
sin ⴚ␦Ⲑ2 0 ␦Ⲑ2
F ( j ␻ ) =V ␦ 2
␻␦ Fig. 7.59
2 (b) The function goes through zero when x = is
2
(b) Draw the frequency spectra of this waveform an integral multiple of . The function is unity
and explain how you would use this result at x 0. This form is called sampling function or
to estimate the bandwidth required for the interpolating function or filtering function, and
transmission of such a signal. it occurs frequently in modern communication
theory.
(a) The pulse is, f (t ) = V , − <t <
2 2 From Fig. 7.60, we see that the major portion
of the amplitude spectrum of the rectangular
So, the Fourier transform,
pulse spreads over the frequency range from
−j 2 2
∞ ∞
e
j
2
−e 2 − to . If the pulse is carried through a
F ( j ) = ∫ f (t )e − j t dt = ∫ Ve − j t dt =V
−∞ −∞
j transmission system, the bandwidth (BW) of the
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ system must accommodate the major portion of
sin⎜ ⎟ sin⎜ ⎟ the amplitude spectrum for reasonable fidelity
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 2V = 2V × in transmission; i.e. the cut-off frequency of the
⎛ ⎞ 2
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 2
system must be at least, C
= .
⎛ ⎞ ⎡ 2 ⎤
sin⎜ ⎟ Thus, × =2 ⎢ BW = ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠
C
⎣ ⎦
∴F j( ) =V
⎛ ⎞ product of the bandwidth and pulse width is a
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
constant.
467
Exercises
Fourier Series 1F
1. Find the Fourier series expansion for the following v (t)
functions and sketch the frequency spectrum. 10
2H
(a) f (t ) t v(t ) 20
A 0 2 3
Fig. 7.63 (a) Fig. 7.63 (b)

t
T 0 T 2T
4. Find the Fourier series expansion for the waveforms
shown in Fig. 7.64.
(b) f (t )
T/2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
[(a) v = −2 ⎢ sin x + sin2 x + sin3 x + sin 4 x + ⋅⋅⋅⎥
⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦
V 4V 4V 4V
T T/2 0 T/2 T 2T t (b) v = 2 + 2 cos x + cos 3 x + cos 5 x + ⋅⋅⋅ ]
( ) ( )
2 2
3 5
(c) f (t)
(a) v
1
2 4
x
0 3
2 0 2 t
Fig. 7.56
(b) f (x )
A ∞ A
)
[Ans: (a) f (t = + ∑
2 n =1 n
sin n t V
T 2T ⎡ ⎤
(b) f t = () 1
− 2 ⎢cos t + 2 cos 3 t + ⋅⋅⋅⎥ 0 2 3 x
4 ⎣ 3 ⎦ Fig. 7.64
∞ 5. A triangular wave increases linearly from 0 to Vm during
()
(c) f t =
1 1 2 1
+ sin t − ∑ 2 cos 2 n t ] the interval 0 to . The wave has zero value during the
2 n =1 4 n − 1
interval to 2 and this cycle is repeated. Find the
2. A periodic waveform as shown in Fig. 7.62 feeds an RL Fourier series representation of the wave.
1
load with R 10 ohm and L H. Calculate the power V m 2V m ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
2 [v = − 2 ⎜ cos x + cos 5 x + ⋅⋅⋅⎟ +
at the fundamental frequency supplied to the load. 4 ⎝ 25 ⎠
f (t ) Vm ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
sin x − sin2 x + sin3 x − sin 4 x + ⋅⋅⋅⎟ ]
A ⎝⎜ 2 3 4 ⎠⎦
t 6. A wave has a constant value Im during the interval −

2
0 T 2T 3
to and Im during the interval to
. This cycle
Fig. 7.62 2 2 2
is repeated in the next intervals. Find the Fourier series
3. A waveform of the shape shown in Fig. 7.63 (a) is for the wave.
applied to the network shown in Fig. 7.63 (b). Cal-
⎡ 4I m ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞⎤
culate the power dissipated in a 20- resistor. Take ⎢i = ⎜⎝ cos − 3 cos 3 + 5 cos 5 − 7 cos 7 + ⋅⋅⋅⎠⎟ ⎥
1 rad/s. [1.17 W] ⎣ ⎦
468
7. (a) Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the voltage 12. The voltage source in Fig. 7.68 is an exponentially
wave shown in Fig. 7.65. decaying pulse,
v(t ) v (t ) 0 for t 0
t
e for t 0
Find the output voltage V0.
1.0
⎛ 1 ⎞ − t RC RC −
[V0 = ⎜ e − e t
for t 0.]
⎝ 1− RC ⎟⎠ 1− RC
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 t(second )
C
Fig. 7.65
(b) If this voltage is applied to a capacitor of 1F, find the
current.
v (t) R V0
8. A series RLC circuit with R 5 ,L 5 mH, C 50 F
has an applied voltage
v(t) 150 sin 1000t 100 sin 2000t 75 sin 3000t (V)
Fig. 7.68
Determine the effective current and average power.
[16.58 A; 1374 W]
13. A cosine pulse v Vm cos t is zero for all time except
Fourier Transform
− ≤ t ≤ . Find the Fourier transform of the pulse
9. Find the Fourier transform of the following functions: 2 2
(i) f (t ) e at u(t ), a 0 and sketch the continuous amplitude spectrum and
(ii) f (t ) e a t , for all values of t ⎡ 2V m ⎛ ⎞⎤
(iii) f (t ) 1 phase spectrum. ⎢ cos ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥
(iv) Unit impulse function, (t ) ⎣ 1− 2
⎝ 2 ⎦
(v) Signum function, sgn(t )
14. Find the Fourier transform of the triangular pulse
(vi) Unit step function, u(t )
shown in Fig. 7.69.
10. Determine the output voltage response across the
capacitor to a current source excitation i(t ) e tu(t ), as f (t )
shown in Fig. 7.66. [v (t ) e t e 2 t (V )] 1.0
⎡ ⎛ t⎞ ⎤
t ⎢ sin2 ⎜ ⎥
⎢ t ⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎥
0 ⎢2 2 ⎥
t ⎢ ⎛ t⎞ ⎥
i (t) 0.5 1 F v(t)
⎢ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Fig. 7.69 ⎣
15. Determine the response of the network shown in

Fig. 7.66
Fig. 7.70 (b) when a voltage having the waveform
11. The current source in Fig. 7.67 is i(t ) 4e t for t 0. shown in Fig. 7.70 (a) is applied to it, by using Fourier
Find the voltage V0 using Fourier transform method. transform method.
[v (t ) 8e t 8e 2 t (V )]
v (t)
1
1
i (t ) 1 0.5 Fv (t v (t ) 1F
0
0 t
Fig. 7.67 Fig. 7.70 (a) Fig. 7.70 (b)

469
Questions
1. (a) What are the conditions which a periodic function ii. When a complex voltage wave is applied to a
must satisfy to have its Fourier series expansion? pure inductor, the current wave has lesser har-
(b) Write the trigonometric form of the Fourier series monics than the applied voltage wave.
for a function f(t) and explain, by deriving neces- iii. If a voltage wave containing a dc component is
sary relations, how the values of various coeffi- applied to a series RC circuit, the current wave does
cients are obtained. not contain the corresponding dc component.
Or, 6. (a) Give the definitions of a Fourier transform pair and
What do you understand by Fourier series? Outline illustrate its use in network analysis with one example.
the general procedure of determining Fourier series (b) Explain clearly the difference between Fourier
of periodic waveform. transform and Laplace transform and discuss briefly
their importance in analyzing electrical network.
(c) Give the exponential form of Fourier series for a
periodic function. Or,
2. Derive an expression for the effective value of a non- Define Fourier’s transform. How does Fourier trans-
sinusoidal periodic waveform form differ from i) Fourier integral, and ii) Laplace
transform?
Or,
(c) Write a brief note on the use of Fourier transform and
Discuss the method of computing the effective value Fourier integrals in the analysis of circuits excited by
of a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform. ideal sources of non-sinusoidal waveforms.
3. (a) Explain clearly the significance of the following (d) Discuss the important properties of Fourier trans-
terms used in determining Fourier series of a given forms.
waveform: 7. Explain briefly the inter-relation between Fourier
i. Odd symmetry or rotation symmetry series, Fourier transforms and Laplace transforms.
ii. Even symmetry or mirror symmetry 8. When do we use Fourier transform?
iii. Half-wave symmetry or alternation symmetry
Discuss that Fourier integral is the limit of Fourier
iv. Quarter-wave symmetry
series, as time period T of a repetitive wave approaches
(b) Show that the Fourier series expansion of a peri- infinity as the limit.
odic function with odd (rotation) symmetry con-
Or,
tains only the sine terms.
(c) Show that the Fourier series expansion of a peri- How would you obtain Fourier integral from Fourier
odic function with even (mirror) symmetry con- series?
tains only the cosine terms plus a constant. 9. Find the amplitude-frequency distribution of a single
(d) Show that the Fourier series expansion of a peri- non-repetitive voltage pulse of one-microsecond
odic function with half-wave symmetry contains duration and explain how its frequency-bandwidth is
only the odd harmonics. estimated.
4. Discuss in brief the following: Or,
i. Fourier series and its applications to network Consider a periodic voltage pulse waveform of period
analysis T (second) and width T0 (second). Find an expression
ii. Method of analyzing the complex waveform by for the frequency-spectra of this waveform and explain
Fourier series how you would use this result to estimate the band-
iii. Frequency and phase spectra of periodic waveform width required for the transmission of such a signal.
iv. Truncating Fourier series 10. State and prove Parseval’s theorem for a periodic func-
v. Gibb’s phenomenon tion.
5. Explain why: 11. Show that when f (t ) is an even function of t, its Fou-
i. When a complex voltage wave is applied to a rier transform f ( j ) is an even function of and is real;
pure capacitor, the current wave has more har- while when f(t) is an odd function of t, its Fourier trans-
monics than the applied voltage wave. form f ( j ) is an odd function of and is imaginary.
470
1. A current consists of a fundamental component of 9. Which of the following statements is true for a delayed
amplitude I1, and a third harmonic of amplitude I3. The step function u(t T )?
rms value of current will be (i) It has an infinite Fourier series.
(i)
(I 1
+ I3 ) (ii)
(I 1
+ I3 ) (ii) It has no Fourier series.
2 2 2 (iii) It has a finite Fourier series.
(iv) Its Laplace transform is 1s.
(iii) I 12 + I 32 (iv)
(I 1
2
+ I 32 ) 10. Which one of the following is the correct Fourier trans-
2
form of the unit step signal u(t )?
2. The Fourier series expansion of a periodic function 1
with half-wave symmetry contains only (i) ( ) (ii)
j
(i) sine terms (ii) cosine terms
(iii) odd harmonics (iv) even harmonics (iii)
j
1
+ ( ) (iv)
j
1
+2 ( )
3. A periodic function f (t ) is said to have a quarter wave
symmetry, if it possesses 11. If f (t ) f ( t ) and f (t ) satisfy the Dirichlet’s condi-
tions then f (t ) can be expanded in a Fourier series con-
(i) even symmetry at an interval of quarter of a wave
taining
(ii) even symmetry and half-wave symmetry only
(i) only sine terms
(iii) even or odd symmetry without the half-wave
(ii) only cosine terms
symmetry
(iii) cosine terms and a constant term
(iv) even or odd symmetry with the half-wave symmetry
(iv) sine terms and a constant term
4. If f (t ) is a periodic waveform with even symmetry then
12. The Fourier transform F( j ) of an arbitrary signal has
its Fourier series expansion does not contain
the property:
(i) sine terms (ii) cosine terms
(i) F ( j ) F( j ) (ii) F ( j ) F( j )
(iii) odd harmonics (iv) even harmonics
(iii) F ( j ) F*( j ) (iv) F ( j ) F*( j )
5. Periodic signal that obeys Dirichlet’s condition can be
13. The Fourier series expansion of an odd periodic func-
represented by
tion contains
(i) Fourier series (ii) Fourier transform
(i) cosine terms
(iii) Inverse Fourier transform (iv) none of these (ii) constant terms only
6. Which of the following conditions is true for an even (iii) sine terms.
function? 14. For the expansion of f ( t ) in the Fourier series
(i) f (t ) = −f t ±T ( 2 ) (ii) f (t ) f (t ) a0 a1 cos t
sin n t, if f ( t ) f (
an cos n t
t ) then
b1 sin t bn
(iii) f (t ) f( t) (iv) f (t ) f (T )
(i) an 0 (ii) bn 0 for all n
7. Which of the following conditions is true for an odd (iii) a0 0 (iv) an 0 for all n except n 0.
function?
)
15. Two complex waves will have the same waveform if:
(i) f (t ) = −f t ±T ( 2
(ii) f (t ) f( t) (i) they contain the same harmonics
(iii) f (t ) f( t) (iv) f (t ) f (T ) (ii) the harmonics are similarly spaced with respect
8. A periodic function f (t ) having a time period T repeats to the fundamental
itself after half-time period T/2. The Fourier series of (iii) the ratio of corresponding harmonics to their
f (t ) would contain respective fundamentals is the same
(i) cosine terms only (iv) all of the above
(ii) sine terms only 16. The complex wave is symmetrical when
(iii) odd harmonic terms only (i) it contains only even harmonics
(iv) even harmonic terms only (ii) it contains only odd harmonics
471
(iii) it contains both odd and even harmonics 21. The Fourier transform of a signum function is given by
(iv) the phase difference between even harmonics and 1
3 (i) j f (ii)
fundamental is either or j f
2 2
(f )
17. An even waveform when expressed in exponential 1
Fourier series will contain (iii) + (iv) j f (f )
j f
(i) only imaginary coefficients 22. The Fourier transform of the unit impulse function (t )
(ii) only real coefficients would be
(iii) both (i) and (ii)
(iv) none of these 1 2 1
(i) (ii) (2 ) (iii) 1 (iv)
18. The current wave- 9
i(A)
(2 + )2
2
form in a pure resis- 23. A ramp function
tor of 10 is shown
(i) has Laplace transform but not Fourier transform
in Fig. 7.71. The 0 3 6 9 t (Second)
power dissipated in (ii) has Fourier transform but not Laplace transform
the resistor is Fig. 7.71 (iii) has both Laplace and Fourier transforms
(i) 7.29 W (ii) 52.4 W (iii) 135 W (iv) 270 W (iv) none of these
19. The inverse Fourier transform of 24. x(t ) is a real-valued function of a real variable with
∞ period T. Its trigonometric Fourier series expan-
F(j ) = ∫ exp( − j t )f (t )dt is
(2 k )
−∞ sion contains no terms of frequency ; =2
T
∞
k = 1, 2, … Also, no sine terms are present. Then x(t )
()
(i) f t = ∫ exp + j t F j ( ) ( )d satisfies the equation
−∞
∞ (i) x(t ) x(t T )

(ii) f t = 1
2
() ∫ exp( + j t )F ( j )d (ii) x(t ) x(T t ) x( t)
( )
−∞
∞
() (
(iii) x t = x T − t = − x t −T )
(iii) f t = () 1
∫ exp( − j t )F ( + j )d 2
( )
2
() ( )
−∞
∞ (iv) x t = x t −T = x t −T
2
(iv) f t = ()
1
(
∫ exp − j t F − j ) ( )d
2 −∞ 25. An input voltage )
v (t = 10 2 cos (t + 10° + )
( )
20. Fourier transform of the f ( t) 10 5 cos 2t + 10° V is applied to a series combination
gate function as shown in 1
Fig. 7.72 is of resistance R 1 and an inductance L 1 H. The
resulting steady-state current i(t ) in amperes is
)
f (t = 1 for − ≤t ≤ t
2
= 0 otherwise
2
Ⲑ2 0 Ⲑ2 ( )
(i) 10 cos t + 55° + 10 cos 2t + 10° + tan−1 2( )
Fig. 7.72
(where is the width of the
gate function)
(
(ii) 10 cos t + 55° + 10 ) 3
2
(
cos 2t + 55° )
The value of F( ) is
( ) (
(iii) 10 cos t − 35° + 10 cos 2t + 10° − tan−1 2 )
(i)
sin( ) (ii)
(
sin 2 )
2 (
(iv) 10 cos t − 35° + 10 ) 3
2
(
cos 2t − 35° )
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
sin⎜ sin⎜ ⎟ 26. Choose the function f (t ), t , for which a Fou-
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ rier series cannot be defined.
(iii) (iv)
⎛ ⎞ 2 ⎛ ⎞ (i) 3 sin(25t) (ii) 4 cos(20t 3) 2sin(710t)
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
(iii) exp( t )sin(25t) (iv) 1
472
Answers
1. (iv) 7. (ii) 13. (iii) 19. (ii) 25. (iii)

2. (iii) 8. (iii) 14. (ii) 20. (iii) 26. (iii)
3. (iv) 9. (iii) 15. (iv) 21. (ii)
4. (i) 10. (iii) 16. (ii) 22. (iii)
5. (i) 11. (i) 17. (ii) 23. (i)
6. (iii) 12. (iii) 18. (iv) 24. (iv)
8 Sinusoidal Steady
State Analysis
Introduction
While dc circuit analysis is carried out by solving algebraic equations, the analysis of ac circuits composed
of capacitors, inductors as well as resistors will require solving differential equations. The solution of a
differential equation represents the response of the circuit to both the external input and the initial state,
and is composed of two parts:
• homogeneous solution representing the transient/natural response caused by the initial
condition, and
• particular solutions representing the steady-state/forced response caused by the external input.
A sinusoidal excitation function provides both the transient and steady-state responses. When the
transient response dies out, the circuit is said to be in sinusoidally steady state.
In this chapter, we will discuss the basics of alternating quantities and the analysis of different electrical
circuits under sinusoidally steady state.
8.1 ADVANTAGES OF USING ALTERNATING CURRENTS IN ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
Alternating current has a number of advantages over dc. Some of the advantages are given below.
1. Alternators (generators designed for ac operation) do not require the slip-rings and commutators (brushes)
upon which their dc cousins depend.
2. An even greater advantage of ac is that its voltage can be stepped up to higher levels with a transformer,
sent great distances through high-tension wires, and stepped down at its destination.
3. Alternators at power stations produce three-phase electricity; they have three coils equally spaced around
their primary coil, each of which is induced to produce a 50-Hz alternating current for three circuits.
Three-phase electricity can supply as much current through three thin wires as it would normally take
two thick wires to carry. The advantage in using a thinner wire is to minimize the electrical resistance
that a thick wire would produce.
4. Also, line losses are lower for ac than dc for a given wattage delivery and wire diameter.
474
8.2 BASICS OF SINUSOIDS

A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of sine or cosine function.
We consider a sinusoidal voltage, v (t ) Vm sin t
where, Vm is the amplitude,
t is the argument of the sinusoid,
2
is the angular frequency of the sinusoid in rad/s 2 f
T is the time period of the sinusoid. T
As the sinusoid is periodic, it repeats itself; such that
⎛ 2 ⎞
() ( )
v t = v t + T = Vm sin ⎜ t +
⎝ ⎟⎠ = Vm sin ( t+2 ) =V
m
sin
A shifted sinusoid can be written as v (t ) Vm sin ( t )

where, is the phase of the sinusoid.
Thus, we see that sin t sin ( t 180 ) Fig. 8.1 Sinusoid
cos t cos ( t 180 )
cos t sin ( t 90 )
sin t cos ( t 90 )
8.2.1 Advantages of Sinusoidal Waveforms

1. Sinusoidal waveforms produce minimum disturbance in electrical circuits during operation.
2. Sinusoidal waveforms produce electromagnetic torque which is free of noise and oscillations.
3. Sinusoidal waveforms cause less interference to nearby communication lines (telephones, etc.)
4. The iron and copper losses with sinusoidal waveforms are low in transformers and rotating ac machines.
Therefore, the machines operate with higher efficiency with sinusoidal waveforms.
5. The possibility of resonance is much reduced with the use of sinusoidal waveforms compared to other
non-sinusoidal waveforms containing harmonic frequencies.
8.3 TERMINOLOGIES
We consider the following terminologies for alternating quantities.
Waveform and Waveshape Alternating quantities i
Im
may be represented graphically. The shape of the
curve obtained by plotting the values of the function
at different instants is known as the waveform or b c d f g h
0 a e
waveshape.
In electrical engineering, any alternating voltage or
current may have any waveshape. However, any wave- Im
1 cycle 1 cycle
form can be represented by the various combinations of
Fig. 8.2 Periodic waveform
sinusidal waves. Thus, sinusoid is the basis of all alter-
nating quantities.
Period and frequency The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is known as the
time period. It is measured in seconds and denoted by T.
475
The number of cycles completed per second by an alternating quantity is known as the frequency. It is mea-
sured in Hertz or cycles per second and is denoted by f.
The relation between T and f is f 1冫T .
Phase Phase is a frequently used term for alternating quantities. The word comes from a Greek word which
originally referred to the eternally regular changing appearance of the moon through each month, and then
was applied to the periodic changes of some quantity, such as the voltage in an ac circuit. Electrical phase is
measured in degrees, with 360° corresponding to a complete cycle. A sinusoidal voltage is proportional to the
cosine or sine of the phase.
The phase of an oscillation or wave is the fraction of a complete cycle corresponding to an offset in the dis-
placement from a specified reference point at time t 0.
The concept of phase can be readily understood in terms of simple harmonic motion. Simple harmonic
motion is a displacement that varies cyclically, as depicted below and Displacement
described by the formula x(t ) A sin(2 f t ) Period
where A is the amplitude of oscillation, and f is the frequency. A motion Amplitude
1
with frequency f has period T = where t is the elapsed time, Time
f
and is the phase of the oscillation. It determines or is deter-
Fig. 8.3 Periodic function
mined by the initial displacement at time t 0.
Phase Shift Here, is sometimes referred as a phase shift, because it represents a shift from zero phase. But
a change in is also referred as a phase shift.
Phase shift = 90 degrees

A is ahead of B
A B (A ‘leads’ B)

B is ahead of A
B A (B ‘leads’ A)
A Phase shift = 180 degrees

A and B waveforms are
B mirror images of each other

A and B waveforms are
A B in perfect step with each other
Fig. 8.3 Examples of phase shifts

476
For infinitely long sinusoids, a change in is the same as a shift in time, such as a time delay. If x(t) is delayed
1
(time-shifted) by of its cycle, it becomes:
4
⎛ T⎞ ⎛ ⎛ T⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x ⎜ t − ⎟ = Asin ⎜ 2 f ⎜ t − ⎟ + ⎟ = Asin ⎜ 2 ft − + ⎟ whose ‘phase’ is now − . It has been shifted by − .
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2
Phase Difference When two alternating quantities of the same frequency are considered simultaneously,
they may not pass through a particular point at the same instant. One may pass through its maximum value at
an instant while the other may pass through its value other than the maximum. These two quantities are said to
have a phase difference. A B A B
Phase difference is measured by the angular distance between the A B
points where the two alternating waves cross the reference line in the A B
same direction.
A B A B
The quantity ahead in phase is said to lead the other quantity
Fig. 8.5 Two alternating waves with
while the second quantity is said to lag behind the first quantity. If
phase difference
two quanties have zero phase difference, they are said to be in phase
with each other. In Fig. 8.5, the wave B is lagging behind the wave A or the wave A is leading the wave B.
Example 8.1 Find the amplitude, phase, period and frequency of the sinusoid given as f( t )
100 cos(50t 45 ).
Solution The amplitude is Fm 100
The phase is, 45
The angular frequency is, 50 rad/s
2 2
The period is, T= = = 0.1257 s
50
1 1
The frequency is, f= = = 7.958 Hz
T 0.1257
Example 8.2 Calculate the phase angle between the two currents:
i1 4sin(377t 25 ) and i2 5cos(377t 40 )
Does i1 lead or lag i2?
Solution i1 4 sin(377t 25 ) 4 cos(377t 25 90 ) 4 cos(377t 115 )

i2 5 cos(377t 40 )
phase angle between i1 and i2 is, 115 ( 40 ) 155 Here, i2 lags behind i1.
8.4 SOME VALUES OF ALTERNATING QUANTITIES

The magnitude of an alternating quantity changes with time. Four different types of values are specified for an
alternating quantity:
1. Instantaneous value,
2. Peak or maximum or crest value,
477
3. Average or mean value, and

4. Effective or RMS value.
Instantaneous Value The value of an alternating quantity at any instant of time is known as the instanta-
neous value.
It is denoted by small (lower case) letters. For example, instantaneous value of an alternating current is
denoted by i.
Peak or Maximum or Crest Value The maximum value of an alternating quantity, attained in each cycle
is known as the peak or maximum or crest value.
For example, for the alternating voltage given by v(t ) Vm sin t; the peak value is Vm.
Average or Mean Value The average value of an alternating quantity over a given time interval is the
summation of all instantaneous values divided by the number of values taken over that interval.
In other words, the average value of a waveform is the area under the curve divided by the length of the base
of the curve. Mathematically,
T
1
T ∫0
Vav = vdt , where T is the time period of the quantity.
In electrical sense, the average value of an alternating current is the equal dc current that transfers across a cir-
cuit the same amount of charge as that transferred by an ac current during a given interval. Note that the average
value of a purely sinusoidal waveform is always zero.
Effective or rms Value In mathematics, the root mean square (abbreviated rms or rms), also known as
the quadratic mean, is a statistical measure of the magnitude of a varying quantity. It is especially useful when
variates are positive and negative, e.g., sinusoids.
It can be calculated for a series of discrete values or for a continuously varying function. The name comes
from the fact that it is the square root of the mean of the squares of the values.
The rms of a collection of n values {x1, x2, x3, . . ., xn} is
1 n 2 x 2 + x2 2 + x32 + ⋅⋅⋅+ xn 2
xrms = ∑
n i =1
xi = 1
n
The corresponding formula for a continuous function f (t ) defined over the interval T1 t T2
i (t ) i2
T i1 in
()
T
1 2
()
2
1
∫ ⎡ f t ⎤ dt 2
f rms =
T ∫0 ⎣
⎣ ⎦ or, f rms = ⎡ f t ⎤ dt
T2 − T1 T ⎦
1
T
The rms of a periodic function is equal to the rms of one period of the func-
tion. The rms value of a continuous function or signal can be approximated by Fig. 8.6 rms value
taking the rms of a series of equally spaced samples as follows.
i12 + i2 2 + i32 + ⋅⋅⋅+ in 2
For this current waveform, the rms value is obtained as I rms =
n
In electrical sense, the rms or effective value of an alternating current or voltage is that constant current or
voltage which when applied to a resistance will produce the same average power dissipation as that produced
by the alternating current or voltage in the same resistance.
478
8.4.1 Form Factor

It is defined as the ratio of the rms value to the average value for an alternating wave.
( )
∴ formfactor K f =
rms value
average value
Form factor is used to determine the effective or rms value of an alternating quantity whose average value
over half of a period is known.
8.4.2 Peak Factor

It is defined as the ratio of the peak value to the rms value for an alternating wave.
( )
∴ peak factor K p =
peak value maximum value
rms value
=
rms value
For a sinusoidal wave, its value is 1.414.
Peak factor is used to find the value of dielectric strength of an insulating material since the dielectric stress
developed is proportional to the peak value of the applied voltage.
These two factors indicate the shape of an alternating wave. For a more pointed wave near the peak, the values
of these factors will be more. For a rectangular wave, both the factors are equal to unity, i.e., K f Kp 1.
Example 8.3 Calculate the rms value, average value, form factor, and peak factor of a periodic current
having following values for equal time intervals changing suddenly from one value to next as 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
8, 6, 4, 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 8, . . .
Solution The average value of the current is given as
0 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 8 + 6 + 4 + 2
Average Value = =5A
10
The rms value of the current is given as
02 + 2 2 + 4 2 + 6 2 + 82 + 102 + 82 + 6 2 + 4 2 + 2 2
rms value = = 5.83 A
10
RMS value 5.83
Form factor = = = 1.17
average value 5
peak value 10
Peak factor = = = 1.71
rmsvalue 5.83
8.5 COMPLEX NUMBER SYSTEMS

Complex numbers allow mathematical operations with phasor quantities and are useful in analysis of ac circuits.
With the complex number system, you can add, subtract, multiply, and divide quantities that have both magni-
tude and angle, such as sine waves and other ac circuit quantities that will be studied alter.
A complex number can be represented in two different formats in either the Euclidean and polar coordinate
system.
479
Euclidean Representation z x jy where x and y are the real (horizontal) and j z

y
imaginary (vertical) part of complex variable z, respectively.
z
Polar Representation z 冷z冷e j z where 冷z冷 and z are the magnitude and phase z
angle, respectively. x
The two representations can be converted from one form to the other: Fig. 8.7
Complex
Complex Number Conversion number
Rectangular to polar forms representation
⎧ z = x 2 + y 2 magnitude
⎪
⎨ −1 ⎛ y ⎞
⎪∠z = tan ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ phase angle
⎩ x
Polar to rectangular forms z 冷z冷e j z 冷z冷(cos z jsin z) x jy

due to Euler identity, i.e., x 冷z冷cos z real part
y 冷z冷sin z imaginary part
Mathematical Operation of Complex Numbers
Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. The arithmetic operations of two complex
numbers z x j y 冷z冷e j z and w u j v 冷w冷e j are listed below.
Addition
Complex Numbers Must be in the Rectangular Form in Order to Add Them
• Add the real part of each complex number to get the real part of the sum. Then add the j parts of each
complex number to get the j part of the sum.
Subtraction
Complex Numbers Must be in the Rectangular Form in Order to Subtract Them
• Subtract the real part of each complex number to get the real part of the difference. Then subtract the j
parts of each complex number to get the j part of the difference.
z w (x u) j(y v), z w (x u) j(y v)
Multiplication
Multiplication of Two Complex Numbers is Easier When Both Numbers are in Polar Form
• Multiply the magnitudes, and add the angles algebraically.
zw (x j y)(u jv ) (xu yv ) j(xv yu) 冷z冷冷w冷e j ( z w)
Division
Division of Two Complex Numbers is Easier When Both Numbers are in Polar Form
• Divide the magnitude of the numerator by the magnitude of the denominator to get the magnitude of the
quotient. Then subtract the denominator angle from the numerator angle to get the angle of the quotient.
( )(
z x + jy x + jy u − jv
= =
) (
=
) (
xu + yv + j yu − xv
=
)
ze (
j ∠z −∠w )
w u + jv ( )(
u + jv u − jv ) u2 + v 2 w
480
Rotation A complex number (vector) z 冷z冷e j z multiplied by e j will become ze j z

冷z冷e j( z )
, i.e., rotated
j −j
by an angle of . In particular, as e 2
= j and e 2 = − j , they can be considered as 90 rotation factors. Any
complex number multiplied by j or j will be rotated counter clockwise or clockwise by 90 degrees.
Complex Conjugate The complex conjugate of z x j y 冷z冷e j z is z* x j y 冷z冷e j z. In general,
z* can be obtained by negating every j in the expression of z (replacing j by j ). The magnitude of a complex
number z x j y can be found by
zz * = ( x + jy )( x − jy ) = x2 + y2
Reciprocal
⎛ 1⎞
z −1 =
1
z
=
1
x +y
2 2
( )
, ∠ z −1 = ∠ ⎜ ⎟ = 0 − ∠z = −∠z
⎝ z⎠
8.6 PHASOR REPRESENTATION

8.6.1 Introduction to Phasors
For analysis of alternating circuits, a sinusoidal quantity (voltage or current) is represented by a line of definite
length rotating in anti-clockwise direction with the same angular velocity as that of the sinusoidal quantity. This
rotating line is called the ‘phasor’.
Sinusoidal quantities are scalar quantities varying periodically with time. According to the definition of
a vector, these are not vectors. Voltage is the work done per unit charge and current is the flow of electrons
through a wire and these are not vectors. However, as a sinusoid is specified by its amplitude and phase angle,
they are termed as ‘phasor’, keeping some similarity with the term ‘vector’, where the amplitude is considered
as the magnitude and phase angle as the direction of the vector.
8.6.2 Transformation of Sinusoid into Phasor

To represent a dc voltage or current, only its amplitude I or V is needed. However, to represent a sinusoidal volt-
age v(t ) Vm cos( t ) or current i(t ) Im cos( t ), three values are needed:
• Amplitude, the peak value Vm or Im
• Frequency 2 f
• phase
To simplify the computation of a sinusoidal variable, it is often represented by a complex variable (vector in
complex plane) which can be more conveniently dealt with, as various mathematical operations (addition/
subtraction, multiplication/division, etc.) on exponential functions can be much more easily carried out than
sinusoidal functions.
We consider a function, f (t ) re j t (r cos t jr sin t)
If ‘ ’ is constant, this function will rotate in counter-clockwise direction at constant angular velocity, . The
variation is shown in Fig. 8.8.
The projection of this rotating line segment on both the real and imaginary axis will be the cosine and sine
components, i.e., Re[ f (t )] r cos t and Im[ f (t )] r sin t
481
Similarly, in electric-circuit theory, the voltages and currents can be represented by a rotating function char-
acterized by a magnitude (radius, r) and a phase with respect to a reference angle. Such a rotating function is
termed ‘phasor’.
Specifically, a sinusoidal voltage can be represented as
()
v t = Vm cos ( t+ ) = Re ⎡⎣V (t )⎤⎦ = Re ⎡⎣V e m
j
e j t ⎤⎦ = Re ⎡Vrms e j
⎣
2 e j t ⎤ = Re ⎡V 2 e j t ⎤
⎦ ⎣ ⎦
()
v t = Vm sin ( t+ ) = Im ⎡⎣V (t )⎤⎦ = Im ⎡⎣V e m
j
e j t ⎤⎦ = Im ⎡Vrms e j
⎣
2 e j t ⎤ = Im ⎡V 2 e j t ⎤
⎦ ⎣ ⎦
where ()
V t = Vm e (
j t+ )
= 2Vrms e (
j t+ )
is the complex vari-
Vme j t
V j
able, Vm is the peak magnitude of the voltage, Vrms = m is Vm
2 sine function
t v
the effective value (rms), and the phasor representing the volt-
r
age is defined as V = Vrms e j = Vrms ∠ 0 A 0 2 t
in terms of
0 v
• the magnitude, the rms (effective) value V, and Vm
• the phase .
cosine function
The frequency 2 f is not explicitly represented by the
phasor, as all currents and voltages in the circuit considered here 2
t
have the same frequency—same as that of the energy source or
Fig. 8.8 Phasor representation of sinusoid
input of the circuit.
For example, a 120-V, 50-Hz ac voltage given as
() ( ) (
v t = 120 2 cos 2 ft + 60° = 120 2 cos 2 × 50 × t + 60° = 170 cos 314t + 60° ) ( )
is expressed as V Vrms 120 60 with rms value Vrms 120 and 60 , and the implied frequency
f 50 Hz. All sinusoidal signals, currents as well as voltages can be represented by phasors.
Note that physically voltages and currents are not complex quantities, rather they are sine or cosine functions
of time. They are converted into complex quantities for simplification of the solution of electric problems. The
physical solution is obtained from the complex solution by taking the real or imaginary component.
8.6.3 Difference Between Time Domain and Phasor Domain

1. v (t ) is the instantaneous or time-domain representation and V苳 is the frequency or phasor-domain repre-
sentation.
2. v (t ) is time-dependent and V苳 is not.
3. v (t ) is always real with no complex term, but V苳 is generally complex.
8.6.4 Transformation from Time Domain to Phasor Domain

If an instantaneous voltage is described by a sinusoidal function of time such as
v (t ) = Vm cos ( t+ )= 2V cos ( t+ )
where, Vm amplitude of the voltage; V effective value of the voltage,
482
The phasor transform of the sinusoid is given by
{ ( )} = P {V
V =P v t m
cos ( t+ )} = P { 2V cos ( t+ )} = Ve j
=V ∠
8.6.5 Transformation from Phasor Domain to Time Domain

The inverse phasor transform of a phasor is given by
() { }
v t = P −1 V = P −1 Vm e j{ } = Re{V e m
j
ej t
} = Re{V e ( ) } = V
m
j t+
m
cos ( t+ )
Note that phasor analysis is applicable only when the frequency is constant. For circuits with multiple sources
of different frequencies, phasor analysis is inapplicable.
Note By convention or custom, we write the time variables as lower-case letters to remind us that they are functions
of time. We express the phasor quantity by upper-case and bold letters. That is, we will write the voltage as v to
indicate v(t ) and we will write the current as i to indicate i(t ). Similarly, the phasor voltage is written as V and
the phasor current as I.
When we say the voltage varies sinusoidally with time, we immediately think of writing it as a sine
function, v v (t ) V0 sin t
But, when we decide to set t 0, this same variation could be written as a cosine function, v v (t )
V0 cos t.
There is no real difference in these two forms. Either sine or cosine can be taken as the reference for a par-
ticular application and there will be no difference in the results.
8.6.6 Advantages of Using Phasor

A sinusoidal waveform has two attributes, magnitude and
phase, and thus sinusoids are natural candidates for repre- Waveform Phasor
sentation by phasors. One reason for using such a represen- c Imaginary
0 axis 0
tation is that it simplifies the description since a complete C
spatial or temporal waveform is reduced to just a single point C
represented by the tip of a phasor’s arrow. Thus changes in Time Real axis
0
the waveform are easily documented by the trajectory of the Fig. 8.9 Phasor representation of sinusoids
point in the complex plane.
The second reason is that it helps us to visualize
how an arbitrary sinusoid may be decomposed into Geometric Algebraic
Imaginary Temporal waveform:
the sum of a pure sine and pure cosine waveform. To axis v(t) C cos(t )
perform the decomposition using trigonometry is a B C sin( ) C Real Acos(t ) Bsin(t )
tedious business. However, if the sinusoid is repre- axis Phasor representation:
sented by a phasor then the same method used for C Ce i
A C cos( ) C Ccos( ) iC sin( ) A iB
decomposing vectors into orthogonal components
may be used for decomposing the given sinusoid Fig. 8.10 Phasor decomposition of Sinusoids
into its orthogonal sine and cosine components. This method is illustrated in Fig. 8.10.
The phasor C can be represented algebraically in either of two forms. In the polar form, C is the product
of the amplitude C of the modulation with a complex exponential ei which represents the phase of the wave-
form. In the Cartesian form, C is the sum of a ‘real’ quantity (the amplitude of the cosine component) and an
483
‘imaginary’ quantity (the amplitude of the sine component). The advantage of these representations is that the
ordinary rules of algebra for adding and multiplying may be used to add and scale sinusoids without resorting
to tedious trigonometry.
Example 8.4 Transform the sinusoids into phasors:

(a) i 5 cos( t 75 ) (b) v 10 sin( t 12 )
Solution
(a) In phasor form, I 5 75
(b) v 10 sin( t 12 ) 10 cos( t 12 90 ) 10 cos( t 102 )
In phasor form, V 10 102
Example 8.5 Express the phasors into sinusoids:

(a) I 3 j4 (b) V j(8 j6)
Solution
( a) I (3 j4) 5 126.87
i 5 cos( t 126.87 )
(b) V j(8 j6) 6 j8 10 36.87
v 10 cos( t 36.87 )
Example 8.6 Find the resultant of the three voltages e1, e2 and e3 given by
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
e1 = 20 sin t , e2 = 30 sin ⎜ t − ⎟ , e 3 = 40 cos ⎜ t + ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 6⎠
Solution
e1 = 20 sin t
⎛ ⎞
e2 = 30 sin ⎜ t − ⎟ = 30 sin( t − 45° ))
⎝ 4⎠
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
e3 = 40 cos ⎜ t + ⎟ = 40 sin ⎜ t + + ⎟ = 40 sin ⎜ t + = 40 sin( t + 120°))
⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 2 6⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
In phasor form, the voltages are written as
e1 = 20∠0° = 20
(
e2 = 30∠ − 45° = 21.213 − j 21.213 )
(
e3 = 40∠120° = −20 + j 34.641 )
Therefore, the resultant of the three voltage is
( ) ( ) ( )
e = e1 + e2 + e3 = 20 + 21.213 − j 21.213 + −20 + j 34.641 = 21.213 + j13.428 = 25.106 ∠ 32.33° V ( )
In time form, the resultant voltage can be written as e 25.106 sin( t 32.33 ) (V)
484
8.7 THE J OPERATOR

The j operator comes from complex numbers and states that.
In terms of circuit theory, the symbol j is an operator that rotates a phasor by 90 in the anti-clockwise
direction without changing its magnitude.
Thus jVm sin t Vm cos t and jVm cos t Vm sin t. 90°
jV
Also, multiple operations of j rotate the phasor as given below:
2
j V V
j2 1, rotates the phasor by 180 in the anti-clockwise direction, 180° 0°
3
j j, rotates the phasor by 90 in the clockwise direction,
j 3V jV
j2 1, rotates the phasor by 180 in the clockwise direction, 270° ( 90°)
j3 j, rotates the phasor by 90 in the anti-clockwise direction and so on. Fig. 8.11 Signifi-
cance of j notation
8.8 PHASOR DIAGRAMS
The graphical representation of the phasors of sinusoidal quantities taken all at the same frequency and with
proper phase relationships with respect to each other is called a phasor diagram.
In electrical engineering, alternating voltage and current phasors are represented in phasor diagrams.
Phasor diagrams can be drawn in terms of either the maximum or rms values. However, as the rms values are
of much more practical importance in electrical engineering, phasor diagrams are generally drawn in terms
of rms values.
8.8.1 Conventions for Drawing Phasor Diagrams

1. Rotation of phasor in the counter-clockwise direction is taken as, a positive direction of rotation, i.e., a
phasor rotated in the counter-clockwise direction is said to lead a given phasor while a phasor rotated
in the clockwise direction is said to lag the given phasor.
2. For a series circuit, where the current is same in all parts of the circuit, the current phasor is generally
taken as the reference phasor.
3. For a parallel circuit, where the voltage is same in all parts of the circuit, the voltage phasor is generally
taken as the reference phasor.
4. This is not necessary to draw the voltage and current phasors to the same scale. But, if several voltage
phasors or several current phasors are to be drawn in the same phasor diagram, they must be drawn to
the same scale.
8.9 CIRCUIT RESPONSE TO SINUSOIDS

We will see how the phasor transform can simplify the voltage–current relationship for inductors and capaci-
tors, eliminating the need for derivatives and integrals. In fact, the voltage–current relationship for resistors,
inductors and capacitors in the phasor domain looks just like Ohm’s law, where voltage equals current times
a scaling constant. We call the scaling constant impedance. It serves the same role as resistance, but in the
phasor domain. It is a constant like resistance, but turns out to be complex-valued and varies with the fre-
quency of the signal involved.
8.9.1 Necessity of Phasor Transform

Sinusoids are special signals. Note that the integral and derivative of a sinusoid is a sinusoid. Thus, the voltage–
current relationships for inductors and capacitors, which are characterized by integrals and derivatives, tell us
485
that a sinusoidal current produces a sinusoidal voltage. The only difference between the sinusoidal voltage
across and current through these devices is possibly the amplitude and phase. The frequency of the current
will be the same as the frequency of the voltage. Thus, if we only consider sinusoidal signals, all we need to
keep track of is magnitude and phase of the voltages and currents. This is where the phasor transform comes
in.
8.10 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS IN PHASOR DOMAIN

We will now consider Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws in the phasor (frequency) domain.
8.10.1 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

For KVL, let v1, v2, …, vn be the voltages around a closed path.
v1 v2 … vn 0
In sinusoidal steady state, these voltages can be written as,
Vm1 cos ( t+ 1 ) +V m2
cos ( t+ 2 ) + ⋅⋅⋅+V mn
cos ( t+ n )=0
or, Re ⎡⎣Vm1e 1 e
j j t ⎤ + ⋅⋅⋅ + Re ⎡V e
⎤ + Re ⎡Vm e j 2
e j t j n
e j t ⎤=0
⎦ ⎣ 2
⎦ ⎣ mn ⎦
or,
⎣(
Re ⎡ Vm1e 1 + Vm 2 e 2 + ⋅⋅⋅ + Vmn e n e j t ⎤ = 0
j j j
⎦ )
or, (
Re ⎡⎣ V1 + V2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ Vn e ⎤⎦ = 0
j t
)
e j t ≠ 0; ⇒ V1 + V2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + Vn = 0
This shows that KVL holds good for phasors.
8.10.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Applying KCL to n sinusoidal currents having, in general, different magnitudes and phases (but the same fre-
quency) we get
i1 i2 … in 0
In sinusoidal steady state, these currents can be written as
I m1 cos ( t+ 1 )+ I m2
cos ( t+ 2 ) + ⋅⋅⋅+ I mn
cos ( t+ n )=0
Re ⎡⎣ I m1e 1 e j t ⎤⎦ + Re ⎡⎣ I m 2 e 2 e j t ⎤⎦ + ⋅⋅⋅ + Re ⎡⎣ I mn e n e j t ⎤⎦ = 0
j j j
or,
or,
⎣ (
Re ⎡ I m1e 1 + I m 2 e 2 + ⋅⋅⋅ + I mn e n e j t ⎤ = 0
j j j
⎦ )
or, ⎡ (
Re ⎣ I1 + I 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ I n e ⎦ = 0
j t
⎤)
e j t ≠ 0; ⇒ I1 + I 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + I n = 0
This shows that KCL holds good for phasors.
8.11 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT PHASORS IN SINGLE-ELEMENT CIRCUITS

In this part, we always assume that ac current or voltage is sinusoidal. When sinusoidal signals are applied
to ideal R, L or C elements, or to any series or parallel combination of these elements, the response is also
486
sinusoidal. The response of circuit elements to sinusoidal voltages or currents can be obtained by considering
the defining element equations.
We consider the three elements:
1. resistor,
2. inductor, and
3. capacitor.
8.11.1 Resistor
We apply a complex voltage ()
v t = Vm e (
j t+ )
= Vm cos ( t+ ) + jV m
sin ( t+ )
and assume the complex current response ()
i t = Ime (
j t+ )
= I cos(
m
t+ ) + jI m
sin ( t+ )
so that in time domain, by Ohm’s law,
()
v t = Ri t () ⇒ Vm e (
j t+ )
= RI m e (
j t+ )
; dropping t he e j t term iR vR
⇒ Vm e = RI m e
j j
⇒ Vm ∠ = I m ∠
⇒ V = RI
Thus, v–i relationship in phasor form for a resistor has the same form as in the time Fig. 8.12
domain.
The quantity of R is called the ac resistance
Time form Phasor form
and is measured in ohms ( ).
vR VR
Conclusion The voltage across a resistance Vm iR I I
is in-phase with the current through it. When Im
VR R
the instantaneous value for current is zero, the
0 p 2 p vt
instantaneous voltage across the resistor is also
zero. Likewise, at the moment in time where the
Fig. 8.13 Wave diagram and phasor diagram for a resistor
current through the resistor is at its positive peak,
the voltage across the resistor is also at its positive
peak, and so on. At any given point in time along the waves, Ohm’s law holds true for the instantaneous values
of voltage and current.
Example If a voltage v(t) 10 cos (50t 45 ) (Volt) is applied to a resistor R 10 then the current will be
V 10∠ − 45°
I== = 1∠ − 45°
R 10
()
∴ i t = cos(50t − 45 ) A ( )
8.11.2 Inductor iL
Inductors do not behave the same way as resistors. Whereas resistors simply oppose the
flow of electrons through them (by dropping a voltage directly proportional to the current), L vL = L diL/dt
inductors oppose changes in current through them by dropping a voltage directly propor-
tional to the rate of change of current. In accordance with Lenz’s law, this induced voltage is
always of such a polarity as to try to maintain current at its present value. Fig. 8.14
487
Expressed mathematically, the relationship between the voltage dropped across the inductor and rate of cur-
rent change through the inductor is as such:
()
di t
()
v t =L
dt
j( t )
Assuming again a complex voltage, v(t) V me and a complex current response, i(t) Ime j ( t )
,
we get
d
Vm e j ( t+ )
=L ⎡ I e j( t+ )
⎤ = j LI m e j ( t+ )
⇒ Vm e j = j LI m e j
dt ⎣ m ⎦
⇒ V = j LI
Thus, the time domain differential equation becomes an algebric equation in phasor domain.
v V ∠90° LI ∠90°
The opposition to current flow is Z L = = = = L ∠90° = j L = jX L
i I ∠0° I ∠0°
The magnitude of the impedance is called the inductive reactance XL L and is measured in ohms ( ).
Time Form
Phasor Form
The voltage phasor for L is 90 ahead of the current phasor.
vL leads iL by 90° vL
iL
Vm VL
Im I
3/2 I
VL L 90°
冦
2 90° 0 2 2 t
Fig. 8.15 (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 8.15 (a) Wave diagram for an inductor for an inductor
Conclusion The voltage across an inductive reactance leads the current through it by 90 . The voltage
dropped across an inductor is a reaction against the change in current through it. Therefore, the instantaneous
voltage is zero whenever the instantaneous current is at a peak (zero change, or level slope, on the current sine
wave), and the instantaneous voltage is at a peak wherever the instantaneous current is at maximum change (the
points of steepest slope on the current wave, where it crosses the zero line). This results in a voltage wave that is
90 out of phase with the current wave.
8.11.3 Capacitor
Capacitors do not behave the same as resistors. Whereas resistors allow a flow of electrons
iC
through them directly proportional to the voltage drop, capacitors oppose changes in voltage
C vC
by drawing or supplying current as they charge or discharge to the new voltage level. The
flow of electrons through a capacitor is directly proportional to the rate of change of voltage
across the capacitor. This opposition to voltage change is another form of reactance, but one
that is precisely opposite to the kind exhibited by inductors. Fig. 8.16
488
Expressed mathematically, the relationship between the current through the capacitor and rate of voltage
change across the capacitor is as such:
dv (t )
i (t ) = C
dt
Assuming again a complex voltage, v(t) Vm e j( t )

and a complex current response, i(t) Im e j ( t )
, we get,
d I
Ime j( t+ )
=C ⎡V e j ( t+ )
⎤ = j CVm e j ( t+ )
⇒ I = j CV or V =
dt ⎣ m ⎦ j C
The opposition to current flow is
v V ∠0° V ∠0° 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
ZC = = = = ∠ − 90° = − j ⎢ ⎥ = − jX C
iC I C ∠90° CV ∠90° C ⎣ C⎦
The magnitude of the impedance in this case is called the capacitive reactance, XC and is measured in ohms ( ).
Time Form
Phasor form
The current phasor for C is 90 ahead of the voltage phasor.
C : ic leads vc by 90°
I
Vm
vc
Im ic
I
90°
冦
2 90° 0 2 3/2 2 t VC C
VC
Fig. 8.17 (a) Wave diagram for an Fig. 8.17 (b) Phasor wave
capacitor diagram for a capacitor
Conclusion The current through a capacitive reactance leads the voltage across it by 90 . The current
through a capacitor is a reaction against the change in voltage across it. Therefore, the instantaneous current
is zero whenever the instantaneous voltage is at a peak (zero change, or level slope, on the voltage sine wave),
and the instantaneous current is at a peak wherever the instantaneous voltage is at maximum change (the
points of steepest slope on the voltage wave, where it crosses the zero line). This results in a voltage wave
that is 90 out of phase with the current wave.
8.12 PHASOR ANALYSIS OF R-L SERIES CIRCUIT

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to any type of RL circuit, each resulting voltage drop and the current in
the circuit are also sinusoidal and have the same frequency as the applied voltage.
The inductance causes a phase shift between the voltage and the current that depends on the relative values
of the resistance and the inductive reactance.
We consider an RL series circuit with a sinusoidal voltage source, as shown in Fig.8.18.
489
R I lags VL by 90°.
V VR and I are in phase.
VR VL Amplitudes are arbitrary.
v (t) 0 I
L
冦
90°
i(t)
Fig. 8.18 RL Fig. 8.19 Voltage and current wave diagram

series circuit for an RL series circuit
Current
By KVL, VR + VL = V ⇒ RI + j LI = V ⇒ I =
V
R+ j L
⇒ I=
R + 2
Vm
2
L2
∠ − tan −1 ( L R)
• The current is the same through both the resistor and the inductor.
Current Phasor Diagram
(R2)
V
−1⎛ WL ⎞
tan ⎜
⎝ R ⎟⎠
IL IR
Fig. 8.20 Current

phasor diagram for an
RL series circuit
Voltage
• The resistor voltage VR is in phase with the current.
• The inductor voltage, VL leads the current by 90 .
• There is a phase difference of 90o between the resistor voltage, VR, and the inductor voltage, VL .
⎛ VL ⎞
• The source voltage, Vs, can be expressed as VS = VR + jVL = VR2 + VL2 ∠ tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ VR ⎠
Voltage Phasor Diagram

VL VL Vs
VL
90 90
VR VR I VR
Fig. 8.21 Voltage phasor diagrams for an RL series circuit
Impedance It is given as Z ZR ZL R j L R jXL
• The magnitude of the is impedance is Magnitude Z = R 2 + X L2

⎛ XL ⎞
• The phase angle is expressed as = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R⎠
490
• The impedance triangle is shown below.

Z = 兹R 2 X 2L
XL XL
)
/R
1(
X L
Z XL
n
ta
90 =
R u R
R
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 8.22 Voltage traingle for an RL series circuit
Example 8.7 Find the current response of an RL series circuit with R 2 , L 1 H if an alternating
voltage given as v(t) 10sin 3t (V) is applied to it. Also, find the rms value of the current. What is the power
factor of the circuit?
Solution Here, the impedance of the circuit is Z = R + j L == 2 + j 3 × 1 = 2 + j 3 = 13∠56.3° ( )

The supply voltage is, v(t) 10sin 3t 10cos (3t 90 ) V 10 90
V 10∠ − 90° 10
current, I = = = ∠ − 146.3°
Z 13∠56.3° 13
instantaneous current, i t = ()
10
(
cos 3t − 146.3 )( A )
13
10 1
rms value of the current, I rms = × = 1.96 A
13 2
power factor of the circuit cos (56.3 ) 0.555 (lagging)
8.13 PHASOR ANALYSIS OF RC SERIES CIRCUIT

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to any type of RC circuit, each
I leads VC by 90 .
resulting voltage drop and the current in the circuit are also sinusoi- VR VC VR and I are in phase.
dal and have the same frequency as the applied voltage. Amplitudes are
I
The capacitance causes a phase shift between the voltage and arbitrary.
0
the current that depends on the relative values of the resistance and 90
the capacitance reactance.
V
Current
Fig. 8.23 Voltage and current wave
1 V
By KVL, VR + VC = V ⇒ RI + I =V ⇒ I = diagram for an RC series circuit
j C R+ 1
j C
⇒ I=
Vm
1
∠ tan −1 1( CR )
R2 + 2 2
C
• The current is the same through both the resistor and the capacitor.
491
Current Phasor Diagram

IC IR
⎛ 1 ⎞
tan−1 ⎜
⎝WCR⎟⎠
V
Fig. 8.24 Current
phasor diagrams for
an RC series circuit
Voltage
• The resistor voltage VR is in phase with the current.
• The capacitor voltage VC lags the current by 90 .
• There is a phase difference of 90 between the resistor voltage VR and the capacitor voltage VC.
⎛ VC ⎞
• The source voltage Vs can be expressed as VS = VR − jVC = VR2 + VC2 ∠ − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ VR ⎠
Voltage Phasor Diagram

VR VR
I
u VR
90 90
VC VC VS VC
Fig. 8.25 Voltage phasor diagrams for an RC series circuit
Impedance
⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
It is given as ( ⎝
)
ZT = Z R + ZC = R + j 0 + ⎜ 0 − j ⎜
⎝ C ⎟
⎠ ⎟ = R − j ⎜⎝ C ⎟⎠ = R − jX C
⎠
• The magnitude of the impedance is
Magnitude ZT = R 2 + X C2
⎛ XC ⎞
• The phase angle is expressed as = − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
• The impedance triangle is shown below.
R R
R
90 = tan 1(XC /R )
Z XC
XC XC Z = 兹R 2 X 2C
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 8.26 Impedance triangle for an RC series circuit
492
Example 8.8 In an RC series circuit with R 1 , the voltage across the resistor is 1.59 cos(2t 125 ) (V)
when a supply voltage 7.68 cos(2t 47 ) (V) is applied to it. Determine the value of the capacitor C.
Solution Here, R 1 , vR
1.59 cos(2t 125 ) (V)
)( )
v
current through the resistance, i = R = 1.59 cos 2t + 125° A
1
(
In phasor form, I 1.59 125
Supply voltage, V 7.68 47
V 7.68∠47°
impedance of the circuit, Z = = = 4.83∠ − 78°
I 1.59∠125°
⎛ j ⎞ ⎛ j ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Here, Z =⎜ R− = 1− = 1 + 2 ∠ − tan −1 ⎜
⎝ C ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2C ⎟⎠ 4C ⎝ 2C ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
( )
2
∴ ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ = 4.83 ⇒ C = 0.106 F
⎝ 4C ⎠
8.14 PHASOR ANALYSIS OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

A series RLC contains both inductance and capacitance. Since inductive reactance
and capacitive reactance have opposite effects on the circuit phase angle, the total R L C
reactance is less than either individual reactance.
A series RLC circuit is shown in Fig. 8.27.
V i(t )
The total impedance for the series RLC circuit is stated as
Z ZL R Zc R j(XL XC)
In terms of magnitude and phase, Fig. 8.27 RLC
⎛ X − XC ⎞ series circuit
( ) ( )
2
Z = R + j X L − X C = R2 + X L − X C ∠ tan −1 ⎜ L
⎝ R ⎟⎠
Reactance
Capacitive: Inductive:
XC XL XL XC
8.14.1 Analysis of a Series RLC Circuit
Figure 8.28 shows that for a typical series RLC circuit, the total
XC XL
reactance behaves as follows:
• Very low frequency, XC is high and XL is low. The circuit is
predominantly capacitive. XL XC
• As the frequency increases, XC decreases and XL increases.
• Until a value is reached where XC XL and the two reac-
f
tances cancel, making the circuit is purely resistive. This 0
condition is called series resonance. Series resonance
• As the frequency increases further, XL becomes greater Fig. 8.28 Variation of reactance with
than XC, and the circuit is predominantly inductive. frequency in an RLC series circuit
493
Impedance The impedance Z is minimum at resonance (i.e., Zr R ) and Z( )

increases in value above and below the resonant point.
• At frequencies below fr , XC XL : the circuit is capacitive. XC XL
• At resonant frequency fr , XC XL : the circuit is purely resistive. Z
• At frequencies above fr , XC XL : the circuit is inductive.
Z R
0 f
fr
Current and Voltages in a Series RLC Circuit
Fig. 8.29 Variation
• At the series resonant frequency, the current is maximum (i.e., Imax Vs /R). of Impedance, and
• Above and below resonance, the current decreases because the impedance reactances with freqnency
increases.
I VR VR VC
IXC IXC
VS /R VS VS VS
f f f f
fr fr fr fr
(a) Current (b) Resistor voltage (c) Capacitor voltage (d) Inductor voltage
Fig. 8.30 Variation of current and voltages with frequency in an RLC series circuit
Phase Angle of a Series RLC circuit

• At frequencies below resonance, XC XL → the current leads the source voltage. The phase angle
decreases as the frequency approaches the resonant value and is 00 at resonance.
• At frequencies above resonance, XC XL → the current lags the source voltage. The phase angle increases
as the frequency approaches 90 .
90 (l lags VS)
I 0 f
VS VS fr
VS
I
I
90 (l leads VS)
u 0 XC XL XL XC
冦
冦
Capacitive: Inducitive:
I leads VS I lags VS
(a) Below fr, I leads Vs. (b) At fr, I is in (c) Above fr, I lags Vs. (d) Phase angle versus frequency.
phase with Vs.
Fig. 8.31 Variation of phase angles with frequency in an RLC series circuit
Example 8.9 A series circuit consisting of a 25- resistor, 64-mH inductor and an 80- F capacitor is con-
nected to a 110-V, 50-Hz single-phase supply. Calculate the current and voltage across each element and the
overall power factor of the circuit.
Solution Here, R 25 , L 64 mH, C 80 F, V 110 V, f 50 Hz
494
Impedance of the circuit is

⎛ j ⎞
Z =⎜ R+ j L−
⎝ C ⎟⎠
j
= 25 + j 2 × 50 × 64 × 10−3 −
2 × 50 × 80 × 10−6
( )( )
= 25 + j 20.1 − j 39.78 = 25 − j19.68
current in the circuit, I =

V
=
110
Z 25 − j19.68
= 3.46 ∠38.2° A ( )
Voltage across resistance VR = I × R = 3.46 ∠38.2° × 25 = 86.45∠38.2° V ( )
Voltage across inductance VL = I × j L = 3.46 ∠38.2° × j 20.1 = 69.5∠128.2° V ( )
⎛ j ⎞ ⎛ j ⎞
Voltage across capacitance VC = I × ⎜ −
⎝ C⎠⎟ = 3.46 ∠38.2° × ⎜ −
⎝ 39.78 ⎟⎠
= 134.1∠ − 51.9° V ( )
Power factor of the circuit cos(38.2 ) 0.786 (leading)
8.15 STEPS FOR SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS (PHASOR APPROACH

TO CIRCUIT ANALYSIS)
For circuits containing passive elements R, L, and C and sinusoidal sources, the phasor approach to circuit
analysis is as follows:
1. Convert voltages v and currents i to phasors V and I, respectively.
2. Convert R’s, L’s and C’s to impedances.
3. Use the rules of circuit analysis to manipulate the circuit in the phasor domain.
4. Return to the time domain for voltages and currents, etc., by using the inverse-phasor-transformation
forms: i = Re ⎡⎣ Ie j t ⎤⎦ and v = Re ⎡⎣Ve j t ⎤⎦ .
8.16 CONCEPT OF REACTANCE, IMPEDANCE, SUSCEPTANCE AND ADMITTANCE

AS PHASORS
Impedance Impedance (Z) of any two-terminal network is the ratio of the phasor voltage (V ) to the
phasor current (I).
V
Z=
I
Since it is the ratio of voltage to current, its unit is ohm ( ). Practically, it represents the obstruction that the
device exhibits to the flow of sinusoidal current
As a complex variable, the complex impedance Z can be written as: Z =

V
I
( )
= R + jX = Z e j∠Z = Z ∠Z
X
The magnitude and phase angle of Z are Z = R 2 + X 2 ∠Z = tan −1
R
495
The real part of impedance Re[Z] R is called resistance.

The imaginary part of impedance Im[Z]X is called reactance.
Impedance, resistance and reactance are all measured by the same unit, ohm ( ).
In particular, the impedanes of the three types of elements R, L and C are
Z = R; for resistor
= j L; for inductor
1
= ; for capacitor
j C
Admittance The reciprocal of the impedance Z is called admittance. So, it is the ratio of phasor current to
phasor voltage.
1 1 R − jX
Y= = = = G + jB
Z R + jX R 2 + X 2
which contains real and imaginary parts:
R
The real part of admittance is called conductance: G = Re ⎡⎣Y ⎤⎦ =
R +X2 2
X
The imaginary part of admittance is called susceptance: B = Im ⎡⎣Y ⎤⎦ = − 2
R +X2
Unlike R and X, G and B do not correspond to any particular circuit elements. The magnitude and phase of
complex admittance are,
1 B −X
Y = G 2 + B2 = ; ∠Y = tan −1 = tan −1 = −∠Z
R +X
2 2 G R
Admittance, conductance and susceptance are all measured by the same unit, siemen (S).
Impedance Z and admittance Y = 1 are both complex variables. The real parts, R and G, are, always posi-
Z
tive, while the imaginary parts, X and B, can be either positive or negative. Therefore, Z and Y can only be in the
1st or the 4th quadrants of the complex plane.
In particular, the admittances of the three types of elements R, L and C are
1
Y= ; for resistor
R
1
= ; for inductor
j L
= j C ; for capacitor
Ohm’s law can also be expressed in terms of phasor admittance or impedance as I = VY or V = Z I
1 1
Note (i) G ≠ ; but if X 0, then G = .
R R
(ii) The term ‘immittance’, a combination of ‘impedance’ and ‘admittance’, is used as a general term for both
impedance and admittance.
496
8.17 AC POWER ANALYSIS

We introduce the following four types of power associated with alternating voltages and currents:
1. Instantaneous power
2. Average power
3. Apparent power
4. Complex power
8.17.1 Instantaneous Power

It is the power at any instant of time. It is the product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) and the instantaneous
current i(t), i.e.,
p(t) v(t) i (t) (in watt)
We consider the sinusoidal voltage and current in a two-terminal device as
v(t) Vm cos(␻t ␪v) and i(t) Im cos(␻t ␪i)
Thus, the instantaneous power is p(t) Vm Im cos(␻t ␪v)cos(␻t ␪i)
or, () 1
p t = Vm I m cos
2
( v
− i ) + 12 V (
I cos 2 t +
m m v
+ i )
This shows that the instantaneous power has two components, one constant and the other varying with time at a fre-
quency double of the supply frequency. The instantaneous power changes with time and it is difficult to measure.
8.17.2 Average or Real or True or Active Power

It is the average of the instantaneous power over a time interval. It is the power consumed by the resistive
loads in an electrical circuit.
T
∴P=
1 2
T2 − T1 T∫
p t dt ()
1
For a periodic function, f (t) f (t nT ), and thus, the average power may be computed as,
t1 +T
∫ p(t )dt
1
P= T is time period
T t1
T
=
1
T ∫0
p t dt ()
In sinusoidally steady state, the average power is
1 ⎡1
)⎤⎥ dt
T
P=
T ∫0 ⎢⎣ 2 m m
V I cos ( v
− i ) + 12 V I cos 2 t +
m m ( v
+ i
⎦
T T
1
= Vm I m cos
2
( v
− i ) T1 ∫ dt + 12 V m m
I
1
T ∫0
cos 2 t + ( v
+ i )dt = 12 V I cos
m m ( v
− i )+ 0 { ␻T 2 }
0
1
⇒ P = Vm I m cos
2
( v
− i ) ( in watt )
497
Now, V Vm ␪v and I Im ␪i or, I* Im ␪i

1
Thus, the average power or real power is P = Vm I m cos
2
( v
− i ) =V I
rms rms
cos ( v
− i ) = 12 Re ⎡⎣VI *⎤⎦ in (watt)
1 1 2
Note (i) When v i , i.e. for a resistive circuit, P = VmIm = I R .
2 2
(ii) When ( v i ) 90 , i.e for a purely reactive circuit, P 0.
8.17.3 Apparent Power or Total Power

We assume that a sinusoidal voltage, v (t ) = Vm cos( t + v ) is applied to a network and the resultant current
is i(t ) = I m cos( t + i ).
1
The average power delivered to the network is P = Vm I m cos v − i = Vrms I rms cos v − i = S cos v − i
2
( ) ( ) ( )
where, S VrmsIrms, is the apparent power.
So, apparent power is the product of the rms (effective) values of voltage and current (in VA).
For dc circuits, the average power will be simply the product of voltage and current. If we apply this con-
cept in the sinusoidal steady state then the product ‘VrmsIrms’ is also a power that is not really absorbed in the
device, but is ‘apparent’. For this reason, it is so called. The real power is VrmsIrms cos(␪v ␪i).
Note that the total power delivered by an alternating source is the apparent power. Part of this apparent
power, called true power, is dissipated by the circuit resistance in the form of heat. The rest of the apparent
power, called reactive power, is returned to the source by the circuit inductance and capacitance.
Power Factor It is the ratio of the real or average power to the apparent power.
∴ PF =
average power P
= = cos
apparent power S
( v
− i )
Power factor is a number always between 0 and 1. The angle (␪v ␪i) is called the power-factor angle.
8.17.4 Complex Power and Reactive Power

For an ac load with voltage phasor V Vm ␪v and current phasor I Im ␪i, the complex power S absorbed
by the load is given by
1
S = VI * = Vrms I * = Vrms I rms ∠
2 rms
( v
− i )
∴ S = Vrms I rms cos ( v
− i ) + jV I
rms rms
sin ( v
− i ) = ( P + jQ )
where, P Vrms Irms cos(␪v ␪i) is the real or average or active power (in watt)
and Q Vrms Irms sin(␪v ␪i) is the reactive power (in VAR).
Reactive power is the power consumed in an ac circuit because of the expansion and collapse of mag-
netic (inductive) and electrostatic (capacitive) fields. Unlike true power, reactive power is not useful power
because it is stored in the circuit itself. This power is stored by inductors, because they expand and collapse
their magnetic fields in an attempt to keep the current constant, and by capacitors, because they charge and
discharge in an attempt to keep the voltage constant. Circuit inductance and capacitance consume and give
498
back reactive power. Reactive power is a function of a system’s amperage. The power delivered to the induc-
tance is stored in the magnetic field when the field is expanding and returned to the source when the field
collapses. The power delivered to the capacitance is stored in the electrostatic field when the capacitor is
charging and returned to the source when the capacitor discharges. None of the power delivered to the circuit
by the source is consumed; all is returned to the source. The true power, which is the power consumed, is
thus zero. We know that alternating current constantly changes; thus, the cycle of expansion and collapse of
the magnetic and electrostatic fields constantly occurs.
Therefore, we conclude that reactive power is the rate of energy flow between the source and the reactive
components of the load (i.e., inductances and capacitances). It represents a lossless interchange between the
load and the source.
Note (i) Q 0, for resistive load (power factor is unity)

(ii) Q 0, for capacitive load (leading power factor)
(iii) Q 0, for inductive load (lagging power factor)
8.17.5 Power Triangle

The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent power Apparent Power (VA) Reactive
can be expressed by representing the quantities as vectors. Real power is S Power
represented as a horizontal vector and reactive power is represented as a VAR
Q
vertical vector. The apparent power vector is the hypotenuse of a right Real Power (W)
triangle formed by connecting the real and reactive power vectors. This P
representation is often called the power triangle, as shown in Fig. 8.32. Fig. 8.32 Power triangle
Using the Pythagorean theorem, the relationship among real, reactive
and apparent power is
(Apparent power)2 (Real power)2 (Reactive power)2
or, S2 P2 Q2 or, (VA2 (watt)2 (VAR)2
8.18 POWER CALCULATIONS IN DIFFERENT ELECTRICAL ELEMENTS

We consider the power calculations in the following elements or circuits:
1. in a purely resistive circuit,
2. in a purely inductive circuit,
3. in a purely capacitive circuit,
4. in R-L series circuit,
5. in R-C series circuit, and
6. in RLC series circuit.
8.18.1 Power in a Purely Resistive Circuit

Let the instantaneous voltage, v Vmax sin ␻t
and the instantaneous current, i Imax sin ␻t
Vmax I max
instantaneous power, p = vi = Vmax I max sin 2 t =
2
(1 − cos 2 t )
499
T T T
1 Vmax I max Vmax I max Vmax I max
average power, P =
1
T0∫ pdt = ∫
T0 2
(
1 − cos 2 t dt =
2T
) ∫ (1 − cos 2 t )dt = 2
= Vrms I rms
0
The phasor diagram and power curves for a purely resistive circuit are shown in Fig. 8.33.
V = V max sin ␻t p = V max I max Sin2 ␻t
i = I max sin ␻t
pv i
Pmax = VmaxImax
P = Pmax /2
0
␲/2 ␲ 3␲/2 2␲
Time
V
I = V/R
(a) Phasor (b) Power curves
diagram
Fig. 8.33 (a) Phasor diagram (b) Power curves
From the plots it is observed that

(i) the power has a frequency twice that of the voltage or current
(ii) the power is always positive and varies between zero and a maximum VmaxImax
(iii) the average value of the power is a constant, VmaxImax
8.18.2 Power in a Purely Inductive Circuit

Let the instantaneous voltage, v Vmax sin ␻t
( )= I ( )
t
1 Vmax t Vmax Vmax
current, i = ∫ vdt = ∫ sin tdt = − cos t = sin t− sin t−
L0 L 0 L L 2 max
2
Vmax
where, I max =
L
instantaneous power, p = vi = Vmax I max sin t sin ( t− )2 = − V I

max max
2
1
2 sin t cos t = − Vmax I max sin 2 t
2
1 ⎡ Vmax I max ⎤
T T
1
average power,
T0∫
P=pdt = ∫ ⎢ −
T 0 ⎢⎣ 2
sin 2 t ⎥ dt = 0 { ␻T 2␲}
⎥⎦
The phasor diagram and power curves for a purely inductive circuit are shown in Fig. 8.34.
From the plots, it is observed that
(i) the power has a frequency twice that of the voltage and current.
(ii) when v and i are both increasing or decreasing, the power is positive and energy is delivered from the
source to the inductance
(iii) when either v is increasing and i is decreasing or v is decreasing and i is increasing, the power is nega-
tive and energy is returning from the inductance to the source
(iv) the average value of the power is zero; the reason is explained here
500
V = V max Sin␻t
⎛ ␲⎞
i = I max Sin ⎜␻t
pv i ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
Vmax Imax
2
0 2␲
␲ ␲ 3␲
2 2 Time
90 V
P = V max I max Sin2␻t
I = V /vL 2
(a) Phasor diagram (b) Power curves
Fig. 8.34 (a) Phasor diagram (b) Power curves in purely inductive circuit
During the second quarter of a cycle, the current and the magnetic flux of the inductor increases and the
inductor draws power from the supply source to build up the magnetic field. The power drawn is positive.
1
The energy stored in the magnetic field during the building up is LI max 2 .
2
In the next quarter, the current decreases. However, the emf of the inductor tends to oppose this decrease.
The inductor acts as a generator and returns energy to the supply. The power is negative.
This event repeats and a proportion of power is continually exchanged between the field and the inductive
circuit and the average power consumed by the purely inductive circuit becomes zero.
8.18.3 Power in a Purely Capacitive Circuit

Here let the instantaneous voltage be v Vmax sin ␻t
current, i = C
dv
dt
= CVmax cos t =
Vmax
1
sin ( t+
2 )= I max
sin ( t+
2 )
C
Vmax
where, I max =
1
C
instantaneous power, p = vi = Vmax I max sin t sin ( t+
2 )=V I
max max
2
1
2 sin t cos t = Vmax I max sin 2 t
2
1 ⎡Vmax I max ⎤
T T
average power, P =
1
T0∫ pdt = ∫ ⎢
T 0 ⎢⎣ 2
sin 2 t ⎥ dt = 0 { T =2 }
⎥⎦
The phasor diagram and power curves for a purely capacitive circuit are shown in Fig. 8.35.
From the plots, it is observed that
(i) the power has a frequency twice that of the voltage and current
(ii) when v and i are both increasing or decreasing, the power is negative and returning from the capaci-
tance to the source
(iii) when either v is increasing and i is decreasing or v is decreasing and i is increasing, the power is posi-
tive and energy is delivered from the source to the capacitance
(iv) The average value of the power is zero; The reason is explained here
501
P = V max Imax
2 sin2␻t
v = vmax sin␻t
⎛ ␲⎞
i = I max Sin ⎜␻t
pv i ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
Vmax Imax
2
0 ␲ 3␲ 2␲
I = V␻CV ␲
2 2 Time
90 V

Fig. 8.35 (a) Phasor diagram (b) Power curves for a purely capacitive circuit
In the first quarter cycle, the energy is taken from the supply and stored in the capacitor. The energy stored
1
is CVmax 2 . In the next quarter cycle, this energy is returned to the supply. This process is repeated and thus
2
the average power is zero.
8.18.4 Power in RL series circuit
Here, let the instantaneous voltage be v Vmax sin ␻t and the current, i Imax sin(␻t ␾)
⎛ L⎞
where, = tan −1 ⎜
⎝ R ⎟⎠
instantaneous power, p = vi = Vmax I max sin t sin ( t− ) = 12 V I

max max ⎣ (
⎡cos − cos 2 t − )⎤⎦
T
average power, P=
1
T ∫0
1
pdt = Vmax I max cos = Vrms I rms cos
2
{ T =2 }
The phasor diagram and power curves for an RL series circuit are shown in Fig. 8.36.
pv i p = vi
V L = IXL v
V = IZ i Average
power
0 3␲ 2␲ P = VI Cos ␾
⫺ ␲ ␲ ⫺
90 2 2
␾
␾
VR IR
Time
Fig. 8.36 (a) Phasor diagram (b) Power curves for an RL series circuit
8.18.5 Power in RC Series Circuit

Here, let the instantaneous voltage be v Vmax sin ␻t and the current, i Imax sin(␻t ␾)
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎝ RC ⎟⎠
502
instantaneous power, p = vi = Vmax I max sin t sin ( t+ ) = 12 V I

max max ⎣ (
⎡cos − cos 2 t + )⎤⎦
T
1 1
T ∫0
average power, P= pdt = Vmax I max cos = Vrms I rms cos { ␻T 2␲}
2
The phasor diagram and power curves for an RC series circuit are shown in Fig. 8.37.
p = vi
p iv
V R = IR v
f
i
90 0 ␲ 3␲
␲ 2␲
2 2
␾
V C = IXC V = IZ Time
Fig. 8.37 (a) Phasor diagram (b) Power curves for an RC series circuit
8.18.6 Power in RLC Series Circuit

Here, let the instantaneous voltage be v Vmax sin ␻t and the current, i Imax sin(␻T ␾)
where, −1
= tan ⎢
(
⎡ L− 1
⎢ C
⎤
⎥ )
R ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Three cases may appear:
1
a) When L> , the phase angle ␾ will be negative and the circuit behaves as an RL series circuit.
C
1
b) When L= , the phase angle ␾ will be zero and the circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit.
C
1
c) When L< , the phase angle ␾ will be positive and the circuit behaves as an RC series circuit.
C
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
The applied voltage is V = VR 2 + VL 2 + VC 2 = I R 2 + ⎜ L −
⎝ C ⎟⎠
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
The impedance of the circuit is Z = R + ⎜ L − 2 VL IXL
⎝ C ⎟⎠ V IZ
VL VC
R R
The power factor of the circuit is cos = =
Z ⎛
2 ␾
1 ⎞
R +⎜ L−
2
⎝ C ⎟⎠ VC IXC
VR IR I
Power consumed in the circuit is P I2R VI cos ␾ Fig. 8.38 Phasor diagram for
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 8.38. an RLC series circuit
503
Example 8.10 Two coils of impedance 25.23 37 and 18.65 68 ohms are connected in series across
a 230-V, 50-Hz supply. Find the total impedance, current, power factor, apparent power, active power and
reactive power.
(
Solution Impedances are Z1 = 25.23∠37° = 20.15 + j15.18 )
Z = 18.65∠68° = ( 6.98 + j17.29 )
1
total impedance, Z = Z + Z = ( 20.15 + j15.18 ) + ( 6.98 + j17.29 ) = 27.13 + j 23.47 = 42.32 ∠50.12° ( )
1 2
230∠0°
current,
V
I= =
Z 42.32 ∠50.12°
= 5.43∠ − 50.11° A ( )
power factor cos( 50.11 ) 0.64 (lagging)
apparent power VI 230 5.43 1250 VA
active power VI sin ␾ 1250 sin(50.11 ) 959.2 VAR
reactive power VI cos ␾ 1250 0.64 901.5 W
8.19 SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE RESPONSE OF PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS

Parallel ac circuits are very frequently used in transmission and distribution systems. Analysis of parallel ac
circuits is based upon the concept that for parallel circuits, the voltage across the parallel branches is the same
and the total current is the summation of all the currents flowing through the parallel branches.
The following general procedures may be followed to determine the sinusoidal steady-state response of
parallel circuits:
1. As the voltage across each element is the same for a parallel network, the voltage phasor is taken as the
reference for drawing the phasor diagrams.
2. The current in every branch is the ratio of the voltage to impedance.
(i) If the branch is purely resistive, the current will be in phase with the voltage.
(ii) If the branch is purely inductive, the current will lag the voltage by 90 .
(iii) If the branch is purely capacitive, the current will lead the voltage by 90 .
(iv) If the branch is inductive with some resistance, the current will lag the voltage by some angle
greater than 0 but less than 90 .
(v) If the branch is capacitive with some resistance, the current will lead the voltage by some angle
greater than 0 but less than 90 .
3. The total current is the phasor summation of all the branch currents.
We consider the sinusoidal steady-state analysis of the following parallel circuits:
1. Parallel RL circuit,
2. Parallel RC circuit, and
i
3. Parallel RLC circuit.
iR iL
8.19.1 Parallel RL Circuit
v(t ) R L
For the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 8.39 (a), let the supply voltage be, v(t) =
Vm sin␻t
v t 1 ()
() () ()
By KCL, i t = iR t + iL t =
R L∫
+ ()
v t dt Fig. 8.39 (a)
RL circuit
Parallel
504
In sinusoidal steady state, IR V

V sin t 1 V sin t Vm ␾
()
i t = m
R
+ ∫Vm sin tdt = m
L R
−
L
cos t
2 2 IL
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ l
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ V sin
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ L ⎟⎠ m
( t− ) Fig. 8.39 (b) Voltage and current
phasor diagram for RL parallel circuit
⎛ R⎞
⎝ L ⎟⎠
The phasor diagrams for the currents and voltage in an RL parallel circuit are shown in Fig. 8.39 (b). Two
cases may appear:
(i) If R L then ␾ → 90
In this condition, the current drawn by the resistive branch is negligibly low and the total current is
V
() ()
almost equal to the inductor current, i.e., i t = iL t = m sin t − 90°
L
( )
(ii) If R L then ␾ → 0
In this condition, the current drawn by the inductive branch is negligibly low and the total current is
almost equal to the resistance current, i.e.,
8.19.2 Parallel RC Circuit
For the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 8.40, let the supply voltage be v(t) Vm sin ␻t
i
( ) + C dv (t )
v t
By KCL, () () ()
i t = iR t + iC t =
R dt
iR iC
v(t ) R C
In sinusoidal steady state,
Vm sin t
()
i t =
R
d
(
+ C Vm sin t
dt
) Fig. 8.40 (a) Parallel
2
Vm sin t ⎛ 1⎞
( C) V ( )
2
= + CVm cos t = ⎜ ⎟ + sin t+ IC
R ⎝ R⎠ m
I
where, ␾ tan 1 (␻RC) f V

The phasor diagrams for the currents and voltage in an RC parallel IR
circuit are shown in Fig. 8.40 (b). Two cases may appear:
Fig. 8.40 (b) Voltage and current
1 phasor diagram for RC parallel circuit
(i) If R >> then ␾ → 90
C
In this condition, the current drawn by the resistive branch is negligibly low and the total current is almost
equal to the capacitor current, i.e., i(t) = ic(t) = cvm sin(␻t+ 90 )
1
(ii) If R << , then ␾ → 0
C
In this condition, the current drawn by the capacitive branch is negligibly low and the total current is
V
() ()
almost equal to the resistance current, i.e., i t = iR t = m sin t
R
505
8.19.3 Parallel RLC Circuit i
For the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 8.41, let the supply voltage be v(t) Vm sin ␻t iR iL iC
( )+ 1
v t ()
dv t v(t ) L C
() () () () v ( t ) dt + C
R
L∫
By KCL, i t = iR t + iL t + iC t =
R dt
In sinusoidal steady state,
Fig. 8.41 Parallel RLC
V sin t 1
()
i t = m
R
d
+ ∫Vm sin tdt + C Vm sin t
L dt
( ) circuit
2 2
V sin t 1 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= m
R
−
L
Vm sin t + CVm cos t = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ C −
⎝ R⎠ ⎝
V sin
L ⎟⎠ m
( t+ )
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
where, = tan −1 ⎢ R ⎜ C − ⎥
⎣ ⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⎦
Three cases may appear:
1
(i) If C > , the circuit behaves as a parallel capacitive circuit. The current phase angle is positive, i.e., the
L
current leads the voltage.
1
(ii) If C < , the circuit behaves as a parallel inductive circuit. The current phase angle is negative, i.e.,
L
the current lags the voltage.
1
(iii) If C = , the circuit behaves as a parallel resistive circuit with inductor and capacitor currents cancel-
L
ing each other. The circuit under this condition is said to be a parallel resonant circuit.
Example 8.11 The following circuit of Fig. 8.42 shows a par-

allel RL arrangement connected across 200-V, 50-Hz ac supply.
Calculate 200 V, 50 Hz 40 R L 0.0637 H
(i) the current drawn from the supply,
(ii) apparent power,
(iii) real power, and Fig. 8.42 Circuit of Example 8.11
(iv) reactive power.
Solution Here, R 40 , L 0.0637 H, V 200 V, f 50 Hz
XL 2␲fL 10␲ 0.0637 20
(i) current drawn from the supply,
2 2 2 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
I = IR + IL
2 2
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ V = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ × 200 = 11.18 A
⎝ R⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 40 ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠
(ii) apparent power, S VI 200 11.18 2236 VA 2.236 kVA
V 2 2002
(iii) real power, P = VI R = = = 1000 W = 1 kW
R 40
V 2 2002
(iv) reactive power, Q = VI L = = = 2000 VAR = 2 kVAR
XL 20
506
Example 8.12 In the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 8.43, the resistance R dis- I
sipates a power of 10 W. If the magnitude of the supply current is |I| 1A, find the
current drawn by the capacitor and its value. 200 V,
R C
2 2 50 Hz
V 200
Solution The value of the resistance is R = = =4k
P 10
V 200 Fig. 8.43 Circuit of
current through the resistance, I R = = = 0.05 A Example 8.12
R 4 × 103
( )
2
Since, I = I R 2 + I C 2 ⇒ I C = I 2 − I R 2 = 12 − 0.05 = 0.9987 A
IC 0.9987
value of the capacitor, C= = = 15.9 F
2 f V 100 × 200
Example 8.13 The current in the resistive branch of a parallel RLC circuit is given by iR 100 cos(500t
45 ) (A) . What is the current in the inductive and capacitive branches? Take R 10 , L 10 mH, C 10 ␮F.
Solution Here, R 10 ,L 10 mH, C 10 F, ir 100 cos(500t 45 ) (A)
voltage across the circuit, ( )
v = vR = iR × R = 10 × 10 cos 500t − 45 = 1000 cos s 500t − 45 ( )(V ) = v L
= vC
Inductive current will lag this voltage by 90 .
∴ iL =
v
=
1000
L 500 × 10 × 10−3
( )
cos 500t − 45 − 90 = 200 cos 500t − 135 ( )( A )
Capacitive current will lead the voltage by 90 .
∴ iC =
1
v
(
= 1000 × 500 × 10 × 10− 6 cos 500t − 45 + 90 = 5cos 500t + 45 ) ( )( A )
C
8.20 SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE RESPONSE OF SERIES–PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS

A series–parallel circuit consists of several combinations of circuit components connected in series and/or parallel.
The method of analysis of such a circuit is based upon the knowledge of the analysis of series and parallel circuits.
Example 8.14 For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.44, determine the total current
and the power factor of the circuit. 6
4
230 V,
Solution Impedance of the RL branch, ZRL (6 j8) 50 Hz 3
Impedance of the RC branch, ZRC (4 j3) 8
Equivalent impedance of the circuit,
Z Z
Z = RL RC =
( ) (
6 + j8 × 4 − j 3 48 + j14
=
) = 4.47∠ − 10.3° ( )
Fig. 8.44 Circuit of
Example 8.14
Z RL + Z RC ( ) (
6 + j8 + 4 − j 3 )
10 + j 5
230∠0°
total current in the circuit, I=
V
=
Z 4.47∠ − 10.3°
= 51.43∠10.3° A ( )
power factor of the circuit cos(10.3 ) 0.98 (leading)
507
Solved Problems
Problem 8.1 Determine the average and rms values of a sinusoidal cur-
Im
rent having Im as the maximum value. Hence, find the values of the peak
factor and form factor. 2p
Solution The average value of a sine wave over a complete cycle is zero. So, 0 p t
we consider the half-cycle average value.
i(t) Im sin ␻t Fig. 8.45
Im 2 Im
∴ I av =
1
∫I m
sin td ( t)= ⎡⎣ − cos t ⎤⎦ =
0
= 0.637 I m
0
2
⇒ I av = I m = 0.637 I m
The rms value of the sine wave is obtained as

Im2
∴ I rms =
1
∫ I m sin td
2 2
( t) = 2 ∫ (1 − cos 2 t )d ( t )
0 0
Im ⎡2
1 ⎤ I ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ I
2
= ⎢ t − sin 2 t ⎥ = m ⎢⎜ − siin 4 ⎟ − ⎜ 0 − sin 0⎟ ⎥ = m = 0.707 I m

2 ⎣ 2 ⎦0 2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ 2
Im
⇒ I rms =
= 0.707 I m
2
peak value I
peak factor = = m = 2 = 1.414
rms value I m
2
Im
rms value 2=
form factor = = = 1.11
average value 2 I m 2
Problem 8.2 Calculate the average and root mean square values, the form factor, and peak factor of a
periodic current wave having the following values for equal time intervals over half-cycle, changing sud-
denly from one value to the next:
0, 40, 60, 80, 100, 80, 60, 40, 0
8
∑i
i =1
i
0 + 40 + 60 + 80 + 100 + 80 + 60 + 40
Solution Average value, I av = = = 57.5 A
8 8
8
∑i
i =1
i
2
0 + 402 + 602 + 802 + 1002 + 802 + 602 + 4002

The rms value, I rms = = = 64.42 A
8 8
508
Here, peak value 100 A

I rms 64.42
form factor = = = 1.12
I av 57.5
I max 100
peak factor = = = 1.554
I rms 64.42
Problem 8.3 Determine the rms value of a triangular wave in which v (t )

the average rises uniformly from 0 to V volts and completes the cycle V
by falling instantaneously to zero.
Or,
0 T 2T 3T 4T t
Determine the effective value of a sawtooth wave. Fig. 8.46
Solution The rms or effective value is given as
2
1 ⎡V ⎤
T T T
V2 2 V2 T3 V
1
()
2
T ∫0 ⎣ T ∫0 ⎣ T ⎦ T 3 ∫0
Vrms = ⎡ v t ⎤ dt = ⎢ t ⎥ dt = t dt = =
⎦ T3 3 3
Problem 4 Calculate the average and rms value for a half-wave recti- v(t)
fied sinusoidal quantity. Also, find the peak factor and form factor.
vm
Solution Average value,
t
2
V V
∫ v (t )d ( ) ( )
1 1 0 2␲ 3␲
∫V
␲
Vav = t = m
sin td t = m ⎡⎣ − cos t ⎤⎦0 = m
2 0
2 0
2 Fig. 8.47
rms value,
2
∫ ⎡⎣ v (t )⎤⎦ d ( t ) = ( t)
1 2 1
Vrms = ∫V
2
m
sin 2 td
2 0
2 0
Vm 2 Vm 2 ⎛ ⎞ Vm 2 Vm
=
2 × 2 ∫0
(
1 − cos 2 t d ) ( t) = 4 ⎜⎝
t −
1
2
si
in 2 t ⎟⎠ =
4
=
2
0
Vnm
Vrms 2 = = 1.57
form factor = =
Vav Vm 2
Vmax V
peak factor = = m =2
Vrms Vm f(␪)
2
Fm
Problem 8.5 The half-cycle of an alternating signal is as follows
It increases uniformly from zero at zero to Fm at , remains constant ␪
from to(180 − ), decreases uniformly from Fm at (180 − ␣) to zero 0 ␣ (180 ␣)
at 180 . Calculate the average and effective values of the signal. Fig. 8.48
509
Solution The function is given as

Fm
f ( )= ; 0< <
= Fm ; < < ( − )
Fm
= ( − ; ) ( − )< <
The average value is

1⎡ ⎤ 1⎡ F ⎤
−
F
Fav = ⎢∫ f ()
d ⎥ = ⎢ ∫ m d + ∫ Fm d + ∫ m ( − )d ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 − ⎥⎦
⎡
F ⎧⎪ ( ) ⎫⎤
2
1 F 2 2 − ⎪⎥
= ⎢ m
⎢ 2
(
+ Fm − 2 + m ⎨ × − ) − ( )− 2
+
2
⎬⎥
⎣ ⎪
⎩ ⎪⎭ ⎦
Fm ⎡ ⎤ Fm
) = F ⎛⎜⎝ 1 − ⎞
2 2 2 2
= ⎢ + − 2 + − + − + + − ⎥= ( − m ⎟⎠
⎣2 2 2 2 ⎦
The effective value is
1 ⎡ Fm ⎤
2 −
Fm 2
1
( )⎤⎦ ( )d
2 2
Frms 2 = ∫ ⎡⎣ f d = ⎢∫ 2 d + ∫ Fm 2 d + ∫ −
2
2 ⎥
0 ⎢⎣ 0 − ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 ⎧ ⎫⎤
( )
3
1 ⎢ Fm 3 Fm 2 ⎪ − ⎪ ⎥ Fm ⎡
2
⎤
= ⎢ 2
3
+ Fm 2 ( −2 ) + 2 ⎨
3
⎬⎥ = ⎢ 3 + −2 + 3⎥
⎢ ⎪ ⎪⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎩ − ⎭⎦
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
= Fm 2 ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ∴ Frms = Fm ⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
Problem 8.6 Find the average and rms values of the peri- v(u)
odic function shown in Fig. 8.49.
Vm
2
Solution From Problem 8. 5, with = 60° = , Vav = Vm
3 3 0 p/3 2p/3 p 4p/3 5p/3 2p
u
5
and Vrms = V Fig. 8.49
3 m
Problem 8.7 Transform the following sinusoids into phasors:

(a) i(t) 4 sin (10t 10 ), (b) v(t) 7 cos (2t 40 )
Solution Taking sine as reference,
(a) i(t ) = 4 sin(10t + 10 ) ∴ I = 4 ∠10°
() ( ) (
(b) v t = −7 cos 2t + 40 = 7 sin 2t + 40 − 90 = 7 sin 2t − 50 ) ( ) ∴V = 7∠ − 50°
510
Problem 8.8 Find the sinusoids represented by the following phasors:

j20
(a) I 3 j4 (b) V j8e
Solution (a) I = −3 + j 4 = 5∠ − 53.13° ∴ i t = 5sin () ( t − 53.13 )

(b) V = j8e − j 20 = 8∠ − 20° ∴ v ( t ) = 8 sin ( t − 20 )
Problem 8.9 Find the sum of the five emf’s:
e1 = 20 sin t e2 = 10 sin ( t + 3 ) e = 15cos 3

t e4 = 10 sin ( t − 6 ) e = 25cos( t + 2 3 )
5
Solution
e1 = 20 sin t = 20∠0° = 20
e2 = 10 sin ( t + 3 ) = 10∠ 3
(
= 5 + j8.66 )
e3 = 15cos t = 15sin ( )
t + 90 = 15∠90= j15
( t − 6 ) = 10∠ − 6 = (8.66 − j5)

e4 = 10 sin
3) 2)
e = 25cos( t + 2 = 25sin ( t + 2 + = 25∠210° = −21.65 − j12.5
5
3
The sum of the five emf is
(
e = e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 + e5 )
( ) ( ) (
= 20 + 5 + j8.66 + j15 + 8.66 − j 5 + −21.65 − j12.5 = 12 + j 6.16 = 13.49∠27.17° )
∴ e = 13.49 sin ( t + 27.17 )
Problem 8.10 The voltage across an ideal element is v = 3 cos 3 t (V) and the associated current through
the element is i = −2 sin(3 t +10 ° ) (A) . Determine the phase relationship between the average voltage and
current.
Solution Given: v 3 cos 3t (v) and ( ) (

i = −2 sin 3t + 10 = 2 cos 3t + 10 + 90 = 2 cos 3t + 100 ) ( )(A)
I leads v by an angle 100 .
Problem 8.11 Find the response ‘i’ of an RL series circuit if R 2 ,L 1 H and the input voltage, v(t)
10 sin 3t.
Solution Given: R 2 ,L 1 H, and input voltage, v(t) 10 sin 3t (V)
∴ X L = j L = j × 3 ×1= j3
V 10∠0° 10
∴I = = = ∠33.69° = 2.77∠33.69°
Z 2 + j3 13
511
So, the current is () ( )

i t = 2.77 sin( 3t + 33.69° ) A = 2.77 cos( 3t − 146.31° ) A ( )
Problem 8.12 Find the steady-state voltage v for the RC circuit shown in Fig. 8.50
when i 10cos t (A), R 1 , C 10 mF, and 100 rad/s.
i C
Solution Given: R 1 ,C 10 mF, ␻ 100 rad/s and R
i = 10 cos t = 10 sin( t + 90 ) A ( ) ⇒ I = 10∠90°

Fig. 8.50
R 1 10∠90° 10
∴V = I × Z = I × = 10∠90° × = = ∠45°
1 + j RC 1 + j100 × 1 × 10 × 10 −3
1+ j 2
()
∴v t =
10
sin( t + 45 ) =
10
( )
cos( t − 45 ) A
2 2
Problem 8.13 Two circuits having the same numerical ohmic impedance are joined in parallel. The
power factors of the circuits are 0.8 and 0.6. What is the power factor of the circuit?
Solution Let the resistances and reactances of the two circuits be R1, R2 and X1 and X2.
For the 1st circuit
Power factor 0.8
∴ R1 = Z cos = 0.8 Z and X 1 = Z sin = 0.6 Z
For the 2nd circuit
Power factor 0.6
∴ R1 = Z cos = 0.6 Z and X 1 = Z sin = 0.8 Z
) ( R + jX ) = (0.8Z + j 0.6 Z )) + (0.6 Z + j 0.8Z ))

(0.8Z + j 0.6 Z × (0.6 Z + j 0.8Z
(
Impedance of the circuit ZT = R1 + jX 1 2 2
⎛ j1 ⎞
=⎜ Z = 0.505Z ∠45°
⎝ 1 .4 + j1.4 ⎟⎠
power factor of the circuit is cos 45 0.707
Problem 8.14 Obtain the expression for the time-domain 3

500 ␮F
currents i1(t) and i2(t) in the circuit shown in Fig. 8.51.
i1 i2
Solution Here, = 103 rad/s; 2i1
10cos103t (V) 4 mH
−3
∴ X L = j L = j10 × 4 × 10 = j 4
3
−j −j
and XC = = = − j2 Fig. 8.51
C 103 × 500 × 10−6
(
By KVL in phasor domain, 3 I1 + j 4 I1 − I 2 = 10∠00 ⇒ ) ( 3 + j 4 ) I − j 4 I = 10
1 2
(i)
and (
− j 2 I 2 + 2 I1 + j 4 I 2 − I1 = 0 ) ⇒ (2 − j4) I + j2 I = 0
1 2
(ii)
512
10 − j 4
0 j2 − j 20 − j 20
Solving for I1 and I2, I1 = = = = 1.24 ∠29.745°
(3+ j4) − j4 j 6 − 8 + j8 + 16 8 + j14
(2 − j4) j2
( 3 + j 4 ) 10
and, I =
( 2 − j 4 ) 0 = −20 + j 40 = 2.77∠56.31°
( 3 + j 4 ) − j 4 j 6 − 8 + j8 + 16
2
(2 − j4) j2
∴ i ( t ) = 1.24 cos(10 t + 29.7 ) ( A ) and i ( t ) = 2.77 cos(10 t + 56.31 ) ( A )
1
3
2
3
Problem 8.15 For the circuit, find the node voltages vA and VA 10 VB
vB using node voltage method. The source current is given as
is(t) 10cos t (A), 1000 rad/s.
is(t ) 5 L = 5 mH
Solution Here, = 1000 rad/s;
C = 100 ␮F
∴ X L = j L = j1000 × 5 × 10−3 = j 5
Fig. 8.52
−j −j
and XC = = = − j10
C 1000 × 100 × 10−6
By KCL in phasor domain
V −V
)
V
At the node (A), −10∠0° + A + A B = 0 ⇒ VA 1 + j − VB = 100
− j10 10
( (i)
VB VB VB − VA
and at the node (B), + +
5 j5 10
= 0 ⇒ − VA + VB 3 − j 2 = 0 ( ) (ii)
100 −1
Solving for VA and VB, VA =

0 ( 3− j2 ) =
300 − j 200 100 3 − j 2
=
( )
= 87.446 ∠ − 47.73°
(1 + j ) −1 + 2 −1
3 + j1+ 4 + j1
−1 (3− j2)
1 + j1 100
−1 0 −100 −100
and, VB = = = = 24.253∠ − 165.964°
(1 + j ) −1 3 + j1 + 2 − 1 4 + j1
−1 (3− j2)
∴ v ( t ) = 87.45cos(1000t − 47.7 ) ( A ) ⎞
A
⎟
and v ( t ) = 24.25cos(1000t − 165.9 ) ( A )⎟⎠
B
513
Problem 8.16 Find the voltage vx if, v1(t) 20cos 1000t (V) and v2(t) 10 mH vx 0.1mF
20sin 1000t (V).
Solution Here, = 103 rad/s; v1 25 v2

−3
∴ X L = j L = j10 × 10 × 10 = j10
3
−j −j Fig. 8.53
and XC = = 3 = − j10
C 10 × 0.1 × 10−3
Also, V1 = 20∠0° and V2 = 20∠ − 90°
By KCL in phasor domain
At the node (x), Vx − 20∠0° Vx − 20∠ − 90° Vx
+ + =0
j10 − j10 25
⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤ 20 20
⇒ Vx ⎢ − + ⎥= ∠0° − ∠ − 90°
⎣ j10 j10 25 ⎦ j10 j10
Vx
⇒
25
(
= 2 − j2 ) ⇒ Vx = 50 − j 50 = 70.71∠ − 45° V ( )
() (
∴ v x t = 70.71cos 1000t − 45 )(V)
Problem 8.17 (a) A current I 10 30 flows through an impedance, Z 20 22 . Find the average
power delivered to the impedance.
(b) Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance, Z (30 j70) when a voltage, V 120 0
is applied across it.
Solution (a) Given: I 10 30 , Z 20 22 V IZ 200 8 (V)
average power delivered,

1
Pav = Vm I m ∠
2 v
− i
1
( )
= 200 × 10 cos 8 − 30 = 927.18 W
2
( )
(b) Here, Z = 30 − j 70 = 76.16 ∠ − 66.8 ;V 120 0 V
120∠0°
∴I =
V
=
Z 76.16 ∠ − 66.8°
= 1.576 ∠66.8 A ( )
The average power is given as
1
∴ Pav = Vm I m cos
2
( v
− i ) = 12 × 120 × 1.576 × cos(0° − 66.8° ) = 37.24 W
Problem 8.18 Calculate the average power absorbed by the resistor 3
and inductor. Find the average power supplied by the voltage source.
Solution Here, V (
8 45 (V), Z = 3 + j1 = 3.16 ∠18.43° ) 8 45 (V) j1
8∠45°
V
∴I = =
Z 3.16 ∠18.43°
= 2.53∠26.565 A ( ) Fig. 8.54
514
1
The power supplied by the source is ∴ Pav = Vm I m cos
2
( v
− i ) = 12 × 8 × 2.53 × cos( 45 − 26.565 ) = 9.6 W
1 1 1
Average power absorbed by the resistor, PR = VR I R = × 3 I R I R = × 3 × 2.53 × 2.53 = 9.6 W
2 2 2
This is equal to the power supplied by the source such that the average power absorbed by the inductor is
zero.
Problem 8.19 Calculate the average power absorbed by 8 j4

each of the five elements in the circuit. I1 I2
Solution ( )
By KVL, 8 − j 2 I1 + j 2 I 2 = 40 40 0 (V) j2 20 90 (V)
and j 2 I1 + j 2 I 2 = − j 20
Fig. 8.55
Solving for the currents,
40 j2
− j 20 j80 − 40 −5 + j10
I1 =
j2
= = = 5∠53.13° A ( )
(8 − j 2 ) j2 j16 + 4 + 4 1 + j 2
j2 j2
(8 − j 2 ) 40
− j 20 − j160 − 40 − j80 5 + j 30
I2 =
j2
= =− = −13.775∠17.1° A ( )
(8 − j 2 ) j2 j16 + 4 + 4 1+ j 2
j2 j2
average power supplied by the 40-V source is,

1
(
P40 V = × 40 × 5cos 0 − 53.13 = 60 W
2
)
average power supplied by the 20-V source is,
1
(
P20 V = × 20 × 13.75cos 90 − 17.1 = 40 W
2
)
1 1
average power absorbed by the resistor P8 = × 8 I1 × I1 = × 8 × 5 × 5 = 100 W
2 2
Problem 8.20 Obtain the power factor and the apparent power of a load whose impedance is
Z (60 j40) when the applied voltage is v(t) 150cos(377t 10 )(V).
Solution Here, V (
150 10 (V), Z = 60 + j 40 = 72.11∠33.69° )
150∠0°
∴I =
V
=
Z 72.11∠33.69°
= 2.08∠ − 23.69° A ( )
power factor = cos ( v
− i ) = cos(10 − 23.69 ) = 0.832 ( lag )
1 1
apparent power = Vm I m = × 150 × 2.08 = 156 VA
2 2
515
Problem 8.21 Given a circuit with an impedance Z (3 j4) and an applied voltage, V 100 30
(volt), determine the apparent, real, and reactive power. What will be the power factor of the circuit?
Solution Here, V 100 30 (V), Z = 3 + j 4 = 5∠53.13° ( )
V 100∠30°
∴I = =
Z 5∠53.13°
= 20∠ − 23.13° A ( )
1 1
apparent power = Vm I m = × 100 × 20 = 1000 VA
2 2
1
real power = Vm I m cos
2
( v
− i ) = 1000 × cos( 30 + 23.13 ) = 600 W
1
reactive power = Vm I m sin
2
( v
− i ) = 1000 × cos( 30 + 23.13 ) = 800 W
power factor = cos ( v
− i ) = cos( 30 + 23.13 ) = 0.6
Problem 8.22 A resistance and an inductance are connected in series across a voltage, v(t) 283sin 314t.
The current expression is given by 40 sin 314 t −
4 ( )
. Find the value of the inductance and the power factor.
What is the power drawn by the circuit?
Solution Here, V 283 0 (V), I 40 −45 (A),
283
∴ Z = R2 + 2
L2 = = 7.075 (i)
40
Also, ␻ 314 rad/s or f 50 Hz
⎛ L⎞
∴ tan −1 ⎜ = ⇒ L=R
⎝ R ⎟⎠ 4
From the equation (i), 2 R = 7.075 ⇒ R = 5

R 5
∴L= = = 0.0159 H
2 f 100
power factor = cos 45° = 0.707
1 1
power drawn = Vm I m cos 45° = × 283 × 40 × 0.707 = 4000 W
2 2
Problem 8.23 In an RL series circuit, a voltage of 100 V at 25 Hz produces 1A while the same voltage at
75 Hz produces ½ A. Draw the diagram and insert the values of R and L.
Solution Since the voltage is constant
I1 Z 2
∴ =
I 2 Z1
516
( ) ( )
2 2
1 R2 + 2 f2 L R 2 + 2 × 75 L
∴ = =
1
( ) + (2 × 25 L )
2 2
2 R 2 + 2 f1 L R2
⇒ 4 R 2 + 4 × 2500 2
L2 = R 2 + 22500 2
L2 ⇒ 3R 2 = 12500 2
L2 (i)
100
Now, I1 = 1 =
( )
2
R + 50 L
2
⇒ R 2 + 2500 2
L2 = 10000 (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii),
R 79.05 and L 0.3898 H
Problem 8.24 A resistance of 20 , inductance of 0. 2 H and capacitance of 150 F are connected in

series and are fed by a 230-V, 50-Hz supply. Find XL, XC, Z, Y, pf, active power and reactive power.
Solution Given: R 20 ,L 0.2 H, C 150 F, V 230 V, f 50 Hz
X L = 2 × 50 × 0.2 = 62.8
1
XC = = 21.22
2 × 50 × 150 × 10−6
( ) ( )
2 2
Z = R2 + X L − X C = 202 + 62.8 − 21.22 = 46.168
1 1
Y= = = 0.0217 S
Z 46.168
Power factor, cos =

R
=
20
Z 46.168
= 0.4332 ( lag ) ⎡⎣ X L > X C ⎤⎦
V 230
The current in the circuit = = = 4.982 A
Z 46.168
active power = VI cos = 230 × 4.982 × 0.4332 = 496.37 W
reactive power = VI sin = 230 × 4.982 × 0.901 = 1032.72 W
Problem 8.25 Find the currents i1(t) and i2(t) in the circuit shown in i1(t ) i2(t )
1
Fig. 8.56.
3
1
Solution Given: L 1 H, C = F and ␻ 3 rad/s 5cos3t 1/9 F
9
1H
−j
∴ X L = j L = j3 and X C = = − j3
C Fig. 8.56
517
By KCL at the node (x), we get, I1(t ) I2(t )

1 x
5∠0° − Vx V V ⎡ 1 j j⎤
= x + x ⇒ Vx ⎢1 + − + ⎥ = 5∠0° 3
1 3+ j3 − j3 ⎣ 6 6 3⎦ 5 0 (V) j3
⎡7 j ⎤ 30∠0° j3
⇒ Vx ⎢ + ⎥ = 5∠0° ⇒ Vx = = 3 2 ∠ − 8.13°
⎣6 6 ⎦ 7+ j
Fig. 8.57
5∠0 − Vx
∴ I1 =
1
= 5∠0 − 3 2 ∠ − 8.13 = 5 − 4.158 − j 0.598 = 1∠38.9 A ( )
V 3 2 ∠ − 8.13°
and I2 = x =
− j3 3∠ − 90°
= 2 ∠81.87 A ( )
() (
Thus, the currents are given as i1 t = cos 3t + 38.9 ) ( A ) ⎫⎪
⎬
i ( t ) = 2 cos( 3t + 81.87 ) ( A ) ⎪⎭
2
Problem 8.26 Find the sum of the three currents:
() ()
i1 t = 20 sin t , i2 t = 10 sin ( t+
6 ), ()
i3 t = 25cos ( t +2
3 )
Solution The sum of the three currents is given as,
( )
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 20∠0° + 10∠30° + 25∠210°
= 20 + 8.66 + j 5 − 21.65 − j12.5 = 7 − j 7.5 = 10.259∠ − 46.97°
()
∴ i t = 10.259 sin ( t − 46.97 )(A)
Problem 8.27 Two sources, e1 = 200 sin t (V ) and e2 = 200 sin ( t + 30° ) (V ) are in series supplying power
to a circuit of impedance (8 j6) . Calculate the total source voltage, current and power supplied.
Solution The sources are given as E1 = 200∠0° and E2 = 200∠30°
( )
total source voltage, E = E1 + E2 = 200 + 200∠30° = 200 + 173.2 + j100 = 386.37∠15° V ( )
∴ e = 386.37 sin ( t + 15° )(V)
E 386.37∠15° 386.37∠15°
The current in the circuit, I =
Z
=
8 + j6
=
10∠36.87°
= 38.6637∠ − 21.87° A ( )
∴ i = 38.637 sin ( t − 21.87° )(A)
power supplied, P = EI * = 386.37∠15° × 38.637∠21.87° = 1.194 kW
Problem 8.28 An alternating voltage (80 + j60)V is applied to a circuit and the current flowing is
( −4 + j10) A . Find the impedance of the circuit, the power consumed and the phase angle.
Solution ( )
Given: V = 80 + j 60 = 100∠36.87° and ( )
I = − 4 + j10 = 10.77∠ − 68.199° A
518
V 100∠36.87°
impedance of the circuit, Z= = = 9.285∠105.069°
I 10.77∠ − 68.199°
power consumed,
1
(
P = Vrms I rms cos = × 100 × 10.77 × cos 105.069 = 140 Watt
2
)
Phase angle, ␾ 105.069
Problem 8.29 A R = 5 resistance and a L = 30 mH inductance are connected in parallel across a voltage,
v =100 sin (1000 t + 50 ° ) volt. Obtain the total current, i.
Solution Given: R 5 ,L 30 mH, ␻ 1000 rad/s, V 100 50
100∠50°
The current through the resistor I R =
5
= 20∠50° = 20 × 0.6428 + j 0.766 ( )
100∠50°
The current through the inductor I L ==
j 30
(
= 1.33∠ − 40° = 1.33 × 0.766 − j 0.6428 )
( ) ( )
total current is I = I R + I L = 20 × 0.6428 + j 0.766 + 1.33 × 0.766 − j 0.6
6428 ( )
= 13.875 + j14.465 = 20.04 ∠46.19°
(
∴ i = 20.04 sin 1000t + 46.19° )(A)
Problem 8.30 Find the expression for the current and calculate the power, when a voltage of
v 283 sin 314 t is applied to a coil of R 50 and L 0.159 H.
Solution Given: R 50 ,L 0.159 H, ␻ 314 rad/s, V 283 0
Impedance of the circuit, Z = 50 + j 314 × 0.159 = 50 + j 50 = 50 2 ∠45°
283∠0°
Current in the circuit, I=
V
=
Z 50 2 ∠45°
= 4 ∠ − 45° A ( )
the current in the circuit, () (
i t = 4 sin 314t − 45 )(A)
1
Power, P = Vrms I rms cos = × 283 × 4 × cos 45 = 400 W
2
Problem 8.31 Two impedances (14 + j5) and (18 + j10) are connected in parallel across a 200-V, 50-
c/s supply. Determine the capacitance which when connected in parallel with the original circuit will make
the resultant power factor unity.
(
Solution Given: Z1 = 14 + j 5 = 14.87∠19.65° ) ( )
and Z 2 = 18 + j10 = 20.59∠29.05°
V 200V, f 50 Hz
1
Admittances are given as Y1 = = 0.0634 − j 0.0226
14.87∠19.65°
1
Y2 = = 0.0424 − j 0.0236
20.59∠29.05°
519
( ) ( ) (
the circuit admittance is, Y = Y1 + Y2 = 0.0634 − j 0.0226 + 0.0424 − j 0.0236 = 0.1058 − j 0.0462 S ) ( )
total current in the circuit, = 200Y = 21.16 − j 9.24 A ( )( )
Now, the capacitance current must be equal to the imaginary part of the total current so that the resultant
power factor of the circuit becomes unity.
9.24 9.24
∴ I C = 9.24 ⇒ × C × V = 9.24 ⇒ 2 f × C × V = 9.24 ⇒ C = = = 147 F
2 f × V 2 × 50 × 200
Problem 8.32 A series ac circuit has a resistance of 15 and an inductive reactance of 10 . Calcu-
late the value of a capacitor which is connected across this series combination so that the system has unity
power factor. The frequency of ac supply is 50 Hz.
Solution Here, R 15 , XL 10
R 15 15
conductance of the series branch, G= = 2 =
R + X L 15 + 10 325
2 2 2
10 10 XL
susceptance of the series branch, B= = =
R + X L 15 + 10 3252 2 2 2
The power factor of the system will be unity if the susceptance of the capacitor to be connected in parallel is
equal to the susceptance of the series branch, i.e.,
B 10
C=B ⇒ C= = = 98 F
2 f 2 × 50 × 325
Problem 8.33 An ac voltage of 200 V is applied to a series circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and
a capacitor. The respective voltages across these components are 170 V, 150 V, and 100 V and the current is
4 A. Find the power factor of the inductor and also of the circuit. Draw the phasor diagram.
Solution Given: Vab 170 V, Vbc 150 V, Vcd 100 V, and I 4A a b c d
Vbc 150 100 4A
∴ XL = = = 37.5 and X C = = 25
I 4 4
If the inductive coil has a resistance RL and a reactance x then 200 V
RL 2 + x 2 = 37.52 = 1406.25 (i) Fig. 8.58
Again, impedance of the circuit, Z=

170
4
( )
+ RL + j x − 25 = 42.5 + RL + j x − 25 ( )
200
( ) ( ) ( 42.5 + R ) + ( x − 25)
2 2
⇒ = 42.5 + RL + j x − 25 ⇒ 42.5 + RL + j x − 25 = 50 ⇒ L
= 2500 (ii)
4
( 42.5 + R ) + ( x − 25)
2 2
By (ii) − (i), L
− RL 2 + x 2 = 2500 − 1406.25
⇒ 85 RL + 1806.25 − 50 x + 625 = 1093.75 ⇒ 85 RL − 50 x = −1337.5 ⇒ RL = 0.588 x − 15.73 ( ) (iii)
(0.588 x − 15.73) ( taking possitive root )

2
From (iii) and (i), + x 2 = 1406.25 ⇒ x = 28.856
520
From (iii), (
RL = 0.588 x − 15.73 = 1.238 )
RL 1.238
power factor of the inductor, cos L
= = = 0.033
X L 37.5
Total resistance, R = R1 + R2 = 42.5 + 1.238 = 43.738
R 43.738
the power factor of the circuit, cos = = = 0.875
Z 37.550
Problem 8.34 A 230-V, 50-c/s voltage is applied to a coil of L 5 H and R 2 in series with a capacitor
C. What value must C have so that the pd across the coil should be 250 V?
Solution Given: V 230 V, f 50 Hz, L 5 H, R 2 , VC 250 V
∴ = 2 f = 2 × 50 = 100
∴ X L = L = 500 = 1570
total impedance of the coil, ( ) (

Z L = R + j L = 2 + j1570 = 1570.8∠89.93°)
250∠0°
current, I=
V
=
Z 1570.8∠89.93°
= 0.159∠ − 89.93° A ( )
230
Now, impedance of the circuit, Z= = 1446.54
0.159
Hence, the impedance of the capacitance is ZC = 1570 − 1446.54 = 12425 ( )
1 1
∴ = 124.25 ⇒ C = = 25.62 F
C 2 × 50 × 124.25
Problem 8.35 A 159.23- F capacitor in parallel with a resistance R draws a current of 25 A from 300-V,
50-Hz mains. Using phasor diagrams, find the frequency f at which this combination draws the same current
from a 360-V mains.
Solution When f 50 Hz, V 300 V, C 159.23 F, supply current, I 25 A.
V 300
capacitive current, I C = = = 15 A
X C 2 × 50 × 159.23 × 10− 6
resistive current, I R = I 2 − I C 2 = 252 − 152 = 20 A
V 300
value of the resistance, R= = = 15
I R 20
For the new frequency f, the supply current will remain the same, i.e., I 25 A.
V ′ 360
Resistive current, I R′ = = = 24 A
R 15
new capacitive current, I C′ = I ′ 2 − I R′ 2 = 252 − 24 2 = 7 A
521
V ′ 360
new capacitive reactance, X C′ = = = 51.43
I C′ 7
1 1
new supply frequency, f= = = 19.4 Hz
2 CX C 2 × 159.23 × 10−6 × 51.43
For phasor diagram, see Section 8.19.
Problem 8.36 A voltage v(t) 400 sin 314t(V) is applied to the circuit shown in
C
Fig. 8.59. Find the currents and their phase angles wrt the voltages for the three
branches. C 50 F; R1 100 ; R2 50 ; L 0.1 H. R1
R2 L
Solution Here, C 50 F; R1 100 ; R2 50 ; L 0.1 H,
V 400 90 (V), ␻ 314 rad/s
Fig. 8.59
V 400∠0°
current in the resistive branch, IR = = = 4 ∠0° A
1
R1 100
V
current in the capacitive branch, IC = = 400∠0° × 314 × 50 × 10− 6 ∠90° = 6.28∠90° A
1
j C
current in the RL branch,
V 400∠0° 400∠0°
IC = = = = 6.77∠ − 32.13° A
⎛ L⎞ ⎛ 314 × 0.1⎞
Z
( ) ( )
2 2 −1
R2 +
2
L ∠ tan ⎜ ⎟ −1
50 + 314 × 0.1 ∠ tan ⎜
2
⎝ R2 ⎠ ⎝ 50 ⎟⎠
Problem 8.37 An inductive circuit in parallel with a resistive circuit of 20 is connected across 50-Hz
supply. The inductive current is 4.3 A and the resistive current is 2.7 A. The total current is 5.8 A. Find (a)
power absorbed by the inductive branch, (b) inductance, and (c) power factor of the combined circuit. Also,
draw the phasor diagram.
Solution Here, f 50 Hz, R 20 , IL 4.3 A; IR 2.7 A; I 5.8 A 5.8 A
The circuit is shown in Fig. 8.60. 4.3 A
2.7 A
Supply voltage is V = I R × R = 2.7 × 20 = 54 V R
v (t) 20
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 8.61 below
L
V 54
Impedance of the RL branch, Z = = = 12.56
I RL 4.3 Fig. 8.60
Now, from the phasor diagram, the phase angle of the impedance of the
IR = 2.7 A B C V
RL branch is obtained as AD 2 = AB 2 + BD 2 + 2 AB × BD cos A
f
AD 2 − AB 2 − BD 2 5.82 − 2.72 − 4.32
⇒ cos = = = 0.3385
2 AB × BD 22.7 × 4.3 I = 5.8 A IRL = 4.3 A
D
resistance of the RL branch, R = Z cos = 12.56 × 0.3385 = 4.25
Fig. 8.61 Phasor diagram
reactance of the RL branch, X = Z 2 − R 2 = 12.56 2 − 4.252 = 11.82
522
(a) Power absorbed by the inductive branch I RL 2 × R = 4.32 × 4.25 = 78.6 W

X 11.82
(b) Inductance, L= = = 37.6 mH
2 f 2 × 50
(c) Power of the combined circuit is obtained as
AC AB + BC 2.7 + BD cos 2.7 + 4.3 × 0.3385
pf = = = = = 0.716 (Lagging)
AD AD 5.8 5.8
Problem 8.38 An inductive coil of 15- resistance and 42- inductive reactance is connected in parallel
with a capacitive reactance of 47.6 . The combination is energized from a 200-V, 33.5-Hz ac supply. Find
the total current drawn by the circuit and its power factor.
Solution The circuit is shown in Fig. 8.62.
Current drawn by the inductive branch, 15
200 V, 47.6
33.5 Hz
V 200∠0
I RL = =
Z 15 + j 42
( ) (
= 4.48∠ − 70.346° A = 1.508 − j 4.223 A )( ) 42
Fig. 8.62
Current drawn by the capacitive branch,
V 200
IC = = = 4.202 ∠90° = j 4.202 A
X C − j 47.6
total current drawn by the circuit is
( ) ( ) ( )
I = I RL + I C = 1.508 − j 4.223 + j 4.202 = 1.508 − j 0.02 = 1.5∠ − 0.81° ≈ 1.5∠0° A ( )
power factor of the circuit cos = cos(0 ) = 1.0
Problem 8.39 Two currents in each branch of a two-branched parallel circuit is given as
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
i a = 8.07 sin ⎜ 314t − ⎟ ; i b = 21.2 sin ⎜ 314t − ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
and supply voltage is 354 sin 314 t. Calculate (i) total current in the same form, and (ii) ohmic values of com-
ponents in each branch.
()
Solution Here, supply voltage v t = 354 sin 314t
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
Currents, ia = 8.07 sin ⎜ 314t − ⎟ ; ib = 21.2 sin ⎜ 314t − ⎟ .
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
It is seen that the current ia lags behind the voltage by an angle . Therefore, the branch a consists of a
4
resistance and a pure inductance in series.
Similarly, it is seen that the current ib lags behind the voltage by an angle . Therefore, the branch b also
3
consists of a resistance and a pure inductance in series.
(
The currents in sin phasor form are given as I a = 8.07∠ − 45° = 5.706 − j 5.706 A )( )
Ib = 21.2 ∠ − 60° = (10.6 − j18.36 )( A )
523
(i) ( ) ( ) (
total current is given as I = I a + I b = 5.706 − j 5.706 + 10.6 − j18.36 )
= 16.306 − 24 = 29.07∠ − 55.88° A ( )
Thus, the supply current is, (
i = 29.07 sin 314t − 55.88 )( A )
354
(ii) Impedance of the branch a, Za = = 43.866
8.07
resistance of the branch a, Ra = Z a cos a (
= 43.866 × cos 45° = 31 )
reactance of the branch a, X a = Z a sin a (
= 43.866 × sin 45° = 31 )
354
Impedance of the branch b, Zb = = 16.698
21.2
resistance of the branch b, Rb = Z b cos b ( )
= 16.698 × cos 60 = 8.349
reactance of the branch b, X b = Z b sin b

= 16.698 × sin ( 60 ) = 14.461
Problem 8.40 A resistance of 12 and an inductance of 0.025 H are connected in series across a 50-Hz
supply. What values of resistance and inductance when connected in parallel will have the same resultant
impedance and pf? Find the current in each case when the supply voltage is 230 V.
Solution For series circuit,
f = 50 Hz, Rs = 12 ; L = 0.025 ⇒ X s = 2 × 50 × 0.025 = 7.854
Let Rp be the resistance and Xp the reactance in parallel circuit.

The resultant impedance of the series and parallel circuits will be same if,
conductance of series circuit conductance of parallel circuit
and
susceptance of series circuit susceptance of parallel circuit
Rs 1 R 2 + X s 2 12 2 + 7.854 2
∴ = ⇒ Rp = s = = 17.14
Rs 2 + X s 2 Rp Rs 12
and
Xs 1 R 2 + X s 2 12 2 + 7.854 2
= ⇒ Xp = s = = 26.188
Rs 2 + X s 2 Xp Xs 7.854
Xp 26.188
the value of the inductor for the parallel circuit is given as Lp = = = 83.361 mH
2 f 2 × 50
Thus, the value of resistance and inductance for parallel circuit are, Rp 17.14 Lp = 83.36 mH
V
current in each case is given as I = =
230
Z 12 + j 7.854
= 16.037∠33.2° A ( )
524
Problem 8.41 Two circuits the impedances of which are given by Z1 (10 j15) and Z2 (6 j8) , are
connected in parallel. If the total current supplied is 15 A, what is the power taken by each branch?
Solution Current through impedance Z1 is
⎛ 6 − j8 ⎞ ⎛ 6 − j8 ⎞
( )
Z2
I1 = I × = 15 × ⎜ = 15 × ⎜ = 8.589∠ − 76.76° A
Z1 + Z 2 ⎝ 10 + j15 + 6 − j8 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 16 + j 7 ⎟⎠
Current through impedance Z2 is
⎛ 10 + j15 ⎞ ⎛ 10 + j15 ⎞
( )
Z1
I2 = I × = 15 × ⎜ ⎟ = 15 × ⎜ = 15.484 ∠ − 732.68° A
Z1 + Z 2 ⎝ 10 + j15 + 6 − j8 ⎠ ⎝ 16 + j 7 ⎟⎠
power taken by the branch Z1 is P1 = I12 × R1 = 8.5892 × 10 = 738 W
power taken by branch Z2 is P2 = I 2 2 × R2 = 15.484 2 × 6 = 1438 W
Problem 8.42 Figure 8.63 shows a series–parallel circuit. Find

4 j3
(i) Admittance of each parallel branch
(ii) Total circuit impedance 1.6 j 7.2
L 6 j8
(iii) Supply current and power factor
100-V,
(iv) Total power supplied by the source 50-Hz
supply
N
Solution
1 Fig. 8.63
(i) Admittance of RL branch, YRL = = 0.2 ∠ − 36.87 mho
4 + j3
1
Admittance of RC branch, YRC = = − 0.1∠53.13 mho
6 − j8
(ii) Impedance of the parallel branches is,
( 4 + j 3) × (6 − j8) = 48 − j14 = 4..472135955∠10.3° = 4.4 + j 0.8
Zp =
( 4 + j 3) + (6 − j8) 10 − j 5
( )
total circuit impedance is Z = (1.6 + j 7.2 ) + ( 4.4 + j 0.8 ) = ( 6 + j8 ) = 10∠53.13° ( )
(iii) Supply current, I =

V
=
100
Z 6 + j8
= 10∠ − 53.13° A ( )
( )
Power factor = cos −53.13 = 0.6 (lagging)
(iv) Total power supplied by the source, P = I 2 × R = 102 × 6 = 600 W sin2t
Problem 8.43 For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.64, find the voltage v1. 1
1 1 1 /2 F
Solution Here, = 2 rad/s; L1 = H; L2 = 1 H; C = F 4cos2t v1 1 /2H 2v1 1H
2 2
∴ X L1 = j1 ; X L 2 = j 2 ; X C = − j1 Fig. 8.64
525
V1 V −V
By KCL at the Node (1), − 4 ∠0° − 1∠ − 90° + 1 2 = 0
j1 −j
⎛ 4− j⎞
( ) ( )
1 90
⇒ V2 = ⎜ = 1 + 4 j = 4.123∠75.96° V
⎝ − j ⎟⎠
1 21
V2 − V1 V j1
By KCL at the Node (2), − 2V1 + 2 + 1∠ − 90° = 0
− j1 1+ j 2 4 0 V1 j1 2V1 j2
⎛1 2⎞
( ) ( )
⇒ V2 j1 − V1 j1 − 2V1 + ⎜ − j ⎟ V2 − j1 = 0
⎝5 5⎠
Fig. 8.65
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
( ) 2
( 2
)
⇒ V1 2 + j1 = V2 ⎜ − j + j1⎟ − j1 = 1 + 4 j ⎜ − j + j1⎟ − j1
⎝5 5 ⎠ ⎝5 5 ⎠
( )
⇒ V1 2 + j1 = −
11 2
5
+j
5
11 2
− +j
⇒ V1 = 5
(
5 = −11 + j 2 2 − j1)( )
2 + j1 5×5
⎛ 20 15 ⎞ 4 3
= ⎜ − + j ⎟ = − + j = 1∠ − 36.87°
⎝ 25 25 ⎠ 5 5
( )
Thus, the voltage is given as v1 = cos 2t − 36.87 = cos 2t + 143.13 ( )(V)
Problem 8.44 Given that the voltages VAB and VBC in the circuit R
L
are 100 V each, find R, L and C in the circuit and the power con- A B C
sumed. The line current is 5 A.
5A 5A
Solution Since VAB VBC VAC 100 V, the phasor diagram C
100 V, 50 Hz
will be as shown in Fig. 8.67.
∴ I R = 5cos 30° = 4.33 A and I C = 5sin 30° = 2.5 A Fig. 8.66
To find R C
100 100
R= = = 23
I R 4.33 5A
IC
To find C 60
Here, = 2 f = 2 × 50 = 100 A IR B
Fig. 8.67
100 100
Now, XC = = = 40
IC 2.5
1 1
∴ = 40 ⇒ C = = 79.6 F
C 100 × 40
526
To find L
100
XL = = 20
5
20
∴ L = 20 ⇒ L = = 63.66 mH
100
Problem 8.45 A load as shown in Fig. 8.68 has an impedance of ZL (100 j100) .
Find the parallel capacitance required to correct the power factor to unity. Assume vs ZL C
that the source is operating at 377 rad/s.
Solution Here, ZL (100 j100) Fig. 8.68
Hence, the original load has a lagging power factor of cos(45 ) 0.707
Parallel combination of ZL and capacitance reactance XC is
Z=
Z L jX C
=
(
100 + j100 × jX C )
(
Z L + jX C 100 + j100 + jX C )
=
100 X C2
+j
(
1002 X C + 100 + X C 100 X C )
2
(
100 + 100 + X 2
C ) (
100 + 100 + X C2
2
)
∴
(
X 100 + 100 + X C 100 100 + 100 + X C
=
2
=
) ( )
R 100 X C XC
Here, the corrected power factor angle must be zero ( unity power factor).
∴
(
100 + 100 + X C ) = tan (0 ) = 0 ⇒ X C = −200
XC
−1 −1
⇒ C= = = 13.3 F
X C 377 × −200 ( )
Problem 8.46 An industrial load takes 4 kW at a lagging pf of 0.8 when connected to a 200-V, 50-Hz
supply. Find the value of the parallel capacitance necessary to improve the pf to unity.
4 × 103
Solution Here, load current, I L = = 25 A
200 × 0.8
Power factor cos 0.8 (lagging) ⇒ 36.87
IL 25 36.87 A (20 j15) A
When C is connected in parallel, the current should be in phase with the voltage. Total current,
I (IL IC) (20 j15 IC)
For unity power factor, IC j15
15
∴ j CV = j15 ⇒ C = 238.73 F
2 × 50 × 200
527
Summary
1. For transmission and distribution, alternating current 11. The graphical representation of the phasors of sinusoi-
has a number of advantages over direct current. dal quantities taken all at the same frequency and with
2. A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of a sine or proper phase relationships with respect to each other
cosine function and in general can be written as is called a phasor diagram.
)
v (t = V m sin t . A shifted sinusoid can be written as 12. Both KVL and KCL hold good in phasor domain, i.e.,
v (t ) = V m (
sin t + ) where, Vm is the amplitude, is V1 +V 2 +V 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ +V n = 0 and I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ + I n = 0 .
2 13. The voltage and current in different circuit elements

the angular frequency , T is the time period
2 f have definite phase relations. For a resistor, the voltage
T
of the sinusoid and is the phase of the sinusoid. and current are always in phase, i.e., the phase angle is
zero. In a pure inductor, the current lags behind the
3. Use of sinusoids has several advantages like minimum
voltage by 900 and in a pure capacitor, the current
disturbance in electrical circuits, less interference to
leads the voltage by 900.
nearby communication lines and less iron and copper
losses. 14. Impedance (Z) of any two-terminal network is the
ratio of the phasor voltage (V) to the phasor current (I )
4. The value of an alternating quantity at any instant of
time is known as the instantaneous value.
V
(
i.e. Z = = R + jX = Z e
I
)j ∠Z
= Z ∠Z . The real part
5. The maximum value of an alternating quantity attained of impedance Re[Z] R is called the resistance. The
in each cycle is known as the peak or maximum or crest
imaginary part of impedance Im[Z] X is called the
value.
reactance. Impedance, resistance and reactance are all
6. The average value of an alternating quantity over a measured by the same unit, ohm ( ).
given time interval is the summation of all instanta-
neous values divided by the number of values taken Z = R ; for aresistor
1
T
= j L ; for aninductor
over that interval. Mathematically, V av = ∫vdt , where
T 0 1
T is the time period of the quantity. = ; for a capacitor
j C
7. The rms or effective value of a continuous periodic
15. The reciprocal of the impedance Z is called admit-
function f(t) defined over the interval T1 t T2 is
tance. So, it is the ratio of the phasor current to the
T T phasor voltage, i.e. . The real part of admittance
1 2
()
⎡f t ⎤ dt or, f = 1 ⎡f t ⎤ dt ()
2 2
f rms = ∫
T 2 − T1 T ⎣ ⎦ rms
T ∫0 ⎣ ⎦ is called conductance, G = Re ⎡⎣Y ⎤⎦ = 2
R
. The
1
R +X 2
8. Form factor is the ratio of the rms value to the average imaginary part of admittance is called susceptance,
value for an alternating wave. X
B = Im ⎡⎣Y ⎤⎦ = 2 . Admittance, conductance and
R +X 2
∴ form factor K f = ( ) rms Value
average value
susceptance are all measured by the same unit, siemen (S).
16. Instantaneous power absorbed by an element is the
For a sinusoidal wave, its value is 1.11. product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) and the
9. Peak factor is the ratio of the peak value to the rms instantaneous current i(t), i.e., p(t) v(t) i(t) (in watts).
value for an alternating wave. 17. Average or real or active power (in watts) is the
average of the instantaneous power over a time
∴ peak factor K p = ( )
peak value maximum value
= T
rms value rms value 1
T 0
()
interval, i.e., P = ∫ p t dt . For the sinusoidal volt-
10. A phasor is a complex quantity that represents both ()
age and current given as v t = V m cos t + v and ( )
the magnitude and phase angle of a sinusoid. For a
()
( )
sinusoid given as v t = V m cos t + , the corre-
) )
i (t = I m cos ( t + i , the average power is given as
sponding phasor is written as, v (t ) = V cos ( t+ ). 2

)
P = V m I m cos ( v − i = V rms I rms cos ( v − i .
1
)
m
528
18. The product of rms voltage and current is known as
apparent power (in VA), i.e., S Vrms Irms.
S = VI * = V rms I * = V rms I rms ∠( v − i
1
2 rms
)
19. The ratio of average power to apparent power is known as )
= V rms I rms cos ( v − i + jV rms I rms sin( v
− i )
power factor, i.e., PF =
average power P
= = cos v − i .
apparent power S
( ) (
= P + jQ )
20. Reactive power (in VAR) is the product of the applied
voltage and reactive component of the current. For where P is the real or average or active power and Q is
an ac load with voltage phasor, V = V m ∠ v and cur- the reactive power.
rent phasor, I = I m ∠ , the reactive power is written as 22. Although the inductor and capacitor take instanta-
i
neous power, the average power consumed in these
Q = V rms I rms sin( v
− i ). reactive elements is always zero.
21. Complex power is the product of the rms voltage 23. For drawing a phasor diagram in a series circuit, gener-
phasor and the complex conjugate of the rms phasor ally the current is taken as the reference; while draw-
current. For an ac load with voltage phasor, V = V m ∠ v ing a phasor diagram in a parallel ac circuit, voltage is
and current phasor, I = I m ∠ i , the complex power S taken as the reference.
absorbed by the load is given by,
1. What are the advantages of generating electrical • Concept of phasor and vector Vector is a multi-
energy as ac? dimensional quantity; it has both magnitude and
Alternating current has a number of advantages over direction. Phasor is a two-dimensional vector and is
dc. Some of the advantages are given below. used in electrical technology that relates sinusoidal
1. Alternators (generators designed for ac opera- voltage and current.
tion) do not require the slip-rings and commutators For analysis of alternating circuits, a sinusoidal
(brushes) upon which their dc cousins depend. quantity (voltage or current) is represented by a
2. An even greater advantage to ac is that its voltage line of definite length rotating in anti-clockwise
can be stepped up to higher levels with a transformer, direction with the same angular velocity as that of
sent great distances through high-tension wires, the sinusoidal quantity. This rotating line is called
and stepped down at its destination. the ‘phasor’. In other words, a phasor is a complex
representation of the magnitude and phase of a
3. Alternators at power stations produce three-phase
sinusoid.
electricity; they have three coils equally spaced
around their primary coil, each of which is induced For a sinusoid,
to produce a 50-Hz alternating current for three cir-
cuits. Three-phase electricity can supply as much
)
v (t = V m cos ( t + ) = Re ⎡⎣V m
e (
j t+ )⎤
⎦
= Re ⎡⎣ Ve j t ⎤⎦
current through three thin wires as it would nor-

where, V Vme j Vm is the phasor represen-
mally take two thick wires to carry. The advantage
tation of the sinusoid.
in using a thinner wire is to minimize the electrical
resistance that a thick wire would produce. Sinusoidal quantities are scalar quantities
varying periodically with time. According to the
4. Also, line losses are lower for ac than dc for a given
definition of a vector, these are not vectors. Volt-
wattage delivery and wire diameter.
age is the work done per unit charge and current
2. Explain the concept of phasor and vector. Is imped- is the flow of electrons through a wire and these
ance a phasor quantity? If not, then how is it are not vectors. However, as a sinusoid is speci-
expressed in phasor or complex form? fied by its amplitude and phase angle, it is termed
Or, ‘phasor’, keeping some similarity with the term
Explain the difference between impedance and a ‘vector’, where the amplitude is considered as the
phasor. What role does impedance play in phasor magnitude and phase angle as the direction of
diagrams? the vector.
529
• Impedance vs phasor In phasor domain, imped- 4. Explain the method of representing alternat-
ance is defined as the ratio of the voltage phasor (V) ing quantities as phasor quantities. What are the
to the current phasor (I), i. e, advantages of phasor representation?
V For analysis of alternating circuits, a sinusoidal
Z quantity (voltage or current) is represented by a line
I
of definite length rotating in anti-clockwise direc-
Here, although Z is a frequency-dependent quan- tion with the same angular velocity as that of the
tity and ratio of two phasors, it is not a phasor, sinusoidal quantity. This rotating line is called the
because it does not correspond to a sinusoidally ‘phasor’.
varying quantity.
• Transformation of sinusoid into phasor
In circuit theory, impedance in phasor domain is
expressed by generalized Ohm’s law, as given by To represent a dc voltage or current, only its ampli-
tude I or V is needed. However, to represent a sinu-
V ZI
soidal voltage v(t) Vm cos( t ) or current i(t) Im
where, cos( t ), three values are needed:
Z = R , for aresistor • Amplitude, the peak value Vm or Im
= j L , for aninductor • Frequency 2 f
• phase
1
= , for a capacitor To simplify the computation of a sinusoidal variable, it
j C
is often represented by a complex variable (vector in
complex plane) which can be more conveniently dealt
Impedance Z is a complex quantity and thus, can be with, as various mathematical operations (addition/
written as subtraction, multiplication/division, etc.) on exponen-
Z (R jX) 冷Z冷 tial functions can be much more easily carried out than
where, R 冷Z冷 cos is the resistance and X 冷Z冷 sin sinusoidal functions.
is the reactance. We consider a function, f(t) re j t (r cos t
As impedance is not a phasor, it is not shown in a jr sin t)
phasor diagram. In a phasor diagram, the role of imped- If ‘ ’ is constant, this function will rotate in counter-
ance is to change the magnitudes and phase angles of clockwise direction at constant angular velocity, . The
different voltage and current phasors in the circuit. variation is shown in Fig. 8.69.
3. Why is a sinusoidal wave shape insisted for volt- Vme j t
ages and currents while generating, transmitting j

Vm
and utilizing ac electric power? t sine function
A sinusoidal wave shape is insisted for voltages and cur- r
rents while generating, transmitting and utilizing ac elec- 0 A 0 2 t
tric power because it has the following advantages:
1. Sinusoidal waveforms produce minimum distur-
0
bance in electrical circuits during operation.
Vm
2. Sinusoidal waveforms produce electromagnetic
torque which is free of noise and oscillations. cosine function
3. Sinusoidal waveforms cause less interference to
nearby communication lines (telephones, etc.) 2
4. The iron and copper losses with sinusoidal wave- t
forms are low in transformers and rotating ac Fig. 8.69 Phasor representation of a sinusoid
machines. Therefore, machines operate with higher
efficiency with sinusoidal waveforms. The projection of this rotating line segment on
5. The possibility of resonance is much reduced with the both the real and imaginary axis will be the cosine and
use of sinusoidal waveforms compared to other non- sine components, i.e.,
sinusoidal waveforms containing harmonic frequencies. Re[f(t)] r cos t and Im[f(t)] r sin t
530
Similarly, in electric-circuit theory, the voltages and To perform the decomposition using trigonometry
currents can be represented by a rotating function is a tedious business. However, if the sinusoid is rep-
characterized by a magnitude (radius, r) and a phase resented by a phasor then the same method used for
with respect to a reference angle. Such a rotating func- decomposing vectors into orthogonal components
tion is termed ‘phasor’. may be used for decomposing the given sinusoid into
Specifically, a sinusoidal voltage can be represented as its orthogonal sine and cosine components.
()
v t = Vm cos t +( ) = Re ⎡⎣V (t )⎤⎦ = Re ⎡⎣V e
m
j
e j t ⎤⎦ = 5. Why is impedance represented by a complex
number? How is complex impedance dependent
Re ⎡Vrms e j 2e j t ⎤ = Re ⎡V 2e j t ⎤ on frequency?
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
In phasor domain, impedance is defined as the ratio of
()
v t = Vm sin t +( ) = Im ⎡⎣V (t )⎤⎦ = Im ⎡⎣V em
j
e j t ⎤⎦ = the voltage phasor (V) to the cur-
X XC
rent phasor (I), i. e.,
Im ⎡Vrms e j 2e j t ⎤ = Im ⎡V 2e j t ⎤ XL
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
V
Z R
()
where V t = Vm e (
j t+ )
= 2Vrms e (
j t+ ) I
0 f
is the complex variable, Vm is the peak magnitude Here, although Z is a frequency-
dependent quantity and a ratio Fig. 8.71
of the voltage, Vrms = Vm is the effective value (rms),
2 of two phasors, it is not a phasor, Frequency
and the phasor representing the voltage is defined as because it does not correspond to variation
a sinusoidally varying quantity. of complex
V = Vrms e j = Vrms ∠
In circuit theory, impedance in impedance
in terms of phasor domain is expressed by the
• the magnitude, the rms (effective) value V, and generalized Ohm’s law (V ZI). Impedance Z is a com-
plex quantity and is given by,
• the phase
The frequency 2 f is not explicitly represented by ( )
Z = R ± jX = Z ∠ ±
the phasor, as all currents and voltages in the circuit
considered here have the same frequency—same as where, R 冷Z冷cos is called the resistance and R 冷Z冷sin
that of the energy source or input of the circuit. is the reactance. The positive sign is taken for inductive
reactance and negative sign for capacitive reactance.
• Advantages of using a phasor
A sinusoidal waveform has two attributes, magnitude Z = R, for aresistor
and phase, and thus sinusoids are natural candidates for = j L, for aninductor
representation by phasors. One reason for using such a 1
representation is that it simplifies the description since a = for a capacitor
j C
complete spatial or temporal waveform is reduced to just
a single-point represented by the tip of a phasor’s arrow. From the above explanation, we see that complex imped-
Thus changes in the waveform are easily documented by ance has two components; the real component is the
the trajectory of the point in the complex plane. resistance which is frequency independent. But, the imag-
inary part of the impedance is frequency dependent.
Waveform Phasor The inductive reactance is given as XL L2 fL
c Imaginary
0 1
0 axis
c
The capacitive reactance is given as X C =
2 fC
c where f is the supply frequency. Therefore, the
Time Real axis
0 inductive reactance is directly proportional to the fre-
quency and the capacitive reactance is inversely pro-
Fig. 8.70 Phasor representation of sinusoids
portional to the frequency.
The second reason is that it helps us to visualize 6. While drawing a phasor diagram in a parallel ac cir-
how an arbitrary sinusoid may be decomposed into cuit, which quantity should be taken as reference
the sum of a pure sine and pure cosine waveform. and why?
531
While drawing a phasor diagram in a parallel ac circuit, ∴instantaneous power,
voltage should be taken as the reference.
As the voltage across each element is the same for (
p = vi = Vmax Imax sin t sin t ±
2 )
a parallel network, the voltage phasor is taken as the Vmax Imax 1
reference for drawing phasor diagrams. = 2 sin t cos t = V I sin2 t
2 2 max max
7. In an ac parallel circuit, is it possible that the mag- ∴average power,
nitude of a branch current is larger than the cur- 1
T
1 ⎡ Vmax Imax
T
⎤
rent drawn from the supply? Explain. P=
T0∫ pdt = ∫
T 0⎣
⎢
2
sin2 t ⎥ dt = 0 {
⎦
T 2 }
In an ac parallel circuit, the current in every branch is the
ratio of the voltage to impedance. If the branch is purely Hence, we conclude that the active power consumed
resistive, the current will be in phase with the voltage. If the in any purely reactive circuit is zero.
branch is purely inductive, the current will lag the voltage 9. Does an inductance draw instantaneous power as
by 90 . If the branch is purely capacitive, the current will well as average power?
lead the voltage by 90 . If the branch is inductive with some
For a pure inductance,
resistance, the current will lag the voltage by some angle
greater than 00 but less than 90 . If the branch is capacitive let the instantaneous voltage, v Vmax sin t
t
with some resistance, the current will lead the voltage by 1 V t V
∴current, i = ∫ vdt = max ∫ sin tdt = − max cos t =
some angle greater than 0 but less than 90 . The total cur- L0 L 0 L
rent is the phasor summation of all the branch currents.
Now, if two parallel branches contain an inductor
and a capacitor respectively and if their reactances
=
Vmaxx
L (
sin t −
2 )= I
max (
sin t −
2 )
are of equal magnitude then the phenomena of reso- Vmax
nance occurs and the current in each of these parallel where, Imax = L
branches may be larger than the current drawn from
∴instantaneous power,
the supply. However these two currents will be 180 out
of phase and will cancel each other.
(
p = vi = Vmax Imax sin t sin t −
2 )=
8. Prove that the active power consumed in any
Vmax Imax 1
purely reactive circuit is zero. − 2 sin t cos t = − Vmax Imax sin2 t
Let the instantaneous voltage, v Vmax sin t 2 2
∴current in case of a purely inductive circuit, ∴average power,
1 ⎡ V I ⎤
t t T T
1 Vmax Vmax 1
i=
L ∫0
vdt =
L ∫0
sin tdt = −
L
cos t P=
T0∫ pdt = ∫ ⎢ − max max sin2 t ⎥ dt = 0
T 0⎣ 2 ⎦
{ T 2 }
=
Vmax
L
(
sin t −
2 )= Imax (
sin t −
2 ) Thus, we can see that an inductance draws
some instantaneous power which may be positive
or negative; but the average power drawn by an
and, current in case of a purely capacitive circuit,
inductance is always zero. The reason is explained
i =C
dv
dt
= CVmax cos t =
Vmax
1
sin t +
2 ( ) below.
When v and i are both increasing or decreas-
C ing, the power is positive and energy is delivered
(
= Imax s in t +
2 ) from the source to the inductance. When either v is
increasing and i is decreasing or v is decreasing and
Vmax Vmax i is increasing, the power is negative and energy is
where, Imax = or , returning from the inductance to the source.
L 1
C During the second quarter of a cycle, the current
In general for a purely reactive circuit, the current can and the magnetic flux of the inductor increases and the
be written as inductor draws power from the supply source to build
i = Imax sin t ± ( 2 ) up the magnetic field. The power drawn is positive. The
532
energy stored in the magnetic field during the building
1
Assuming again a complex voltage, v t = Vm e
j(
() t+ )
up is LImax 2 . and a complex current response,
2
In the next quarter, the current decreases. However, ()
i t = I e ( ) , we get
m
j t+
the emf of the inductor tends to oppose this decrease.

) d⎡ )⎤ )
Im e ( V e( = j CVm e (
j t+ j t+ j t+
The inductor acts as a generator and returns energy to =C
the supply. The power is negative. dt ⎣ m ⎦
This event repeats and a proportion of power is I

continually exchanged between the field and the ⇒ I = j CV or V =
j C
inductive circuit and the average power consumed by
I
the purely inductive circuit becomes zero. Or, V= ∠ − 90°
C
10. Explain why the phasor of voltage across the
inductor leads the current phasor by 90 and the Thus, the current through a capacitive reactance
phasor of voltage across the capacitor lags its leads the voltage across it by 90 . The current through
current by 90 . a capacitor is a reaction against the change in voltage
across it. Therefore, the instantaneous current is zero
For inductor The relationship between the voltage
whenever the instantaneous voltage is at a peak (zero
dropped across the inductor and the current flowing
change, or level slope, on the voltage sine wave), and
through it can be written as
the instantaneous current is at a peak wherever the
()
di t instantaneous voltage is at maximum change (the
()
v t =L
dt points of steepest slope on the voltage wave, where it
crosses the zero line). This results in a voltage wave that
Assuming again a complex voltage, v t = Vm e (
j
() t+ ) is −90 out of phase with the current wave.
and a complex current response 11. Define resistance, reactance, impedance and
()
i t = I e ( ) , we get
j t+
m
admittance.
• Resistance It is that property of an object that
)
d ⎡ j( )⎤ )
Vm e ( = j LIm e (
j t+ t+ j t+
I e =L opposes the flow of electric current through it. It is
dt ⎣ m ⎦
expressed in ohms ( ).
⇒ Vm e = j LIm e
j j
• Reactance It is the property of an object by which
it can store energy in either electrostatic or magnetic
V = j LI
forms. It is also expressed in ohms ( ). Reactance is
Or, V = LI∠90° of two types—inductive and capacitive.
Thus, the voltage across an inductive reactance Inductive reactance can store energy when current flows
leads the current through it by 90 . The voltage through it. It opposes the instantaneous change in current;
dropped across an inductor is a reaction against the when the current changes, an emf is induced in it. Inductive
change in current through it. Therefore, the instan- reactance is highly resistive to ac but does not oppose dc.
taneous voltage is zero whenever the instantaneous
Capacitive reactance can store energy when a volt-
current is at a peak (zero change, or level slope, on the
age is applied across it. It opposes the instantaneous
current sine wave), and the instantaneous voltage is
change in voltage. Capacitive reactance is highly resis-
at a peak wherever the instantaneous current is at
tive to dc but does not oppose ac.
maximum change (the points of steepest slope on
the current wave, where it crosses the zero line). This • Impedance Impedance (Z) of any two-terminal
results in a voltage wave that is 900 out of phase with network is the ratio of the phasor voltage (V) to the
the current wave. phasor current (I).
For capacitor The relationship between the current V
Z=
through the capacitor and the voltage across it can be I
written as Since it is the ratio of voltage to current, its unit is ohm
()
dv t ( ). Practically, it represents the obstruction that the
()
i t =C
dt device exhibits to the flow of sinusoidal current.
533
As a complex variable, the complex impedance Z can In sinusoidally steady state, the active power is given as
be written as 1 1
P = Vm Im cos( v − i ) = Vrms Irms cos( v − i ) = Re[VI*](in watts )
Z=
V
I
( )
= R + jX = Z e j∠Z = Z ∠Z 2 2
• Reactive power It is defined as the product of the
The magnitude and phase angle of Z are applied voltage and reactive component of the cur-
X rent. It expressed as volt–ampere reactive (VAR).
Z = R 2 + X 2 ∠ Z = tan−1 For an ac load with voltage phasor V Vm v and cur-
R
rent phasor I Im i, the reactive power is written as
The real part of impedance Re[Z] R is called resis-
tance. The imaginary part of impedance Im[Z]=X is (
Q = Vrms Irms sin v
− i )
called reactance. In particular, the impedances of the
• Physical significance of reactive power Reac-
three types of elements R, L and C are
tive poweris the power consumed in an ac circuit
Z = R; for resistor because of the expansion and collapse of magnetic
= j L; for inductor (inductive) and electrostatic (capacitive) fields.
1 Unlike true power, reactive power is not a useful
= ; for capacitor
j C power because it is stored in the circuit itself. This
power is stored by inductors, because they expand
• Admittance The reciprocal of the impedance Z is and collapse their magnetic fields in an attempt
called admittance. So, it is the ratio of phasor current to keep the current constant, and by capacitors,
to phasor voltage. because they charge and discharge in an attempt
1 1 R − jX to keep the voltage constant. Circuit inductance and
Y= = = = G + jB
Z R + jX R 2 + X 2 capacitance consume and giveback reactive power.
Reactive power is a function of a system’s amperage.
In particular, the admittances of the three types of ele- The power delivered to the inductance is stored in
ments R, L and C are the magnetic field when the field is expanding
1 and returned to the source when the field col-
Y = ; for resistor
R lapses. The power delivered to the capacitance in
1 the electrostatic field when the capacitor is charg-
= ; for inductor ing and returned to the source when the capaci-
j L
tor discharges. None of the power delivered to the
= j C ; for capacitor
circuit by the source is consumed;all is returned to
12. Define conductance and susceptance. the source. The true power, which is the power con-
The real part of admittance is called conductance (B) and sumed, is thus zero. We know that alternating cur-
the imaginary part of admittance is called susceptance (B). rent constantly changes; thus, the cycle of expan-
sion and collapse of the magnetic and electrostatic
1 1 R X fields constantly occurs.
Y= = = =G jB
Z R ± jX R 2 + X 2 Therefore, we conclude that reactive power is the rate
R of energy flow between the source and the reactive com-
∴ G = Re ⎡⎣Y ⎤⎦ = ponents of the load (i.e., inductances and capacitances).
R2 + X 2
It represents a lossless interchange between the load
X and the source.
∴ B = Im ⎡⎣Y ⎤⎦ =
R2 + X 2
14. Explain the difference between apparent power
The susceptance is said to be inductive if its sign is neg- and real power.
ative and is said to be capacitive if its sign is positive. • Apparent power It is the product of the rms (effec-
13. Explain active and reactive power. What is the tive) values of voltage and current (in VA).
physical significance of reactive power? For a sinusoidal voltage, v(t) Vm cos( t v) applied
• Active power It is the average of the instantaneous to a network resulting in current, i(t) Im cos( t i),
power over a time interval. It is the power consumed the apparent power is given as
by the resistive loads in an electrical circuit. S VrmsIrms.
534
• Real power (active power) It is the average of the and reactive power vectors. This representation is often
instantaneous power over a time interval. It is the called the power triangle, as shown in Fig. 8.72.
power consumed by the resistive loads in an electri-
cal circuit. Apparent power (V A)
In sinusoidally steady state, the active power is given as Apparent

S power
1 VAR
P = Vm Im cos( v − i ) = Vrms Irms cos( v − i )
2
Q
= S cos( v − i ) (in watts )
Real power (W) P
15. What is a power triangle? Draw and explain. Fig. 8.72 Power triangle
The relationship between real power, reactive power
and apparent power can be expressed by representing Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the relationship
the quantities as vectors. Real power is represented as a among real, reactive and apparent power is
horizontal vector and reactive power is represented as a (Apparent Power)2 (Real Power)2 (Reactive Power)2
vertical vector. The apparent power vector is the hypot-
( VA ) = ( watt ) + ( VAR )
2 2 2
enuse of a right triangle formed by connecting the real S 2 = P 2 + Q 2 or
Questions
1. What are the advantages of generating electrical 7. Explain the method of representing alternating quan-
energy as ac? tities as phasor quantity. What are the advantages of
2. Define the following terms pertaining to ac wave: phasor representation?
(a) Amplitude (b) Frequency (c) Time period (d) Phase 8. What do you understand by ‘phase lag’ and ‘phase
(e) Phase difference (f) Phase-shift lead’? Explain with the help of examples.
9. Explain the terms impedance, reactance, susceptance
3. Briefly discuss what you understand by average value
and admittance. Draw the reactance and susceptance
of a periodic function. Determine the effective value of
curve for inductance and capacitance.
a sinusoidally varying function of time.
10. Explain the concept of phasor and vector. Is imped-
4. (a) Explain the terms ‘rms value’ and ‘average value’ of
ance a phasor quantity. If not, then how is it expressed
an ac sinusoidal current.
in phasor or complex form?
(b) Distinguish between average value and rms value
Or,
of an alternating waveform.
Explain the difference between impedance and a
(c) Derive the rms value and average value of ac sinu-
phasor. What role does the impedance play in phasor
soidal current having Im as maximum value.
diagrams?
(d) Calculate the same for a half-wave rectified sinu-
11. Why is impedance represented by a complex number?
soidal quantity.
How is complex impedance dependent on frequency?
(e) Do waves other than sine waves have effective value? 12. Prove that the power consumed in a i) purely induc-
5. Why sinusoidal wave shape is insisted for voltages and tive circuit, and ii) purely capacitive circuit is zero when
currents while generating, transmitting and utilizing ac an alternating voltage is applied. Draw the phasor dia-
electric power? grams for V and I.
6. (a) Define form factor and peak factor. Differentiate 13. Derive the relationship between the voltage and cur-
between form factor and peak factor rent for i) a purely inductive circuit, and ii) a purely
(b) Derive the values of form factor and peak factor of capacitive circuit. Also, show that the average power
a sinusoidally varying quantity. consumed by the circuit is zero.
535
14. Prove that the active power consumed in any purely 19. Draw the wave shapes for instantaneous voltage, current
reactive circuit is zero. and power in a series RC circuit. Why is the power posi-
15. Does an inductance draw instantaneous power as well tive during some intervals and negative in others? What
as average power? is the physical significance of the negative power?
16. Develop an expression for the mean power consumed 20. Explain the following terms:
over a cycle of a single-phase sinusoidal supply deliv- a) Apparent power
ering power to a load comprising of i) a resistance R in b) True power or average power
series with an inductance L, ii) a resistance R in series c) Complex power
with a capacitance C, and iii) RLC series circuit. Also,
d) Active power
draw the phasor diagrams.
e) Reactive power
17. Explain why the phasor of voltage across the inductor
f ) Power factor
leads the current phasor by 90 and the phasor of volt-
age across capacitor lags its current by 90 . 21. What are active and reactive powers? Draw the power
triangle.
18. Draw the wave shapes for instantaneous voltage,
current and power in a series RL circuit. Why is the 22. While drawing a phasor diagram in a parallel ac circuit,
power positive during some intervals and negative in which quantity should be taken as reference and why?
others? What is the effect of these positive and nega- 23. In an ac parallel circuit, is it possible that the mag-
tive power regions on the total power consumed by nitude of a branch current is larger than the current
the circuit? drawn from the supply? Explain.
Exercises
1. Calculate the average and root mean square values 5. Find the steady-state current in an RLC series circuit with
and the form factor of a periodic current wave having R 9 , L 10 mH and C 1 mF when a voltage,v(t) =
ampere values for equal time intervals, changing sud- 100cos(100t)(V ) is applied to it. Use phasors.
denly from one value to the next: 0, 30, 45, 70, 90, 70, [i(t) 7.86 cos(100t 45 ) (A)]
45, 30, 0, 30, 45, 70, etc. What should be the aver-
6. The input to a series RL circuit with R 3 and L 0.54 H
age and the root mean square values of a sine wave
is the voltage source, vs(t) 7.28 cos(4t 77 ) (V).
having the same peak value? [47.5, 54.5, 57.3, 63.6]
Determine the steady-state output voltage v0(t) across
2. A current has the following steady state values in the inductor. [v0(t) 4.25 cos(4t 311 ) (V)]
amperes for equal intervals of time changing instanta-
7. Find the resultant emf of the following four emf’s:
neously from one value to the next: 0, 10, 20, 30, 20, 10,
0, 10, 20, 30, 20, 10, 0, etc. Calculate the rms
value of the current and its form factor. [17.8 A, 1.19]
e1 = 50 sin t ( 6)
e3 = 20 sin t −
( 3) 4)
3. a) Given i1(t) 4 cos( t 30 ) and i2(t) 5 sin( t e2 = 40 sin t + e = 50 sin( t + 3
4
120 ), find their sum.
[e 80.45 sin( t 34.75 )]
b) If v1(t) 10 sin( t 30 ) and v2(t) 20 cos( t
45 ), find v1 v2. 8. Find the sum of the following voltages:
[a) 3.218 cos( t 56.97 ) (A)
b) 10.66 cos( t 36.95 ) (V)]
e1 = 40 sin t ( 3)
e4 = 20 sin t −
( 6) 3)
4. In a particular RL series circuit, a voltage, of 10 V at 50 e2 = 20 sin t + e = 50 cos ( t + 2
5
Hz produces a current of 700 mA while the same volt-
e3 = 30 cos t
age at 75 Hz produces a current of 500 mA. What are
the values of R and L in the circuit? [6.88 , 0.04H] [e 24.2 sin( t 0.096 )]
536
9. Two coils are connected in parallel across a 200-V, b) v(t) 80 cos(10t 20 ) (V) and i(t) 15 sin(10t
50-c/s supply. At the supply frequency their imped- 60 ) (A)
ances are 8 and 10 , respectively, and their resis- [a) 344.2 60cos(754t 35 ) (W), 344.2 W;
tances are 6 and 4 , respectively. Find (a) the b) 385.7 600cos(20t 10 ) (W), 385.7 W]
current in each coil, (b) the total current, and (c) the 15. For the circuit, find the average power supplied by
total power factor [25 A, 20 A, 43.9 A, 0.609] the source and the average power absorbed by the
10. A sinusoidal 50-c/s voltage of 200-V rms, supplies the resistor. [2.5 W; 2.5 W]
following three circuits which are in parallel: (a) a coil of
4
0.03-H inductance and 3- , resistance (b) a capacitor
of 400 μF in series with a resistance of 100 , (c) a coil
of 0.02-H inductance and 7- resistance in series with 5 30 (V) j2
a 300-μF capacitor. Find the total current supplied and
draw a complete phasor diagram. [29.4 A] Fig. 8.76
11. For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.73, find the magnitudes 16. Determine the power generated by each source and
of V1 and V2 and the current. Also, calculate the power the average power absorbed by each passive element.
factor of the circuit and draw a complete phasor [P60V 207.8 W; P4A 367.8 W; PR 160 W; PL PC 0]
diagram. [149 V, 115 V, 4.53 A, 0.679]
20 j5
10 0 .1 H 20 0.05 H 40 F
V1 V2 4 0 (A) j10 60 30 (V)
200 V, 50Hz
supply Fig. 8.77
Fig. 8.73 ⎛ ⎞
12. For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.74, find the node voltage ()
17. Given the time-domain voltage v t = 4 cos ⎜ t ⎟ V ,
⎝6 ⎠
( )
‘v’ in its sinusoidal steady-state form.
find both the average power and an expression for the
()
[v t =
10
(
cos 10t + 63.4° )(V ) ] instantaneous power that result when the correspond-
5 ing phasor voltage V 4 0 (V) is applied across an
10i impedance Z 2 60 .
10 v
i
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎝6 ⎠
( )
[2 W; 2 cos ⎜ t − 60 ⎟ A
⎝3 ⎠
( )
; 2 + 4 cos ⎜ t − 60 ⎟ W ]
10 10 mF 5
Vs(t) 10cos 10t (V)
18. A resistor R in series with a capacitor C is connected
0.5 H to a 50-Hz, 240-V supply. Find the value of C so that R
Fig. 8.74 absorbs 330-W at 100 V. Find also the maximum charge
13. For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.75, find i1(t) for and maximum stored energy.
100 rad/s. [ii(t) 1.05 cos(100t 71.6 ) (A)] [43.77 μF;-9.55 10 3 C; 1.0417 J]
3i1 19. A coil of R 10 and L 0.1 H is connected in
3
series with a capacitor of 150-μF across a 200-V, 50-Hz
supply. Find XL, XC, Z, pf, current and voltage across the
capacitor.
vs(t) 10兹2 cos ( t 45 )(V) 30 mH 5 mF
i1 [31.4 ; 21.2 ; 14.284 ;
0.7 (lagging); 14 A; 296.8 V]
Fig. 8.75 20. Determine the rms value of the current in each branch
14. Calculate the instantaneous power and average power, if and the total current of the circuit shown in Fig. 8.78.
a) v(t) 120cos(377t 45 ) (V) and i(t) 10cos Draw the phasor diagram.
(377t 10 ) (A) [9.76 46.32 (A); 5.64 57.86 (A); 10 13.2 (A)
537
23. The parallel circuit shown in Fig. 8.79 is connected
15 20 across a single-phase 100-V, 50-Hz ac supply. Calcu-
Vrms 212 V late (i) the branch currents, (ii) the total current, (iii) the
0.05 H 100 F supply power factor and (iv) the active and reactive
powers supplied by the supply.
Fig. 8.78 [10 36.87 (A); 10 53.13 (A); 14.42 8.13 (A);
0.99 (leading); 1400 W; 200 VAR]
21. Two currents in each branch of a two-branched paral-
lel circuit is given as
8 6
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 100 V, 50 Hz
i a = 7.07 sin⎜ 314t − ⎟ ; i b = 21.2 sin⎜ 314t + ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ j6 j8
and the supply voltage is 354sin314t. Derive a similar Fig. 8.79

expression for the supply current and calculate the
ohmic values of components assuming two pure com- 24. Find the impedance, current, power and power factor
ponents in each branch. State whether the reactive of the following series circuits and draw the cor-
components are inductive or capacitive. responding phasor diagrams: (i) R and L; (ii) R and C;
(iii) R, L and C. In each case, the applied voltage is
i 20.54 sin (314t 40.58 ); RL 35.36 ; XL 35.36 ; 200 V, the frequency is 50 Hz; R 10 , L 50 mH and
RC 8.35 ; XC 14.46 ] C 100 μF.
22. The impedances of two circuits are given by Z1 (10 [(i) 18.62 , 10.74 A, 1.153 kW, 0.537 (lag)
j15) and Z2 (6 j8) are connected in parallel. If
(ii) 33.365 , 5.994 A, 359 W, 0.2997 (lead)
the total current supplied is 20 A, what is the power
taken by each branch? [1312 W; 2556 W] (iii) 18.97 , 10.54 A, 1.111 kW, 0.527 (lead)]
Multiple-Choice Question
1. The polar form of v (t) = 100 cos ( t 90 ) is i
(i) 2
(i) V 100 90 (ii) V 100 90 1
(ii) 1.11
(iii) V 100 45 iv) V 100 45
(iii) 1 t
2. In an RLC circuit supplied from an ac source, the reac-
tive power is proportional to (iv) 1
2 1
(i) average energy stored in the electric field
(ii) average energy stored in the magnetic field 5. The phasor diagram
(iii) sum of the average energy stored in the electric for an ideal induct- Fig. 8.80
field and that stored in the magnetic field ance having current I
(iv) difference between the average energy stored in the through it and voltage V across it is
electric field and that stored in the magnetic field
3. The real part of admittance is … and the imaginary (i) (ii)
I V I V
part is …
(i) impedance, resistance (iii) V (iv) I
(ii) resistance, impedance
(iii) susceptance, inductance
(iv) conductance, susceptance
⎛I ⎞ I V
4. The value of ⎜ rms ⎟ for the wave form shown is
⎝ I max ⎠ Fig. 8.81
538
6. The average power absorbed by a passive network 16. In an RL series circuit, the power factor is
(i) is always zero (i) leading (ii) lagging
(ii) is always positive (iii) zero (iv) unity
(iii) is always negative 17. The form factor is the ratio of
(iv) may be positive or zero but never negative (i) average value to rms value
7. For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.82, the current i(t) will be (ii) rms value to average value
(i) 7.5 sin (1000t) A (iii) peak value to average value
(ii) 7.5 sin (1000t) A (iv) peak value to rms value
(iii) 7.5 cos (1000t) A 18. The peak factor is the ratio of
(iv) 7.5 cos (1000t) A (i) average value to rms value
(ii) rms value to average value
i(t) (iii) peak value to average value
0.02 H
(iv) peak value to rms value
150 sin1000t
19. The form factor for dc supply voltage is always
V (i) zero
(ii) unity
Fig. 8.82 (iii) infinity
8. The unit of admittance is (iv) any value between 0 and 1
(i) weber (ii) mho
(iii) ohm (iv) ampere 20. A voltage V is applied to an ac circuit resulting in the
delivery of a current I . Which of the following expres-
9. The impedance of a 1-henry inductor at 50 Hz is
sions yield the true power delivered by the source?
(i) 1 (ii) 31.4
(iii) 50 (iv) 314 1. Real part of V I *
10. In an RL series circuit, the phase angle difference 2. Real part of VI
between voltage and current is V
(i) 30 3. I2 times the real part of
I
(ii) 90
(iii) 180 Select the correct answer using the codes given
(iv) greater than zero but less than 90 below:
(i) 1 alone (ii) 1 and 3
11. What is the phase angle between inductor current
(iii) 2 and 3 (iv) 3 alone
and applied voltage in a parallel RL circuit?
(i) 0 (ii) 45 21. The mean value of the current i 20 sin t from t = 0 to
(iii) 90 (iv) 30 .
t= 2 is
12. The active power dissipated in an ac circuit is
(i) VI (ii) VI* (i) 40π (ii) 40/π
(iii) VI cos (iv) VI sin (iii) 1/40 (iv) π/40
13. The power factor of a practical inductor is 22. A constant current of 2.8 A exists in a resistor. The rms
(i) unity (ii) zero value of current is
(iii) lagging (iv) leading (i) 2.8 A (ii) about 2 A
14. A circuit of zero lagging power factor behaves as (iii) 1.4 A (iv) undefined
(i) an inductive circuit 23. An alternating voltage e 200 sin 314t is applied to
(ii) a capacitive circuit a device which offers an ohmic resistance of 20 to
(iii) an RC circuit the flow of current in one direction while entirely pre-
(iv) an RL circuit venting the flow in the opposite direction. The aver-
15. Power loss in an electrical circuit can take place in age value of current will be
(i) inductance only (i) 5 A (ii) 3.18 A
(ii) capacitance only (iii) 1.57 A (iv) 1.10 A
(iii) inductance and resistance 24. A 50-Hz ac voltage is measured with a moving iron
(iv) resistance only voltmeter connected in parallel. If the meter readings
539
are V1 and V2 respectively and the meters are free from 32. In an ac circuit, if voltage V = (a + jb) and current I = (c +
calibration errors then the form factor of the ac volt- jd) then the power is given by
age may be estimated as (i) ac + ad (ii) ac + bd
(iii) bc ad (iv) bc + ad
V1 V1
(i) (ii) 1.11 33. In a parallel R-L circuit if IR is the current in the resistor
V2 V2
and IL is the current in the inductor then
V1 (i) IR lags IL by 90
V1
(iii) 2 (iv) (ii) IR leads IL by 270
V2 2 V2
(iii) IL leads IR by 270
25. A boiler at home is switched on to the ac mains sup- (iv) IL lags IR by 90
plying power at 230 V, 50 Hz. The frequency of instan- 34. In an R-L-C parallel circuit, admittance is defined as the
taneous power consumed is reciprocal of
(i) 0 Hz (ii) 50 Hz (i) resistance (ii) reactance
(iii) 100 Hz (iv) 150 Hz (iii) impedance (iv) susceptance
26. A circuit component that opposes the change in cir- 35. The unit of susceptance is
cuit voltage is (i) farad (ii) ohm
(i) resistance (iii) henry (iv) mho
(ii) capacitance
(iii) inductance 36. In an ac circuit having R, L and C in series and operat-
(iv) all of the above ing on lagging pf increase in frequency will
(i) reduce the current
27. An instantaneous change in voltage is not possible in
(ii) increase the current
(i) a resistor
(iii) both (i) and (ii) are possible
(ii) an inductor
(iv) have no effect on current drawn
(iii) a capacitor
(iv) a current source 37. In a network the sum of currents entering a node is
28. A circuit component that opposes the change in cir- 5 60 . The sum of currents leaving the node is
cuit current is (i) 5 60 (ii) 5 60
(i) resistance (iii) 5 240 (iv) 15 A
(ii) capacitance 38. In the circuit shown in 5 L 10
(iii) inductance Fig. 8.83, if the power con-
(iv) conductance sumed by the 5-ohm resis-
tor is 10 W then the power V = 50cos vt
29. The power factor of an ordinary electric bulb is
(i) zero factor of the circuit is
(ii) unity (i) 0.8 Fig. 8.83
(iii) slightly more than unity (ii) 0.6
(iv) slightly less than unity (iii) 0.5
30. The power factor of an ac circuit is equal to (iv) zero
(i) cosine of the phase angle 39. Which of the following is true of the circuit in
(ii) sine of the phase angle Fig. 8.84?
(iii) unity for a resistive circuit
1. V R = 100 2V
(iv) unity for a reactive circuit
2. I = 2 A
31. A series circuit containing passive elements has the
3. L = 0.25 H
following current and applied voltage:
100
V 200 sin(2,000t 50 ), i = 4 cos (2,000t 13.2 )
The circuit elements VR
(i) must be resistance and capacitance
(ii) must be resistance and inductance 250 冑 2 sin 300t L 150V
(iii) must be inductance, capacitance and resistance I

(iv) could be either resistance and capacitance or
resistance, inductance and capacitance Fig. 8.84
540
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 44. For the given circuit, ␻ = 3 rad/s. If V is taken as refer-
(i) 2 and 3 (ii) 1 and 2 ence, the phasor of I is given by
(iii) 1 and 3 (iv) 1, 2 and 3 1 I C =4 90
40. A series RLC circuit, consisting of R = 10 ohms, XL = 20
ohms, XC = 20 ohms is connected across an ac supply
of 100 V (rms) . The magnitude and phase angle (with I 1/3 V =3 0
reference to supply voltage) of the voltage across the
inductive coil are respectively
(i) 110 V; 90 Fig. 8.87
(ii) 100 V; 90 (i) 1 90 (ii) 3 90
(iii) 200 V; 90 (iii) 5 90 (iv) 2 45
(iv) 200 V; 90
45. For the given circuit, if v(t) 160 sin(␻t 10 ) and i(t)
41. In a two-element series circuit, the applied voltage 5 sin(␻t 20 ) then the reactive power absorbed by
and the resulting current are respectively the black box N is given by
v(t) 50 50sin(5 103t)V and i(t) 11.2 sin(5 i
103t 63.4 ) A
The nature of the elements would be
(i) R-L v N
(ii) R-C
(iii) L-C
(iv) neither R, nor L, nor C
Fig. 8.88
42 Consider the following statements regarding the cir-
cuit shown Fig.8.85. If the power consumed by the (i) 50 VAR (ii) 100 VAR
5- resistor is 10 W then (iii) 400 VAR (iv) 200 VAR
15 46. An ac sinusoidal voltage source is connected across
i a series circuit consisting of a resistor and a capacitor.
冑3
5 10 The rms value of the voltage across the resistor and
capacitor are 100 V and 200 V respectively. The rms
value of the voltage of the source is
V=10冑 6 V
(i) 300 V (ii) 100 5 V
(iii) 100 3 V (iv) 100 V
Fig. 8.85 47. For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.89, the total imped-
ance is
1. I = 2 A
3 j4
2. the total impedance of the circuit is 5
3. cos␾ 0.866 17 6
Which of these statements are correct? 3 j4
(i) 1 and 3 (ii) 2 and 3 (iii) 1 and 2
43 What is the power consumed by the 1- resistor in
the circuit shown in Fig. 8.86? Fig. 8.89
1 (i) (7 j0) (ii) (5 j0)
(iii) (0 j8) (iv) (7 j10)
48. Energy stored in an inductance and in a capacitance
10 冑 2 sin 314t 3.18 mH
over a complete cycle when excited by a purely sinu-
soidal ac source is
(i) zero and maximum respectively
Fig. 8.86 (ii) zero and zero respectively
(i) 30 W (ii) 50 W (iii) half of that due to a dc source of equal magnitude
(iii) 100 W (iv) 130 W (iv) maximum and maximum respectively
541
49. The rms value of the periodic waveform given in
5
Fig. 8.90 is (i) u
8 RMS
6A
2
(ii) u
t 3 RMS
T/2 T
6A 8
(iii) u
5 RMS
Fig. 8.90
3
(i) 2 6 A (iv) u
2 RMS
(ii) 6 2 A 54. For the triangular waveform shown in Fig. 8.93, the
rms value of the voltage is equal to
4 A
(iii) 3 V(t)
(iv) 1.5A 1
50. In Fig. 8.91, the admittance values of the elements in
siemens are YR = 0.5 + j0, YL = 0 j1.5, YC = 0 + j0.3
respectively. The value of I as a phasor when the volt- T/2 T 3T/2 2T t
age E across the elements is 10 0 V is Fig. 8.93
1
YR YL YC
(i)
6
I E=10 0 V
1
(ii)
3
Fig. 8.91 1
(iii)
(i) 1.5 + j0.5 3
(ii) 5 j18
(iii) 0.5 + j1.8 2
(iv)
(iv) 5 j12 3 i (t)
51. The rms value of the resultant current in a wire which 55. The circuit shown in Fig. 8.94, with
carries a dc current of 10 A and a sinusoidal alternat- 1 1 R L C
R ,L H, C 3 F has
ing current of peak value 20 A is 3 4 v (t)
(i) 14.1 A input voltage v(t) sin 2t. The
(ii) 17.3 A resulting current i(t) is Fig. 8.94
(iii) 22.4 A (i) 5 sin(2t 53.1 )
(iv) 30.0 A (ii) 5 sin(2t 53.1 )
52. The rms value of the voltage u(t) 3 4 cos(3t) is (iii) 25 sin(2t 53.1 )
(iv) 25 sin(2t 53.1 )
(i) 17 V (ii) 5 V
56. For the circuit shown in R
(iii) 7 V (iv) (3 + 2 2 ) V Fig. 8.95, the time constant
RC = 1 ms. The input volt-
53. The RL circuit of Fig. 8.92 is fed from v1(t ) C v0(t )
a constant magnitude, variable fre- R ()
age is v t = 2 sin10 3 t .
quency sinusoidal voltage source The output voltage v0(t) is
vIN. At 100 Hz, the R and L elements equal to Fig. 8.95
L
each have a voltage drop uRMS. If the (i) sin(103t 45 )
frequency of the source is changed (ii) sin(103t 45 )
to 50 Hz then the new voltage drop Fig. 8.92 (iii) sin(103t 53 )
across R is (iv) sin(103t 53 )
542
Answers
1 (ii) 13 (iii) 25 (iii) 37 (iii) 49 (i)

2 (iv) 14 (i) 26 (ii) 38 (ii) 50 (iv)
3 (iv) 15 (iv) 27 (iii) 39 (i) 51 (ii)
4 (iii) 16 (ii) 28 (iii) 40 (iv) 52 (i)
5 (iii) 17 (ii) 29 (ii) 41 (ii) 53 (iii)
6 (iv) 18 (iii) 30 (i) 42 (i) 54 (ii)
7 (iv) 19 (ii) 31 (iv) 43 (iii) 55 (i)
8 (ii) 20 (ii) 32 (ii) 44 (i) 56 (i)
9 (iv) 21 (ii) 33 (iv) 45 (iii)
10 (iv) 22 (i) 34 (iii) 46 (ii)
11 (iii) 23 (ii) 35 (iv) 47 (i)
12 (iii) 24 (ii) 36 (i) 48 (ii)
9 Magnetically Coupled
Circuits
Introduction
The circuits we have considered so far may be termed as conductively coupled in the sense that one
coil affects the adjacent coils by current conduction. But when two or more coils are very close to each
other, then the current in one coil will affect the emf induced in other coils and these coils are said to be
mutually coupled or magnetically coupled coils.
In this chapter, we will first discuss the concepts of magnetic coupling and dot conventions required
to write KVL equations with correct polarities. Then we will learn the theoretical aspects of transformers
and tuned circuits.
9.1 SELF INDUCTANCE

Consider a coil consisting of N turns and carrying a current I in the
counterclockwise direction, as shown in Fig. 9.1. If the current is
steady then the magnetic flux through the loop will remain constant.
However, suppose the current I changes with time. Then according to
Faraday’s law, an induced emf will arise to oppose the change. The
dI
induced current will flow clockwise if > 0 , and counterclockwise if I
dt
dI
< 0 . The property of a loop in which its own magnetic field opposes
dt Fig. 9.1 Magnetic flux through the
any change in current is called ‘self-inductance’, and the emf generated current loop
is called the self-induced emf or back emf, which we denote as L. All
current-carrying loops exhibit this property. In particular, an inductor
is a circuit element which has a large self-inductance.
d B d → →
Mathematically, the self-induced emf can be written as L
= −N = − N ∫∫ B⋅ d A
dt dt
544
dI
and is related to the self-inductance L by L
= −L
dt
N
The two expressions can be combined to yield L = B
I
Physically, the inductance L is a measure of an inductor’s ‘resistance’ to the change of current; the larger the
value of L, the lower the rate of change of current.
Example 9.1 Self-inductance of a solenoid

Z
Compute the self-inductance of a solenoid with turns N, length l, and radius R with a current I R
flowing through each turn, as shown in Fig. 9.2.
Solution Ignoring edge effects and applying Ampere’s law, the magnetic field inside a I
→
N turns I
NI ៣ I
solenoid is given by B = 0
k = 0 nIk
៣
l
N
where n = is the number of turns per unit length. The magnetic flux through each
l Fig. 9.2 Solenoid
2 2
turn is ␾ BA ␮0nI (␲R ) ␮0nI␲R
N
Thus, the self-inductance is L = = 0 n2 R 2 l
I
We see that L depends only on the geometrical factors (n, R and l) and is independent of the current I.
9.2 COUPLED INDUCTOR

When the magnetic flux produced by an inductor links another inductor, these inductors are said to be cou-
pled. Coupling is often undesired but in many cases, this coupling is intentional and is the basis of the trans-
former. When inductors are coupled, there exists a mutual inductance that relates the current in one inductor
to the flux linkage in the other inductor. Thus, there are three inductances defined for coupled inductors:
L11—the self inductance of the inductor 1
L22—the self inductance of the inductor 2
L12 L21—the mutual inductance associated with both inductors
When either side of the transformer is a tuned circuit, the amount of mutual inductance between the two
windings determines the shape of the frequency response curve. Although no boundaries are defined, this is
often referred as loose-, critical-, and over-coupling. When two tuned circuits are loosely coupled through
mutual inductance, the bandwidth will be narrow. As the amount of mutual inductance increases, the band-
width continues to grow. When the mutual inductance is increased beyond a critical point, the peak in the
response curve begins to drop, and the centre frequency will be attenuated more strongly than its direct side-
bands. This is known as over-coupling.
9.3 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor to induce an emf across another inductor placed very close to it.
Suppose two coils are placed near each other, as shown in Fig. 9.3. →
The first coil has N1 turns and carries a current I1 which gives rise to a magnetic field B1 . Since the two
coils are close to each other, some of the magnetic field lines through the coil 1 will also pass through the
545
Magnetically Coupled Circuits
coil 2. Let ␾21 denote the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil 2
due to I1. Now, by varying I1 with time, there will be an induced emf
associated with the changing magnetic flux in the second coil:
→ →
d 21 d COil 2 N2
= −N2 = − ∫∫ B1 ⋅ d A2
21
21
dt dt coil2
The time rate of change of magnetic flux ␾21 in the coil 2 is propor-
tional to the time rate of change of the current in the coil 1: Coil 1 N1
d dI
N 2 21 = M 21 1 I1
dt dt
where the proportionality constant M21 is called the mutual induc-
B1
N
tance. It can also be written as M 21 = 2 21 Fig. 9.3 Changing current in the coil 1
I1
produces changing magnetic flux in
The SI unit for inductance is henry (H). the coil 2
1 henry 1 H 1 T-m2/A
The mutual inductance M21 depends only on the geometrical properties of the two coils such as the number
of turns and the radii of the two coils.
In a similar manner, suppose instead there is a current I2 in the B2
second coil and it is varying with time (Fig. 9.4). Then the induced
emf in the coil 1 becomes
→ → COil 2 N2
d 12 d
12
= − N1 = − ∫∫ B2 ⋅ d A1
dt dt coil1 I2
and a current is induced in the coil 1.

Coil 1 N1 12
This changing flux in the coil 1 is proportional to the changing
current in the coil 2,
d dI
N1 12 = M12 2
dt dt
where the proportionality constant M12 is another mutual inductance Fig. 9.4 Changing current in the coil 2
N produces changing magnetic flux in the
and can be written as M12 = 1 12 coil 1
I2
Using the reciprocity theorem which combines Ampere’s law and the Biot–Savart law, one may show that
the constants are equal:
M12 ⬅ M21 ⬅ M (9.1)
9.4 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE BETWEEN TWO COUPLED INDUCTORS

Let L1, L2—two inductors placed very close to each other
v2(t)—open circuit voltage induced in L2 by a current i1(t) in L1
v1(t)—open circuit voltage induced in L1 by a current i2(t) in L2
546
So, when only i1(t) is flowing, the magnetic flux emerging from L1 is given as
␾1 ␾11 (linkage with L1) ␾12 (linking with L2)
d d di di
∴ v1 = N1 1 = N1 1 1 = L1 1
dt di1 dt dt
d 1
where, L1 = N1
di1
d 12 d di di
and v2 = N 2 = N 2 12 1 = M 21 1
dt di1 dt dt
d 12
where, M 21 = N 2 = mutual inductance of the coil L2 with respect to the coil L1
di1
Now, when only i2(t) is flowing, the magnetic flux emerging from L2 is given as ␾2 ␾21 (linkage with L1)
␾22 (linking with L2)
d d di di
∴ v2 = N 2 2 = N 2 2 2 = L2 2
dt di2 dt dt
d
where, L2 = N 2 2
di2
d d di di
and v1 = N1 21 = N1 21 2 = M12 2
dt di2 dt dt
d
where, M12 = N1 21 = mututal inductance of the coil L1 with respect to the coil L2
di2
9.5 DOT CONVENTION
Mutual inductance is a positive quantity; but the sign of emf induced by it depends on the direction of winding
of the coils.
In circuit analysis, the dot convention is a convention used to denote the voltage polarity of the mutual
inductance of two components. Two good ways to think about this convention:
1. If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil then the polarity of the emf induced in the second coil
will be positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
2. If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one coil then the polarity of the emf induced in the second coil
will be negative at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
Following these conventions, we find the four possible combinations:
Combination (1) M
I1 v2(t) = M di1(t )
dt
Fig. 9.5
Combination (2) M
I1
v2(t) = M di1(t )
dt
Fig. 9.6
547
Combination (3) M
M di1
I1 v2(t ) = (t )
dt
Fig. 9.7
Combination (4) M
I1
di1(t )
v2(t) = M
dt
Fig. 9.8
If we assume the current flowing in both the coils then we have the following combinations:
Combination (1) M di1 t ( ) + M di (t )
I1 I2 ()
v1 t = L1
dt
2
dt
v1(t) v2(t)
di2 t ( )+M ( ) di1 t
()
v2 t = L2
dt dt
Fig. 9.9
Combination (2) M
di1 t ( ) − M di (t )
v1(t)
I1 I2
v2(t)
()
v1 t = L1
dt
2
dt
di2 t ( )−M ( ) di1 t
()
v2 t = L2
dt dt
Fig. 9.10
Combination (3) M di1 t ( ) − M di (t )

v1(t)
I1 I2
v2(t)
()
v1 t = L1
dt
2
dt
di2 t ( )−M ( ) di1 t
()
v2 t = L2
dt dt
Fig. 9.11
Combination (4) M di1 t ( ) + M di (t )

v1(t)
I1 I2
v2(t)
()
v1 t = L1
dt
2
dt
di2 t ( )+M ( ) di1 t
()
v2 t = L2
dt dt
Fig. 9.12
Also, for series connection of inductors, as shown:
M M
i i i i
L1 L2 L1 L2
Fig. 9.13 Fig. 9.14

548
9.6 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING FROM ENERGY

CALCULATIONS IN COUPLED CIRCUITS
To find the energy stored in the coupled circuit, we consider two cases: M
I1 I2
Case (1) We assume i2 0 and let i1 increase from 0 to I1. v1(t ) v2(t )
( ) ( ) ( ) dt i
di1
∴ power in L1, p1 t = v1 t i1 t = L1 1
p (t ) = 0 ( i = 0)
Fig. 9.15 Coupled
and power in L2, 2 2 circuit
t I1
()
di1 1
∴energy stored in the circuit, w1 = ∫ p1 t dt = ∫ L1i1 = L1 I12
0 0
dt 2
Case (2) We assume i1 0 and let i2 increase from 0 to I2.
() () ()
di2
∴ power in L2, p2 t = v2 t i2 t = L2 i
dt 2
() () ()
di
and power in L1, p1 t = v1 t i1 t = M12 2 I1
dt
t I
( ) ( )
2 2
1
∴ energy stored in the circuit, w2 = ∫ p1 + p2 dt = ∫ L2 i2 di2 + M12 I1di2 = L2 I 2 2 + M12 I1 I 2
t 0
2
1
From Case (1) and Case (2), the total energy stored in the coupled circuit when both i1 and i2 have reached
constant values of I1 and I2 is
( 1 1
)
W = w1 + w2 = L1 I12 + L2 I 2 2 + M12 I1 I 2
2 2
(9.2)
Now, if we reverse the order in which the currents reach their final values (i.e., first i2 increases from 0 to
I2 with i1 0 and then i1 reaches from 0 to I1 with i2 I2) then the total energy will be
1 1
W = L1 I12 + L2 I 2 2 + M 21 I1 I 2 (9.3)
2 2
From (9.2) and (9.3), we get,
M12 = M 21 = M
1 1
∴ total energy, W = L1 I12 + L2 I 2 2 + MI1 I 2
2 2
and for any instantaneous values,
()
1 1
()
w t = L1i12 t + L2 i2 2 t + Mi1 t i2 t
2 2
() () ()
If the dotted terminals are in opposite sides then
1 1
W = L1 I12 + L2 I 2 2 − MI1 I 2
2 2
549
In general,
1 1
W = L1 I12 + L2 I 2 2 ± MI1 I 2
2 2 (9.4)
To find the limiting value of M Energy stored cannot be negative.
1 1
∴ L1 I12 + L2 I 2 2 − MI1 I 2 ≥ 0 ⇒
2 2
1
( )
L I 2 + L2 I 2 2 − 2 L1 L2 I1 I 2 + L1 L2 I1 I 2 − MI1 I 2 ≥ 0
2 1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
⇒ L1 I1 − L2 I 2 + L1 L2 I1 I 2 − MI1 I 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ L1 I1 − L2 I 2 + L1 L2 − M I1 I 2 ≥ 0
2 2
The squared term is never negative.
∴ L1 L2 − M ≥ 0 ⇒ M ≤ L1 L2 (9.5)
Therefore, the maximum possible value of the mutual inductance is the geometric mean of the self-inductances
of the two coils.
Coefficient of coupling The degree to which the mutual inductance approaches its maximum value is
given by the coefficient of coupling (k), defined as
M
k= (9.6)
L1 L2
So, 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 or, 0 ≤ M ≤ L1 L2
Note (i) For k 1, the coils are called perfectly coupled coils.
(ii) For k ≤ 0.5, the coils are called loosely coupled coils.
(iii) For k ≥ 0.5, the coils are called tightly coupled coils.
9.7 INDUCTIVE COUPLING

When two coils are connected in series or parallel, mutual inductance exists between them. Depending upon
the type of connection, the voltage equation will be different.
9.7.1 Series Coupling

When two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 are connected in series, two types of connections are possibles.
Series-aiding connection
In this connection, the two coils are connected in series in such a way that their induced emf’s are of same polarities.
M M
i i i i
L1 L2 L1 L2
Fig. 9.16 Series-aiding connections

550
Here, total inductance (L1 L2 2M) M

i i
Derivation By KVL,
L1 L2
() di di di
v t = L1 + L2 + 2 M = L1 + L2 + 2 M
dt dt dt
(di
dt
) (
∴ Leq = L1 + L2 + 2 M ) v(t)
Fig. 9.17 Series-aiding connection
Series-opposing connection In this connection, the two coils are connected in series in such a way that
their induced emf ’s are of opposite polarities.
M M
i i i i
L1 L2 L1 L2
Fig. 9.18 Series-opposing connections
Here, total inductance (L1 L2 − 2M)
9.7.2 Parallel Coupling M M
When two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 are connected in parallel, L1 L2 L1 L2

two types of connections are possible.
Parallel-aiding connection In this connection, the two coils are
connected in parallel in such a way that their induced emf ’s are of Fig. 9.19 Parallel-aiding connections
same polarities.
L1 L2 − M 2
Here, total inductance =
L1 + L2 − 2 M
M
Derivation By KVL,
() ()
di1 di di1 di i1 L1 L2
L1 +M 2 =v t and M + L2 2 = v t
dt dt dt dt i2
In sinusoidally steady state,

Fig. 9.20
j L1 I1 + Mj I 2 = V and j MI1 + j L2 I 2 = V
Solving for I1 and I2, we get

V j M
I1 =
V j L2
=
j (L 2
−M V )
j L1 j M 2
(M 2
− L1 L2 )
j M j L2
j L1 V
and I2 =
j M V
=
j ( L − M )V
1
j L1 j M 2
( M 2 − L1 L2 )
j M j L2
551
(
∴ total current, I = I1 + I 2 = )
j (L + L
1 2
− 2M V ) M M
2
(M 2
− L1 L2 ) L1 L2 L1 L2
∴ input Impedance, Z =
V
=
2
(M 2
− L1 L2
⎡ L L −M2 ⎤
=j ⎢ 1 2
) ⎥
I j ( L1 + L2 − 2 M )
⎢⎣ L1 + L2 − 2M ⎥⎦ Fig. 9.21 Parallel-opposing
connections
L1 L2 − M 2
Thus, the equivalent inductance is, Leq =

L1 + L2 − 2 M
Parallel-opposing connection In this connection, the two coils are connected in parallel in such a way
that their induced emf ’s are of opposite polarities.
L1 L2 − M 2
Here, total inductance =
L1 + L2 + 2 M
It can be derived in the same way as done for parallel-opposing connection.
9.8 LINEAR TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a four-terminal device comprising of two (or more) magnetically coupled coils. It is composed
of two coils: R R 1 M 2
• a primary coil of resistance R1 and self-inductance L1

• a secondary coil of resistance R2 and self-inductance L2 L1
V1 L2 ZL
A transformer is said to be linear if the coils are wound on a mag- I1 I2
netically linear material for which the magnetic permeability is a constant.
Fig. 9.22 Circuit representation of
Some linear materials are air, plastic, Bakelite and wood.
a linear transformer
Circuit representation of a linear transformer is shown in Fig. 9.22.
Calculation of input and reflected impedances By KVL for the two meshes,
(
V1 = R1 + j L1 I1 − j MI 2 ) (9.7)
0=− j MI + ( R + j
1 2 )
L2 + Z L I 2 (9.8)
j MI1
From (9.8), I 2 =
R2 + j L2 + Z L
Putting this value in (9.7),
j M × j MI1 2
M 2 I1
(
V1 = R1 + j L1 I1 − ) R2 + j L2 + Z L
= R1 + j L1 I1 + ( )
R2 + j L2 + Z L
2
M2
)
V1
∴ input impedance, Z in =
I1
(
= R1 + j L1 +
R2 + j L2 + Z L
( )
Here, R1 + j L1 = Impedance of Primary Winding (9.9)
552
2
M2
and, ZR = (9.10)
R2 + j L2 + Z L
where, Z R = Impedance due to coupling between primary and secondary, knwon as reflected impedance.
Note The input impedance and reflected impedance value do not change with the position of dots on the winding,
as the same result is obtained by replacing M by −M.
9.9 DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT T AND CIRCUIT OF LINEAR

TRANSFORMER (CONDUCTIVELY EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A
MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUIT)
A linear transformer can be replaced by an equivalent T or ␲ network. M
A linear transformer with a source in the primary and a load in the secondary
is shown in Fig. 9.22. If we separate the resistances from the transformer, there V1 L1 L2 V2
remains only a pair of mutually coupled inductors, as shown in Fig. 9.23.
I1 I2
di di di di Fig. 9.23 Circuit representation
v1 = L1 1 + M 2 and v2 = M 1 + L2 2 of a linear transformer without
dt dt dt dt resistances
or, ( )
V1 = jω L1 I1 + jω MI 2 = jω L1 − M I1 + jω M I1 + I 2 ( )
( )
and V2 = jω MI1 + jω L2 I 2 = jω M I 2 + I1 + jω L2 − M I 2 ( )
Equivalent T Circuit The above two equations can be written as
V1 = j L1 I1 + j MI 2 = j (L − M )I + j M (I + I )
1 1 1 2
I1 L M
1
L2 M I 2
and V2 = j MI1 + j L2 I 2 = j M ( I + I )+ j (L − M )I
2 1 2 2
M
Therefore, the equivalent T network for the linear transformer is shown in Fig. 9.24.
Note that if the dots of any one of the windings are placed in the opposite end of the
coil, the mutual term becomes negative and the equivalent circuit can be obtained by Fig. 9.24 Equivalent
replacing M by −M. In that case, the three inductances are L1 M, − M, and L2 M. T network of a linear
transformer
Equivalent Circuit Using the concept of T–␲ conversion or, star–delta
conversion, we get the equivalent ␲ circuit of a linear transformer as follows. I1 LB I2
The three inductances of the equivalent circuit are
LA =
( L − M ) M + M ( L − M ) + ( L − M )( L
1 2 1 2
−M )= L L −M1 2
2 v1 LA LC v2
(L − M )
2
L2 − M
Fig. 9.25 Equivalent
L L −M2 L L −M2 network of a linear
Similarly, LB = 1 2 and LC = 1 2
M L1 − M transformer
553
Here also, if any one dot changes its location on the winding, the sign of M will change and in that case,
the three inductances will be
L1 L2 − M 2 L1 L2 − M 2 L L −M2
LA = , LB = − and LC = 1 2
L2 + M M L1 + M
9.10 IDEAL TRANSFORMER

A transformer is said to be ideal if it has the following properties:
1. Primary and secondary coils are lossless (i.e., R1 R2 0).
2. Primary and secondary coils have very large reactances compared to any connected impedance
(i.e., L1, L2, M → ∞)
3. Coupling between primary and secondary coils is perfect, i.e., k 1 or the leakage flux is zero.
An ideal transformer is a useful approximation of a very tightly coupled transformer (k ≈1) in which both
the primary and secondary inductive reactances are extremely large compared to the load impedance.
9.10.1 Calculation of Input Impedance for Ideal Transformer I1

M
I2
The circuit symbol of an ideal transformer is shown in Fig. 9.26.

By KVL, V1 L1 L2 V
2
V1 = j L1 I1 − j MI 2 (9.11)
(
0 = − j MI1 + j L2 + Z L I 2 ) (9.12) Fig. 9.26 Circuit
symbol of an ideal
j M transformer
From (9.12), I 2 = I
j L2 + Z L 1
Putting this in (9.11), we get
j M ⎛− 2
L1 L2 + j L1 Z L + 2
M2⎞
V1 = j L1 I1 − j MI 2 = j L1 I1 − j M I1 = ⎜ ⎟ I1
j L2 + Z L ⎝ j L2 + Z L ⎠
⎛− 2
L1 L2 + j L1 Z L + 2
L1 L2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎡ ⎤
j L2 + Z L ⎟ I1 ⎣ k = 1, ∴ M = L1 L2 ⎦
⎝ ⎠
⎛ j L1 Z L ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ I1
⎝ j L2 + Z L ⎠
∴ input impedance
V1 j L1 Z L j L1 Z L
Z in = = ≈ ⎡ L >> Z L ; for idealtransformer ⎤⎦
I1 j L2 + Z L j L2 ⎣ 2
2
⎛L ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
= ZL ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ZL ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎡ L ∝ N 2 ⎤⎦
⎝ L2 ⎠ ⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎣
554
2
⎛N ⎞ Z
⇒ Z in = Z L ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 2L (9.13)
⎝ N2 ⎠ n
N2
where, n= is the turns ratio. Thus, the load impedance is approximately transferred as the square of
N1
turns ratio. This input impedance is also known as the reflected impedance as the load impedance is reflected
to the primary side.
This property of an ideal transformer to transform a given impedance into another impedance is used in
impedance matching, which is very useful in different applications involving maximum power transfer.
9.10.2 Calculation of Voltage and Current Transformation Ratio for Ideal Transformer
j L2 + Z L
From (9.12), I1 = I2
j M
Putting this in (9.11), we get,
⎛ j L2 + Z L ⎞ ⎛− 2
L1 L2 + j L1 Z L + 2
M2⎞
V1 = j L1 I1 − j MI 2 = j L1 ⎜ ⎟ I 2 − j MI 2 = ⎜ ⎟ I2
⎝ j M ⎠ ⎝ j M ⎠
⎛− 2
L1 L2 + j L1 Z L + 2
L1 L2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎡ k = 1, ∴ M = L L ⎤
⎟ I2 ⎣ 1 2 ⎦
⎝ j M ⎠
⎛L ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞
= ZL ⎜ 1 ⎟ I2 = ZL ⎜ 1
⎟I
⎝M⎠ ⎜⎝ L L ⎟⎠ 2
1 2
L1 L
V1 = I 2 Z L = V2 1
L2 L2
V2 L N
voltage transformation ratio, = 2 = 2 =n (9.14)
V1 L1 N1
where, n is the turns ratio. Depending upon the value of the turns ratio, three types of transformers are obtained.
Case (I): n > 1 In this case, the secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage and the transformer
is termed step-up transformer.
Case (II): n < 1 In this case, the secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage and the transformer is
termed step-down transformer.
Case (III): n 1 In this case, the secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage and the transformer is
termed isolation transformer.
j L2 + Z L j L2
Also, I1 = I2 ≈ I ⎡ L >> Z L ; for idealtrransformer ⎤⎦
j M j M 2 ⎣ 2
L2 L2
= I2 = I
L1 L2 L1 2
555
I2 L N 1
∴ current transformation ratio, = 1 = 1= (9.15)
I1 L2 N 2 n
where n is the turns ratio. Thus, the ratio of the primary current to the secondary current is the turns ratio. It
must be noted that if any one dot changes its location on the winding, the current ratio will become the nega-
tive of the turns ratio.
9.11 TUNED COUPLED CIRCUITS

When a capacitor is introduced in the primary and/or in the secondary circuit of a transformer, the circuit
becomes selective and the transformer is termed a tuned coupled circuit or a tuned transformer.
Tuned circuits are used for amplification of signals in the radio frequency (RF) range, such as in broad-
casting receivers.
Tuned circuits are of two types
1. Single-tuned circuit
2. Double-tuned circuit
9.11.1 Single-Tuned Coupled Circuit

RP Rs
In this circuit, a capacitor is introduced only in the secondary so that only M
the secondary is tuned. The circuit is shown in Fig. 9.27.
Let V1 Lp Ls Cs
Rp—Total resistance in the primary (internal resistance of the I1 I2
source resistance of primary coil)
Fig. 9.27 Single-tuned coupled
Rs—Total resistance in the secondary
circuit
Lp, Ls—Leakage inductance of primary and secondary, respectively
Cs—Variable capacitor for tuning, connected across the secondary
M—Mutual inductance between primary and secondary
V1—Source voltage
V0—Output voltage
⎛ j ⎞
( )
V1 = Rp + j Lp I1 − j MI 2 0 = − j MI1 + ⎜ Rs + j Ls −
⎝
I
Cs ⎟⎠ 2
Solving for I2,

(R + j L )
p p
V1
I2 =
−j M 0
=
(
V1 j M )
(R + j L )
p p
−j M ⎡
Rp ⎢ Rs +
⎛
j ⎜ Ls −
1 ⎞⎤
⎥+
2
M2
⎢⎣ ⎝ Cs ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎪⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎪⎫
−j M ⎨ Rs + j ⎜ Ls − ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎝ Cs ⎟⎠ ⎪⎭
556
V1 M
I Cs
Therefore, the output voltage is V0 = 2 =
j Cs ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
Rp ⎢ Rs + j ⎜ Ls − ⎥+
2
M2
⎢⎣ ⎝ Cs ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
M
V Cs
∴voltage amplification, A= 0 = (9.16)
V1 ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
Rp ⎢ Rs + j ⎜ Ls − ⎥+
2
M 2
⎢⎣ ⎝ Cs ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
This shows that the output voltage depends upon M. Figure 9.28 shows the varia- V0 (peak)
tion of the output voltage against ␻. V0 (resonant)
V0
For a constant value of M, tuning is obtained by varying Cs. For resonance,
1 1
r
Ls = ⇒ r
= ␻r ␻
C
r s
LsCs
Fig. 9.28 Frequency
At this resonant frequency, the output voltage (or amplification) is given as response of single-
tuned circuit
M V1 M
Cs Cs
A res = or V0 =
Rp Rs + r
2
M 2 res
Rp Rs + r
2
M2
For maximum output voltage at resonance

d V0 ⎛ dA ⎞
⎜ or ⎟ =0
res res
dM ⎜⎝ dM ⎟⎠
2
V1 2 r
M 2V1
Cs Cs Rp Rs
⇒ − =0 ⇒ M =
Rp Rs +
(R R + )
2 2 2
r
M 2
M2 r
p s r
Under this condition, the coefficient of coupling is
M Rp Rs 1
kC = = = (9.17)
Lp Ls r
Lp Ls Q1Q2
where Q1 and Q2 are the quality factors of uncoupled primary and secondary circuits, respectively. Here, kC
is known as the critical coefficient of coupling.
Substituting the value of M, the maximum output voltage is
V1 V1 Ls
V0 = = (9.18)
res,max
2 r Cs Rp Rs 2 kC Lp
557
Figure 9.29 shows the variation of the output voltage against ␻ for different K = Kcrit V0(res)
values of k.
Now, the secondary impedance reflected to the primary side in the form of V0
coupled impedance is K Kcrit
K Kcrit
ω2M 2 ω2M 2
or atresoance ␻r ␻
⎛ 1 ⎞ Rs
Rs + j ⎜ ω Ls − Fig. 9.29 Frequency
⎝ ωCc ⎟⎠ response of single-tuned
circuit for different values of k
⎛ M2⎞
2
At resonance, the total primary resistance becomes, R1 = ⎜ Rp +

⎝ Rs ⎟⎠
∴ effective quality factor of the primary is

Lp Lp Q1
Qe = = =
r r
(9.19)
R1 ⎛ 2
M ⎞ 2
⎛ 2
M2⎞
⎜ Rp + Rs ⎟⎠ ⎜1+ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ Rp Rs ⎠
∴ bandwidth of the primary is

⎛ 2
M 2 + Rp Rs ⎞
BW = r
= r⎜ ⎟ (9.20)
Qe ⎝ Q1 Rp Rs ⎠
9.11.2 Double-Tuned Coupled Circuit RP CP RS

M
In a double-tuned circuit, both the primary and secondary of the coupled coils
are tuned using variable capacitors. The circuit is shown in Fig. 9.30. V1 LP LS CS
Let, I1 I2
Rp—Total resistance in the primary (internal resistance of the source Fig. 9.30 Double-tuned
resistance of primary coil) coupled circuit
Rs—Total resistance in the secondary
Lp, Ls—Leakage inductance of primary and secondary, respectively
Cs—Variable capacitor for tuning, connected across the secondary
M—Mutual inductance between primary and secondary
V1—Source voltage
V0—Output voltage
⎛ j ⎞
V1 = ⎜ Rp + j Lp − ⎟ I − j MI 2
⎝ Cp ⎠ 1
⎛ j ⎞
0 = − j MI1 + ⎜ Rs + j Ls − I
⎝ Cs ⎟⎠ 2
558
Solving for I2,

⎛ j ⎞
⎜ Rp + j L p − ⎟ V
⎝ Cp ⎠ 1
I2 =
−j M 0
=
V1 j M ( )
⎛ j ⎞ ⎛ j ⎞⎛ j ⎞
⎜ Rp + j L p − −j M ⎜ Rp + j L p − ⎟ ⎜ Rs + j Ls − + 2
⎟ M2
⎝ Cp ⎠ ⎝ Cp ⎠ ⎝ Cs ⎟⎠
⎪⎧ j ⎫⎪
−j M ⎨ Rs + j Ls − ⎬
⎪⎩ Cs ⎪⎭
Therefore, the output voltage is

V1 M
I2 Cs
V0 = =
j Cs ⎛ j ⎞⎛ j ⎞
⎜ Rp + j L p − ⎟ ⎜ Rs + j Ls − + 2
M2
⎝ Cp ⎠ ⎝ Cs ⎟⎠
∴ voltage amplification,
V0 M
A= = (9.21)
V1 ⎡⎛ j ⎞⎛ j ⎞ ⎤
Cs ⎢ ⎜ R p + j L p − ⎟ ⎜ Rs + j Ls − ⎟+
2
M ⎥ 2
⎢⎣⎝ p⎠⎝ s⎠ ⎥⎦
C C
At resonant frequency,
1 1
= r
and =
LpC p LsCs
At this resonant frequency, the output voltage (or amplification) is given as
M V1 M
Cs Cs
A res = or V0 =
Rp Rs + r
2
M2 res
Rp Rs + r
2
M2
For maximum output voltage at resonance
d V0 ⎛ dA ⎞
⎜ or ⎟ =0
res
res
dM ⎜⎝ dM ⎟⎠
2
V1 2 r
M 2V1
Cs Cs Rp Rs
⇒ − =0 ⇒ M =
Rp Rs +
(R R + )
2
r
M2 2
M2
2
r
p s r
559
Under this condition, the coefficient of coupling is
M Rp Rs 1
kC = = = (9.22)
Lp Ls r
Lp Ls Q1Q2
where Q1 and Q2 are the quality factors of the uncoupled primary and secondary circuits, respectively. Here,
kC is known as the critical coefficient of coupling.
Substituting the value of M, the maximum output voltage is
V1 V1 Ls
V0 = = (9.23)
res,max
2 r Cs Rp Rs 2 kC Lp
⎛ M2⎞
2
At resonance, the total resistance referred to primary is R1 = ⎜ Rp +
⎝ Rs ⎟⎠
The coupled impedance is the maximum at resonance. It becomes inductive below resonance and capaci-
tive above resonance. V (peak) 0
Lp Lp V0
∴ effective quality factor of the primary is Qe = =
r r
(9.24)
R1 ⎛ 2
M2⎞
⎜ Rp + Rs ⎟⎠
⎝ ␻r ␻
⎛ 2
M 2 + Rp Rs ⎞ Fig. 9.31 Frequency
∴ bandwidth of the primary is BW = r
= r⎜ ⎟ (9.25) response of double-
Qe ⎝ Q1 Rp Rs ⎠ tuned circuit
All these results are similar to those for a single-tuned circuit with k ≤ kC. The
variation of the output voltage against ␻ is shown in Fig. 9.31.
The variation of the secondary current or output voltage for different values of the coefficient of coupling
(k) is shown in Fig. 9.32.
When coefficient of coupling is small (k <<)

• The effect of coupled impedance is negligible.
• The variation of V0 (or I2) is similar to that for the series resonant curve of the primary circuit.
• The secondary current is small and the variation with frequency has a peaky nature than the resonance
curve of the secondary circuit.
V0 Single tuned
When coefficient of coupling is increased gradually
Double tuned
• The effect of coupled impedance increases.
• The total impedance of the primary circuit is increased. k kcritical
• The magnitude of the primary current is reduced and the curve BW
␻
of the primary circuit becomes broader. ␻1 ␻r ␻2
• The secondary current-peak becomes higher and the curve of Fig. 9.32 Frequency response of double-
the secondary current becomes broader. tuned circuit for different value of k
560
When k kC
• In this condition, the resistance which the secondary circuit couples into the primary at resonance is
equal to the primary resistance.
• The secondary current will be maximum.
• The curve of the secondary current will be broader and flat-topped.
• The curve of the primary current will have two peaks.
When k > kC
• The double peaks of the primary current become more prominent; the peaks being separated from each
other.
• The magnitude of the primary current at peaks becomes smaller as the value of k is increased.
• The curve of the secondary current will also have two peaks.
Solved Problems
Problem 9.1 Find the effective value of the inductance for the following connections:
(a) 2H (b) 1H
i i i i
5H 10 H 2H 4H
(c) 1H 1H
i 5H i
2H 3H
2H
Fig. 9.33
Solution
(a) This is a series-aiding connection. The effective inductance is,
( )
Leq = L1 + L2 + 2 M = 5 + 10 + 2 × 2 = 19 H
(b) This is a series-opposing connection. The effective inductance is,
( )
Leq = L1 + L2 − 2 M = 2 + 4 − 2 × 1 = 4 H
(c) Since the coils are magnetically coupled in series aiding or they assist each other, therefore,
(
effective inductance for the coil 1 is L1eff = L1 + M12 + M13 = 2 + 1 + 2 = 5 H ) ( )
effective inductance for the coil 2 is L2 eff = (L + M
2 12
+ M 23) = ( 3 + 1 + 1) = 5 H
effective inductance for the coil 3 is L3eff = (L + M
3 13 ) = (5 + 2 + 1) = 8 H
+ M 23
Total effective inductance is
( ) (
Leff = L1eff + L2 eff + L3eff = L1 + L2 + L3 + 2 M12 + M 23 + M13 = 18 H )
561
Problem 9.2 For the circuit shown in Fig. 9.34, if L1 0.4 H, L2 2.5 H, k 0.6, and i1 4i2 20cos (500t
20 ) mA evaluate the following quantities at t 0:
(a) i2,
M
(b) v1, and I1 I2
(c) the total energy stored in the system. v1(t ) v2(t )
Solution Here, i1 = 20 cos(500t − 20 ) mA, and i2 = 5cos(500t − 20 ) mA,
(a) At t 0, i2 = 5cos( −20 ) = 4.7 mA Fig. 9.34
( )( )
(b) Mutual inductance, M = k L1 L2 = 0.6 0.4 2.5 = 0.6 H
Now,
di t () di t ()
() dt dt
d
dt
d
v1 t = L1 1 + M 2 = 0.4 ⎡⎣ 20 cos(500t − 20 ) ⎤⎦ + 0.6 ⎡⎣5cos(500t − 20 ) ⎤⎦
dt
= − 0.4 × 20 × 500 sin(500t − 20 ) − 0.6 × 5 × 500 sin(500t − 20 )
( )
= − 4000 − 1500 sin(500t − 20 ) = −5500 sin(500t − 20 )
At t ()
0, v1 0 = −5500 sin( −20 ) = 1.881 V
c) At t 0, i1 = 20 cos( −20 ) = 18.8 mA

∴Total energy stored in the system,
1 1 1
( ) ( 1
) ( ) ( )
2 2
W = L1 I12 + L2 I 2 2 + MI1 I 2 = 0.4 × 18.8 + 2.5 × 4.7 + 0.6 × 18.8 × 4.7 J = 151.32 J
2 2 2 2
Problem 9.3 (a) If is 2cos10t (A) find the total energy stored in the passive network shown in Fig. 9.35 (a)
at t 0 for k 0.6 and terminals x and y left open-circuited,
(b) Determine the amount of energy stored after 0.5 s, when the primary side of the circuit shown in Fig. 9.35 (b) is
connected to a dc source of 15 V and the secondary is short-circuited. Given: L1 2 H, L2 3 H and M 1 H.
Solution
(a) When x and y are open-circuited 3 M
The current in the second coil I2 0. x
The energy stored is is 0.4 H 2.5 H
1 1
W = L1 I12 = × 0.4 × 2 2 = 0.8 J y
2 2
Fig. 9.35 (a)
(b) When x and y are short-circuited
Applying KVL for the two meshes
M = 1H
di di x
For the mesh 1: V1 = L1 1 − M 2
dt dt V1 2 H 3H
di di di2 M di1
For the mesh 2: 0 = − M 1 + L 2 ⇒ = y
2
dt dt dt L2 dt Fig. 9.35 (b)
562
Substituting this in the first equation, M = 1.4 H

x
M di1 ⎛ L1 L2 − M ⎞ di1
2
di di
V1 = L1 1 − M =⎜ ⎟ = Leq 1 V1 2 H 1.5 H
dt L2 dt ⎝ L2 ⎠ dt dt
I1 I2
y
L1 L2 − M 2 2 × 3 − 12 5
where where Leq = = = = 1.67 Fig. 9.36
L2 3 3
di1 di
or, or, 15 = 1.67 or, 1 = 9 ⇒ i1 = 9t
dt dt
At t 0.5 s, i1 = 9t = 9 × 0.5 = 4.5 A
Thus, the total energy stored in the system,
1 1 5
( )
2
W = Leq I12 = × × 4.5 = 16.875 J
2 2 3
Problem 9.4 In the circuit shown in Fig. 9. 37, L1 1 H, L2 2 H, M 1.2 H. Find an expression for the
energy stored t seconds after the switch is closed.
M
Solution Applying KVL for the two loops, we get
10 V L1 L2
di di di di
L1 1 − M 2 = 10 and − M 1 + L2 2 = 0 i1 i2
dt dt dt dt
Fig. 9.37
()
sL1 I1 s − sMI 2 s =() 10
s
and ()
− sMI1 s + sL2 I 2 s = 0()
Solving for I1(s) and I2(s),
10 − sM
s
0 sL2
()
10 L2
I1 s = =
sL1 − sM (
s L1 L2 − M 2
2
)
− sM sL2
sL1 10
s
()
I2 s =
sM 0
=
10 M
sL1 − sM (
s L1 L2 − M 2
2
)
− sM sL2
⎛ 10 L2 ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 2 ⎞ ⎛ 10 M ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 1.2 ⎞
()
i1 t = ⎜ 2⎟
t =⎜ 2⎟
t = 35.71t ()
i2 t = ⎜ 2⎟
t =⎜ 2⎟
t = 21.43t
⎝ L1 L2 − M ⎠ ⎝ 1 × 2 − 1.2 ⎠ ⎝ L1 L2 − M ⎠ ⎝ 1 × 2 − 1.2 ⎠
Therefore, at any time t, the energy stored is given as
1 1 1 1
( ) ( )
2 2
E = L1i12 − L2 i2 2 = × 1 × 35.71t − × 2 × 21.43t = 178.57t 2 J
2 2 2 2
563
Problem 9.5 Find the voltage v(t) across the 1.5- resistance in the M
network shown in Fig. 9.38 when a 10-V source is switched on. The pri-
mary and secondary self inductances are L1 L2 1 H and M 0.5 H. 10 V L1 L2 R2 = 1.5
i1 i2
Solution Applying KVL for the two loops, we get
di di di di Fig. 9.38
L1 1 − M 2 = 10 and − M 1 + L2 2 + R2 i2 = 0
dt dt dt dt
()
sL1 I1 s − sMI 2 s =
10
s
()
⇒ sI1 s − 0.5sI 2 s =
10
s
() ()
() ( ) ()
− sMI1 s + sL2 + R2 I 2 s = 0 ⇒ − 0.5sI1 s + s + 1.5 I 2 s = 0 () ( ) ()
Solving for I2(s)
s 10
s
20
−0.5s 3 = 10 ⎛ 1 − 1 ⎞
()
I2 s =
0
=
5
=
5
=
s −0.5s ( )
s s + 1.5 − 0.25s 0.75s + 1.5s s s + 2
2 2
(
3 ⎜⎝ s s + 2 ⎟⎠ )
−0.5s ( s + 1.5 )
10
3
()
1 − e −2 t
i2 t = ( )
Therefore, the voltage across the 1.5-Ω resistance is
()
v t = R2 × i2 t = 1.5 ×
10
3
() (
1 − e −2 t = 5 1 − e −2 t ) ( ) (V)
Problem 9.6 Determine the voltage V0 in the circuit.
4 j1
Solution For the coil 1, by KVL,
( )
4 I1 + j8 I1 + j1I 2 = j 6 or, 4 + j8 I1 + j1I 2 = j 6 (i) 6 90 (V) 10 V0
j8
j5
I1 I2
For the coil 2, by KVL,
(
10 I 2 + j 5 I 2 + j1I1 = 0 or, j1I1 + 10 + j 5 I 2 = 0 ) (ii) Fig. 9.39

( 4 + j8 ) j6
j1 0 6
I2 = =
( 4 + j8 ) j1 j100 + 1
j1 (10 + j 5)
Therefore, the voltage V0 is
V0 = 10 I 2 =
60
100 + j1
= 0.6 ∠ − 90° V ( )
564
Problem 9.7 Write the loop equations for the circuit shown in R
Fig. 9.40.
Solution We apply dot conventions for the circuit. By KVL for V(t) L3
I1 L1 L2
the three meshes, we get
I2 I3 C
For the mesh 1,
dI
( ) ( ) ()
d d Fig. 9.40
R1 I1 + L1 I − I + M12 I − I + M13 3 = V t (i)
dt 1 2 dt 2 3 dt
For the mesh 2,
dI dI
L1
d
dt
( )
I 2 − I1 − M 21
d
dt
I 2 − I1 + L2 (
d
dt
)
I 2 − I 3 − M12
d
dt
( ) (
I 2 − I 3 + M 23 3 − M13 3 = 0
dt dt
) (ii)
For the mesh 3,

t
dI 3 dI
L3
dt
+ L2
d
dt
( )
I 3 − I 2 − M 23 3 − M 32
dt
d
dt
I 3 − I 2 + M 31
d
dt
( )
I1 − I 2 + M 21
d
dt
( 1
)
I1 − I 2 + ∫ I 3 dt = 0
C0
( ) (iii)
Problem 9.8 For the circuit shown in Fig. 9.41, determine the phasor currents I1 and I2.
5 j2
12 60 (V) j3
I1 j6 j4
I2
Fig. 9.41
Solution By KVL for the mesh 1,
( ) (
−12 ∠60° + I1 5 + j 2 + j 6 − j 6 I 2 + j 3 I 2 or, I1 5 + j8 − j 3 I 2 = 12 ∠60° ) (i)
For the mesh 2,

( )
I 2 j 6 − j 4 − j 6 I1 + j 3 I1 = 0 or, − j 3 I1 + j 2 I 2 = 0 (ii)
12 ∠60° − j3 ⎫
⎪
24 ∠150° 24 ∠150° 24 ∠150°
I1 =
0
=
j2
= = = 1.966 ∠25° A ⎪ ( )
(
5 + j8 − j 3 )
j10 − 16 + 9 −7 + j10 12.206 ∠125° ⎪
⎪
− j3 j2 ⎪⎪
⎬
(
5 + j8 12 ∠60° ) ⎪
− j3 36 ∠150° 36 ∠150° 36 ∠150° ⎪
I2 =
0
= = = = 2.949∠25° A ⎪ ( )
(
5 + j8 − j 3 )
j10 − 16 + 9 −7 + j10 12.206 ∠125° ⎪
⎪
− j3 j2 ⎪⎭
565
Problem 9.9 Determine the coupling coefficient and the energy 4 1/8 F 1 H
stored in the coupled circuits at t 1.5 s.
20cos 2t (V) 2H 1H 2
Solution In the phasor domain, the reactances become
1 −j
F ⇒ = − j4 Fig. 9.42
8 2× 1
8
2 H ⇒ j2 × 2 = j4 1 H ⇒ j2 ×1= j2 4 j4 j2
M 1
∴ coefficient of coupling, k = = = 0.707 20cos 2t (V) j4 j2 2
L1 L2 2 ×1
By KVL for the two meshes, Fig. 9.43
For the mesh 1,
(
I1 4 − j 4 + j 4 − j 2 I 2 = 20∠0° ) or, 4 I1 − j 2 I 2 = 20 (i)
For the mesh 2,
( )
I 2 2 + j 2 − j 2 I1 = 0 or, − j 2 I1 + 2 + j 2 I 2 = 0 ( ) (ii)

20 − j2
I1 =
0 ( 2 + j2 ) =
(
40 1 + j ) = 3.922∠11.31° ( A )
4 − j2 12 + j8
− j2 ( 2 + j2 )
4 20
− j2 0
I2 =
4 − j2
=
j 40
12 + j8
= 2.773∠56.31° A ( )
− j2 ( 2 + j2 )
∴ in time domain, the currents are,
(
i1 = 3.922 cos 2t + 11.31 )(A) and i2 = 2.773cos 2t + 56.31( )(A)
At t 1.5 s, 2t 3 rad 171.89
(
∴ i1 = 3.922 cos 171.89 + 11.31 = −3.916 A ) ( ) (
and i2 = 2.773cos 171.89 + 56.31 = −1.845 A ) ( )
∴ energy stored in the coupled circuit,
1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
W = L1i12 + L2 i2 2 + Mi1i2 = × 2 × −3.916 + × 1 × −1.848 + 1 × −3.916 × −1.848 = 24.29 J
2 2 2 2
I1 Z1 j5 Z2
Problem 9.10 For a linear transformer shown in

Fig. 9.44, with Z 1 (60 j100) , Z2 (30 j40) and 50 60 (V) j 20 ZL
j 40
Z L (80 j60) ,: find the input impedance and the cur-
rent I1. Fig. 9.44
566
Solution Input impedance,

2
M2 52
)
V
Z in = 1 = Z1 + j 20 +
I1 j 40 + Z 2 + Z L
(
= 60 − j100 + j 20 +
j 40 + 30 + j 40 + 80 + j 60
= 60.09 − j80.11 = 100.14 ∠ − 53.1° ( )
50∠60°
( )
V1
∴ current, I1 = = = 0.5∠113.1° A 4
j6
Z in 100.14 ∠ − 53.1° j3
6
Problem 9.11 Find the input impedance of the circuit; 10 0 (V) j8
j 10 j4
and current from the voltage source.
Solution Input impedance, Fig. 9.45
2
−31 + j80
( )
V1 3
Z in = = 4 + j8 + = = 8.579∠58.05°
I1 6 + j 4 − j 6 + j10 6 + j8
∴ current,
10∠0°
( )
V1
I1 = = = 1.165∠ − 58.05° A
Z in 8.579∠58.05°
Problem 9.12 Determine the T-equivalent and -equivalent circuits of the linear transformer shown in
Fig. 9.46.
I1 I2
Solution Here, L1 10 H, L2 4 H, M 2 H 2H
Inductances of the T-equivalent circuit are
La = L1 − M = 10 − 2 = 8 H ⎫ 10 H
4H
⎪
Lb = L2 − M = 4 − 2 = 2 H ⎬
⎪
Lc = M = 2 H ⎭ Fig. 9.46
Inductances of the -equivalent circuit are La = 8 H Lb = 2H LB = 18 H
L L − M 2 10 × 4 − 2 2 ⎫
LA = 1 2 = = 18 H ⎪
L2 − M 4−2 ⎪ Lc = 2 H LA = 18 H LC = 4.5 H
L L −M 2
10 × 4 − 2 ⎪
2
⎪
LB = 1 2 = = 18 H ⎬
M 2 Fig. 9.47(a) Fig. 9.47(b) -eqivalent
⎪
L1 L2 − M 2 10 × 4 − 2 2 ⎪ T-eqivalent circuit of circuit of a linear transformer
LC = = = 4.5 H ⎪ a linear transformer
L1 − M 10 − 2 ⎪⎭ 4 j1
Problem 9.13 Determine the currents I1 and I2 in the
circuit shown in Fig. 9.48 using T-equivalent circuit for the 6 90 (V) I1 j 8 j5 10
linear transformer. I2
Solution Using the T-equivalent circuit for the linear trans- Fig. 9.48
former, the inductances are
La = L1 + M = 8 + 1 = 9 H Lb = L2 + M = 5 + 1 = 6 H Lc = − M = −1 H
567
Note: Negative inductance in design is implemented by a capacitive reactance.
I1 j9 j6
j1 I2 I1 I2
j8 j5 j1
Fig. 9.49 T-equivalent network of a linear transformer
Now inserting the T-equivalent circuit in the original circuit, the 4 j9 j6

modified circuit involving no mutual coupling is shown Fig. 9.50.
By KVL,
( ) ( ) ( 4 + j8) I + ( − j1) I = j 6
j 6 = I1 4 + j 9 − j1 + I 2 − j1 ⇒ 1 2
6 90 (V) I1 j1 I2 10
( )
0 = I1 − j1 + I 2 (10 + j 6 − j1) ⇒ ( − j1) I + (10 + j 5) I = 0
1 2
Fig. 9.50
Solving for I1 and I2, we get,
j6 − j1 ⎫
⎪
0 10 + j 5 ( )
−30 + j 60 ⎛ −1 + j 2 ⎞ ⎪
I1 = = = 30 ⎜
⎝ j100 + 1⎟⎠
= 0.67∠27.14° A ⎪ ( )
(
4 + j8 − j1 ) j100 + 1
⎪
− j1 10 + j 5 ( ) ⎪
⎪
⎬
(
4 + j8 j 6 ) ⎪
⎪
− j1 −6
I2 =
0
= = 0.06 ∠ − 90° A ⎪ ( )
(
4 + j8 − j1 ) j100 + 1 ⎪
⎪
− j1 10 + j 5 ( ) ⎪⎭
Note: See Solved Problem 9.6.
Problem 9.14 For the ideal transformer shown in Fig. 9.51, 100
determine the average power dissipated in the 10-k resistor. 1 : 10
Solution Here, the turns ratio, n 10, load impedance, ZL 10 K 50 V (rms) I1 V1 V2 I2 10k
Z 10 × 103
∴ input impedance, Z in = 2L = = 100
n 102 Fig. 9.51
50
∴ primary current, I1 = = 0.25 A
100 + 100
I1 0.25
∴ secondary current, I 2 = = = 0.025 A
n 10
∴ average power dissipated in the10-kΩ resistor is
( )
2 2
P = I 2 × 100 × 103 = 0.025 × 100 × 103 = 6.25 W
568
Problem 9.15 Obtain the dotted equivalent circuit 5 5

for the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 9.52 and use it
j2
to find the voltage across the capacitor of −j10- j5 j5
reactance.
10 0 (V) 10 90 (V)
Solution By dot convention, if we assume that the
current is entering into the top of the left coil and place j 10
a dot at this terminal then the flux direction for this
current will be upward. Now, by Lenz’s law, the flux Fig. 9.52
at the right coil must be upward
j2
directed to oppose the first flux. 5 5
In that case, the current will leave
the winding by the top terminal j5 j5
where another dot is placed. Thus, 10 0 (V) I1 I2 10 90 (V)
the dotted equivalent circuit will j 10
be as shown in Fig. 9.53.
By KVL for the two meshes, Fig. 9.53
we get
( ) ( )
I1 5 + j 5 − j10 − I 2 − j10 − j 2 I 2 = 10 ⇒ ( 5 − j 5) I + ( j 8 ) I = j 6
1 2
I ( − j10 ) + I ( 5 + j 5 − j10 ) − j 2 I
1 2 1
= j10 ⇒ ( j8 ) I + ( 5 − j 5) I = j10
1 2
Solving for I1 and I2, we get

10 j8
I1 =
j10 ( 5 − j5 ) =
130 − j 50
( 5 − j 5) j8 64 − j 50
j8 ( 5 − j 5)
( 5 − j 5) 10
j8 j100 50 − j 30
I2 = =
( 5 − j 5) j8 64 − j 50
j8 ( 5 − j 5)
80 − j 20
(
∴ I1 − I 2 = ) 64 − j 50
= 1.015∠23.96° A ( )
∴ voltage across the capacitor is
⎛ 80 − j 20 ⎞
( )
Vc = − j10 × I1 − I 2 = − j10 × ⎜
⎝ 64 − j 50 ⎟⎠
= 10.1
15∠ − 66.04° V ( )
2 j2 2
Problem 9.16 Find V2 in the circuit given in Fig. 9.54 such that I1 0. V1
j4 j3 V2
Solution By KVL for the two meshes, we get I1 I2
(2 + j4) I 1
+ j 2 I 2 = V1 = 5 (i) Fig. 9.54
569
( )
j 2 I1 + 1 + j 3 I 2 = V2 (ii)
Solving for I1,
5 j2
I1 =
(
V2 1+ j 3 ) =
(
5 + j 15 − 2V2 )
(2 + j4) j2 −66 + j10
j2 (1 + j 3)
For the condition, I1 0,
( )
5 + j 15 − 2V2 = 0 ⇒ V2 = 7.9∠ − 18.43° V ( )
3 Xm 5
Problem 9.17 In the circuit of Fig. 9.55, calculate the cur-
rent I2 for which I1 will be zero. Also, calculate the value of V2
100 0 (V) X1 V2
for this condition. Assume: X1 X2 15 Xm 10 . X2
I1 I2
Solution By KVL for the two meshes, we get
Fig. 9.55
( 3 + j15) I 1
+ j10 I 2 = 100 (i)
(
j10 I1 + 5 + j15 I 2 = V2 ) (ii)
Solving for I1,
100 j10
I1 =
V2 ( 5 + j15 ) =
(
500 − j 10V2 − 1500 )
( 3 + j15) j10 −110 + j150
j10 (5 + j15)
For the condition, I1 0
(
500 − j 10V2 − 1500 = 0 )
( )
⇒ V2 = 150 − j 50 = 158.11∠ − 18.443° V ( )
With this value of V2, solving equations (i) and (ii) for I2, we get
3 + j15 ( 100 )
V2 (150 − j 50) = 700 − j 400 = 4.33∠ − 156°
I2 = (A)
( 3 + j15) j10 −110 + j150
j10 (5 + j15)
4 j1 j2 2
Problem 9.18 Find the conductively equivalent circuit for the
network shown in Fig. 9.56. 2
V j4 j2
j3
Solution Here, using the T-equivalent circuit for the linear j4
transformer, the inductances are
La = L1 + M = 4 + 2 = 6 H Lb = L2 + M = 2 + 2 = 4 H Lc = − M = −2 H Fig. 9.56
570
4 j1 j6 j4 2 4 j4 j4 2
2
V 2
j2 j2
j3 j4
j4
Fig. 9.57 Fig. 9.58
Therefore, the conductively equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 9.57.

Simplifying, the conductively equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 9.58.
Problem 9.19 Three similar coils are wound on a long common core in such a way that the voltage of the
mutual inductance between each set of coils is positive. The self-inductance of each coil is 0.2 H. The effec-
tive inductance of the first two in series is 0.6 H and all of them in series is 1 H. When the terminals of the first
two coils are interchanged, the effective inductance of the three coils in series becomes 0.5 H. Determine the
coefficient of coupling between each set of coils.
Solution Here, self-inductance of each coil, L 0.2 H
Let the mutual inductance between the first and second coil be M1, between second and third coils be M2
and between third and first coils be M3.
Effective inductance of first coil, Leff 1 = L + M1 + M 3
Effective inductance of second coil, Leff 2 = L + M1 + M 2
Effective inductance of first coil, Leff 3 = L + M 2 + M 3
Therefore, effective inductance of first two in series is

Leff 1 + Leff 2 = L + M1 + M 3 + L + M1 + M 2 = 2 L + 2 M1 + M 2 + M 3
From the given value,
(
2 L + 2 M1 + M 2 + M 3 = 0.6 or, 2 M1 + M 2 + M 3 = 0.6 − 2 × 0.2 = 0.2 ) (i)
When all the three coils are connected in series, the effective inductance becomes
(
Leff 1 + Leff 2 + Leff 3 = 3L + 2 M1 + M 2 + M 3 )
(1 − 3 × 0.2 ) = 0.2
( )
3L + 2 M1 + M 2 + M 3 = 1 or, M1 + M 2 + M 3 =
2
(ii)
After interchanging the terminals of the first two coils, the effective inductances are as given below.
Effective inductance of first coil, Leff′ 1 = L − M1 + M 3
Effective inductance of second coil, Leff′ 2 = L − M1 − M 2
Effective inductance of first coil, Leff′ 3 = L − M 2 + M 3

571
After interchanging the effective inductance of three coils in series is

Leff′ 1 + Leff′ 2 + Leff′ 3 = 3L − 2 M1 − 2 M 2 + 2 M 3
3 × 0.2 − 0.5
3L − 2 M1 − 2 M 2 + 2 M 3 = 0.5 or, M1 + M 2 − M 3 = = 0.05 (iii)
2
Solving equations (i), (ii), and (iii), we get
0.2 1 1
0.2 1 1
M1 =
0.05 1 −1
=
( ) ( ) (
0.2 × −2 + 1 × 0.25 + 1 × 0.15 )= 0
=0
2 1 1 2 × ( −2 ) + 1 × 2 + 1 × 0 −2
1 1 1
1 1 −1
2 0.2 1
1 0.2 1
M2 =
1 0.05 −1
=
( ) (
0.2 × −0.25 + 1 × 0.15 + 0.2 × 0 ) =
−0.25
= 0.125
2 1 1 ( )
2 × −2 + 1 × 2 + 1 × 0 −2
1 1 1
1 1 −1
2 1 0.2
1 1 0.2
M3 =
1 1 0.05
=
( ) (
0.2 × −0.15 + 1 × 0.15 + 0.2 × 0 ) =
−0.15
= 0.075
2 1 1 ( )
2 × −2 + 1 × 2 + 1 × 0 −2
1 1 1
1 1 −1
Thus, the coefficients of coupling are as given below.
M1 M1 0 ⎫
k1 = = = =0
⎪
L×L L 0.2 ⎪
M2 M 2 0.125 ⎪⎪
k2 = = = = 0.6625 ⎬
L×L L 0.2 ⎪
M3 M 3 0.075 ⎪
k3 = = = = 0.375 ⎪
L×L L 0.2 ⎪⎭
Problem 9.20 The combined inductance of two coils connected in series is 0.6 H and 0.1 H depending on
the relative directions of the currents in the coils. If one of the coils when isolated has a self-inductance of 0.2 H,
calculate the mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling.
572
Solution The combined inductance of two the coils connected in series, depending on the relative direc-
tions of the currents in the coils, is given. It is known that the combined inductance in the series-aiding
condition is more than that in the series-opposing condition. If the self-inductances are L1 and L2 and mutual
inductance is M then,
L1 + L2 + 2 M = 0.6 (i)
and, L1 + L2 − 2 M = 0.1 (ii)

Also, it is given that L1 0.2 H. Putting this value in (i) and (ii),
∴ L2 + 2 M = 0.4 (iii)
L2 2M 0.1 (iv)
Solving (iii) and (iv), we get,
L2 = 0.15 H; M = 0.125 H
M 0.125
∴ coefficient of coupling is, k = = = 0.721
L1 L2 0.2 × 0.15 a M
L1 L2
Problem 9.21 Show that the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown
b
⎛ M2 ⎞
in Fig. 9.59 as seen from the terminals a and b is Leq = ⎜ L1 − irrespective Fig. 9.59
⎝ L2 ⎟⎠
a M
of the polarity of the coils.
I1 L1
Solution Two cases may appear depending upon the polarity of the coils: L2 I2
Case (1) Both currents entering the dotted terminals b
In this case, by KVL for the two meshes, we get Fig. 9.60
dI dI
L1 1 + M 2 = V (i)
dt dt
dI 2 dI dI 2 M dI1
L2 +M 1 =0 ⇒ =− (ii)
dt dt dt L2 dt
dI 2
Substituting the value of in (i), we get
dt
dI1 ⎛ M dI1 ⎞ ⎡ M 2 ⎤ dI1

L1 + M ⎜− ⎟ = V ⇒ ⎢ L1
− ⎥ =V (iii)
dt ⎝ L2 dt ⎠ ⎣ L2 ⎦ dt
a M
Thus the effective inductance with respect to the terminals a and b is
L1
⎡ M2 ⎤ I1 L2 I2
Leff = ⎢ L1 − ⎥
⎣ L2 ⎦ b
Case (2) One current entering the dot and other current leaving the dot Fig. 9.61
573
In this case, by KVL for the two meshes, we get

dI dI
L1 1 − M 2 = V (iv)
dt dt
dI 2 dI dI 2 M dI1
L2 −M 1 =0 ⇒ = (v)
dt dt dt L2 dt
dI 2
Substituting the value of in (iv), we get
dt
dI1 ⎛ M dI1 ⎞ ⎡ M 2 ⎤ dI1
L1 −M⎜ ⎟ = V ⇒ ⎢ L1 − ⎥ =V (vi)
dt ⎝ L2 dt ⎠ ⎣ L2 ⎦ dt
Thus the effective inductance with respect to the terminals a and b is
⎡ M2 ⎤
Leff = ⎢ L1 − ⎥
⎣ L2 ⎦
⎡ M2 ⎤
So, for the given circuit, the effective inductance with respect to the terminals a and b is Leff = ⎢ L1 − ⎥
⎣ L2 ⎦
irrespective of the polarity of the coils.
Problem 9.22 For the coupled circuit, find the ratio of output voltage to the source voltage.
10 I1 5 H I2
V1 10 V,
␻ 5 0 rad/s 10 H 100H 400 V2
Fig. 9.62
Solution By KVL for the meshes, we get
(10 + j 50 × 10) I 1 ( )
− j 50 × 5 I 2 = 10 ⇒ 10 + j 500 I1 − j 250 I 2 = 10 (i)
and,
( ) (
− j 50 × 5 I1 + 400 + j 50 × 100 I 2 = 0 ⇒ − j 250 I1 + 400 + j 5000 I 2 = 0 ) (ii)
Solving for I2 from (i) and (ii), we get
(10 + j 500) 10
− j 250 2500∠90°
I2 =
0
=
j 2500
= = 1.022 × 10−3 ∠ − 84.13° A ( )
(10 + j 500) − j 250 −2433500 + j 250000 2.446 × 106 ∠174.13°
− j 250 ( 400 + j 5000)
∴V2 = 400 × I 2 = 0.409∠ − 84.13° V ( )
∴ ratio of the output voltage to the source voltage is
V2 0.409∠ − 84.13°
= = 40.9 × 10−3 ∠ − 84.13°
V1 10∠0°
574
Problem 9.23 Figure 9.63 shows a network with mutual coupling. (a) Find the current in the 10-ohm
resistance. Assume that inductors have negligible resistance. (b) If the direction of winding of one of the
coils is reversed, find the current in the 10-ohm resistance.
Xm=2.5
j5 j10
10 V 10
4
Fig. 9.63
Solution Xm=2.5
(a) We consider the two loop currents as I1 and I2 as shown in Fig. 9.64.
Applying KVL for the two meshes, we get j5 j10
( ) (
4 + j 5 I1 − 4 + j 2.5 I 2 = 10) (i) 10 V 10
I1 4 I2
− ( 4 + j 2.5) I + (14 + j10 ) I
1 2
=0 (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get the current through the 10-ohm resistance as Fig. 9.64
(
4 + j5 10)
− ( 4 + j 2.5) 0 10( 4 + j 2.5)
I2 = = = 0.523∠ − 60.4° A ( )
( 4 + j 5) − ( 4 + j 2.5) ( 4 + j 5)( 4 + j 5) − ( 4 + j 2.5) 2
− ( 4 + j 2.5) ( 4 + j 5)
(b) If the direction of winding of one of the coils is reversed, the sign of mutual inductance will be positive.
Here, the KVL equations will become
( ) (
4 + j 5 I1 − 4 − j 2.5 I 2 = 10) (iii)
− ( 4 − j 2.5) I + (14 + j10 ) I

1 2
=0 (iv)
Solving (iii) and (iv), we get the current through the 10-ohm resistance as
( 4 + j 5) 10
− ( 4 − j 2.5) 0 10( 4 + j 2.5)
I2 = = = 0.362 ∠ − 123.65° A ( )
( 4 + j 5) − ( 4 − j 2.5) ( 4 + j 5)( 4 + j 5) − ( 4 − j 2.5) 2
− ( 4 − j 2.5) ( 4 + j 5)
50 20 (V)
2 j8
Problem 9.24 Find the current

j4 (3)
flowing through the capacitor in the (1) j2 (2)
5
100 0 ( V ) j3 j5
network shown in Fig. 9.65. Take k j7
1. Also find reactive power in the
loop 3. Fig. 9.65
575
Solution The mutual reactances are written as

M12 = 1 × 2 × 3 = 2.45 M13 = 1 × 2 × 4 = 2.83 M 23 = 1 × 3 × 4 = 3.46
For the three loops, by applying KVL we get
50 20 (V)
2 j8
5 j4 (3)
100 0 ( V ) (1) j2 j3 (2) I3
I1 j5
I2 j7
Fig. 9.66
( 2 + j10) I + ( − j 2.45) I + ( − j 2.83) I = 100∠0°

1 2 3
(i)
− j 2.45 I + ( 5 + j10 ) I + j 3.46 I = 50∠20°

1 2 3
(ii)
− j 2.83 I + j 3.46 I + ( − j1) I = 0

1 2 3
(iii)
Solving (i), (ii) and (iii), for I3 we get
(
2 + j10 ) − j 2.45 100∠0°
− j 2.45 (5 + j10) 50∠20°
− j 2.83 j 3.46 0
I3 = = 6.13∠49.44° A ( )
( 2 + j10) − j 2.45 − j 2.83
− j 2.45 (5 + j10) j 3.46
− j 2.83 j 3.46 − j1
Reactive power in the loop 3 is
( )
Q = I 32 × 4 − 5 = 6.132 × −1 = −37.58 VAR ( ) 37.58 VAR (capacitive)
Problem 9.25 Find the current I1 in the network shown in Fig. 9.67.
100 0 (V)
j3 j4
I1 I3
4 (3+j 9) 5
(1 +j1) I 2 (4+j 2) (6+ j8)
Fig. 9.67
Solution Considering the dots as marked, we write the KVL equations as
5 + j1 I1 − j 3 I 2 = 0 ) ( (i)
−3 I + ( 7 + j11) I − j 4 I = 100∠0°
1 2 3
(ii)
− j 4 I + (11 + j8 ) I = 0
2 3
(iii)
576
Solving (i), (ii) and (iii) for I1,
0 − j3 0
100∠0° ( 7 + j11 ) − j4
0 − j4 (11 + j8) = −2400 + j 3300 = 4.27∠28°
I1 = (A)
(5 + j1) − j3 0 −133 + j946
− j3 (7 + j11) − j4
0 − j4 (11 + j8)
Problem 9.26 Draw the dotted equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in Fig. 9.68 and find the equiva-
lent inductive reactance.
j5
j2 j3
j2 j3
j7
j5 j6
j5 j6 j7 j5
Fig. 9.68 Fig. 9.69
Solution The dotted equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 9.69.
∴ equivalent inductive reactance,
( )
X L = j 5 + j 6 + j 7 − j 2 − j 3 + j 5 − j 2 − j 3 + j 5 = j18
Problem 9.27 Determine the resonance frequency and the Q-factor of the circuit shown in Fig. 9.70.
R C M
V1 L1 L2
Fig. 9.70
Data: R 10 , C 3 ␮F, L1 40 mH, L2 10 mH and M 10 mH
Solution Applying KVL for the two loops,
R C
⎛ 1 ⎞ M
I1 ⎜ R + j L1 + − j MI 2 = V1 (i)
⎝ j C ⎟⎠
V1 I1 L1 L2
− j MI1 + j L2 I 2 = 0 (ii) I2
⎛M⎞ Fig. 9.71

From (ii), we get, I 2 = I1 ⎜ ⎟ . Substituting this value in (i), we get
⎝ L2 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛M⎞ V1 1 M2 ⎛ 1 M2⎞
I1 ⎜ R + j L1 + − j M I =
⎜L ⎟ 1 1 V ⇒ = R + j L + − j = R+ j ⎜ L1 − −
⎝ j C ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ I1 1
j C L2 ⎝ C L2 ⎟⎠
577
For resonance to occur, the input impedance must be resistive, i.e.,

⎛ 1 M2⎞ ⎛ M2⎞ 1 1 L2 1
L − − = 0 ⇒ L − = ⇒ 0= =
⎜ 0 1
⎝ 0
C 0
L2 ⎠⎟ 0⎜ 1
⎝
⎟
L2 ⎠ 0
C ⎛
C ⎜ L1 −
M ⎞ 2
(
C L1 L2 − M 2 )
⎝ L2 ⎟⎠
Substituting the values of the components, the resonance frequency is
L2 1 10 × 10−3 1
= = = 3333.33 rad/s
0
(
C L1 L2 − M 2
) −6
(
3 × 10 ⎡ 40 × 10−3 × 10 × 10−3 − 10 × 10−3 2 ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ )
3333.33
or, f0 = 0
= = 530.52 Hz
2 2
Problem 9.28 Given the following two sets of values of different quantities i
in the circuit of Fig. 9.72, at two different instants of time. Find the values of vpq M
at these instants. e 10 H v
t t1 , e 20V, i i1 1 A, v v1 20 V
t t2, e 10V, i i2 0.3 A, v v2 14 V R P Q
Solution At t t1, the KVL equations are Fig. 9.72
di1 di 20 20 − R
20 = 10 + R × 1 and 20 = M 1 ⇒ = (i)
dt dt M 10
At t t2, the KVL equations are
di di 14 10 − 0.3R
10 = 10 2 + R × 0.3 and 14 = M 2 ⇒ = (ii)
dt dt M 10
Solving (i) and (ii), we get, R = 10 , M = 20 H
di1 20 di 14
∴ = = 1; 2 = = 0.7
dt M dt M
di1
At t t1, v pq = −10 + 20 = 10 V
dt
di
At t t2, v pq = −10 2 + 14 = 7 V
dt
Problem 9.29 Find the value of C required in the circuit shown in Fig. 9.73 if the voltage across ZL is to be
independent of the value of ZL.
Solution We first find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across L1 = 4 H
the terminals a and b. M = 3H a
100sin400t
The Thevenin equivalent voltage with terminals a–b open- C
ZL
circuited is obtained as L2 = 4 H
1 b
Vth = V × = 50 sin 400t
2 Fig. 9.73
578
( two inductors of same values are connected, the voltage division rule is applied.)
To find the Thevenin’s equivalent impedance, we have the circuit as L1 = 4 H
M = 3H a
shown in Fig. 9.74.
⎛ L L −M2 ⎞ j ⎛ 4 × 4 − 32 ⎞ j C
Z th = j ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ − = j ⎜ 4 + 4 − 2 × 3⎟ − C L2 = 4 H
Z Th
⎝ L1 + L2 − 2 M ⎠ C ⎝ ⎠
⎛ j ⎞ ⎛ j ⎞ b
= ⎜ j 400 × 3.5 − = j1400 −
⎝ 400 × C ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 400 × C ⎟⎠ Fig. 9.74
∴ current through the load impedance,

Vth 50 sin 400t
IL = =
Z th + Z L ⎛ j ⎞
⎜⎝ j1400 − 400 × C ⎟⎠ + Z L
∴ voltage across the load impedance,

50 sin 400t × Z L
VL = I L × Z L =
⎛ j ⎞
⎜⎝ j1400 − 400 × C ⎟⎠ + Z L
This current will be independent of ZL, if

j 1
j1400 − =0 ⇒ C = = 1.7857 F
400 × C 1400 × 400
Problem 9.30 For the double-tuned circuit shown in Fig. 9.75, both the primary and the secondary are
10 5
tuned to the same frequency of Hz. By varying the coupling coefficient k, the maximum output voltage
2
across the coupling capacitor is 50 V. Determine the supply voltage. Given: Ls 10 μH.
Cp
0.5 M 2
V1 I1 Lp LS CS V0
I2
Fig. 9.75
5
Solution Here, ␻ 10 rad/s
From the condition for maximum output voltage, we get
M = Rp Rs = 0.5 × 2 = 1
1
Also, for the resonant frequency, = Ls = 105 × 10 × 10−6 = 1
Cs
By KVL,
0.5 I1 − j1I 2 = V1 and − j1I1 + 2 I 2 = 0
579
Solving for I2,

0.5 V1
− j1 0 jV1
I2 = = = j 0.5V1 or, I 2 = 0.5V1
0.5 − j1 1+1
− j1 2
I2 0.5V1
Output voltage is, V0 = ⇒ 50 = ⇒ V1 = 100 V
Cs 1
Summary
1. When the magnetic flux produced by an inductor 7. The equivalent inductances of two coupled coils of self-
links another inductor, these inductors are said to be inductances L1 and L2 when connected in parallel is
coupled. LL −M2
Leq = 1 2 for parallel aiding connection
2. When two coils are placed very close to each other, L1 + L2 − 2 M
the magnetic flux caused by current in one coil links
with the other coil and induces some voltage in the L1L2 − M 2
= for parallel opposing connection
second coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual L1 + L2 + 2 M
inductance.
8. A transformer is a four-terminal device comprising of
3. For two coils of inductances L1 and L2, the mutual
two (or more) magnetically coupled coils, called pri-
inductance is given as I 2 , where k is the coef- mary and secondary.
V =
ficient of coupling, 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 . 9. A transformer is said to be linear if the coils are wound
4. To denote the correct voltage polarity of the mutual on a magnetically linear material (such as air, plastic,
inductance of two colis, dot convention is used. As per Bakelite, wood, etc.) for which the magnetic perme-
dot convention, if the directions of currents through ability is a constant. A linear transformer can be repre-
the two coils are in the same sense with respect to the sented by an equivalent T or ␲ network.
dotted terminals, the sign of the mutually induced emf 10. A transformer is said to be ideal if its primary and sec-
is the same as the self-induced emf. ondary coils are lossless (i.e., R1 R2 0), have very
5. Energy stored in two mutually coupled coils is large reactances compared to any connected imped-
1 1 ance (i.e., L1, L2, M → ∞) and their coupling is perfect,
W = L1I 12 + L2 I 2 2 ± MI 1I 2 . (i.e., k 1).
2 2
11 When a capacitor is introduced in the primary and/or
6. The equivalent inductances of two coupled coils of in the secondary circuit of a transformer, the circuit
self-inductances L1 and L2 when connected in series is becomes selective and the transformer is termed a
)
Leq = ( L1 + L2 + 2 M for series aiding connnection tuned coupled circuit or a tuned transformer. There are
= (L + L − 2M )
two types of tuned circuits—single-tuned circuit and
for series opposing connnection
1 2
double-tuned circuit.
1. Explain the concept of mutual inductance. Suppose two coils are placed near each other, as
When two coils are placed very close to each other, shown in Fig. 9.76 (a).
the magnetic flux caused by current in one coil links The first coil has N1 turns and carries a current I1 which
→
with the other coil and induces some voltage in the gives rise to a magnetic field B1 . Since the two coils are close
second coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual to each other, some of the magnetic field lines through the
inductance. coil 1 will also pass through the coil 2. Let ␾21 denote the
580
B2
COil 2 N2 21 COil 2 N2
I2
Coil 1 N1 Coil 1 N1 12
I1
B1
Fig. 9.76 (b) Changing current in the coil 2 produces
Fig. 9.76 (a) Changing current in the coil 1 produces
changing magnetic flux in the coil 1
changing magnetic flux in the coil 2
2. What is dot convention?
magnetic flux through one turn of the coil 2 due to I1. Now,
by varying I1 with time, there will be an induced emf associ- In circuit analysis, the dot convention is a conven-
ated with the changing magnetic flux in the second coil: tion used to denote the voltage polarity of the mutual
d 21 d → → inductance of two components. The two conventions
21
= N2
dt
= ∫∫
dt c o i l 2
B1 ⋅d A2 are as follows.
1. If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil
The time rate of change of magnetic flux ␾21 in the coil 2 then the polarity of the emf induced in the second
is proportional to the time rate of change of the current in coil will be positive at the dotted terminal of the
the coil 1 and thus the voltage can be written as second coil.
d 21 d 21 dI 1 dI 2. If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one coil then
21
= N2 = N2 × = M 21 1 the polarity of the emf induced in the second coil will
dt dI 1 dt dt
be negative at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
N 2 21 3. Define coefficient of coupling and derive the
where M 21 = is called the mutual inductance.
I1 expression between self-inductances of two coils,
The mutual inductance M21 depends only on the mutual inductance between them and the coeffi-
geometrical properties of the two coils such as the cient of coupling.
number of turns and the radii of the two coils. • Self and mutual inductances between two cou-
In a similar manner, suppose instead there is a current I2 pled inductors
in the second coil and it is varying with time [Fig. 9.76 (b)]. Let L1, L2—two inductors placed very close to
Then the induced emf in the coil 1 becomes each other
→ →
d d
12
= N 1 12 =
dt ∫∫
dt c o i l 1
B 2 ⋅d A1 v2(t)—open circuit voltage induced in L2 by a cur-
rent i1(t) in L1
and a voltage is induced in the coil 1. v1(t)—open circuit voltage induced in L1 by a cur-
rent i2(t) in L2
This changing flux in the coil 1 is proportional to
the changing current in the coil 2, So, when only i1(t) is flowing, the magnetic flux
emerging from L1 is given as
d d dI dI
= N 1 12 = N 1 12 × 2 = M 12 2
12
dt dI 2 dt dt 1
= 11 (Link ing with L ) + (Link ing with L )
1 12 2
N
where M 12 = 1 12 is another mutual inductance. d 1 d di di
I2 ∴v 1 = N 1 = N 1 1 1 = L1 1
dt di 1 dt dt
Using the reciprocity theorem which combines
Ampere’s law and the Biot–Savart law, it can be shown d 1
where, L1 = N 1
that the two mutual inductances are M12 M21 ⬅ M di 1
581
d 12 d di di
and v 2 = N2 = N 2 12 1 = M 21 1 So, 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 or, 0 ≤ M ≤ L1L2
dt di 1 dt dt
d 12 4. Two coils are magnetically coupled to each other.
where, M 21 = N 2 = mutual inductance of the L2
di 1 Show that the maximum possible value of the
with respect to the coil L1 mutual inductance is the geometric mean of the
Now, when only i2(t) is flowing, the magnetic flux self-inductances of the two coils. What is the energy
emerging from L2 is given as ␾2 ␾21 (linking with L1) stored in the systems?
␾22 (linking with L2) Or,
Prove that the coefficient of mutual inductance M
d 2 d 2 di 2 di
∴v 2 = N 2 = N2 = L2 2 between two coils of self inductances L1 and L2 is
dt di 2 dt dt
given by M .
L 1L 2
d 2
where, L2 = N 2
di 2 We first find the energy M
stored in the coupled cir- I1 I2
d d di di
and v 1 = N 1 21 = N 1 21 2 = M 12 2 cuit. For that, we consider v1(t ) v2(t )
dt di 2 dt dt two cases:
d 21 Case (1) We assume i2
where, M 12 = N 1 = mutual inductance of the coil l1 0 and let i1 increase from
di 2 Fig. 9.77 Coupled circuit
0 to I1
with respect to the coil l2
di 1
• Coefficient of coupling ∴ power in L1, p1 t = v 1 t i 1 t = L1 () () () dt 1
i and
Coefficient of coupling between two coupled coils is power in L2, p2(t) 0 ( i2 0)

t
defined as the ratio of the flux linking to the other coil
to the total flux. ∴ energy stored in the circuit, w 1 = ∫ p1 t dt = ()
I1 0
di 1 2
∴k = 21
= 12 ∫0 L1i 1 dt1 = 2 L1I 1
1 2
Case (2) We assume i1 0 and let i2 increase from 0 to I2.
k attains a maximum value of unity when ␾21 ␾1 and
di 2
␾12 ␾2 . ()
∴ power in L2, p2 t = v 2 t i 2 t = L2 () ()
dt 2
i
Now, the mutual inductance between two coils is
di
N 1 12 N 2 21 ) ) )
and power in L1, p1 (t = v 1 (t i 1 (t = M 12 2 I 1
dt
M= = t
I2 I1
( )
2
∴ energy stored in the circuit, w 2 = ∫ p1 + p2 dt =

N 1 12 N 2 21 t1
∴ M2= × I2
I2 I1
∫ ( L i di
2 2 2 ) 1
+ M 12 I 1di 2 = L2 I 2 2 + M 12 I 1I 2
2
Nk N ⎧⎪ ⎫⎪ 0
= 1 1
× 2 2
⎨ k=
21
= 12
⎬
I2 I1 ⎩⎪ 1 2 ⎭⎪ From Case (1) and Case (2), the total energy stored
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ in the coupled circuit when both i1 and i2 have reached
= k 2 ⎜ 1 1 ⎟ × ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ = k 2 L1L2 constant values of I1 and I2 is
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
I I
where, L1 and L2 are the self-inductances of the coils.

( 1
) 1
W = w1 + w 2 = L1II2 + L2 I22 + M12 I1I2
2 2
(A)
M Now, if we reverse the order in which the current

k= reach their final values (i.e., first i2 increases from 0 to I2
L1L 2
with i1 0 and then i1 reaches from 0 to I1 with i2 I2)
In other words, the coefficient of coupling (k), is then the total energy will be
defined as the degree to which the mutual inductance 1 1
W = L1II2 + L 2 I22 + M21I1I2 (B)
approaches its maximum value. 2 2
582
From (A) and (B), we get, R1 R2
M
M 12 = M 21 = M
V1 I1 L1 L2 ZL
1 1
∴total energy, W = L1I 12 + L2 I 2 2 + MI 1I 2 I2
2 2
and for any instantaneous values, Fig. 9.78 Circuit representation
of a linear transformer
) ) )
w (t = L1i 12 (t + L2 i 2 2 (t + Mi 1 (t i 2 (t
1
2
1
2
) )
• Derivation of input and reflected impedances
If the dotted terminals are in opposite sides then By KVL for the two meshes,
1 1
W = L1I 12 + L2 I 2 2 − MI 1I 2 )
V1 = ( R1 + j L1 I 1 − j MI 2 (i)
2 2
1 1
(
0 = − j MI 1 + R 2 + j L 2 + Z L I 2 . ) (ii)
In general, W = L1I 12 + L2 I 2 2 ± MI 1I 2
2 2 j MI 1
From (ii), I 2 =
Energy stored cannot be negative. R 2 + j L2 + Z L
1 1 Putting this value in (i),
∴ L1I 12 + L 2 I 2 2 − MI 1I 2 ≥ 0
j M × j MI 1
2 2
(
V 1 = R 1 + j L1 I 1 −)
1
( )
⇒ L1I 12 + L 2 I 2 2 − 2 L1 L 2 I 1I 2 + L1 L 2 I 1I 2 − MI 1I 2 ≥ 0
2
R2 + j L2 + Z L
2
M 2I1
⇒
1
( ) (
2
L1 I 1 − L 2 I 2 + L1 L 2 I 1I 2 − MI 1I 2 ≥ 0) (
= R 1 + j L1 I 1 + ) R2 + j L2 + Z L
2
1
( ) ( ) ∴input impedance,
2
⇒ L1 I 1 − L 2 I 2 + L1L2 − M I 1I 2 ≥ 0
2 V1 2
M2
The squared term is never negative.
Z in =
I1
= ( R1 + j L1 + )
R 2 + j L2 + Z L
∴ L1L2 − M ≥ 0 ⇒ M ≤ L1L2 ( )
Here, R1 + j L1 = impedance of primary winding
2
M2
Therefore, the maximum possible value of the mutual and, ZR =
inductance is the geometric mean of the self-inductances R 2 + j L2 + Z L
of the two coils. where, ZR impedance due to coupling between primary
5. What is a linear transformer? Derive the expres- and secondary, known as reflected impedance
sions for input impedance and the reflected imped-
ance from the secondary to the primary circuit of a 6. What are the properties of an ideal transformer?
linear transformer. Obtain the input impedance of an ideal trans-
former. How can the turns ratio of a transformer be
Linear transformer A transformer is a four-terminal adjusted for maximum power transfer to the load?
device comprising of two (or more) magnetically cou- What is ‘impedance matching’?
pled coils. It is composed of two coils:
Ideal transformer A transformer is said to be ideal if
• a primary coil of resistance R1 and self-inductance L1 it has the following properties:
• a secondary coil of resistance R2 and self-inductance L2
1. Primary and secondary coils are lossless (i.e., R1
A transformer is said to be linear if the coils are R2 0).
wound on a magnetically linear material for which the 2. Primary and secondary coils have very large reac-
magnetic permeability is a constant. Some linear mate- tances compared to any connected impedance (i.e.,
rials are air, plastic, Bakelite and wood. L1, L2, M → ∞)
Circuit representation of a linear transformer is 3. Coupling between primary and secondary coils is
shown in Fig. 9.78. perfect, i.e., k 1 or the leakage flux is zero.
583
An ideal transformer is a I1 I2 • Adjustment of turns ratio for maximum power trans-
useful approximation of a very M fer to the load According to the maximum power
tightly coupled transformer transfer theorem, the maximum power will be transfr-
(k ≈1) in which both the primary erred to a load when the impedances of the source and
V1 L1 L2 V2
and secondary inductive reac- load are complex conjugates of each other.
tances are extremely large com- Transformers are sometimes used to match the
pared to the load impedance. impedances of circuits with different impedances.
• Calculation of input imped- Fig. 9.79 Circuit An ideal transformer converts alternating current at
ance for ideal transformer symbol of ideal one voltage to the same waveform at another volt-
The circuit symbol of an ideal transformer age. For an ideal transforemer, the power input to
transformer is shown in Fig. 9.79. the transformer and output from the transformer is
By KVL, the same. The side with the lower voltage is at low
impedance, because this has the lower number of
V1 = j L1I 1 − j MI 2 (i)
turns, and the side with the higher voltage is at a
(
0 = − j MI 1 + j L2 + Z L I 2 ) (ii) higher impedance as it has more turns in its coil.
Thus, by controlling the number of turns (i.e.,
j M turns ratio), the impedances of the primary and
From (ii), I 2 = I
j L2 + Z L 1 secondary sides of an ideal trnasformer can be con-
Putting this in (i), we get, trolled to give maximum power transfer.
j M • Impedance matching It can be shown math-
V1 = j L1I 1 − j MI 2 = j L1I 1 − j M I ematically that any source of power, e.g., a receiver
j L2 + Z L 1
antenna, an audio amplifier or an amateur radio
⎛− 2
L1L 2 + j L1Z L + 2
M2⎞ transmitter will deliver its maximum possible power
=⎜ ⎟ I1
⎝ j L2 + Z L ⎠ output when the impedance of the subsequent load
is equal to the internal impedance of that source
⎛− 2
L1L 2 + j L1Z L + 2
L1L2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ I1 ⎡ k = 1, ∴ M = L1L 2 ⎤ (maximum power transfer theorem). This is achieved
⎝ j L2 + Z L ⎠ ⎣ ⎦ through impedance matching.
⎛ j L 1Z L ⎞ Impedance matching is the method of setting
=⎜ ⎟ I1 the impedance of an electrical load (ZL) equal to the
⎝ j L2 + Z L ⎠ fixed impedance of the signal source (Zs) to which it is
ultimately connected, usually in order to maximiz the
∴ input impedance,
power transfer and minimize reflections from the load.
V j L 1Z L j L 1Z L [ L2 >>ZL; for ideal This only applies when both are linear devices.
Z in = 1 = ≈
I 1 j L2 + Z L j L2 transformer] The concept of impedance matching was originally
2 developed for electrical power, but can be applied to
⎛ L1 ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
= ZL⎜ ⎟ = ZL⎜ 1⎟ ⎡ L ∝ N 2 ⎤⎦ any other field where a form of energy (not just electri-
L ⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎣
⎝ 2⎠ cal) is transferred between a source and a load.
2
⎛N ⎞ Z The concept of impedance matching is very impor-
⇒ Z in = Z L ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 2L tant in transmision lines, RF transmission systems,
⎝ N2 ⎠ n
audio amplifiers, antenna tuners and other electrical
N2 and electronic systems.
where, n = is the turns ratio. Thus, the load imped-
N1 I1 I2
M
ance is approximately transferred as the square of turns 7. Determine the voltage and
ratio. This input impedance is also known as the current transformation ratio
reflected impedance as the load impedance is reflected of an ideal transformer. V1 L1 L2 V2
to the primary side. • Calculation of voltage
This property of an ideal transformer to transform transformation ratio for an
a given impedance into another impedance is used in ideal transformer The circuit Fig. 9.80 Circuit
impedance matching, which is very useful in different symbol of an ideal transformer symbol of an ideal
applications involving maximum power transfer. is shown in Fig. 9.80. transformer
584
By KVL, R1 M R2
V1 = j L1I 1 − j MI 2 (i)
(
0 = − j MI 1 + j L2 + Z L I 2 ) (ii)
E1 L1 L2 C2 E2
j L2 + Z L
From (ii), I 1 = I
j M 2
Putting this in (i), we get,
⎛ j L2 + Z L ⎞ Fig. 9.81
V1 = j L1I 1 − j MI 2 = j L1 ⎜ ⎟ I 2 − j MI 2
⎝ j M ⎠ Hence prove that the maximum value of E2 is
⎛− 2
L1L 2 + j L1Z L + 2
M2⎞
=⎜ ⎟ I2
obtained when M = R1 R 2 .
⎝ j M ⎠
In this circuit, a capacitor is introduced only in the sec-
⎛− 2
L1L 2 + j L1Z L + 2
L1L 2 ⎞ ondary so that only the secondary is tuned.
=⎜ ⎟ I2 ⎡ k = 1, ∴ M = L1L 2
⎝ j M ⎠ ⎣ Let, R1—Total resistance in the primary (internal
⎛ L ⎞ resistance of the source resistance of pri-
⎛ L1 ⎞
= Z L ⎜ ⎟ I2 = Z L ⎜
1
⎟ I2 mary coil
⎝M⎠ ⎜⎝ L L ⎟⎠ R2—Total resistance in the secondary
L L L1, L2—Leakage inductance of primary and second-
V1 = I 2 Z L 1 =V 2 1 ary, respectively
L2 L2
C2—Variable capacitor for tuning, connected across
V L2 N 2 the secondary
∴ voltage transformation ratio, 2 = = =n
V1 L1 N 1 M—Mutual inductance between primary and sec-
where n is the turns ratio. ondary
• Calculation of current-transformation ratio for E1—Source voltage
an ideal transformer: E2—Output voltage
The primary current can be written as By KVL for the two meshes,
I1 =
j L2 + Z L
I ≈
j L2
I ⎡ L >> Z L ; for ideal trransformer ⎤⎦
)
E 1 = ( R1 + j L1 I 1 − j MI 2
j M 2 j M 2 ⎣ 2 ⎛ j ⎞
0 = − j MI 1 + ⎜ R 2 + j L2 − I
L2 L ⎝ C 2 ⎟⎠ 2
= I2 = 2 I2
L1L2 L1
Solving for I2,
∴ current-transformation ratio,
I2 L N
= 1= 1=
1
(R + j L )
1 1
E1
I1 L2 N 2 n
−j M 0
I2 =
where n is the turns ratio. Thus, the ratio of the pri-
mary current to the secondary current is the turns (R + j L )
1 1
−j M
ratio. It must be noted that if any one dot changes ⎪⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎪⎫
its location on the winding, the current ratio will −j M ⎨R 2 + j ⎜ L2 − ⎟⎬
⎩⎪ ⎝ C 2⎠⎪⎭
become the negative of the turns ratio.
=
E 1( j M )
8. For the mutually coupled circuit shown in Fig. 9.81, ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
show that the secondary current and voltage E2 will ( )
R 1 + j L1 ⎢ R 2 + j ⎜ L 2 −
⎢⎣ ⎝ C ⎟ ⎥+
2⎠⎦⎥
2
M2
have its largest value if the following relationship
holds true:
=
E1 j M ( )
1 ⎛R ⎞ L ⎛ R ⎞
= ⎜ 2 L1 + L 2 ⎟ ≈ L 2 R1R 2 − 2 L1L 2 + 1 + j ⎜ L1R 2 + L 2 R1 − 1 ⎟ + 2
M2
C2 ⎝ R1 ⎠ C2 ⎝ C2 ⎠
585
Therefore, the output voltage is At this resonant frequency, the output volt-
I2 age is given as
E2 =
j Cs E 1M
Cs
E 1M E 2 res =
=
Cs R1R 2 +
L1
C2
+ 2
(M 2
− L1L2 )
L ⎛ R ⎞
R1R 2 − 2 L1L2 + 1 + j ⎜ L1R 2 + L2 R1 − 1 ⎟ + 2
M 2
C2 ⎝ C2 ⎠ For maximum output voltage at resonance
This output voltage will have its largest value when d E 2 res
=0
the denominator is the minimum, i.e., when the dM
reactive part of the denominator is zero. E1
⎛ R ⎞ Cs
∴ ⎜ L1R 2 + L2 R1 − 1 ⎟ = 0 ⇒
⎝ C2 ⎠
R1R 2 +
L1
C2
+ 2
(M 2
− L1L2 )
R1
⇒ = L1R 2 + L2 R1
C2 2 2
M 2E 1
1 ⎛ R ⎞ Cs
⇒ = ⎜ L1 2 + L2 ⎟ (Proved) − 2
=0
⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎛ ⎞
)
C2 L1
⎜⎝ R1R 2 + C +
2
2
( M − L1L2 ⎟
2
⎠
If R1 >>, then the condition becomes
1 ⇒ M = R1R 2 (Proved)
≈ L2
C2
Exercises
1. Find the effective value of the inductance for the fol- 2. If is 2cos10t (A) find the total energy stored in the
lowing connections: passive network at t 0 for k 0.6 and terminals x and
0.5 H 0.5 H y being short-circuited. [0.512 J]
i i
3 M
4H 8H x
2H 1H
(a) is
0.4 H 2.5 H
10 ␮H
y
1␮H
5 ␮H 20 ␮H Fig. 9.83
2 ␮H
50 ␮H 3. Calculate the phasor currents I1 and I2.
(b) j4
j3
10 ␮H
1␮H I1 j5
5 ␮H 20 ␮H 12 0 (V) j6 12
2 ␮H I2
50 ␮H
(c) Fig. 9.84
Fig. 9.82 [12 H; 96 μH; 72 μH] [13.01∠−49.39 (A); 2.91 ∠14.04 (A)]
586
4. Determine the coupling coefficient. Calculate the 10. In the coupled circuit, find the voltage across the 5-Ω
energy stored in the coupled circuits at time t 1s if, resistor. [43.05∠−24.94 (V); 30.7∠−100.6 (V)]
v 60cos (4t 30 ) (V ). [0.56; 20.73 J]
(a) K = 0.8
10 2.5 H
j5 j 10
50 0 (V) 3 5
v 5H 4H 1/16 F
j4
Fig. 9.85
(b) j2
5. Find the T and ␲ equivalent of the linear transformer
j5 j 10
100 0 (V) 5
I1 I2 j2
40 mH
Fig. 9.89
30 mH 60 mH
11. For the given magnetically coupled circuit, obtain the
Fig. 9.86 conductively coupled circuit. [−j1Ω; (5 j4)Ω; (3 j2) Ω]
6. Find the conductively equivalent circuit for the network j6

shown in Fig. 9.87. [Z1 j1 Ω; Z2 j3 Ω; Z3 j2 Ω ]
j5 j 10
j4 j2 j6
500 0 (V) 3 5
j4
V j3 j5 Z
Fig. 9.90
Fig. 9.87 12. For the coupled circuit, find the ratio v2/v1 which will
7. A coil of 800 ␮H is magnetically coupled to another result zero current I1. [(1 j1)]
coil of 200 ␮H. The coefficient of coupling between 5 j2 2
two coils is 0.05. Calculate the effective inductance if
two coils are connected in
(i) series aiding, ii) series opposing, (iii) parallel aiding, V1 j8 j2 V2
and (iv) parallel opposing.
[1040 ␮H, 960 ␮H, 166.25 ␮H, 153.46 ␮H]
Fig. 9.91
8. Two coils each with a series connection of L 300 ␮H and
C 1000 pF are magnetically coupled with M 60 ␮H. An
13. In the coupled circuit shown in the Fig. 9.92, find V2 for
1
emf of 10 V at MHz is injected into the circuit. Determine which I1 0. What voltage appears at the 8-Ω inductive
(i) current in other circuit if its terminals are shorted reactance under this condition? [141.42∠−450 (V)]
(ii) the coefficient of coupling 5 j2 2
[49.18∠90 mA; 0.2]
9. For the coupled circuit, find the input impedance at
V1 j8 j2
terminals a and b. [(3 j36.33) Ω] V2
3 j4
a
j3 j8 Fig. 9.92
j5
b 14. If M 0.2 H and v s 12cos 10t V in the circuit of
Fig. 9.88 Fig. 9.93, find i 1 and i 2.
587
冤2.719cos(10t 冥
5.068cos(10t 52.54 ) 16. Calculate the power absorbed by the 4-Ω resistor in
100.89 ) the circuit shown in Fig. 9.95. [3.67 Watt]
M 5 j4
i1 i2 j1
0.5 H 1H j6 j3
vs 5 36 30 V 4
25 mF
I1 2 I2
Fig. 9.93
15. Find the currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit shown in Fig. 9.95
Fig. 9.94.
17. Write the loop equations for the network shown in
[1.47∠−21.40 (A); 0.077∠−134.850 Fig. 9.96.
(A); 0.077∠−110.410 (A)]
R4 C1 C2
10 j2 30 j 12 5
L1 L2 L3
j4 j 6 I2 j 15 V
I1 j 20 j4 R1 R2 R3
16 0 (V) I3
Fig. 9.94 Fig. 9.96
Questions
1. What is meant by self-and mutual inductances? Explain. 6. Two coils are magnetically coupled to each other. Show
Also give their units. that the maximum possible value of the mutual induc-
Or, tance is the geometric mean of the self-inductances
of the two coils. What is the energy stored in the sys-
Explain what is meant by self-inductance and mutual
tems?
inductance. Define the units in which each is mea-
sured. 7. Two coils of self-inductances L1 and L 2 are placed
side by side so that the mutual inductance between
2. Define ‘self-inductance’ and ‘mutual inductance’. Derive
them is M. If they are connected in series addition,
an expression for the mutual inductance between two
derive the expression for the net inductance of the
magnetically coupled coils having self-inductances L1
coils.
and L2, respectively.
8. Two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 are mutually
3. Obtain an expression for the mutual inductance of two co-
coupled. Derive the expression for the net inductance
axial solenoids of wires closely wound one upon the other.
of the coils if they are connected in
4. Explain the concept of mutual inductance. Define coef- a. series aiding c. parallel aiding
ficient of coupling and derive the relation between self- b. series opposing d. parallel opposing
inductances of two coils, mutual inductance between
them and the coefficient of coupling. 9. What is a linear transformer? Derive the expressions
for input impedance and the reflected impedance
Or, from the secondary to the primary circuit of a linear
Prove that the coefficient of mutual inductance M between transformer.
M 10. What are the properties of an ideal transformer? Obtain
two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 is given by L1L 2 .
the input impedance of an ideal transformer. How can
5. Explain the dot convention used in magnetically cou- the turns ratio of a transformer be adjusted for maxi-
pled circuits (mutual inductances) with the help of mum power transfer to the load? What is ‘impedance
suitable examples. matching’?
588
11. Determine the voltage and current transformation R1 M R2
ratio of an ideal transformer.
12. What is a tuned circuit? For a single-tuned circuit, E1 L1 L2 C2 E2
determine the maximum value of the output voltage,
the effective bandwidth and Q factor. Fig. 9.97
13. For the mutually coupled circuit shown in Fig. 9.97, Hence prove that the maximum value of E2 is obtained
show that the secondary current and voltage E2 will
have its largest value if the following relationship when ␻M = R1R2 .
holds true: 14. An inductively coupled doubly tuned circuit has both
circuits tuned to the same frequency with the same Q.
1 ⎛R ⎞ Define and determine the value of the critical coupling
= ⎜ 2 L1 + L 2 ⎟ ≈ L
C2 ⎝ R1 ⎠ and obtain the bandwidth for this critical coupling.
Multiple Choice Questions

1. The coupling between two magnetically coupled 6. When two coils having self-inductances of L1 and L2
coils is said to be ideal if the coefficient of coupling is are coupled through a mutual inductance M, the coef-
(i) zero (ii) 0.5 ficient of coupling, k is given as
(iii) 1 (iv) 2 M M
(i) k = (ii) k =
2. Two coupled coils with L1 L2 0.6 have a coupling 2 L1L 2 L1L 2
N
coefficient of K 0.8. The turns ratio 1 is
N2 2M L1L 2
(iii) k = (iv) k =
(i) 4 (ii) 2 L1L 2 M
(iii) 1 (iv) 0.5
7. For additive flux of two coils connected in series, the
3. The coils having self-inductances of 10 mH and equivalent inductance can be expressed as
15 mH have an effective inductance of 40 mH, when (i) L1 L2 (ii) L1 L2 2M
connected in series-aiding. What will be the equivalent (iii) L1 L2 2M (iv) L1 L2 M
inductance if we connect them in series-opposing?
(i) 20 mH (ii) 10 mH 8. The equivalent inductance of two coils connected in
(iii) 5 mH (iv) zero parallel when two fields oppose each other is
4. Two coupled coils connected in series have an equiv- L1L 2 − M 2 L1L 2 − M 2
(i) (ii)
alent inductance of 16 mH or 8 mH depending on L1 + L 2 + 2 M L1 + L 2 − 2 M
the inter-connection. Then the mutual inductance M
between the coils is (iii) L1L 2 + M 2 (iv) L1L 2 + M 2
(i) 12 mH (ii) 8 2 mH L1 + L 2 + 2 M L1 + L 2 − 2 M
(iii) 4 mH (iv) 2 mH 9. For tight coupling, the coefficient of coupling of two
5. Consider the following statements: coils is
(i) 0 (ii) 1.0
The coefficient of coupling between two coils depends (iii) 0.8 (iv) 1.0
upon
1. orientation of the coils 10. Self-inductance of a magnetic coil is proportional to
2. core material (i) N (ii) 1
3. number of turns on the two coils N
4. self-inductances of the two coils 2 1
(iii) N (iv)
Of these statements, N2
(i) 1, 2 and 3 are correct v
11. For an ideal transformer, the voltage ratio 1 is given as,
(ii) 1 and 2 are correct v2
L1 L
(iii) 3 and 4 are correct (i) (ii) 2
(iv) 1, 2 and 4 are correct L2 L 1
589
16. When two coupled coils of equal self-inductance are
L1
(iii) (iv) none of the above. connected in series in one way, the net inductance is
L2 12 mH, and when they are connected in the other way,
the net inductance is 4 mH. The maximum value of the
12. Two coils are wound on a common magnetic core. The net inductance when they are connected in parallel in
sign of mutual inductance M for finding out effective a suitable way is
inductance of each coil is positive if (i) 2 mH (ii) 3 mH
(i) two coils are wound in the same sense (iii) 4 mH (iv) 6 mH
(ii) fluxes produced by the two coils are equal
17. Two perfectly coupled coils, each of one henry self-
(iii) fluxes produced by the two coils act in the same
inductance, are connected in parallel so as to aid each
direction
other. The overall inductance in henry is
(iv) fluxes produced by the two coils act in opposi-
(i) 2 (ii) 1
tion
(iii) ½ (iv) zero
13. The overall inductance of two coils connected in series,
18. The mutual inductance between two coupled coils
with mutual inductance aiding self-inductance is L1.
is 10 mH. If the turns in one coil are doubled and
With mutual inductance opposing self-inductance,
that in the other are halved then the mutual induc-
the overall inductance is L2. The mutual inductance M
tance will be
is given by
(i) 5 mH (ii) 10 mH
(i) L1 L2 (ii) L1 L2 (iii) 14 mH (iv) 20 mH
(iii)
1
(L −L
4 1 2
) (iv)
1
(
L +L
2 1 2
) 19. Two identical coils of negligible resistance, when
connected in series across a 50-Hz fixed voltage
14. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 9.98. For maximum source, draw a current of 10 A. When the terminals
power transfer to the load, the primary to secondary of one of the coils are reversed, the current drawn
turns ratio must be is 8 A. The coefficient of coupling between the two
coils is
900 1
(i) (ii) 1
100 9
100
V (iii) 4 (iv) 8
10 10
Primary Secondary
20. What is the coefficient of coupling for the magneti-
Fig. 9.98 cally coupled circuit shown in Fig. 9.99, if L1, L2 and M
(i) 9 : 1 (ii) 3 : 1 are 1 H, 0.25 H and 0.4 H respectively?
(iii) 1 : 3 (iv) 1 : 9
M
15. Two inductive coils with self-inductances L1 and L2
are magnetically coupled in series opposing and in
parallel aiding respectively. The mutual inductance L1
L2
between the coils is M. The equivalent inductances in
the two cases are respectively
Fig. 9.99
L1L 2 − M 2
(i) L + L + 2 M , (i) 0.2 (ii) 0.5
1 2
L1 + L 2 − 2 M (iii) 0.8 (iv) 0.9
L1L 2 − M 2 21. The voltage V0 for the circuit shown in Fig. 9.100 will be
(ii) L + L − 2 M ,
1 2
L1 + L 2 + 2 M V0
M
L1L 2 − M 2
(iii) L + L − 2 M ,
1 2
L1 + L 2 − 2 M
Vs L1 L2
L1L 2 − M 2
(iv) L + L + 2 M ,
1 2
L1 + L 2 + 2 M Fig. 9.100
590
⎛ M⎞ ⎛ M⎞ 26. Impedance Z as shown in Fig. 9.103 is

(i) V S ⎜ 1+ ⎟ (ii) V S ⎜ 1− ⎟ j2
⎝ L1 ⎠ ⎝ L1 ⎠ j5
⎛M ⎞ ⎛ M⎞
(iii) V S ⎜ − 1⎟ (iv) V S ⎜ 1− ⎟
⎝ L1 ⎠ ⎝ L2 ⎠ j 10 j2
Z j 10
22. The maximum value of mutual inductance of two induc-
tively coupled coils with self- inductances L1 49 mH
and L2 81 mH is Fig. 9.103
(i) 130 mH (ii) 63 mH (i) j29 Ω (ii) j9 Ω
(iii) 32 mH (iv) 3969 mH (iii) j19 Ω (iv) j39 Ω
23. In the circuit shown in Fig. 9.101, maximum power will 27. If, in a doubly tuned transformer, the secondary cur-
be delivered to the load if the value of ‘n’ is rent versus frequency graph indicates two peaks and
45 one dip in between then the coupling coefficient of
n:1 the transformer will be
n1 (i) less than the critical coefficient of coupling
n2 5
(ii) equal to the critical coefficient of coupling
(iii) greater than the critical coefficient of coupling
Fig. 9.101 (iv) not determinable due to want of sufficient data
v
(i) 2 (ii) 3 28. For a perfect transformer, the voltage ratio 1 is given as
(iii) 4 (iv) 5 v
(i) L1 (ii) L 2
2
24. Two coupled coils have L1 0.6 H, L2 0.6 H and cou- L2 L1

pling coefficient 0.25. Coil 2 has 800 turns. If the
current I1 in the coil 1 is 6sin 100t (A) then the voltage L1
(iii) (iv) none of the above
across the coil 2 is L2
(i) 90 cos100t V (ii) 9 cos100t V
29. An ideal transformer is
(iii) 0.9 cos100t V (iv) 0.9 cos100t V
1. an abrupt concept
25. The equivalent inductance measured between the 2. one where the voltage and current relations are
terminals 1 and 2 for the circuit shown in Fig. 9.102 is derived from Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law
respectively
M
3. is characterized by a single parameter n, the turns
1 ratio
L1 L2
Of these statements
2
(i) 1 and 3 are correct
Fig. 9.102 (ii) 1 and 2 are correct
(i) L1 L2 M (ii) L1 L2 − M (iii) 2 and 3 are correct
(iii) L1 L2 2M (iv) L1 L2 − 2M (iv) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
Answers
1. (iii) 7. (ii) 13. (iii) 19. (ii) 25. (iv)

2. (iii) 8. (i) 14. (ii) 20. (iii) 26. (ii)
3. (ii) 9. (ii) 15. (iii) 21. (ii) 27. (iii)
4. (iv) 10. (iii) 16. (ii) 22. (ii) 28. (iii)
5. (iv) 11. (iii) 17. (ii) 23. (ii) 29. (iv)
6. (ii) 12. (iii) 18. (ii) 24. (i)
10 Three Phase Circuits
Introduction
Circuits or systems in which a number of alternating sources operate at the same frequency but different
phases are known as polyphase systems. A polyphase system is a means of distributing alternating
current electrical power. The most common example is the three-phase power system used for most
industrial applications. Polyphase systems have two or more energized electrical conductors carrying
alternating currents with a definite time offset between the peak amplitudes of the wave in each
conductor. In modern utility power generation and distribution three phases are used, with the phases
separated in time by one third of an ac cycle. Most alternating-current (ac) generation and transmission
and utilization take place through three-phase circuits.
Three phase circuits belong to the general class of polyphase systems. A polyphase system is a
system which consists of numerous windings or circuits. It is essentially a combination of several single
phase voltages having the same magnitude and frequency, but differing from one another by equal
angle (electrical), which depends on the number of phases.
Electrical angle =
2 electrical degree 360
number of phases
=
n
(n > 2)
For n 2, the angle is 90 .
In this chapter, we will discuss the generation and measurement of three-phase voltages, currents
and powers and then will analyze electric circuits with three-phase balanced and unbalanced loads.
10.1 ADVANTAGES OF POLYPHASE SYSTEMS

The advantages of using three-phase ac for transmission and distribution of electricity are the following:
Smaller in Size Less copper (or aluminium) is needed for the conductors of a three-phase system which
transmits a given power at a given voltage over a given distance than for a simple single-phase system. In
a balanced three-phase system, the conductors need be only about 75% the size of conductors for a single-
phase two-wire system of the same KVA rating.
592
Constant output power In polyphase systems, the total power delivered to a balanced load is constant,
whereas in a single-phase system, the power delivered is pulsating. Therefore, for power loads, the polyphase
system is more efficient. In fact, the power delivered by a single-phase system pulsates. The power falls to zero
three times during each cycle. The power delivered by a three-phase circuit also pulsates, but it never falls to
zero. In a three-phase system, the power delivered to the load is the same at any instant. This produces superior
operating characteristics for three-phase motors.
Greater output power The output power of a polyphase machine is greater (almost 150%) than that of a
single-phase machine of the same size, because of the efficient use of the space available for the windings.
Superior motor performance Three-phase motors have many advantages over single-phase motors,
including smaller size, steady torque output, and the ability to self-start.
Ease in parallel operation When connected in parallel, single-phase generators present difficulties which
do not occur with three-phase generators.
Reliability A polyphase system is more capable and reliable than a single-phase system.
10.2 SOME TERMINOLOGIES

Before going to the details of polyphase systems, we consider some terms.
Phase Phase is a frequently used term for alternating quan- Displacement
Period
tities. The word comes from a Greek word which originally
referred to the eternally regular changing appearance of the Amplitude
moon through each month, and then was applied to the periodic
Time
changes of some quantity, such as the voltage in an ac circuit.
Electrical phase is measured in degrees, with 360 correspond-
ing to a complete cycle. A sinusoidal voltage is proportional to Fig. 10.1 Periodic function
the cosine or sine of the phase.
The phase of an oscillation or wave is the fraction of a complete cycle corresponding to an offset in the dis-
placement from a specified reference point at time t 0.
The concept of phase can be readily understood in terms of simple harmonic motion. Simple harmonic
motion is a displacement that varies cyclically, as depicted and described by the
formula
() (
x t = Asin 2 ft + )
where A is the amplitude of oscillation, and f is the frequency. A motion with fre- phase
1 shift
quency f has period T = where t is the elapsed time, and ␪ is the phase of the oscil-
f
lation. It determines or is determined by the initial displacement at time t 0. Fig. 10.2 Illustration of
phase shift. The horizontal
Phase-Shift Here, ␪ is sometimes referred as a phase-shift, because it axis represents an angle
represents a shift from zero phase. But a change in ␪ is also referred as a (phase) that is increasing
phase-shift. with time.
593
For infinitely long sinusoids, a change in ␪ is the same as a shift in time, such as a time-delay. If x(t) is delayed
(time-shifted) by 1 of its cycle, it becomes
4
⎛ T⎞ ⎛ ⎛ T⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x ⎜ t − ⎟ = Asin ⎜ 2 f ⎜ t − ⎟ + ⎟ = Asin ⎜ 2 ft − + ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
whose ‘phase’ is now − . It has been shifted by − .

2 2
Three-phase
Three-phase, abbreviated 3 , refers to three voltages or currents that differ by one-third of a cycle, or 120 electri-
cal degrees, from each other. They go through their maxima in a regular order, called the phase sequence.
Balanced three-phase system A three-phase system is said to be balanced if
• each load has the same magnitude of impedance;
• each load impedance has the same phase angle;
• each phase voltage (and current) is equal in magnitude; and
• each phase voltage is displaced by 120 from each other.
Practical systems rarely have perfectly balanced loads, currents, voltages or impedances in all three phases.
The analysis of unbalanced cases is greatly simplified by the use of the techniques of symmetrical components.
An unbalanced system is analyzed as the superposition of three balanced systems, each with the positive, nega-
tive or zero sequence of balanced voltages.
10.3 GENERATION OF BALANCED THREE-PHASE SUPPLY

When a coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field, an alternating
emf is induced in the coil, as shown in Fig.10.3. The induced N emf C
emf is given by ()
v t = Vmax sin t = va a .
1 2
C v
Vmax
B A vt
B A
When two coils fastened rigidly together at 90 (electrical) a1 0 p/2 2p
a2
apart from each other rotate in a uniform magnetic field, emf ’s D Vmax
are induced in each coil with a difference of 90 . The induced D
S
emf ’s are given by
Fig. 10.3 A single-phase ac supply:
va a = Vmax sin t (a) Generation (b) Wave diagram
1 2
vb b = Vmax sin
1 2
( 2
t− ) N emf
Va
1a2
Vb
1b2
When three coils fastened rigidly together and 120 b1 Vmax

(electrical) apart rotate about the same axis in a uniform C ␻
magnetic field, an emf is induced in each coil with a phase B A
a1 a2 C D ␻t
difference of 120 as shown in Fig 10.5. D A
␲/2 B ␲
We consider three identical coils of equal number of b2
turns and wound with the wire of the same type and same S
cross section. When they rotate in a uniform magnetic Vmax
field, the induced emf magnitude and frequency in each Fig. 10.4 A two-phase ac supply: (a) Generation
coil will be same. (b) Wave diagram
594
UR UY UB
UB
PD(V)
300 ␻
R
B1
Y1 200 90 180 270 360
120
N S 0 120
120 UR
100
Y B
200
R1 UY
300 120 120 120
Fig. 10.5 A three-phase ac supply: (a) Generation (b) Wave diagram (c) Phasor diagram
If the coils rotate with angular velocity ‘␻’ in anti-clockwise direction then the induced emf ’s will be
U R = Vmax sin t
UY = Vmax sin ( t − 120° )
U B = Vmax sin ( t − 240° ) = V max
sin ( t + 120° )
with t 0 corresponding to the instant when voltage of the coil RR1 passes through zero and increases in the
positive direction.
UB
Phasor representation The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 10.6.
120
In phasor form, Resultant
U R = Vmax ∠0° UR
120
UY = Vmax ∠ − 120°
U B = Vmax ∠ + 120° UY
Fig. 10.6 Phasor diagram
The resultant voltage is
ER = U R + UY + U B = Vmax ⎡⎣sin t + sin ( t − 120° + sin) ( )

t + 1200° ⎤⎦
⎡
= Vmax ⎡⎣sin t − 2 sin ( )
t − 180° cos 60° ⎤⎦ = Vmax ⎢sin t − 2 sin ( t ) × 12 ⎤⎥ = 0
⎣ ⎦
So, the algebraic sum of the three emf ’s is zero.
10.4 PHASE SEQUENCE

It is the order or sequence in which the currents or voltages of different phases attain their maximum
values.
Significances of phase sequence are the following:
1. The direction of rotation of the induction motor depends on it.
2. Kowledge of it is required for making connections for alternators and transformers in parallel.
3. For unbalanced loads, the reversal of phase sequence will give completely different values of voltages and
currents.
4. The phase sequence of an alternator emf depends on the direction of field winding of the alternator.
595
10.5 INTERCONNECTION OF THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

Each coil of a three-phase system has two terminals—one starting and another a1
a2 Ia
finishing terminal. If the individual phases are connected to a separate load, a non- C1
interlinked 3-phase 6-wire system is obtained. C2 b
Ic b1 Ib
Vp 2
In this case, the current in each phase is I p = where Vp is the phase voltage.
Zp Fig. 10.7 Non-interlinked
three-phase system
However, a non-interlinked three-phase system is very complicated and expensive.
So, the phases are interconnected to give a 3-phase, 3-wire or 4-wire system.
There are two methods of interconnection:
1. Star or Wye (Y) or T connection, and
2. Delta or mesh or Connection.
10.5.1 Star or Wye (Y) or T Connected Three-Phase System

In this connection, all similar terminals of the coils are joined together at one end and at the other end they are
connected to the line wire.
For this type of interconnection, we consider the following terminologies:
Neutral Point (N) The common point at which the similar R
Line current
ends of each coil are the joined together is known as neutral or
star point. Line voltage
N
Phase
Phase Voltage and Phase Current The voltage between Y Phase voltage current
any line and neutral point, i.e., the voltage across each phase B
is called the phase voltage; here, VR, VY and VB. Similarly, the Fig. 10.8 (a) Star-connected three-phase system
current flowing through each phase coil is the phase current. (b) Phase voltage and phase current and line
voltage and line current
Line Voltage and Line Current
The voltage between any two outgoing terminals is the line voltage; here, VRY, VYB and VBR. Similarly, the current
flowing through any line to the neutral point is the line current.
As observed from Fig. 10.8(b), in star connection, the line current is equal to the phase current but the line
voltage is greater than the phase voltage.
Relationship between line voltage and phase voltage for star connection Here, we consider the
phase sequence to be RYB.
∴VR = VR ∠0° , VY = VY ∠120° and VB = VB ∠ − 120° V V V BR B
120 RY
Therefore, line voltages are

30o
( )
VRY = VR − VY = VR + VY + 2VRVY cos 60° = VR + VY + VRVY
2 2 2 2
120 o
120
VR
VY
If VR = VY = VB = V p ( assuming balanced system ) VYB
Then, VRY = 3V p Fig.10.9 Parallelogram
method of adding three
Similarly, VBR = 3V p and VBR = 3V p phasor voltages
596
In phasor form, VRY = 3VP ∠30° , VYB = 3VP ∠ − 90° and VBR = 3VP ∠ − 210°
Thus, all line voltages are equal in magnitude for a balanced star-connected three-phase system.
∴VRY = VYB = VBR = VL
⇒ VL = 3VP
Relationship between line current and phase current for star connection In star connection, each
line conductor is connected to a separate phase; so the current flowing through the lines and phases are equal.
⇒ IL = IP
Three-phase power Both star and delta connections contain three separately connected loads. The total
power dissipated in all three loads is thus the sum of the powers dissipated in its three phases or for a balanced
load, three times the power dissipated in each phase.
Output power per phase, Ph = VP I P cos
V
total output power, P = 3VP I P cos = 3 L I L cos
3
For a balanced star connection load,
V
VL = 3VP and I L = I P and thus P = 3VP I P cos = 3 L I L cos
3
⇒ P = 3VL I L cos
VL
Apparent power 3 apparent power per phase 3VP I P = 3 I L = 3VL I L
3
Points to be noted
Line voltages are 120 apart and 30 ahead of the respective phase voltages.
Line voltages are 3 times the phase voltages.
Line currents are equal to phase currents.
The angle between line currents and the corresponding line voltages is
( 30 + ); for lagging currents
( 30 − ); for leading currents

Output power is 3VL I L cos , where ␾ is the angle between the respective phase current and phase volt-
age (not between line current and line voltage).
In a balanced system, VR + VY + VB = 0
Example 10.1 A star-connected load has an impedance of (6 j8) in each phase and is connected
across a balanced 400-V, 3-phase supply. Obtain the line currents, pf, total real power and reactive power
consumed by the load.
Solution Here, line voltage VL 400 V, Rph 6 ; Xph 8
VL 400
Phase voltage, Vph = = = 231 V
3 3
597
Impedance per phase, Z ph = Rph 2 + X ph 2 = 6 2 + 82 = 10
Vph 231
For star connection, line current phase current = = 23.1 A
Z ph 10
Rph 6
Power factor = = = 0.6 (lagging)
Z ph 10
Total real power, P = 3VL I L cos = 3 × 400 × 23.1 × 0.6 = 9.6 kW
Total reactive power, Q = 3VL I L sin = 3 × 400 × 23.1 × 0.8 = 12.8 kVAR
Example 10.2 A balanced three-phase, star-connected load of 100 kW takes a leading current of 80 A,
when connected across a 3-phase 1100-V, 50-Hz supply. Find the circuit constants of the load per phase.
Solution Here, line voltage VL 1100 V,
Line current, IL 80 A
Power supplied, P 100 kW
P 100 × 103
power factor of the circuit, cos = = = 0.656 (leading)
3VL I l 3 × 1100 × 80
VL 1100
Vph 3= 3 = 7.94
Impedance of the load per phase Z= =
I ph Il 80
Resistance of the load per phase, R = Z cos = 7.94 × 0.656 = 5.21
Reactance of the load per phase, X C = Z 2 − R 2 = 7.94 2 − 5.212 = 5.99
1 1
Capacitance of the load per phase, C= = = 531.3 F
2 fX C 2 × 50 × 5.99
10.5.2 Delta or Mesh or Connected Three-Phase Systems

In this connection, the starting end of one coil is connected to the finishing end of another coil.
Relationship between line voltage and phase volt-
age for delta connection In delta connection, as one
phase is included between any pair of line wires, the poten-
Line current
tial difference between the external lines, called line voltage
is equal to phase voltage. Line Voltage Phase
current
⇒ VL = VP
Phase Voltage
Relationship between line current and phase cur-
rent for delta connection Here, we consider the phase Fig. 10.10 (a) Delta-connected three-phase system
sequence to be RYB. (b) Phase voltage and phase current and line
From phasor diagram, voltage and line current
598
line currents are, IB
( )
I R = IYR − I RB = IYR 2 + I RB 2 + 2 IYR I RB cos 60 = IYR 2 + I RB 2 + IYR I RB IRB IBY
If IYR = I RB = I BY = I p ( assuming balanced system ) IYR120 120

I YR
Then, I R = 3I p
IY IBY IRB IR
Similarly, IY = 3 I p and I = 3 I Fig. 10.11 (Parallelogram

B p
method of adding three
In phasor form, I R = 3 I P ∠ − 30° , IY = 3 I P ∠ − 150° and I B = 3 I P ∠90° phasor currents
Thus, all line currents are equal in magnitude for a balanced delta-connected three-phase system.
∴ I R = IY = I B = I L
⇒ I L = 3I P
Three-phase power Output power per phase, Ph = VP I P cos

total output power, P = 3Ph = 3VP I P cos
For a balanced delta-connected load,
IL
VL = VP and I L = 3 I P and thus, P = 3VP I P cos = 3VL cos = 3VL I L cos
3
⇒ P = 3VL I L cos
IL
Apparent power 3 apparent power per phase 3VP I P = 3VL = 3VL I L
3
Points to be Noted
Line currents are 120 apart and 30 behind the respective phase currents.
Line currents are 3 times the phase currents.
Line voltages are equal to phase voltages.
The angle between line currents and the corresponding line voltages is:
(
• 30 + )
; for lagging currents
• ( 30 − ); for leading currents
Output power is 3VL I L cos , where ␾ is the angle between the respective phase current and phase volt-
age (not between line current and line voltage).
In a balanced system, VRY + VYB + VBR = 0
Example 10.3 Find the line current, power consumed if the impedances of Example 10.1 are connected
in delta to the same supply.
Solution For delta connection, VL = Vph = 400 V
Phase impedance is the same and hence power factor is also the same.
V
Phase current I = ph = 400 = 40 A
ph
Z ph 10
599
Line current, I L = 3 × I ph = 3 × 40 = 69.28 A
Power consumed, P = 3VL I L cos = 3 × 400 × 69.28 × 0.6 = 28.8 kW
Example 10.4 A delta-connected 3-phase load has a resistance of 6- and an inductive reactance of
8 in each branch line. Line voltage is 230 V, 50 Hz. What are the rms values of current and voltage in
each branch? Calculate the total power consumed by the circuit and the power factor.
Solution Here, for delta connection, Phase voltage, Vph = VL = 230 V
(
Impedance per phase, Z = 6 + j8 = 10∠53.13° )
Vph 230
Phase current I ph = = = 23 A
Z ph 10
( )
Power factor of the circuit = cos 53.13 = 0.6 (lagging)
Total power consumed,
P = 3VL I l cos = 3 × 230 × 3 × 23 × 0.6 = 9522 W
10.6 MEASUREMENT OF POWER IN THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Blondel’s Theorem This theorem states that the total power delivered to a load system by means of n
conductors is given by the algebraic sum of the indications of n wattmeters so inserted that each of the n wires
contains one wattmeter current-coil, its potential coil being connected between that wire and some point of the
system in common with all the other potential coils; if that common junction of all the potential leads is on one
of the n wires, the total power is obtainable from the indications of (n −1) wattmeter elements.
More simply stated, in any power system with n wires, (n −1) wattmeters (or elements) are required to
measure the total power. For a three-phase, four-wire system, three elements are required. For a three-phase,
three-wire system two elements are required.
10.6.1 Measurement of Active Power

A wattmeter is an instrument with a potential coil and current coil so arranged that its deflection is proportional
to VI cos , where V is the voltage (rms value) applied across the potential coil, I is the current (rms value) pass-
ing through the current coil, and ␪ is the angle between V and I . By inserting such a single-phase wattmeter
to measure the average real power in each phase (with its current coil in series with one phase of the load and
its potential coil across the phase of the load), the total real power in a three-phase system can be determined
by the sum of the wattmeter readings.
However, in practice, this may not be possible due to the non-accessibility of either the neutral of the star
connection, or the individual phases of the delta connection. Hence it is more desirable to have a method for
measuring the total real power drawn by a three-phase load while we have access to only three line terminals.
Three methods for measurement of active power in three-phase systems are
1. Three-wattmeter method (both for balanced and unbalanced loads),
2. Two-wattmeter method (both for balanced and unbalanced loads), and
3. One-wattmeter method (only for balanced loads).
Three-wattmeter method This method is used for measurement of three-phase power, both for balanced and
unbalanced loads. The connection diagram for this measurement in a star-connected load is shown in Fig. 10.12.
600
If v1, v2, and v3 and i1, i2, and i3 are the instantaneous values of the volt- W1
1
ages and currents, then the instantaneous power in the load is i1
(
P = v1ii + v2 i2 + v3i3 = w1 + w2 + w3 ) ( ) V1
For unbalanced load, if the voltages are v1´, v2´, and v3´ and the voltage N
V2
of the star point is v then, w3
( )
v1 = v1′ + v ; v2 = v2′ + v ; v3 = v3′ + v( ) ( ) 3
i3 V3 i2
Therefore, the instantaneous power of the load is w2
( ) ( ) ( )
P = v1′ + v i1 + v2′ + v i2 + v3′ + v i3 = v1′i1 + v2′i2 + v3′i3 + v i1 + i2 + i3 ( ) 2
= v1′i1 + v2′i2 + v3′i3 { (i + i + i ) = 0

1 2 3
for star connected load } Fig. 10.12 Three-wattmeter method
of three-phase power measurement for
(
= w1 + w2 + w3 ) balanced star-connected load
This method is only useful for measuring power in 3-phase, 4-wire 1

(i1 i3)
load circuits. In case of 3-phase, 3-wire star connected circuits, difficulty
W3
is experienced in getting the neutral. In special cases when it is neces- i1 V1
sary to employ this method for measurement of power in 3-phase, 3-wire V3
circuits, an artificial star can be formed by connecting three equal high i3 W1
i2
resistances in star to the three line conductors (in case of low-voltage
circuits, three potential coils may be connected to form common star). (i3 i2)
3
For delta-connected loads, to measure power by a three-wattmeter W2
(i2 i1) V2
method, the current coil will have to be connected in series with the 2
phase coils, as shown in Fig. 10.13.
Fig. 10.13 Three-wattmeter method
Two-wattmeter method of three-phase power measurement
This is the most commonly used method for measurement of three-phase for a delta-connected load
power for balanced and unbalanced loads. This method is generally used for measurement of power in 3-phase,
3-wire load circuits. The connection is shown in Fig. 10.14. The current coils of two wattmeters are inserted in
any two lines and a pressure coil is connected from its own current coil to the line without a current coil.
Let v1, v2, and v3 and i1, i2 and i3 be the voltages and currents of the three loads connected across three different
phases at any instant.
instantaneous power, p = v1i1 + v2 i2 + v3i3 ( ) (i)
Case (1): For a star-connected system By KCL at the star-point,
(i + i ) ( )
W1
+ i3 = 0 ⇒ i3 = − i1 + i2
1 2
1
i1
Substituting this in (i), we get V1
( ) (
p = v1i1 + v2 i2 − v3 i1 + i2 = i1 v1 − v3 + i2 v2 − v3 = w1 + w2) ( ) (v1 v3)
N
V2
total average power, P = (W + W )1 2 i3
3 V3
Case (2): for a delta-connected system By KVL for the mesh, (v2 v3)W i2
(
v1 + v2 + v3 = 0 ⇒ v1 = − v2 + v3 ) ( ) 2
2
Substituting this in (i), we get Fig. 10.14 Two-wattmeter

( ) ( )
p = v1i1 + v2 i2 + v3i3 = − v2 + v3 i1 + v2 i2 + v3i3 = − v3 i1 − i3 + v2 i2 − i1 ( ) ( ) method of three-phase power
measurement for a balanced star-
= i (v − v ) + i (v − v ) = w + w
1 1 3 2 2 3 1 2 connected load
total average power, P = W1 + W2 ( )
Hence the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings gives the total average
power of the circuit irrespective of balanced or unbalanced star- or delta-con-
nected loads.
Determination of power factor from wattmeter readings for inductive
loads The phasor diagram for a balanced star-connected inductive load is
For balanced loads, V1 = V2 = V3 = V p and I1 = I 2 = I 3 = I p
Total wattmeter readings,
( ) (
W = W1 + W2 = V13 I1 cos 30° −) +V I cos( 30° + ) 23 2
= V I cos( 30° − ) + V I cos( 30° + ) = V I × 2 cos 30° cos

L L L L L L
⇒ W = (W + W ) = 3V I cos
1 2 L L
(A)
Also, (W − W ) = V I cos( 30 − ) − V I cos( 30 + ) = V I × 2 sin 30 sin

1 2 L L L L L L
⇒ (W − W ) = V I sin
1 2 L L
(B)
⎛ W1 − W2 ⎞ 1 ⎡ ⎛ W − W2 ⎞ ⎤
Form (A) and (B), ⎜ W +W ⎟ = tan ⇒ = tan −1 ⎢ 3 ⎜ 1 ⎟⎥
⎝ 1 2⎠ 3 ⎢⎣ ⎝ W1 + W2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
power factor of the load is given as
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ W − W2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
pf = cos = cos ⎨ tan −1 ⎢ 3 ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎥⎬
⎩⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ W1 + W2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎭⎪
Now, the wattmeter readings are
(
W1 = VL I L cos 30 − ) (
and W2 = VL I L cos 30 + )
When the Power Factor of the Load is Unity
3
Here, ␾ 0; ∴W1 = W2 = VL I L cos 30° =
V I = half of total power
2 L L
Therefore, the wattmeter readings are the same, positive and equal to half of the total power.
When the Power Factor of the Load is 0.5
Here, ␾ 60 ; (
∴W1 = VL I L cos 30 − 60 =
3
)
V I = total power and W2 = VL I L cos 30 + 60 = 0
2 L L
( )
Therefore, the readings of W1 will give the total power and the other wattmeter will read zero.
For pf (leading or lagging) > 0.5, < 60° , both W1 and W2 give positive readings.
For pf (leading or lagging) < 0.5, > 60° , W1 gives a positive reading, but W2 gives a negative reading. For
obtaining W2, either the connection of the current coil or pressure coil should be reversed and the reading
obtained after the reversal should be subtracted from the other wattmeter reading to get the total power.
602
Figure 10.17 shows the variation of load power factor with the ratio
(
cos 30° + ) ⎛W
or ⎜ l ⎟
⎞
cos( 30° − ) ⎝ Wh⎠
where, Wl and Wh are the lower and higher readings of the wattmeters, respectively. It is observed that
⎛W ⎞ 1
• when ⎜ l ⎟ =1.0, the power factor is unity; 0.9
Power factor
⎝ Wh ⎠
lead or lag
0.8
0.7
0.6
⎛W ⎞ 0.5
• when ⎜ l ⎟ = 0, the power factor is 0.5; and 0.4
⎝ Wh ⎠ 0.3
0.2
0.1
⎛W ⎞ 0
• when ⎜ l ⎟ is negative, the power factor is less than 0.5. 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
⎝ Wh ⎠ W1/Wh or Cos(30 f)/Cos(30 f)
When the Power Factor of the Load is Zero Fig. 10.17 variation of load power factor
with the ratio Wl / Wh: watt—ratio curve
Here, ␾ 90
( 1
) (
∴W1 = VL I L cos 30 − 90 = VL I L and W2 = VL I L cos 30 + 90 = − VL I L
2
1
2
)
Therefore, the readings of both the wattmeters are equal but of opposite sign.
If the phase sequence of the system and the lines in which the current coils of the wattmeters are connected
are known then the sign for the angle can be determined with the help of the following expressions:
⎛ W − WA ⎞ ⎛ W A − WB ⎞ ⎛ WB − WC ⎞
For phase sequence A–B–C, tan = 3 ⎜ C ⎟ = 3 ⎜ W +W ⎟ = 3 ⎜ W +W ⎟
⎝ C
W + W A⎠ ⎝ A B⎠ ⎝ B C⎠
⎛ W − WC ⎞ ⎛ W − WA ⎞ ⎛ W − WB ⎞
For phase sequence C–B–A, tan = 3 ⎜ A ⎟ = 3⎜ B ⎟ = 3⎜ C ⎟
⎝ WA + WC ⎠ ⎝ WB + W A ⎠ ⎝ WC + WB ⎠
The two-wattmeter method discussed here for measuring three-phase power makes use of single-phase watt-
meters. However, three-phase wattmeters are also available, which, when connected appropriately, indicate the
total real power absorbed. The total reactive power associated with the three-phase balanced load is given by
( )
Q = 3VL I L sin = 3 WC − WA , based on the two wattmeter readings of the two-wattmeter method.
Wattmeter readings for capacitive loads In the above discussion, inductive load has been considered. If
the load is capacitive, the expressions for wattmeter readings are obtained by substituting ␾ by ␾, so that the
readings of the two wattmeters are interchanged.
W
(
W1 = VL I L cos 30° + ) (
and W2 = VL I L cos 30° − ) 1 i1
V1
One-Wattmeter Method This method can be used only when the load is N V2
balanced. If the reading of one wattmeter is W, then the total power will be 3W. S 2
1
The connection for balanced star-connected load is shown in Fig. 10.18. 3
i3 i2 V3
In this method, the wattmeter is connected with its current coil in one of the 2
lines and one terminal of the pressure coil to the same line, the other terminal Fig. 10.18 One-wattmeter
of the pressure coil being connected alternately to the other two lines with the method of three-phase
help of a switch S. power measurement
603
For a switch in the position 1, the wattmeter reading

(
W1 = V12 I1 cos 30° + ) =V I L L (
cos 30° + )
For a switch in the position 2, the wattmeter reading,
(
W2 = V13 I1 cos 30° − ) =V I L L (
cos 30° − )
( ) (
∴ W1 + W2 = VL I L cos 30 + ) +V I L L
cos( 30 − ) = 3VL I L cos = total power of the load
Thus, the sum of the wattmeter readings gives the load power, same as in a two- 1 W i1
wattmeter method. Here, also, if the current coil is to be reversed to obtain one v3 v1
of the wattmeter readings then that reading should be treated as negative. R i3 i2
3
In case of a balanced delta-connected load, for a three-phase power measure- v2
R
ment by one-wattmeter method, the resistance (say, R) of value equal to that of the 2
pressure coil of the wattmeter is connected in each of the remaining two phases, Fig. 10.19 One-wattmeter
as shown in Fig. 10.19. The pressure coil and the resistances form a balanced method for a balanced delta-
star-connection. connected load
Example 10.5 The power input to a three-phase induction motor is read by two wattmeters. The read-
ings are 1000 W and 500 W. Find out the pf of the motor. If the line voltage is 400 V, find the line current.
Solution Here, W1 1000 W; W2 500 W, VL 400 V
power factor of the motor,
⎡
cos = cos ⎢ tan −1
(
3 W1 − W2 ) ⎤⎥ = cos ⎡⎢ tan −1 (
3 1000 − 500 ⎤ ⎡ )
⎥ = cos ⎢ tan −1
1 ⎤
⎥ = 0.5
⎢ W1 + W2 ⎥ ⎢ 1000 + 1500 ⎥ ⎣ 3⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Line current is
P W1 + W2 1000 + 500
IL = = = = 4.33 A
3VL cos 3VL cos 3 × 400 × 0.5
W
1
10.6.2 Measurement of Reactive Power i1 V32 V2
(90 ) V1
V1
In case of a balanced three-phase load, the reactive N V2 I1
I3
power can be measured using one wattmeter. 3
i3 V3
The connection is shown in Fig. 10.20. Here, the 2
V3
current coil of the wattmeter is connected in one line i2 I2 V2
and the pressure coil is connected across the other two Fig. 10.20 Measurement Fig. 10.21 Phasor
lines. of reactive power for a diagram for reactive
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 10.21. 3-phase balanced star- power measurement for
The wattmeter reading is connected load balanced 3-phase star-
connected load
(
W = V32 I1 cos 90° + ) =V I L p (
cos 90° + )
⇒ W = − 3V p I p sin
604
total reactive power of the circuit is

( )(
VAR , Q = 3V p I p sin = − 3 − 3V p I p sin )= − 3W
Reactive power can also be measured from the two-wattmeter method as

(
W1 − W2 = VL I L sin )
∴ VAR, Q = 3VL I L sin = 3 W1 − W2 ( )
Example 10.6 Two wattmeters are connected to measure power in a 3-phase network. The two readings
are 2000 W and 1000 W respectively. If another wattmeter be connected such that its current coil is in one
phase and the potential coil is across the other two phase terminals, what will it read? Also estimate the
reactive power of the network.
Solution Here, W1 2000 W, W2 1000 W,
reactive power of the network, ( ) ( )
Q = 3 W1 − W2 = 3 2000 − 1000 = 1000 3 = 732 VAR
When the current coil is connected in one phase and the potential coil across the other two phases, the
reading of the wattmeter will be
Total VAR 1000 3
= = 1000 VAR
3 3
10.7 CONVERSION OF BALANCED THREE-PHASE SYSTEM FROM STAR TO DELTA

Any balanced star-connected system can be converted into an equivalent delta-connected system and vice-versa.
For a balanced star-connected system Let, VL Line voltage
IL Line current
Vp Phase voltage
Ip Phase current
VL
∴V p = and I p = I L
3
VL
Vp 3 = 1 VL
impedance per phase, Z = = (i)
Ip Ip 3 IL
For a balanced delta-connected system For the same line voltages and currents,
IL
∴V p = VL and I p =
3
Vp VL VL
impedance per phase, Z = = = 3 (ii)
Ip IL IL
3
Z 1
From (i) and (ii), = ⇒ Z = 3Z
Z 3
605
10.8 ANALYSIS OF BALANCED PARALLEL LOAD

Three-phase loads connected in parallel may be solved by one of the following two methods:
1. Converting all loads into either star or delta loads and then combining together according to the laws for
parallel circuits
2. Computing the real power (P) and reactive power (Q) of the different loads and adding arithmetically and
algebraically, respectively to get the volt–ampere as
VA = W + VAR 2 or, S = P 2 + Q 2
Example 10.7 A star-connected balanced 3-phase generator with an impedance of (0.4 ⴙ j0.3) per
phase is connected to a -connected balanced load with an impedance of (24 ⴙ j19) per phase. The
line joining the generator and the load has an impedance of (0.6 ⴙ j0.7) per phase. Assuming a posi-
tive sequence for the source voltages and that Van 120 30ⴗ (V), find (a) the line currents, and (b) the
line voltages.
(a) Here, the phase currents are given as follows.
Vnn′ 120∠30° 120∠30°
Ia = = =
Z 24 + j19 + 0.6 + j 0.7 + 0.4 + j 0.3 25 + j 20
= 3.748∠ − 8.66° A ( )
Since the load and supply both are balanced, all line currents will be
equal to the phase currents. With a positive phase sequence, Ia a
I a = 3.748∠ − 8.66° A ⎫
⎪⎪
( ) (24 j 19)
(0.6 j 0.7)
120 30
(0.4 j 0.3)
I b = 3.748∠ − 128.66° A ⎬ ( ) (24 j19)

n 120 120 n 120 90
(0.4 j 0.3)
⎪
I c = 3.748∠ − 248.66° A ⎪⎭ ( ) (24 j 19) Ic (0.4 j 0.3) c
(b) The phase voltages are given as Ib (0.6 j 0.7) b (0.6 j0.7)
Van = 120∠30° Vbn = 120∠ − 90° Vcn = 120∠ − 210° Fig. 10.22 Circuit of Example 10.7
line voltages are obtained as
( )
Vab = Van′ − Vbn′ = 120∠30° − 120∠ − 90°
= 103.923 + j 60 + j120 = 103.923 + j180 = 207.846 ∠60° V ( )
(
Vbc = Vbn′ − Vcn′ ) = 120∠ − 90° − 120∠ − 210° = 207.846∠ − 60° ( V )
Vca = (V cn′
− Van′ ) = 120∠ − 210° − 120∠30° = 207.846∠ − 180° ( V )
10.9 ANALYSIS OF UNBALANCED LOAD CIRCUITS

In an unbalanced load circuit, the impedances of different phases are unequal. We consider the following three
types of unbalanced load circuits:
1. Unbalanced delta-connected load circuit
2. Unbalanced 3-phase, 4-wire star-connected load circuit
3. Unbalanced 3-phase, 3-wire star-connected load circuit
606
10.9.1 Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load Circuit

In this case, the impedances of different phases of the delta-connected load are unequal.
Vph
The different phase currents are calculated as I ph = (where, Vph is the phase voltage and Zph the cor-
responding phase impedance). Z ph
Line currents are obtained by vector difference of phase currents.
Effects of Phase Reversal on Unbalanced Delta-Connected Loads
(i) Phase currents remain same in magnitude, but their phase angles are changed.
(ii) Line currents change both in magnitude and phase.
Example 10.8 A 3-phase, 3-wire, 240-V, CBA system supplies a delta-connected load in which ZAB ⴝ
25 90ⴗ, ZBC ⴝ 15 30ⴗ, and ZCA ⴝ 20 0ⴗ ohms. Find the line currents and the total power.
For a delta-connected load, the phase voltages are equal to the line voltages and for a CBA system, these
voltages can be written as
VAB = 240∠0° V; VBC = 240∠120° V; VCA = 240∠ − 120° V IA
A
A
IAB
The phase currents are obtained as follows.
VAB 240∠0° 20 0 25 90
I AB = = = 9.6 ∠ − 90° = − j 9.6 A 240 V
Z AB 25∠90° ICA
IC IBC
V 240∠120° C B
I BC = BC = = 16 ∠90° = j16 A IB C
Z BC 15∠30° 15 30
B
V 240∠ − 120°
I CA = CA =
ZCA 20∠0°
= 12 ∠ − 120° = − 6 − j10.392 A ( ) Fig. 10.23 Circuit of Example 10.8
From the circuit shown in Fig. 10.23, the line currents are given as
( ) ( ) ( )
I A = I AB − I CA = − j 9.6 − −6 − j10.392 = 6 + j 0.792 = 6.052 ∠7.52° A ( )
IB =(I BC
− I AB ) = j16 − ( − j 9.6 ) = j 25.6 = 25.6∠90° ( A )
IC =(I CA
− I BC ) = ( −6 − j10.392 ) − j16 = ( −6 − j 26.392 ) = 27.066∠102.81° ( A )
Now, the resistances of different branches are
RAB = Z AB cos 90° = 0
RBC = Z BC cos 30° = 15cos 30° = 12.99
RCA = ZCA cos 0° = 20 cos 0° = 20
Therefore, the total power is P = I AB 2 RAB + I BC 2 RBC + I CA2 RCA = 0 + 16 2 × 12.99 + 12 2 × 20 = 6205.54 W
10.9.2 Unbalanced 3-Phase, 4-Wire Star-Connected Load Circuit

In this case, star-points of the loads and generator are tied together through a neutral wire.
V
Thus, the voltage across each phase is equal. The phase currents (or, line currents) are found by ph for
each phase. Z ph
607
Also, current in the neutral wire by KCL is (

I N = I R + IY + I B )
Effects of Phase Reversal on Unbalanced 3-Phase, 4-Wire Star-Connected Loads
(i) Phase currents remain same in magnitude, but their phase angles are changed.
(ii) Neutral current is changed both in magnitude and phase.
Effects of Disconnecting the Neutral Wire in an Unbalanced R IR’ R’
3-Phase, 4-Wire Star-Connected Loads Disconnection of the
neutral wire causes large (in most of the cases, inadmissible) changes IN (IR IY IB)
Generator neutral Load neutral
in currents and phase voltages. Loads connected between any two IB
Neutral
Wire
lines and the neutral are in series and the potential drop across the IY
Y IB’ IY’ Y’
B B’
combined load becomes equal to the line voltage. Thus, potential drop
across each load is changed according to the rating of the load. Fig. 10.24 Unbalanced 3-phase 4-wire
For this reason, no fuse or circuit breaker is connected to the neutral star-connected load
wire of such a 3-phase system.
• Calculation of neutral shift Let, YR, YY and YB be the load admittances.
∴ I R + IY + I B = 0
or, VR′YR + VY′YY + VB′YB = 0
or, (V R ) ( ) (
− VNN ′ YR + VY − VNN ′ YY + VB − VNN ′ YB ) [ VR (VR VNN ) and so on]
⎛ V Y + V Y + VBYB ⎞
or, VN ′N = ⎜ R R Y Y
YR + YY + YB ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where, VR, VY and VB are the phase voltages of a generator or 3-phase supply.
Example 10.9 A 3-phase 4-wire, 400-V supply is connected to an unbalanced load having phase imped-
ances of ZR ⴝ (8 ⴙ j6) ⍀, ZY ⴝ (8 ⴚ j6) ⍀, and ZR ⴝ 5 ⍀. Impedance of the neutral line is (1 j1) ⍀. Determine
the phase currents and phase voltages of the load. Ignore the impedances of the line wires and internal
impedances of the generator.
Solution Here, YR =
1
=
1
(
ZR 8 + j6
(
= 0.08 − j 0.06
) )
YY =
1
ZY
=
1
(
8 − j6
(
= 0.08 + j 0.06
) )
1 1
YB = = = 0.2
ZB 5
YN =
1
=
1
Z N 1 + j1
(
= 0.707 − j 0.707
( ) ) R
ZR
R
VR
ZN
The circuit is shown in Fig. 10.25. N N
ZB
VB VY
Also, the supply voltages are ZY B Y
Y
( )
400 B
VR = ∠0 = 231∠0 V
3 Fig. 10.25 Circuit of Example 10.9
608
(
VY = 231∠ − 120 = −115.47 − j 200 V )( )
VB = 231∠120 = ( −115.47 + j 200 ) ( V )
node voltage between the two neutrals, N and N’ is
V Y + V Y + VBYB
VN ' N = R R Y Y
YR + YY + YB + YN
=
( ) ( ) (
231 × 0.08 − j 0.06 + −115.47 − j 200 × 0.08 + j 0.06 + −115.47 + j2200 × 0.2 ) ( )
0.08 − j 0.06 + 0.08 + j 0.06 + 0.2 + 0.707 − j00.707
−1.3856 + j 3.2154
=
1.067 − j 0.707
= 2.73∠146.84 = −2.3 + j1.5 V ( )( )
Load phase voltages are obtained as
( ) ( )
VR′ = VR − VN ′N = 231 − −2.3 + j1.5 = 233∠ − 0.4 V ( ) ⎫
⎪
V ′ = (V
Y Y
− VN ′N ) = ( −115 − j 200) − ( −2.3 + j1.5) = 233.4∠ − 120.3 ( V )⎪⎬
V ′ = (V
B B
− VN ′N ) = ( −115 + j 200) − ( −2.3 + j1.5) = 230.8∠120.7 ( V ) ⎪⎪⎭
phase currents are
(
I R′ = VR′YR = 233∠ − 0.4 × 0.08 − j 0.06 = 23.3∠ − 37.2 A) ⎫
⎪
( )
( )
IY′ = VY′YY = 233.4 ∠ − 120.3 × 0.08 + j 0.06 = 23.3∠ − 83.4 A ⎪⎪ ( )
⎬
I B′ = VB′YB = 230.8∠120.7 × 0.2 = 46.16 ∠120.72 A ⎪ ( )
⎪
(
I N = VN ′N YN = 2.738∠146.84 × 0.707 − 0.707 = 2.73∠101.84 A ⎪⎭ ) ( )
10.9.3 Unbalanced 3-Phase, 3-Wire Star-Connected Load Circuit
If the star-point of an unbalanced load is not joined to the star-point of the generator then the phase voltages do
not remain the same across each phase, but vary according to the unbalance of the load.
Such an isolated load star-point or neutral point is called a ‘floating’ neutral because its potential is always
changing.
Any unbalancing of the load causes variations not only of the potential of the star-point but also of the voltages
across the different phases of the load both in magnitude and phases (i.e., VL 3 Vph). R
Since no neutral wire is present, the sum of the three line currents must be zero.
As the three line currents are different, their sum can be zero only if the voltage VR
drops across the three load impedances are different. Thus, the voltages across the VR’
three loads get adjusted to make the sum of three line currents zero. This results in N N’
VB VY’
shifting of the neutral.
VB’ V
Y
Phasor diagram for an unbalanced 3-phase, 3-wire star-connected load circuit is B Y
shown in Fig. 10.26. Fig. 10.26 Phasor
Due to unbalance of the load, the potential drop across different phases will be diagram or unbalanced
VR’, VY’, VB’ instead of VR, VY and VB and the neutral is shifted from N to N’. Potential for 3-phase 3-wire star-
between two neutral points is NN’. connected load
609
Methods of Solution Unbalanced star-connected load circuits with an isolated neutral can be solved by
any one of the following methods:
(i) By Kirchhoff’s laws
(ii) By loop current method
(iii) By star–delta conversion method
(iv) By Millman’s method
Example 10.10 An unbalanced star-connected load has branch impedances of ZR ⴝ 10 30 , ZY ⴝ

10 ⴚ45 ⍀, ZB ⴝ 20 60 ⍀ and is connected to a 200-V balanced 3-phase 3-wire supply. Determine the
line currents and the voltage across each impedance. R
R R’
Solution The circuit is shown in Fig. 10.27 (a). Here, R’
Z R = 10∠30 , ZY = 10∠ − 45 , Z B = 20∠60 Z R 10 300 Z BR Z RY
0
Z Y 10 45 0 Z YB
Also, the voltages are Z B 20 60
Y’ Y
VRY = 200∠0 = 200 V; B’ B
B’ Y
(
VYB = 200∠ − 120 = −100 − j173 V; ) B Y’
VBR = 200∠ + 120 = ( −200 + j173) V Fig. 10.27 (a) Circuit Fig. 10.27 (b) Equiv-
of Example 10.10 alent delta-connected
Converting the given star load into the equivalent delta circuit of Example 10.10
load, the equivalent impedances become,
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R
Z RY =
ZB
10∠30° × 10∠ − 45° + 10∠ − 45° × 20∠60° + 20∠60° × 10∠30°
=
20∠60°
= 18.4 ∠ − 22° ( )
Z Z + ZY Z B + Z B Z R
ZYBB = R Y
ZR
10∠30° × 10∠ − 45° + 10∠ − 45° × 20∠60° + 20∠60° × 10∠30°
=
10∠30°
= 36.8∠8° ( )
Z Z + ZY Z B + Z B Z R
Z BR = R Y
ZY
10∠30° × 10∠ − 45° + 10∠ − 45° × 20∠60° + 20∠60° × 10∠30°
=
10∠ − 45°
= 36.8∠83° ( )
Thus, the phase currents are
200∠0° ⎫
)( )
VRY
I RY = =
Z RY 18.4 ∠ − 22°
(
= 10.86 ∠22° = 10.07 + j 4.06 A ⎪
⎪
VYB 200∠ − 120° ⎪⎪
IYB =
ZYB
=
36.8∠8°
(
= 5.44 ∠ − 128° = −3.35 − j 4.29 A ⎬ )( )
⎪
VBR 200∠120° ⎪
I BR = =
Z BR 36.8∠83°
(
= 5.44 ∠37° = 4.34 + j 3.2 A )( )
⎪⎭
⎪
610
Thus, the line currents are

( ) ( ) (
I R′R = I RY − I BR = 10.07 + j 4.06 − 4.34 + j 3.2 = 5.7 ) (
73 + j 0.86 = 5.8∠8.5° A ) ( )
IY ′Y =(I
YB
− I RY ) = ( −3.35 − j 4.29) − (10.07 + j 4.06 ) = ( −13.42 − j8.35) = 15.8∠ − 148.1° ( A )
I B′B =(I BR
− IYB ) = ( 4.34 + j 3.2 ) − ( −3.35 − j 4.29) = 7.69 + j 7.49 = 10.7∠44.3° ( A )
These currents are the phase current in the star-connected unbalanced load.
Voltage across each impedance is obtained as
VR = I R′R Z R = 5.8∠8.5° × 10∠30° = 58∠38.5° V ⎫
⎪⎪
( )
VY = IY ′Y ZY = 15.8∠ − 148.1° × 10∠ − 45° = 158∠193.1° V ⎬ ( )
⎪
VB = I B′B Z B = 10.7∠44.3° × 20∠60° = 214 ∠104.3° V ⎪⎭ ( )
Solved Problems
Problem 10.1 A star-connected three-phase load has a resistance of 8 ⍀ and a capacitive reactance of
10 ⍀ in each phase. It is fed from a 400-V, 3-phase balanced supply.
a. Find the line current, total VA, active and reactive power.
b. Repeat the problem if the same impedances are connected in delta.
Draw the phasor diagram showing phase voltages and line voltages and line currents.
Solution Here, Rp = 8 ; X p = − j10 ; VL = 400 V
Rp 8 Xp 10
cos = = = 0.62; sin = = = 0.78
Zp 164 Zp 164
a. For star connection
VL
Vp 3= 400
Here, line current, IL = I p = = = 18.03 A
Zp Zp 82 + 102
∴ totalVA = 3VL I L = 3 × 400 × 18.03 = 12493.9
∴ totalactive power = 3VL I L cos = 3 × 400 × 18.03 × 0.62 = 7804.88 W

∴ totalreactive power = 3VL I L sin = 3 × 400 × 18.03 × 0.78 = 9756.1 VAR
b. For delta connection
Vp 400
Here, VL = V p = 400 V; I p = = = 31.23 A
Zp 164
∴ line current, I L = 3 I × 31.23 = 54.1 A
∴ totalVA = 3VL I L = 3 × 400 × 54.1 = 37481.7 VA
∴ totalactive power = 3VL I L cos = 3 × 400 × 54.1 × 0.62 = 23414.63 W
∴ totalreactive power = 3VL I L sin = 3 × 400 × 54.1 × 0.78 = 29234.77 VAR

611
Problem 10.2 Three equal star-connected inductors take 9 kW at a power factor of 0.8 when connected
to a 960-V, 3-phase, 3-wire supply. Find the per phase load resistance and inductance.
Solution Here, given that P = 9000 W, VL = 960 V, cos = 0.8; ∴sin = 0.6
P 9000
The power is given by P = 3VL I L cos ⇒ IL = = = 6.767 A = I p
3VL cos 3 × 960 × 0.8
960
Vp 3 = 81.92
per phase impedance, Zp = =
Ip 6.767
per phase load resistance, Rp = Z p cos = 81.92 × 0.8 = 65.54
per phase load inductance, X Lp = Z p sin = 81.92 × 0.6 = 49.15

X Lp 49.15
⇒ L= = = 0.156 H
2 f 2 × 50
Problem 10.3 Three coils each of 4-⍀ resistance and 3-⍀ inductive reactance are connected in delta
across a 400-V, 50-Hz supply. Find the current in each coil, line current, active and reactive and apparent
power.
Solution Given: Rp = 4 ; X p = 3 ; VL = 400 V = V p ; f = 50 Hz
Vp 400
current in each coil = phase current, Ip = = = 80 A
Zp 4 2 + 32
line current, I L = 3 I p = 3 × 80 = 138.6 A

Rp 4
power factor, cos = = = 0.8
Zp 5
active power, P = 3VL I L cos = 3 × 400 × 138.6 × 0.8 = 76.8 kW
reactive power, Q = 3VL I L sin = 3 × 400 × 138.6 × 0.6 = 57.6 kW
apparent power, Papp = 3VL I L = 3 × 400 × 138.6 = 96 kVA
Problem 10.4 A 3-phase motor operating on a 400-V balanced system develops 18.65 kW at an effi-
ciency of 0.87 per unit and a power factor of 0.82. Calculate the line current and phase current if the wind-
ings are delta-connected.
Solution Given: VL = 400 V = V p ; Pout = 18.65 kW; = 0.87; cos = 0.82
Pout 18.65 × 103
input power, Pin = = = 21437 W
0.87
Pin 21437
line current, IL = = = 37.73 A
3VL cos 3 × 400 × 0.82
612
IL 37.73
phase current, Ip = = = 21.8 A
3 3
Problem 10.5 A 3-phase star-connected 1000-V alternator supplies power to a 500-kW delta-connected
induction motor. If the motor power factor is 0.8 lagging and its efficiency is 0.9, find the current in each
alternator and motor phase.
Solution Here, VL 1,000V; motor output, Pout 500 KW;
Motor power factor, cos = 0.8 (lagging)and motor efficiency, 0.9
Pout 500 × 103

motor input power, Pin = = = 555.55 kW
0.9
Pin 555.55 × 103
line current, IL = = = 401 A
3VL cos 3 × 1, 000 × 0.8
As the alternator is star-connected, the current in each phase of the alternator is Ip IL 401 A
IL 401
As the motor is delta-connected, the current in each phase of the motor is Ip = = = 231.5 A
3 3
Problem 10.6 A delta-connected balanced 3-phase load is supplied from a 3-phase 400-V supply. The
line current is 20 A and the power taken by the load is 10 kW. Find
i. impedance in each branch
ii. the line current, power factor and power consumed if the same load is connected in star
Solution i. When the load is delta-connected
IL 20
Here, V p = VL = 400 V; I L = 20 A; ∴ I p = = = 11.55 A
3 3
Vp 400
impedance in each branch, Zp = = = 34.64
Ip 11.55
Power taken by the load 10, 000
Also, power factor, cos = = = 0.7217
3VL I L 3 × 4000 × 20
ii. When load is star-connected
V 400
Here, phase voltage, V p = L = = 231V
3 3
Vp 231
Phase current, I p = = = 6.67 A
Z p 34.64
line current, I L = I p = 6.67 A
Now, the power factor of the load will be same as obtained in (i).
power consumed, P = 3VL I L cos = 3 × 400 × 6.67 × 0.7217 = 3.33 kW

613
Problem 10.7 Three similar resistors connected in star draw a line current of 5 A from a 400-V, 3-phase
mains. To what value should the line voltage be changed to obtain the same line current with the resistors
connected in delta?
Solution Given: VL = 400 V ; I L = 5 A
When the resistors are connected in star
V 400
Phase voltage, V p = L = = 231V and phase current, I p = I L = 5 A
3 3
V 231
resistance per phase, Rp = p = = 46.2
Ip 5
When the same resistors are connected in delta
To obtain the same line current, i.e., IL 5 A, we have
I 5
Phase current, I p = L = = 2.887 A
3 3
Phase voltage, V p = I p Rp = 2.887 × 46.2 = 133.33 V
1 rd
line voltage, VL = V p =133.33 V i.e., of the line voltage as for star connection.
3
1
Therefore, the line voltage should be made rd of the line voltage as for star connection.
3
Problem 10.8 A 3-wire, 3-phase supply feeds a load consisting of three equal resistors. By how much is
the load reduced if one of the resistors is removed when the load is in i) star, and ii) delta?
Solution Let VL the line voltage of the 3-phase supply
R resistance of each phase
(i) When the load is in star
2
Vp 2⎛V ⎞ 1 V
2
Total power consumed in the load, P = 3× = 3× ⎜ L ⎟ × = L

R ⎝ 3⎠ R R
When one resistor is removed, the circuit is no longer a 3-phase one but is a single-phase circuit, leaving two
resistances of R in series across the supply of VL as shown in Fig.10.28.
R R
VL
VL VL
R removed
R R
VL
Fig. 10.28
2
⎛ VL ⎞
⎜ 2⎟ V2
⎝ ⎠
total power consumed, P' = 2 × = L
R 2R
614
⎛VL 2 ⎞ ⎛VL 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ −
P − P′ R ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 R⎟⎠
reduction in load = = = 0.5 = 50%
P ⎛VL 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠
(ii) When the load is in delta
Vp 2
VL 2 3VL 2
Total power consumed in the load, P = 3 × = = 3×
R R R
When one resistor is removed, each of the remaining tow resistors is connected across a supply of VL as
shown in Fig.10.29
R R VL R VL
VL R VL
R
VL VL
Fig. 10.29
VL 2 2VL 2
total power consumed, P′ = 2 × =
R R
⎛ 3VL 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2VL 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ −
P − P′ R ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 R⎟⎠
reduction in load = = = 0.3333 = 33.33%
P ⎛ 3VL 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠
Problem 10.9 Two wattmeters are connected to measure the input power in a balanced 3-phase circuit.
The wattmeters indicate 1500 W and 500 W respectively. Find the power factor of the circuit
(a) when both wattmeters give positive readings, and
(b) when the positive reading in the second wattmeter is observed after reversing the connections of the
current coil.
Solution Given: W1 = 1500 W; W2 = 500 W
(a) When both wattmeters give positive readings
In this case, power factor,
⎡ ⎪⎧ ⎛ W − W2 ⎞ ⎪⎫ ⎤ ⎡ −1 ⎧ ⎛ 1500 − 500 ⎞ ⎪⎫ ⎤
cos = cos ⎢ tan −1 ⎨ 3 ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎬ ⎥ = cos s ⎢ tan ⎨ 3 ⎜ ( )
⎟ ⎬ ⎥ = cos 40.89 = 0.756 lag ( )
⎣⎢ ⎪⎩ ⎝ W1 + W2 ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪ ⎝ 1500 + 500 ⎠ ⎭ ⎥⎦
(b) When second wattmeter reading is negative W2 = −500 W
In this case, power factor,
⎡ ⎧⎪ ⎛ W − W2 ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎤ ⎡ −1 ⎧ ⎛ 1500 + 500 ⎞ ⎪⎫ ⎤
⎟ ⎬ ⎥ = cos 73.898 = 0.277 lag ( )
⎢⎣ ⎩⎪ ⎝ W1 + W2 ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪ ⎝ 1500 − 500 ⎠ ⎭ ⎥⎦
615
Problem 10.10 A 3-phase motor draws a line current of 50 A from a 220-V source while starting. The
pf is 0.4. Find the readings of the two wattmeters connected to measure power.
Solution Given: I L = 50 A; VL = 220 V; cos = 0.4 ⇒ = 66.42°
∴VL I L = 220 × 50 = 11, 000 VA

readings of the wattmeters are
(
W1 = VL I L cos 30° − ) = 11,000 × cos( 30° − 66.42° ) = 11,000 × 0.8 = 8.851 kW
W2 = VL I L cos( 30° + ) = 11, 000 × cos( 30° + 66.42° ) = 11, 000 × ( − 0.11) = −1.23 kW
Problem 10.11 A 3-phase 500-V industrial motor has a power factor of 0.5. Two wattmeters, which are
used to measure input, show the input to be 50 kW. What are the readings of each wattmeter?
Solution Given: cos = 0.5 ⇒ (
= 60° ; Total input power, P = W1 + W2 = 50, 000 W )
P 50, 000 100, 000
VL I L = = =
Now, 3 cos 3 × 0.5 3
(
W1 = VL I L cos 30 − ) = 100,000 × cos( 30 − 60 ) = 50 kW
W
3
(
W2 = VL I L cos 30 + )= 100, 000
(
× cos 30 + 60 = 0 )
3
Problem 10.12 Power in a balanced 3-phase system is measured by the two-wattmeter method and it is
found that the ratio of the two readings is 2:1. What is the power factor of the system?
Solution Given that the ratio of wattmeters readings is 2:1.
Let the readings be 2x and x, respectively.
power factor of the system,
⎡ ⎧⎪ ⎛ W − W2 ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎤ ⎡ −1 ⎧ ⎛ 2 x − x ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎤
⎟ ⎬ ⎥ = cos 30 = 0.866 lag ( )
⎣⎢ ⎩⎪ ⎝ W1 + W2 ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪ ⎝ 2 x + x ⎠ ⎭ ⎥⎦
Problem 10.13 The power input to a 2000-V, 50-Hz, 3-phase motor running on full load at an efficiency
of 90% is measured by two wattmeters which indicate 300 kW and 100 kW respectively. Calculate (i) input,
(ii) power factor, (iii) line current, and (iv) hp output. Given: 1hp = 735.5 watt.
Solution Here, W1 = 300 kW; W2 = 100 kW ; Line voltage, VL 2000V Efficiency, 0.9
(i) Input power, Pi (W1 W2) 400 KW
(ii) Power factor,
⎡ ⎧⎪ ⎛ W − W2 ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎤ ⎡ −1 ⎧ ⎛ 300 − 100 ⎞ ⎪⎫ ⎤
cos = cos ⎢ tan −1 ⎨ 3 ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎬ ⎥ = cos s ⎢ tan ⎨ 3 ⎜ (
⎟ ⎬ ⎥ = cos 40.89 = 0.756 lag ) ( )
⎣⎢ ⎩⎪ ⎝ W1 + W2 ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪ ⎝ 300 + 100 ⎠ ⎭ ⎥⎦
616
Pi 400 × 103
iii) Line current, IL = = = 152.74 A
3VL cos 3 × 2, 000 × 0.756
360, 000
iv) Output power, Po = Pi × = 400 × 103 × 0.9 = 360, 000 W = hp = 489.46 hp
735.5
Problem 10.14 A symmetrical star-connected three-phase load is made of three identical coils having
an internal resistance of 12 ⍀ and an inductance of 142 mH. The power taken by this load when connected
to a balanced 3-phase, 3-wire supply of 400 V, 50 Hz is measured by using the two-wattmeter method. The
wattmeters used are similar and are of type of 400-V, 5-A, UPF, Class I accuracy.
a. Determine expected readings of W1 and W2.
b. Compute the total power.
Solution Given: Rp = 12 ; Lp = 142 mH; VL = 400 V; f = 50 Hz
VL 400
Phase voltage, Vp = = = 231V
3 3
Per phase reactance X p = 2 fLp = 2 × 50 × 0.142 = 44.61
( )
2
per phase impedance, Z p = Rp 2 + X p 2 = 12 2 + 44.61 = 46.2
Rp 12
Power factor, cos = = = 0.259 ⇒ = 74.94°
Zp 46.2
Vp 231
Phase current, I p = = = 5 A and Line current, I L = I p = 5 A
Zp 46.2
(a) Readings of the wattmeters are
(
W1 = VL I L cos 30° − ) = 400 × 5 × cos( 30° − 74.94° ) = 1.4156 kW
W = V I cos( 30° + ) = 400 × 5 × cos( 30° + 74.94° ) = −515.75 W
2 L L
(b) Total Power, P = (W + W ) = (1, 414.6 − 515.75) W = 900 W

1 2
Problem 10.15 Two wattmeters are used to measure power factor of a 3-phase delta-connected load
having a 25-⍀ resistor in series with a 15-mH inductor in each phase. The load is supplied from a 415-V, 50-
Hz mains. Determine the readings of the wattmeters.
Solution Given: Rp = 25 ; Lp = 15 mH; VL = 415 V; f = 50 Hz
Phase voltage, V p = VL = 415 V
Per phase reactance X p = 2 fLp = 2 × 50 × 0.015 = 4.71
( )
2
per phase impedance, Z p = Rp 2 + X p 2 = 252 + 4.71 = 25.44
Rp 25
cos = = = 0.98 ⇒ = 10.67°
Power factor, Zp 25.44
617
Vp 415
Phase current, I p = = = 16.31 A and line current, I L = 3 I p = 3 × 16.31 = 28.25 A
Zp 25.44
W1 = VL I L cos 30° − ( ) = 415 × 28.25 × cos( 30° − 10.67° ) = 11.065 kW
W2 = VL I L cos( 30° + ) = 415 × 28.25 × cos( 30° + 10.67° ) = 8.893 kW
Problem 10.16 Two wattmeters are connected to measure input to a 400-V, 3-phase, -connected motor
outputting 32.7-hp power at a power factor of 0.4 (lag) and 80% efficiency. Calculate
a. the resistance and reactance of motor per phase
b. the readings of each wattmeter
Solution Here, line voltage, VL 400 V VP; Efficiency, = 0.8 ; power factor, cos = 0.4(lag)
Motor output power, Po = 32.7 hp = 32.7 × 735.5 = 24050.85 W
Po 24050.85
motor input power, Pi = = = 30, 063 W
0.8
P 30, 063
line current, IL = = = 108.48 A
3VL cos 3 × 400 × 0.4
IL 108.48
phase current, Ip = = = 62.63 A
3 3
Power factor angle, ( )
= cos −1 0.4 = 66.42°
Vp 400
Per phase impedance, Zp = = = 6.39
Ip 62.63
(a) Per phase resistance, Rp = Z p cos = 6.39 × 0.4 = 2.55
Per phase reactance, X p = Z p sin = 6.39 × sin 66.42° = 5.86( ) (inductive)
(b) Readings of the wattmeters are

W1 = VL I L cos 30° − ( ) = 400 × 108.48 × cos( 30° − 66.42° ) = 34.916 kW
W2 = VL I L cos( 30° + ) = 400 × 108.48 × cos( 30° + 66.42° ) = − 4.853 kW
Problem 10.17 Three identical coils are connected in star to a 200-V, three-phase supply and each takes
500 W. The power factor is 0.8 lagging. What will be the current and the total power if the same coils are con-
nected in delta to the same supply? If the power is measured by two wattmeters, what will be their readings?
Prove any formula used.
(
Solution Given: VL = 200 V, cos = 0.8 lagging ; Per phase power = 500 W )
For star connection
VL 200
Phase voltage, Vp = = = 115.47 V
3 3
618
P 500 × 3
Line current, IL = I p = = = 5.412 A
3VL cos 3 × 200 × 0.8
Vp 115.47
impedance per phase, Zp = = = 21.33
Ip 5.412
resistance per phase, Rp = Z p cos == 21.33 × 0.8 = 17.067
reactance per phase, X p = Z p sin == 21.33 × 0.6 = 12.8
For delta connection
Phase voltage, V p = VL = 200 V
Vp 200
Phase current, Ip = = = 9.375 A
Zp 21.33
line current, I L = 3 I p = 3 × 9.375 = 16.2379 A
total power, P = 3VL I L cos = 3 × 200 × 16.2379 × 0.8 = 4500 W

readings of the wattmeters are:
W1 = VL I L cos 30° − ( ) = 200 × 16.2379 × cos( 30° − 36.87° ) = 3224 kW
W2 = VL I L cos( 30° + ) = 200 × 16.2379 × cos( 30° + 36.87° ) = 1276 kW
Problem 10.18 Each phase of a star-connected load consists of a resistance of 100 ⍀ in parallel with a
capacitance of 31.8 μF. Calculate the line current, power absorbed, the total kVA and the power factor of the
load when connected to a 416-V, 3-phase, 4-wire, 50-Hz supply.
Solution Given: Rp = 100 ; C p = 31.8 F; VL = 416 V; f = 50 Hz
j j
Reactance, Xp =− =− = − j100
2 f Cp 2 × 50 × 31.8 × 10−6
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
load admittance per phase, Yp = ⎜ +j
⎝ 100 100 ⎟⎠
= 0.01 + j 0.01 S ( )
equivalent impedance per phase,
1 ⎛ ⎞
Zp = = ⎜
1
Yp ⎝ 0.01 + j 0.01⎟⎠
(
= 50 − j 50 )
Rp
∴ Z p = 70.71 ; and cos =
Zp
=
50
70.71
(
= 0.707 leading ) Fig. 10.30
VL 416
Phase voltage, Vp = = = 240.2 V
3 3
Vp 240.2
line current, IL = I p = = = 3.4 A
Zp 70.71
619
Power absorbed, P = 3VL I L cos = 3 × 416 × 3.4 × 0.707 = 1.732 kW
3VL I L 3 × 416 × 3.4

total kVA = = = 2.45 kVA a
1000 1000 a
Z (0.8 j 0.6)
Problem 10.19 Three identical loads of impedances ZL 10 30
30 30 ohms are connected in delta to a 3-phase,3-wire,230-V
n
abc system by conductors which have impedances of (0.8 ⴙ ZL 10 30
Z (0.8 j 0.6)
j 0.6) ⍀. Find the magnitude of the voltage at the load end.
ZL 10 30 b
Solution The equivalent star load of the delta-connected c b
c
30∠30° Z (0.8 j 0.6)
load is, Z L = = 10∠30° . The load connection is
3 Fig. 10.31
shown in Fig.10.31.
impedance per phase,
( ) ( ) ( ) (
Z an = 0.8 + j 0.6 + 10∠30° = 0.8 + j 0.6 + 8.86 + j 5 = 9.46 + j 5.6 = 10.993∠30.62° )
208∠0°
Phase voltage, Van = = 120.1∠0° V
3
Van 120.1∠0°
phase current, I an = = = 10.925∠ − 30.62° A
Z an 10.993∠30.62°
voltage across the load, Va′n = I an × Z L = 10.925∠ − 30.62° × 10∠30° = 109.25∠0.6

62° V
line voltage at the load end = 3 × 109.25 = 189.2 V

Problem 10.20 A balanced delta-connected load having an impedance ZL (300 j210) in each phase
is supplied from a 400-V, 3-phase supply through a 3-phase line having an impedance of Zs ⴝ (4 ⴙ j 8) in
each phase. Find the total power supplied to the load as well as the current and voltage in each phase of the
load.
300 + j 210
Solution The equivalent star load of the delta-connected load is ZL =
3
(
= 100 + j 70 )
The load connection is shown in Fig.10.32 below.
a
impedance per phase, a
Z (4 j8)
( ) ( ) (
Z an = 4 + j8 + 100 + j 70 = 104 + j 78 = 130∠36.9° ) ZL (100 j 70)
400∠0° n
Phase voltage, Van = = 230.94 ∠0° V ZL (100 j 70)
3 Z (4 j8)
b
phase current, c ZL (100 j 70) b
c
Van 230.94 ∠0° Z (4 j 8)
I an = = = 1.78∠ − 36.9° A
Z an 130∠36.9° Fig. 10.32
620
voltage across the load,

(
Va′n = I an × Z L = 1.78∠ − 36.9° × 100 + j 70 = 216.9∠ − 1.888° V )
phase voltage at the load end 216.9 V
( ) ( )
2 2
Power supplied to the load, P = 3× I p × Rp = 3 × 1.78 × 100 = 946.74 W
Problem 10.21 For the unbalanced delta-connected load shown in Fig.10.33, find the phase currents,
line currents and the total power consumed by the load when phase sequence is (a) abc, and (b) acb.
Solution (a) Phase Sequence: abc
Here, )
Vab = 100∠0° V = 100 V Vca = 100∠ + 120° V = ( −50 + j86.6 ) V V bc (
= 100∠ − 120° V = −50 − j86.6 V )
phase currents,
Vab 100 ⎫ a’
a
I ab = = = 10∠ − 53.13° A ⎪ Ia b
Z ab 6 + j8 ⎪ 6
4
V −50 − j86.6 ⎪⎪ 100 V
I bc = bc = = 10∠ − 156.87° A ⎬ j3 j8
Z bc 8 + j6 ⎪ Ic a Ib c
c’ b
V −50 + j86.6 ⎪ c j6
8
I ca = ca = = 20∠156.87° A ⎪
Z ca 4 − j3 ⎪⎭ b’
Fig. 10.33
line currents,
( ) ( ) (
I a′a = I ab − I ca = 10∠ − 53.13° − 20∠156.87° = 6 − j8 − −18.39 + j 7.86 = 29.1∠ − 33.03° A )
( )
I b′b = I bc − I ab = 10∠ − 156.87° − 10∠ − 53.13° = 15.73∠165.5° A
Ic c (Ica Ibc) 20 156.87 2 10 156.87 14.94 52.5 A
Power consumed, ( 2 2
) (
P = I ab Rab + I bc Rbc + I ca Rca = 10 × 6 + 10 × 8 + 20 × 4 = 3 kW
2 2 2 2
)
(b) Phase Sequence: acb
Here,
Vab = 100∠0° V = 100 V
(
Vbc = 100∠ + 120° V = −50 + j86.6 V )
Vca = 100∠ − 120° V = ( −50 − j86.6 ) V
Phase currents,
Vab 100 ⎫
I ab = = = 10∠ − 53.13° A ⎪
Z ab 6 + j8 ⎪
Vbc −50 + j86.6 ⎪⎪
I bc = = = 10∠83.13° A ⎬
Z bc 8 + j6 ⎪
Vca −50 − j86.6 ⎪
I ca = = = 20∠ − 83.13° A ⎪
Z ca 4 − j3 ⎪⎭
621
line currents,
( )
I a′a = I ab − I ca = 10∠ − 53.13° − 20∠83.13° = 12.39∠73.1° A
I b ′b =(I bc
− I ) = 10∠83.13° − 10∠ − 53.13° = 18.56 ∠105° A
ab
I c ′c =(I
ca
− I ) = 20∠ − 83.13° − 10∠83.13° = 29.9∠ − 87.6° A
bc
Power consumed, ( ) (
P = I ab 2 Rab + I bc 2 Rbc + I ca 2 Rca = 102 × 6 + 102 × 8 + 202 × 4 = 3 kW )
Problem 10.22 A 3-phase, 4-wire system having a 254-V line-to-neutral has the following loads
connected between the respective lines and the neutral:
Z R = 10 ∠0° ; Z Y = 10 ∠37° ; Z B = 10 ∠ − 53° ;
Calculate the current in the neutral wire and the power taken by each load when the phase sequence is
(a) RYB, and (b) RBY.
Solution (a) Phase Sequence RYB
Here,
VRN = 254 ∠0° V = 254 V; VYN = 254 ∠ − 120° V; VBN = 254 ∠ + 120° V
VRN 254
I R = I RN = = = 25.4 ∠0° A
Z R 10∠0°
VYN 254 ∠ − 120°
IY = IYN =
ZY
=
10∠37°
(
= 25.4 ∠ − 157° = −23.38 − j 9.95 A )
VBN 254 ∠ + 120°
I B = I BN =
ZB
=
10∠ − 53°
(
= 25.4 ∠173° = −25.2 + j 3.1 A )
neutral current,
( ) ( ) (
I N = − I R + IY + I B = − 25.4 − 23.38 − j 9.95 − 25.2 + j 3.1 = 23.49 + j 6.85 = 24.46 ∠16.25° A )
Now, resistances of the three phases are RR = 10 ; RY = 10 cos 37° = 8 ; RB = 10 cos 53° = 6
power taken by each load is
PR = 25.4 2 × 10 = 6, 452 W ⎫
⎪⎪
PY = 25.4 2 × 8 = 5,162 W ⎬
⎪
PB = 25.4 2 × 6 = 3,871 W ⎪⎭
(b) Phase Sequence: RBY

Here, VRN = 254 ∠0° V = 254 V; VYN = 254 ∠ + 120° V; VBN = 254 ∠ − 120° V
VRN 254
I R = I RN = = = 25.4 ∠0° A
Z R 10∠0°
VYN 254 ∠ + 120°
IY = IYN =
ZY
=
10∠37°
(
= 25.4 ∠83° = 3.1 + j 25.2 A )
VBN 254 ∠ − 120°
I B = I BN =
ZB
=
10∠ − 53°
(
= 25.4 ∠ − 67° = 9.95 − j 23.4 A )
622
neutral current,
( ) ( ) ( )
I N = − I R + IY + I B = − 25.4 + 3.1 + j 25.2 + 9.95 − j 23.4 = − 38.45 + j1.8 = 38.5∠ − 177.3° A
Now, resistances of the three phases are RR = 10 ; RY = 10 cos 37° = 8 ; RB = 10 cos 53° = 6
power taken by each load will remain same as the magnitude of the branch currents remains the same.
Problem 10.23 A symmetrical 440-V, 3-phase system supplies a star-connected load. The branch imped-
ances are ZR 10 30ⴗ , ZY 12 45ⴗ , ZB 15 40ⴗ . Assuming the neutral of the supply to be earthed,
calculate the voltage to earth of the star point. Assume the phase sequence a RYB.
Solution Here, line voltages are VRY = 400∠0 V; VYB = 400∠ − 120 V; VBR = 400∠ + 120
400
phase voltages are VR = ∠ − 30° = 254 ∠ − 30° V
3
VY = 254 ∠ − 120° − 30° = 254∠
∠ − 150° V
VB = 254 ∠ + 120° − 30° = 254 ∠90° V
Phase admittances are, YR =

1
=
1
Z R 10∠30°
= 0.1∠ − 30° S ()
YY =
1
=
1
ZY 12 ∠45°
= 0.0
0833∠ − 45° S ()
YB =
1
=
1
Z B 15∠40°
= 0.0667∠ − 40° S ()
By Millman’s theorem, the voltage of the load star point with respect to earth is
VRYR + VY YY + VBYB
VN ′N =
YR + YY + YB
254 ∠ − 30° × 0.1∠ − 30° + 254 ∠ − 150° × 0.0833∠ − 45° + 254 ∠90° × 0.0667∠ − 40°
=
0.1∠ − 30° + 0.0833∠ − 45° + 0.0667∠ − 40°
= 18.59∠ − 11.9° V ( )
Problem 10.24 Three impedances ZR, ZY and ZB are connected in star R
across a 440-V, 3-phase supply. If the voltage of star-point relative to the
supply neutral is 200 150 V and Y and B line currents are 10 ⴚ90ⴗA
and 20 90ⴗA respectively, all with respect to the voltage between the VRo
supply neutral and the R-line, calculate the values of ZR, ZY and ZB. VR’
Solution Let O and O’ be the supply and load neutrals, respectively.
O O’
400
Here, VRO = ∠0° = 254 ∠0° V = 254 V; VY’
VBo
3
( )
VB’ VYo
VYO = 254 ∠ − 120° = −127 − j 220 V;
B Y
VBO = 254 ∠ + 120° = ( −127 + j 220 ) V Fig. 10.34
623
(
IY = 10∠ − 90° = − j10 A; I B = 20∠90° = j 20 A ∴ I R = − IY + I B = − j10 A )
Also, it is given that (
VO ′O = 200∠150° = −173 + j100 V )
( ) ( )
∴VRO − VO ′O = 254 − −173 + j100 = 427 − j100 = 438.5∠ − 13.2° V ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
∴VYO − VO ′O = −127 − j 220 − −173 + j100 = 46 − j 320 = 323∠ − 81.6° V ( )
∴VBO − VO ′O = ( −127 + j 220 ) − ( −173 + j100 ) = ( 46 + j120 ) = 128.6 ∠69° ( V )
VRO − VO ′O 438.5∠ − 13.2° ⎫
Therefore, the impedances are given as ZR =
IR
=
10∠ − 90°
= 43.85∠76.88° ( )⎪
⎪
V −V 323∠ − 81.6° ⎪⎪
ZY = YO O ′O =
IY 10∠ − 90°
= 32.3∠8.4° ( ) ⎬
⎪
VBO − VO ′O 128.5∠69° ⎪
ZB = =
20∠90°
= 6.43∠ − 21° ( ) ⎪
IB ⎪⎭
Problem 10.25 A Y-connected load is supplied from a 400-V, 3-phase, 3-wire symmetrical system RYB.
The branch circuit impedances are
Z R = 10 3 + j10 ; Z Y = 20 + j20 3 ; ZB = 0 − j10
Determine the current in each branch. Phase
sequence is RYB. R’ R R
R’
Solution The circuit is shown in Fig. 10.35. Here,
Z R 20 30 Z BR Z RY
( )
Z R = 10 3 + j10 = 17.32 + j10 = 20∠30°
Z B 10 90 ZYB
Z Y 40 60
ZY = 20 + j 20 3 = ( 20 + j 34.64 ) = 40∠60° B’ Y
B’ B
B
Z B = 0 − j10 = 10∠ − 90° Y
Y’
Y’
Also, the voltages are Fig. 10.35
( )
VRY = 400∠0 = 400 V VYB = 400∠ − 120 = −200 − j 346 V VBR = 400∠ + 120 = −200 + j 346 V ( )
Converting the given star load into equivalent delta load, the equivalent impedances become,
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R 20∠30° × 40∠60° + 40∠60° × 100∠ − 90° + 10∠ − 90° × 20∠30°
Z RY = =
ZB 10∠ − 90°
= 61.73∠133.7° ( )
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R 20∠30° × 40∠60° + 40∠60°° × 10∠ − 90° + 10∠ − 90° × 20∠30°
ZYB = =
ZR 20∠30°
= 30.87∠13.70 ( )
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R 20∠30° × 40∠60° + 40∠600° × 10∠ − 90° + 10∠ − 90° × 20∠30°
Z BR = =
ZY 40∠60°
= 15.43∠ − 16.3
3° ( )
624
Thus, the phase currents are

400∠0°
)( )
VRY
I RY = =
Z RY 61.73∠133.7°
= 6.48∠ − 133.7° = −4.47 − j 4.68 A (
VYB 400∠ − 120°
IYB = =
ZYB 30.87∠13.7°
= 12.95∠ − 133.7° = −8.95 − j 9.35 A ( )( )
400∠120°
)( )
VBR
I BR = =
Z BR 15.43∠ − 16.3°
= 25.9∠136.3° = −18.7
7 + j17.9 A (
Thus, the line currents are
( )
I R′R = I RY − I BR = 14.3 − j 22.58 = 26.7∠ − 57.8° A ( )
IY ′Y =(I YB
− I RY ) = −4.48 − j 4.67 = 6.47∠ − 134.1° ( A )
I B′B =(I BR
− IYB ) = −9.85 + j 27.25 = 29∠109.8° ( A )
These are the branch currents for the star-connected load.
R
Problem 10.26 Find the readings of the wattmeter when the network
shown is connected to a symmetrical 3-phase 400-V supply. The phase j 20
sequence is RYB. Neglect the instrument losses. M
Wattermeter
20
j 20
Solution Here, Z R = j 20 = 20∠90° B
V1
ZY = − j 20 = 20∠ − 90° V2
N
Z B = 20 = 20∠0° Y
Also, the voltages are Fig. 10.36
( )
VRY = 400∠0° = 400 V; VYB = 400∠ − 120° = −200 − j 346 V; VBR = 400∠ + 120° = −200 + j 346 V ( )
Impedances are
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R 20∠90° × 20∠ − 90° + 20∠ − 90° × 20∠0° + 20∠0° × 20∠90°
Z RY = =
ZB 20∠0°
=
( ) ( )
j 20 × − j 20 + − j 20 × 20 + 20 + j 20
400
= 20∠0° = ( )
20 20
Z Z + ZY Z B + Z B Z R 20∠90° × 20∠ − 90° + 20∠ − 90° × 20∠0° + 20∠0° × 200∠90°
ZYB = R Y =
ZR 20∠90°
=
( ) ( )
j 20 × − j 20 + − j 20 × 20 + 20 + j 20
=
400
= − j 20 = 20∠ − 90° ( )
j 20 j 20
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R 20∠90° × 20∠ − 90° + 20∠ − 90° × 20∠0° + 20∠0° × 20∠90°°
Z BR = =
ZY 20∠ − 90°
=
( ) ( )
j 20 × − j 20 + − j 20 × 20 + 20 + j 20
=
400
= j 20 = 20∠90° ( )
− j 20 − j 20
625
By Kirchhoff’s laws, the currents are

VRY VBR 400 400∠120°
IR = − =
Z RY Z BR 20
−
20∠90°
= 20 − 20∠ ( ) (
∠30° = 2.679 − j10 = 10.35∠ − 75° A )
VYB VRY 400∠ − 120° 400∠0°
IY = −
ZYB Z RY
=
20∠ − 90°
−
20∠0°
( ) (
= 20∠ − 30° − 20° = −2.679 − j10 = 10.35∠ − 105° A )
VBR VYB 400∠120° 400∠ − 120°
IB = −
Z BR ZYB
=
20∠90°
−
20∠ − 90°
(
= 20∠300° − 20∠ − 30° = j 20 = 20∠90° A )
current through the current coil of the wattmeter is (
I = IY = −2.679 − j10 A )
Voltage drops are
(
VR′ = I R Z R = 10.35∠ − 75° × 20∠90° = 207∠15° = 200 + j 53.66 V )
(
VY ′ = IY ZY = 10.35∠ − 105° × 20∠ − 90° = 207∠ − 195° = −200 + j 53.6 V )
VB′ = I B Z B = 20∠90° × 20∠0° = 400∠90° = j400 V
Voltage across the voltage coil of the wattmeter is equal to the voltage between the supply neutral and the load
neutral and is given as
200 + j 53.6 − 200 + j 53.6 + j 400
V=
1
(
V +V +V =
3 R′ Y ′ B′
) 3
= j169 V
Thus, the wattmeter reading is given by

W Real part of current through current coil conjugate of voltage across voltage coil
( 2.679) ( j169) 1.69 kW
Summary
1. Circuits or systems in which a number of alternating sequence, the phase voltages can be written as, VR V
sources operate at the same frequency but different 0 ; VY V 120 ; VB V 120 .
phases are known as polyphase systems. Three-phase 5. Three-phase circuits can be interconnected either in
circuits belong to this class of polyphase systems, star ( T ) or in delta ( ).
where three alternating voltages operate at the same 6. For star-connection, V L = 3V P and IL IP. Line volt-
frequency but at different phases. ages are 120 apart and 30 ahead of the respective
2. A three-phase circuit has several advantages over phase voltages. The angle between line currents and
single-phase circuit, such as small size, supply of con- the corresponding line voltages is (30 ) for lag-
stant power, greater output, superior performance of ging and leading currents, respectively.
machine, easy parallel operation, etc.
7. For delta-connection, VL VP and I L = 3I P Line cur-
3. A three-phase system with the same magnitude and
rents are 120 apart and 30 behind the respective
phase angle of load impedance in each phase and same
phase currents. The angle between line currents and
phase voltages in magnitude with 120 phase angle
the corresponding line voltages is (30 ) for lag-
between each phase is known as a balanced system.
ging and leading currents, respectively.
4. Phase sequence is the order or sequence in which 8. Total active power in both star and delta connected
the currents or voltages of different phases attain
their maximum values. For an RYB phase sequence, systems is 3V L I L cos .
the phase voltages can be written as VR V 0 ; VY 9. Three-phase active power can be measured by the three-
V 120 ; VB V 120 ; whereas in an RBY phase wattmeter, two-wattmeter and one-wattmeter methods.
626
10. The three-wattmeter method is used for measurement 12. In case of a balanced three-phase load, the active
of three-phase power, both for balanced and unbal- and reactive powers can be measured using one
anced loads. wattmeter.
11. The two-wattmeter method is the most commonly 13. An unbalanced three-phase circuit can be analyzed by
used method for measurement of three-phase power using Kirchhoff’s laws, node or loop method, by star-
for balanced and unbalanced loads. delta conversion or by Millman’s theorem.
1. What are the advantages of polyphase systems 2. What is phase sequence in a 3-phase system? How
over single-phase systems? Compare single-phase is a given phase sequence reversed?
and three-phase systems. A phase sequence is the order or sequence in which
The advantages of using three-phase ac for transmis- the currents or voltages of different phases attain their
sion and distribution of electricity are the following: maximum values.
i. Smaller in size Less copper (or aluminium) is needed The significances of a phase sequence are the following:
for the conductors of a three-phase system which 1. The direction of rotation of the induction motor
transmits a given power at a given voltage over a given depends on it.
distance than for a simple single-phase system. In a 2. Knowledge of it is required for making connections
balanced three-phase system, the conductors need for alternators and transformers in parallel.
be only about 75% the size of conductors for a single-
phase-two-wire system of the same KVA rating. 3. For unbalanced loads, the reversal of a phase
sequence will give completely different values of
ii. Constant output power In polyphase systems, the voltages and currents.
total power delivered to a balanced load is con-
stant, whereas in a single-phase system, the power 4. The phase sequence of an alternator emf depends
delivered is pulsating. Therefore, for power loads, on the direction of field winding of the alternator.
the polyphase system is more efficient. In fact, the A given phase sequence can be reversed by inter-
power delivered by a single-phase system pulsates. changing any two of the three supply terminals.
The power falls to zero three times during each
3. Explain the consequences of phase reversal of a
cycle. The power delivered by a three-phase circuit
three-phase unbalanced delta-connected load.
also pulsates, but it never falls to zero. In a three-
phase system, the power delivered to the load is the (i) Phase currents remain same in magnitude, but
same at any instant. This produces superior operat- their phase angles are changed.
ing characteristics for three-phase motors. (ii) Line currents change both in magnitude and phase.
iii. Greater output power The output power of a 4. Explain the consequences of phase reversal of a
polyphase machine is greater (almost 150%) than 3-phase, 4-wire unbalanced system.
that of a single-phase machine of the same size,
because of the efficient use of the space available (i) Phase currents remain same in magnitude, but their
for the windings. phase angles are changed.
iv. Superior motor performance Three-phase motors (ii) Neutral current is changed both in magnitude and
have many advantages over single-phase motors, phase.
including smaller size, steady torque output, and 5. Explain the consequences of disconnecting the
the ability to self-start. neutral in a 3-phase 4-wire unbalanced system.
v. Ease in parallel operation When connected in Disconnection of the neutral wire causes large (in most
parallel, single-phase generators present difficulties of the cases, inadmissible) changes in currents and
which do not occur with three-phase generators. phase voltages. Loads connected between any two
vi. Reliability A polyphase system is more capable lines and the neutral are in series and the potential
and reliable than a single-phase system. drop across the combined load becomes equal to the
627
line voltage. Thus, potential drop across each load is For the same line voltages and currents,
changed according to the rating of the load. I
For this reason, no fuse or circuit breaker is connected to ∴ Vp = VL and I p = L
3
the neutral wire of such a 3-phase system.
power consumption,
6. Why is an unbalanced load not normally used on a
Vph Vph 2 V2
3-phase 3-wire system?
( ) 1
2
P = 3Vph I ph = 3Vph × =3 = 3 × VL × = 3× L (i)
Or, Z Z Z Z
For a balanced star-connected system
A star-connected unbalanced load is not normally
V
used on 3-phase, 3-wire system. Explain why ∴ Vp = L and I p = IL
3
For 3-phase, 3-wire star-connected system without a
neutral wire, unbalanced loading may cause different power consumption,
voltage drops in three lines. Consequently, the three- Vph Vph 2 ⎛V ⎞ 2 2
1 V
phase voltages will be different both in magnitude as P = 3Vph I ph = 3Vph × =3 = 3 × ⎜ L ⎟ × = L (ii)
well as in phase. In such cases, the voltage of one phase
Z Z ⎝ 3⎠ Z Z
may even exceed the line voltage. This may damage the From (i) and (ii), we see that P 3P
equipments connected to the line due to over-voltage.
10. Discuss the phenomenon of neutral shift. In which
For this reason, an unbalanced load is not normally type of load does it occur and why? Derive an
used on a 3-phase, 3-wire system. expression for calculating the neutral shift voltage.
7. What is ‘floating neutral’ in a 3-phase ac system? If the star-point of an unbalanced load is not joined to
If the star-point of an unbalanced load is not joined to the star-point of the generator then the phase voltages
the star-point of the generator then the phase voltages do not remain the same across each phase, but vary
do not remain the same across each phase, but vary according to the unbalance of the load.
according to the unbalance of the load. Any unbalancing of the load causes variations not
As the potential of such an isolated load star-point or only of the potential of the star-point but also of the
neutral point is always changing, it is called a ‘floating voltages across the different phases of the load both in
neutral’. magnitude and phases (i.e., VL 3 Vph).
8. Discuss why the stator windings of an alternator R
are generally star-connected.
1
In star-connected systems, the phase voltage is
3 VR
times the line voltage, i.e., the phase voltage is less than VR’
the line voltage; while in delta-connected systems, the
phase voltage is equal to the line voltage. N N’
Therefore, a star-connected alternator needs less VY’
number of turns per phase and less insulation than a VB
delta-connected alternator. VB’
VY Y
For this reason, the stator windings of an alternator B
are generally star-connected. Fig. 10.37 Phasor diagram for unbalanced 3-phase
9. Show that power consumption, when three identi- 3-wire star-connected star
cal impedances are connected in delta across a bal- Since no neutral wire is present, the sum of the three
anced 3-phase supply, is three times that when the line currents must be zero. As the three line currents
same impedances are connected in star across the are different, their sum can be zero only if the voltage
same 3-phase supply. drops across the three load impedances are different.
Let VL—Line voltage Thus, the voltages across the three loads get adjusted
IL—Line current to make the sum of the three line currents zero. This
Vp—Phase voltage results in shifting of the neutral.
Ip Phase current The phasor diagram for an unbalanced 3-phase, 3-wire
For a balanced delta-connected system star-connected load circuit is shown in Fig.10.37.
628
Due to unbalance of the load, the potential drop across
different phases will be VR’, VY’, VB’ instead of VR, VY and
or, (VR ) ( ) ( )
− VNN ' YR + VY − VNN ' YY + VB − VNN ' YB
VB and the neutral is shifted from N to N’. The potential [ VR (VR VN N ), and so on]
between two neutral points is NN’.
The phenomenon of neutral shift occurs in unbalanced ⎛ V Y +V Y +V Y ⎞
star-connected loads. VN ' N = ⎜ R R Y Y B B ⎟
⎝ YR + YY + YB ⎠
Calculation of neutral shift or,
Let, YR, YY and YB be the load admittances. where, VR, VY and VB are the phase voltages of the gen-
IR + IY + IB = 0 erator or 3-phase supply.
or, VR 'YR + VY 'YY + VB 'YB = 0
Exercises
1. The phase voltages of a star-connected alternator are source. Determine phase and line currents and also the
ER 231 0 V; EY 231 120 V; EB 231 120 V total power drawn by the load. [22 A; 38.1 A; 10.266 kW]
What is the phase sequence of the system? Compute 9. Three identical coils of 8- resistance and 6- induc-
the line voltages ERY and EYB. [RYB, 400 V] tive reactance are connected in delta across 400-V
mains. Determine the consumed power, power factor
2. Three coils each of 8- resistance and 6- reactance and line current. [38.4 kW; 0.8 (lag); 69.28 A]
are connected in star and are supplied by 140-V,
50-Hz, 3-phase supply. Find the line current and the 10. A star-connected alternator supplies a delta-connected
total power consumed. [8.08 A; 1,567 W] load. The impedance of the load branch is (8 j6) /
phase. The line voltage is 230 V. Determine (a) the cur-
3. Three equal star-connected inductors take 8 kW at a rent in the load branch; (b) power consumed by the
power factor of 0.8 when connected across a 460-V, load; (c) power factor of the load; and (d) reactive power
3-phase, 3-wire supply. Find the circuit constants of the of the load. [23 A; 12.696 kW; 0.8 (lag); 9.522 kVAR]
load per phase. Draw the phasor diagram showing phase
11. Three identical impedances of 18 30 in delta
and line voltages and currents. [16.93 ; 12.7 ]
and three impedances of 10 45 in star are both con-
4. A 3-phase, 415-V, 50-Hz ac source supplies a bal- nected to the same 3-phase, 3-wire, 440-V system. Find
anced star-connected load of 7.5 kW. If the current in the magnitude of the line current and total power.
the lines is 15 A, determine the resistive and reactive [54.93 A; 41.633 kW]
components of impedance. Draw the phasor diagram
12. Three star-connected impedances, Z1 (20 i37.7)
showing the line voltages, line currents and phase
per phase are in parallel with three delta-connected
voltages. [11.11 ; 11.47 ]
impedances, Z2 (30 j159.3) per phase. The line volt-
5. A balanced star-connected load of (8 j6) ohm per phase age is 398 V. Find the line current, power and reactive
is connected to a 2-phase, 230-V supply. Find the line cur- volt–ampere, taken by the combination.
rent, power and power factor. [3.53 A; 2.276 kW; 397 VAR (inductive)]
[13.28 A; 4.232 kW; 0.8 (lag)] 13. The input power to a 3-phase motor was measured by
6. A balanced 3-phase star-connected load takes a power the two-wattmeter method. The readings are 10.4 kW
of 5 kW at 0.8 power factor lagging when connected to and −3.4 kW and the voltage was 400 V. Calculate (a)
a 400-V, 3-phase supply. Calculate the line current and the power factor and (b) the line current.
impedance per phase of the load. [9.02 A; 25.6 ] [0.28 (lag); 36.08 A]
7. A 3-phase, 400-V, 50-Hz, 10-hp motor is delta- 14. The ratio of the readings of two wattmeters connected to
connected and operates at a power factor of 0.8 (lag) measure power in a balanced 3-phase, 3-wire load is 5:3.
and efficiency of 80%. What current will it draw from The load is known to be inductive with a lagging power
the supply? (Take 1 hp 735 W) [16.576 A] factor. Calculate the power factor of the load. [0.918 (lag)]
8. A load consisting of three identical impedances of 15. A 3-phase motor draws a line current of 50 A from a
Z 10 45 in delta is connected to a 3-phase, 220-V 220-V source while starting. The power factor is 0.4.
629
Find the readings of two wattmeters connected to 19. A 3-phase, Y-connected alternator supplies an unbal-
measure power. [8.8 kW; 1.23 kW] anced load consisting of three impedances of (10 j20)
16. Three loads (31 j59) ; (30 j40) ; (80 j60) are (10 j20) and 10 respectively, connected in star.
connected in delta to a 3-phase, 200-V supply. Find the There is no neutral connection. Calculate the voltage
phase currents, line currents and power. Take phase between the star point of the alternator and that of the
sequence RYB. load. The phase voltage of the alternator is 230 V.
[3 62.28 A, 4 66.87 A, 2 83.13 A; 4.784 76 [−245.2 V]
A, 1.037 80.23 A, 5.819 103.23 A; 1.079 kW] 20. A star-connected load comprising two resistors
and a pure inductor is connected to a symmetrical
17. A 3-phase 3-wire, 240-V, CBA system supplies a delta-
3-phase supply voltage. If the numerical impedance of
connected load in which ZAB 25 90 , ZBC 15 30 ,
all branches is the same, find the voltage across each
ZCA 20 0 ohms. Find the line currents and total
branch as a percentage of the line voltage.
power.
[23.15 %, 85.52 %, 77.46 %]
[6.05 7.6 A, 25.6 90 A, 27.07 102.8 ; 17.91 kW] 21. An unbalanced star-connected load is supplied from a
18. A 3-phase star-connected system with 230 V between symmetrical 3-phase, 440-V, 3-wire system. The branch
each phase and the neutral has resistances of 4 , 5 impedances of the load are
and 6 respectively in their phases. Estimate the cur- Z1 30 , Z2 10 45 , Z3 10 60
rent flowing in each phase and the neutral wire cur- Assume the positive sequence of RYB and determine
rent. Find the total power absorbed. the line currents and voltage across each impedance.
[57.5, 46 120 A, 38.33 120 A; 16.7 156.6 [35.75 71.3 A, 32.77 156.1 A, 27.67 48 A;
A; 32.622 kW] 178.75 41.30 V, 327.7 201.1 V, 276.7 108 V]
Questions
1. What are the advantages of polyphase systems over the rms line current and is the phase angle between
single-phase systems? Compare single-phase and phase voltage and phase current.
three phase systems. 6. Discuss why the stator windings of an alternator are
2. Explain the concept of generation of 3-phase voltage. generally star-connected.
Draw the wave shape of the voltages and write their
7. a) Compare 3-phase star and delta-connected systems.
equations.
Or, b) Show that power consumption, when three identi-
cal impedances are connected in delta across a bal-
Explain with a neat diagram how three-phase emf can
anced 3-phase supply, is three times that when the
be generated. Explain the term phase sequence.
same impedances are connected in star across the
3. What is phase sequence in a 3-phase system? How is a same 3-phase supply.
given phase sequence reversed?
8. a) Describe the wattmeter methods of measuring
4. a) What are the two ways of connecting a 3-phase power in single-phase and three-phase circuits.
system?
b) With the help of connection and phasor diagrams,
b) Deduce the relationship between the phase and
explain how the power and power factor of a bal-
line voltages and currents in a 3-phase star-con-
anced three-phase load can be determined using
nected circuit. Draw phasor diagrams to establish it.
the two-wattmeter method.
c) Deduce the relationship between the phase and line
c) Discuss the nature of power factor when i) the two
voltages and currents in a 3-phase delta-connected
readings are equal and positive, ii) the two readings
circuit. Draw phasor diagrams to establish it.
are equal but opposite in sign, and iii) one of the
d) Differentiate between star and delta connections. wattmeters reads zero.
5. Show that the total power in a 3-phase balanced load 9. Briefly describe the method of measuring reactive
is P = 3VI cos where V is the rms line voltage, I is power in a balanced three-phase system.
630
10. Explain the following terms: (c) Explain the consequences of disconnecting the
a) Three-phase balanced supply neutral in a 3-phase 4-wire unbalanced system.
c) Three-phase unbalanced supply 12. Why is an unbalanced load not normally used on a
b) Three-phase balanced load 3-phase, 3-wire system? Are any line/phase voltages
d) Three-phase unbalanced load equal in such situations?
e) Phase-sequence of three-phase systems
13. Discuss the phenomenon of neutral shift. In which type
11. (a) Explain the consequences of phase reversal of a of load does it occur and why? Derive an expression for
three-phase unbalanced delta-connected load. calculating the neutral shift voltage.
(b) Explain the consequences of phase reversal of a 3-
phase, 4-wire unbalanced system.
1. In a two phase system, phase voltages differ by 8. Which one of the following are the necessary condi-
(i) 60 (ii) 90 (iii) 120 (iv) 180 tions for an entire 3-phase system to be balanced?
2. In a 3-phase system, the emfs are 1. The line voltages are equal in magnitude.
(i) 30 apart (ii) 40 apart 2. The phase difference between successive line volt-
(iii) 90 apart (iv) 120 apart ages is equal.
3. The impedances in each of the phases are identical.
3. When phase sequence at the 3-phase load is reversed
(i) phase currents are changed in magnitude Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(ii) phase currents change in phase angle but not in Codes:
magnitude (i) 1, 2 and 3 (ii) 1 and 3
(iii) total power consumed is changed (iii) 1 and 2 (iv) 2 and 3
(iv) phase powers are changed 9. A three-phase load is balanced when
4. Electric power is almost exclusively generated, trans- (i) magnitudes of three impedances are equal
mitted and distributed by a 3-phase system because it (ii) the three impedances are pure resistances
(i) uses less material for a given capacity (iii) all the three loads are equal in magnitude and
(ii) is more efficient phase angle
(iii) costs less than a single-phase apparatus (iv) the magnitudes of currents drawn by the three
(iv) all of the above loads are equal
5. Three equal impedances are connected in star across 10. If the R-phase of a 3-phase star-connected alterna-
a balanced 3-phase supply, if connected in delta tor becomes reversely connected by mistake, it will
across the same supply, state if affect
(i) phase current will be doubled (i) ERY and EYB (ii) EYB and EBR
(ii) line current will become one-third (iii) ERY and EBR (iv) ERY, EYB and EBR
(iii) phase current will be tripled 11. Eoa Eob Eoc are three phase voltages while Eab Ebc Eca are
(iv) power consumed will increase three fold the line voltages of a balanced three-phase system
6. If positive phase sequence of a 3-phase load is a-b-c, having a-b-c phase sequence. In relation to Eoc Ebc
the negative sequence would be would
(i) b-a-c (ii) c-b-a (iii) a-c-b (iv) all the three (i) lag by 30
7. Keeping in view the requirement of parallel opera- (ii) lead by 30
tion, which of the 3-phase connections given below (iii) have the same phase
are possible? (iv) have one definite phase relationship
(i) delta-delta to delta-star 12. In a 3-phase balanced star-connected load, the neu-
(ii) delta-delta to star-delta tral current is equal to
(iii) star-star to delta-delta (i) zero (ii) Iph
(iv) delta-star to star-delta (iii) IL (iv) unpredictable
631
13. When a three-phase star-connected load is fed from a 21. Which of the following statements is true about the
3-phase, 3-wire supply, the voltage across the load of two-wattmeter method of power measurement in a
any phase can 3-phase circuit?
(i) become equal to line voltage (i) Power can be measured using the two-wattmeter
(ii) exceed even the line voltage method only for star-connected 3-phase circuits.
(iii) become equal to twice the line to neutral voltage (ii) When two wattmeters show identical readings,
(iv) not exceed the line to neutral voltage the power factor is 0.5.
14. Which one of the following statements associated (iii) When power factor is unity, one of the wattme-
with 3-phase delta-connected circuits is true? ters reads zero.
(i) Line voltage is equal to phase voltage. (iv) When the readings of the two wattmeters are
equal but of opposite sign, the power factor is
(ii) Line current is equal to phase current.
zero.
(iii) Line voltage is 3Vtime of phase voltage.
22. In the measurement of 3-phase power by the two-
(iv) Line currents are 60 apart.
wattmeter method, if the two wattmeter readings are
15. The relationship between the line and phase voltage equal, the power factor of the circuit is
of a delta-connected load is given by (i) 0.8 lagging (ii) 0.8 leading
(i) VL VP (ii) V L = 3V P (iii) zero (iv) unity
Vp 23. In the two-wattmeter method of power measure-
(iii) VL = (iv) V = 2 V ment, one of the wattmeters will show negative read-
L p
2 ing when the load power factor angle is strictly
16 . The power in a 3-phase system is given by 3VL IL cos (i) less than 30 (ii) less than 60
where is the phase angle between (iii) greater than 30 (iv) greater than 60
(i) line voltage and line current 24. In a two-wattmeter method of measuring power in a
(ii) phase voltage and phase current 3-phase system, one of the wattmeters reads negative
(iii) line voltage and phase current implying
(iv) phase voltage and line current (i) wattmeter connection is faulty
17. A 3-phase star-connected symmetrical load con- (ii) load is unbalanced
sumes P watts of power from a balanced supply. If the (iii) power flow is in the reverse direction
same load is connected in delta to the same supply, (iv) power factor is less than 0.5
the power consumption will be
25. While measuring power in a 3-phase load by the two-
(i) P (ii) 3P wattmeter method, the readings of the two wattme-
(iii) 3P (iv) not determined from the given data
ters will be equal and opposite when
18. The minimum number of wattmeters to measure (i) power factor is unity
power in a 3-phase unbalanced star-connected load is (ii) load is balanced
(i) one (ii) two (iii) three (iv) four (iii) phase angle is between 60 and 90
19. The power measurement in balanced 3-phase circuit (iv) the load is purely inductive
can be done by 26. The ratio of the readings of two wattmeters connected
(i) one wattmeter method only to measure power in a balanced 3-phase load is 5:3 and
(ii) two wattmeter method only the load is inductive. The power factor of the load is
(iii) three wattmeter method only (i) 0.917 lead (ii) 0.917 lag
(iv) any one of the above (iii) 0.6 lead (iv) 0.6 lag
20. The power delivered to a 3-phase load can be mea- 27. In the measurement of power on a balanced load by
sured by the use of 2 wattmeters only when the the two-wattmeter method in a 3-phase circuit, the
(i) load is balanced readings of the wattmeters are 3 kW and 1 kW respec-
(ii) load is unbalanced tively, the latter being obtained after reversing the
(iii) 3-phase load is connected to the source through connections to the current coil. The power factor of
3-wires the load is
(iv) 3-phase load is connected to the source through (i) 0.277 (ii) 0.554
4-wires (iii) 0.625 (iv) 0.866
632
28. The two-wattmeter method is employed to measure (iii) phase currents will be unbalanced but the line
power in a 3-phase balanced system with the cur- currents will be balanced
rent coils connected in the A and C lines. The phase (iv) none of the above
sequence is ABC. If the wattmeter with its current coil 36. The phenomenon of neutral shift occurs in
in the A-phase line reads zero then the power factor of (i) 3-phase unbalanced star-connected load fed
the 3-phase load will be from a 3-phase, 3-wire supply
(i) zero lagging (ii) zero leading (ii) 3-phase unbalanced star-connected load fed
(iii) 0.5 lagging (iv) 0.5 leading from a 3-phase, 4-wire supply
29. W1 and W2 are the readings of two wattmeters used to (iii) 3-phase balanced or unbalanced star-connected
measure power of a 3-phase balanced load. The reac- load fed from a 3-phase, 3-wire supply
tive power drawn by the load is (iv) 3-phase balanced or unbalanced star-connected
(i) W1 W2 (ii) W1 W2 load fed from a 3-phase, 4-wire supply
(iii) (
3 W1 + W2 ) (iv) (
3 W1 − W2 ) 37. Three identical impedances are connected in delta to
a 3-phase supply of 400 V. The line-current is 34.65 A
30. vRN, vYN are vBN the instantaneous lines to neutral voltages
and the total power taken is 14.4 kW. The resistance of
and iR ,iY and iB are instantaneous line currents in a bal-
the load in each phase (in ohm ) is
anced three-phase circuit.The computation vRN (iy iB)
(i) 20 (ii) 16
(vYN vBN)iR will yield a quantity proportional to the
(iii) 12 (iv) 10.
(i) active power (ii) power factor
(iii) reactive power (iv) complex power 38. Readings of 1,154 and 577 watts are obtained when
the two-wattmeter method was used on a balanced
31. An alternator is delivering power to a balanced load at
load. The delta-connected load impedance for a
unity power factor. The phase angle between the line
system of 100 V will be
voltage and the line current is
(i) 90 (ii) 60 (iii) 30 (iv) 0 (i) 15 30 (ii) 15 30
32. An unbalanced delta-connected load is fed from a (iii) 15 30 (iv) 15 90
three-phase supply. The line currents 39. For a star-connected load, the line currents are unbal-
(i) will be unbalanced anced and Ia, Ib and Ic are equal to j10, −j10 and j20
(ii) will be balanced ampere respectively. The neutral current will be equal to
(iii) may be balanced or unbalanced (i) 8.66 j5 (ii) 8.66 j5
(iv) will be equal in magnitude but differ in phase (iii) 8.66 j5 (iv) 8.66 j5
33. Phase reversal in a 4-wire unbalanced load supplied 40. A 3-phase, 3-wire supply feeds a load consisting of
from a balanced 3-phase supply causes change in three equal resistors connected in star. If one of the
(i) the power consumed resistors is open circuited then the percentage reduc-
(ii) magnitude of phase currents tion in the load will be
(iii) only the magnitude of the neutral current (i) 75 (ii) 66.66
(iv) magnitude as well as phase angle of the neutral (iii) 50 (iv) 33.33
current
41. A set of 3 equal resistors,
34. An unbalanced star-connected load is fed from a
each of value RX con-
three-phase-three-wire supply. The sum of three line
nected in star across RYB
currents will be
in place of the load, as 100 150
(i) 3 times the magnitude of each line current
shown in Fig.10.38, con-
(ii) very small
sumes the same power
(iii) equal to line current
as the unbalanced
(iv) zero 150
delta-connected load.
35. An unbalanced delta-connected load is fed from a The value of RX is
3-phase 3-wire supply. Then Fig. 10.38
(i) 33.33
(i) the voltages across the three phases will be dif-
ferent (ii) 100
(ii) both of the phase currents and line currents will (iii) 173.2
be different (iv) 300
633
42. In the delta equivalent of the P 5 10 Q (i) zero
given star-connected circuit, (ii) constant
ZQR is equal to (iii) pulsating with zero average
j10
(i) 40 (iv) pulsating with non-zero average
(ii) (20 j10) R
46. The phase sequence of the R
⎛ 10 ⎞ Fig. 10.39 3-phase system shown in
(iii) ⎜⎝ 10 + j 3 ⎟⎠ Fig.10.40 is
(iv) (10 j30) (i) RYB
(ii) RBY
43. What is the power absorbed by a 3-phase load? (iii) BRY Y
(i) 3VLILcos (iv) YBR B
47. For the three-phase cir- Fig. 10.40
(ii) 3VL IL cos
cuit shown in Fig.10.41, IR
(iii) 3VLILsin the ratio of the currents IR
R
: IY : IB is given by
(iv) 3VL IL tan R1
(i) 1 : 1 : 3
IR
44. One of the two wattmeters has read zero in the two- (ii) 1 : 1 : 2 B R1
wattmeter method of power measurement. This indi- (iii) 1 : 1 : 0 IY
cated that the load angle is 3 Y
(iv) 1 : 1 :
(i) 0 (ii) 30 2 Fig. 10.41
(iii) 60 (iv) 90
45. The total instantaneous power supplied by a 3-phase
ac supply to a balanced R-L load is
Answers
1. (ii) 11. (iv) 21. (iv) 31. (iv) 41. (ii)

2. (iv) 12. (i) 22. (iv) 32. (i) 42. (iv)
3. (ii) 13. (i) 23. (iv) 33. (iv) 43. (ii)
4. (iv) 14. (i) 24. (iv) 34. (iv) 44. (iii)
5. (iv) 15. (i) 25. (iv) 35. (ii) 45. (ii)
6. (iv) 16. (ii) 26. (ii) 36. (i) 46. (ii)
7. (iii) 17. (iii) 27. (i) 37. (iii) 47. (i)
8. (i) 18. (ii) 28. (iii) 38. (ii)
9. (iii) 19. (iv) 29. (iv) 39. (i)
10. (iii) 20. (iii) 30. (iii) 40. (iii)
11 Resonance
Introduction
Any system having at least a pair of complex conjugate poles has a natural frequency of oscillation. If
the frequency of the system driving force coincides with the natural frequency of oscillation, the system
resonates and the system response becomes maximum. This phenomenon is known as ‘resonance’ and
the frequency at which this phenomenon occurs is known as ‘resonant frequency’.
In electrical systems, resonance occurs when the system contains at least one inductor and one
capacitor. In this system, the phenomenon of cancellation of reactances when the inductor and capacitor
are in series or cancellation of susceptances when they are in parallel, is termed resonance. The circuit
under resonance is purely resistive in nature and is termed ‘resonant circuit’ or ‘tuned circuit’.
In this chapter, we consider electrical resonance in details. Electrical resonance is broadly classified
into two categories:
(a) Series resonance, and
(b) Parallel resonance
11.1 SERIES RESONANCE OR VOLTAGE RESONANCE

The basic series-resonant circuit is shown in Fig. 11.1. We want to observe R L C
how the steady-state amplitude and the phase angle of the current vary with
the frequency of the sinusoidal voltage source. As the frequency of the source
changes, the maximum amplitude of the source voltage (Vm) is held constant. VS i
j
Impedance Due to Capacitor ZC = − ; clearly, as ␻ → 0, ZC → and i → 0.
C
Fig. 11.1 Series RLC
Impedance Due to Inductor ZL j L; clearly, as ␻ → , ZL → and i → 0. resonant circuit
Therefore, circuits containing inductors and capacitors have responses that
are frequency dependent. We analyze in the following steps.
635
Resonance
Current Response Here, the supply voltage, vs Vm sin ␻t and the current is i im sin(␻t ␾). The
phasor equivalents of vs and i are V and I, respectively.
V V V
Using phasors, I= = = (11.1)
Z R+ j L− j ⎛ 1 ⎞
R + j⎜ L −
C ⎝ C ⎟⎠
Vm
Thus, the current magnitude, I = (11.2)
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R2 + ⎜ L −
⎝ C ⎟⎠
From this equation, we have the following observations:
• 冷I冷 → 0 as ␻ → 0; and
• 冷I冷 → 0 as ␻ → .
This indicates that there must be a maximum value of the current 冷I冷 for some particular value of ␻. This
occurs when the denominator is a minimum, i.e., when
1 1
L= ⇒ = (11.3)
C LC
Thus, resonance occurs when the magnitudes of the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal.
This frequency is termed the resonant frequency, ␻0 of the series RLC circuit.
1
∴ 0
=
LC
From the equation (11.1), the phase angle of the current is given by,
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ L−
C⎟
= − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (11.4)
⎜ R ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
From the equation (11.4), it is clear that the phase angle for the current also depends on frequency. We have
two observations:
⎛ 1 ⎞
• As ␻ → 0, ␾ → tan −1 ⎜ , and in this case the current leads the voltage with the phase relationship
⎝ RC ⎟⎠
being like that of an RC circuit.
⎛ L⎞
• As ␻ → , ␾ → − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ , and in this case the current lags the voltage with the phase relationship
⎝ R⎠
Im
being like that of an RL circuit.
• At ␻ ␻0, ␾ 0, and in this case the current and the Imax=Vm/R
B = R / L = v2 v1
voltage are in phase, the circuit behaving like a purely Imax /
resistive circuit. 1.414
The current response and phasor diagrams are shown in Fig. 11.2.
v1 v0 v2 v
Phasor Diagrams The current and voltage phasor diagrams for Fig. 11.2 Frequency response of a
an RLC series circuit are shown in Fig. 11.3. series—resonant circuit
636
VL VL
I VR I V VR RI VL
0 0 V
V 0
VC VC VC I VR
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.3 Phasor diagrams (a) f f0 (b) f f0 (c) f f0
At resonant frequency, the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal so that the current and voltage
are in phase. For any frequency lower than the resonant frequency, the inductive reactance is less than the
capacitive rectance and hence, the circuit behaves as a capacitive circuit. Similarly, for any frequency higher
than the resonant frequency, the inductive rectance is greater than the capacitive rectance and hence, the
circuit behaves as an inductive circuit.
Bandwidth We define the half-power bandwidth of the RLC circuit as the range of frequencies (or the width
of the frequency band) for which the power dissipated in R is greater than or equal to half the maximum power.
2 Im
We know that the average power is P = I R where I = (11.5)
2
Maximum power will be Pmax Im2 R
Pmax I
Thus, the half-power points occur when P = or I = m
2 2
Vm
At resonance, the ciruit is purely resistive, so that I m = . (11.6)
R
Im Vm
Therefore, at half-power points, I = = (11.7)
2 2R
Vm Vm
From equation (11.2) and (11.7), we get =
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2R
R2 + ⎜ L −
⎝ C ⎟⎠
To solve for the frequencies, squaring both sides and equating the denominators,
2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
R2 + ⎜ L − ⎟ = 2 R2 ⇒ ⎜ L − ⎟ = R2 ⇒ ⎜ L − = ±R
⎝ C⎠ ⎝ C⎠ ⎝ C ⎟⎠
2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1
Therefore, =± ± ⎜ ⎟ +
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC
We see that, mathematically, there are 4 possible values of ␻. Taking the positive roots, the haf-power
frequncies are
2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1
=− + ⎜ ⎟ + (11.8)
1
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC
637
Resonance
2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1
= + ⎜ ⎟ + (11.9)
2
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC
R
By definition, the bandwidth (BW) is given by, BW = 2
− 1
= (11.10)
L
1
Also, from equations (11.8) and (11.9), we get 1 2 = = 0 ⇒ 0= 1 2
2
(11.11)
LC
Thus, the resonant frequency is the geometric mean of the half-power frequencies.
Quality factor or circuit magnification factor (Q)
Maximum energy stored
It is defined as Q = 2
Energy dissipated per cycle
Maximum energy stored Electromagnetic energy in inductor or electrostatic energy in capacitor
1 1
LI max 2 or CVmax 2
2 2
1
LI max 2 2 fL L L 1 1 L
Therefore, Q = 2 2 = = or Q = = = (11.12)
2
⎛ I max ⎞ 1 R R R RC R C
⎜ R×
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ f
Thus, Q is inversely propotional to R. Hence, for a series RLC circuit, a high value of quality factor implies
low losses and a low value of Q implies high losses.
Resonant frequency
Also, quality factor for a circuit is defined as Q = = 0
and the selectivity of the
Bandwidth 2
− 1
circuit is defined as the reciprocal of quality factor, i.e.,
1 BW
selectivit y = =
Q 0
Therefore, a circuit will be highly selective if it has a high value of Q. For a series RLC circuit, a high value
of the quality factor implies a narrow resonant peak and a low value of Q implies broad resonant peak. The
variations of magnitude and phase angle of current in an RLC series circuit for different values of quality
factor (Q) are shown in Fig. 11.4.
Voltage across elements

Vm
• Voltage across resistance Since V RI and at resonance VR Vm, therefore, I = (11.13)
R
• Voltage across inductance We know, VL IZL j␻LI, using the equation (11.2), we get,
LVm
VL = L I =
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R2 + ⎜ L −
⎝ C ⎟⎠
1 LVm
At resonance, (i.e., 0
L= ), VL = 0
= QVm (11.14)
0
C R
638
1
0.9 Q =1
0.8 100
Q =5
Phase angle of current (degree)

80
Magnitudes of current
0.7
Q = 10 60 Q = 10
0.6 Q =5
40
0.5 20
Q =1
0.4 0
0.3 20
40
0.2
60
0.1 80
0 100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Frequency (rad/s) Frequency(rad/s)
Fig. 11.4 Variation of magnitude and phase angle of current in RLC series circuit for different values of Q
To find the frequency at which the inductor voltage will be maximum, we have
d d LVm 1
⎡ VL ⎤ = 0 ⇒ =0 ⇒ =
d ⎣ ⎦ d 2 L
⎛ 1 ⎞ C 2 R2
R +⎜ L−
2 LC −
⎝ C ⎟⎠ 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎜⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎜
fL = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
Thus, ⎝2 2 2 ⎟ (11.15)
⎜ C R ⎟
⎟
⎜ LC − ⎟⎟
⎝⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠
I
Voltage across capacitance We know, VC = ; using the equation (11.2), we get,
j C
I Vm 1
VC = =
C ⎛
2 C
1 ⎞
R2 + ⎜ L −
⎝ C ⎟⎠
1 V
At resonance, (i.e., ), VC = m = QVm
0
L= (11.16)
0
C 0
RC
To find the frequency at which the capacitor voltage will be maximum, we have,
d d Vm 1 1 R2
⎡ VC ⎤ = 0 ⇒ =0 ⇒ = − 2
d ⎣ ⎦ d 2 C C
LC 2 L
⎛ 1 ⎞
R +⎜ L−
2
⎝ C ⎟⎠
639
Resonance
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 R2 ⎞
Thus, fC = ⎜ − (11.17)
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ LC 2 L2 ⎟⎠
From equations (11.14) and (11.16) we see that both VL and VC may be very large at resonance and they
will add to zero (voltage across L and C are 180 out of phase). At resonant condition, the voltage across
the inductor and capacitor are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign, thus canceling each other so that the
entire voltage appears across the resistance. For this reason, the resonance in a series RLC circuit is known as
voltage resonance. Also, at resonant condition, from equations (11.14) and (11.16) we get,
VC VL
VC = VL = QVm ⇒ Q = =
Vm Vm
Thus, the quality factor for a series circuit is also defined as the ratio of voltage across the inductor or capaci-
tor at resonance to the supply voltage. For this reason, Q is also known as circuit magnification factor (here,
voltage magnification).
From equations (11.15) and (11.17), it is observed that fL fC. The variations of voltage arcoss a resistor,
capacitor and inductor are shown in Fig. 11.5.
2.5
Voltage across capacitor

2
Voltage across inductor
Voltage across resistor
1.5
Voltage
0.5
0
0 1 2 vC vL 4 5 6 7 8
v0 Frequency, (rad/s)
Fig. 11.5 Variation of voltage across resistor, capacitor and inductor with frequency
4
However, from equations (11.15) and (11.17), it is observed
Impedances
3.5
that if R is very small (or Q is very large), both fL and fC approach 3 R L C
2.5
f0. For circuits with Q 10, the maximum voltages across R, L 2
1.5 Z
and C will practically occur at resonant frequency f0.
1
0.5
• Variation of impedance with frequency The 0
0 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
variations of the impedances with frequency are shown in
Fig. 11.6. Resonant frequency, Frequency,
␻o (rad/s) ␻ (rad/s)
⎛ 1 ⎞ Fig. 11.6 Variation of impedances with
Here, Z = R + j ⎜ L −
⎝ C ⎟⎠ frequency
640
• Impedance at frequencies near resonant frequency We introduce a new term, fractional

frequency deviation or fractional detuning, ␦, defined as
−
= 0
⇒ (
= 1+ )
0 0
Thus, the impedance of the RLC series circuit at any frequency is given by
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ L 1 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 0L 1 ⎞⎤
Z = R + j⎜ L − ⎟ = R ⎢1 + j ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ = R ⎢1 + j ⎜ − 0
⎟⎥
⎝ C⎠ ⎣ ⎝ R RC ⎠ ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ R 0 0
RC ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 2+ ⎞⎤
Z = R ⎢1 + jQ ⎜ 1 + − ⎟ ⎥ = R ⎢1 + jQ ⎜ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 1+ ⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 1 + ⎟⎠ ⎦
At frequencies near the resonant frequency, ␦ . (2 ␦) ⬇ 2 and (1 ␦) ⬇ 1.
impedance near resonant frequency,
Z = R 1 + j 2Q ( )
Note i) At ␻ ␻2 (half-power frequency) 2Q␦ 1; Z R(1 j)
ii) At ␻ ␻1 (half-power frequency) 2Q␦ 1; Z R(1 j)
Example 11.1 A series RLC circuit consists of a resistance of 1 k , an inductance of 10 mH and a capaci-
tance of 100 ␮F. For a supply voltage of 100 V, determine the following:
(a) resonant frequency,
(b) maximum current in the circuit,
(c) Q factor of the circuit, and
(d) half-power frequencies.
Solution Here, R 1k , L 10 mH and C 100 F, V 100 V
1 1
(a) Resonant frequency, f0 = = = 159.15 Hz
2 LC 2 10 × 10 × 100 × 10−6 −3
V 100
(b) Maximum current in the circuit, I0 = = = 0.1 A
R 1 × 103
1 L 1 10 × 10−3
(c) Q factor of the circuit, Q= = = 0.01
R C 1 × 103 100 × 10−6
1 × 103
(d) To find half-power frequencies, we have, (f 2
− f1 = ) R
4 L
=
4 × 10 × 10−3
= 7957.75 (i)
1 1
and f1 f 2 = = = 159154.94
2 LC 2 × 10 × 10 × 100 × 10−6
−3
(f ) (f ) (7957.75)
2 2
2
+ f1 = 2
− f1 + 4 f1 f 2 = + 4 × 159154.994 = 7997.65 (ii)
Adding equations (i) (ii), f2 7977.7 Hz
Subtracting equations (ii) – (i), f1 19.95 Hz
641
Resonance
Example 11.2 A coil of 2.2- resistance and 0.01-H inductance is connected in series with a capacitor
across 220-V mains. Find the value of capacitance such that the maximum current flows in the circuit at a
frequency of 100 Hz. Also, find the current and voltage across the capacitor.
Solution Here, R 2.2 , L 0.01 H and V 220 V, f0 100 Hz
1 1 1
f0 = ⇒ C= = = 250 F
2 LC 2 f 0
2
L 2 × 100 2
× 0.01
Current through the capacitor is the current flowing through the circuit at resonance, i.e.,
V 220
IC = I 0 = = = 100 A
R 2.2
Voltage across the capacitor, VC = I 0 ×
j
2 fC
= 100 ×
j
2 × 100 × 250 × 10−6
= 636.6 ∠90° V ( )
Example 11.3 A series circuit is in resonance at 8 106 Hz and has a coil of 35 H and 10- resistance.
For an applied voltage of 100 V, find the
(a) current at resonance,
(b) value of the capacitance for resonance, and
(c) impedance at a frequency of 8.1 MHz and also the current at this frequency.
Solution Here, R 10 , L 35 H and V 100 V, f0 8 106 Hz
V 100
(a) Current at resonance, I 0 =
= = 10 A
R 10
1 1 1
(b) f0 = ⇒ C= = = 11.3 pF
(
2 f 0 L 2 × 8.1 × 106 2 × 35 × 10−6
)
2
2 LC
(c) To find impedance at 8.1 MHz (i.e., near resonant frequency), we have the expression as
⎡ ⎛ 2+ ⎞⎤
Z = R ⎢1 + jQ ⎜ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 1 + ⎟⎠ ⎦
L 2 × 8 × 106 × 35 × 10−6
Here, Q = 0 = = 176
R 10
f − f 0 8.1 − 8
= = = 0.0125
f0 8
⎡ ⎛ 2+ ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 2 + 0.0125 ⎞ ⎤
Z = R ⎢1 + jQ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 10 ⎢1 + j176 × 0.0125 × ⎜
⎝ 1+ ⎠ ⎦
(
⎥ = 10 + j 43.71
⎝ 1 + 0.0125 ⎟⎠ ⎦
)
⎣ ⎣
current at this frequency is, I=

V
=
100
= 2.23∠ − 77.11° A ( )
(
Z 10 + j 43.71)
11.2 PARALLEL RESONANCE OR CURRENT RESONANCE OR ANTI-RESONANCE
The basic parallel-resonant circuit is shown in Fig.11.7. We want to observe how the steady state amplitude and
the phase angle of the voltage vary with the frequency of the sinusoidal current source. As the frequency of the
source changes, the maximum amplitude of the source current (Im) is held constant.
642
In this circuit, the impedance is given by

1 L
Z= (11.18) I R C v(t )
1 1
+ +j C
R j L
Fig. 11.7 Parallel RLC resonant
Voltage response Here, the supply current, is Im sin ␻t and the circuit
voltage is, v Vm sin(␻t ␾). The phasor equivalents of is and v are
I and V, respectively.
Im
Using phasors, V = IZ = (11.19)
2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
+⎜ C −
R ⎝
2
L ⎟⎠
From this equation, we have the following observations:
• 冷V冷 → 0 as ␻ → 0; and
• 冷V冷 → 0 as ␻ → .
This indicates that there must be a maximum value of the voltage 冷V冷 for some particular value of ␻. This
occurs when the denominator is a minimum, i.e., when
1 1
L= ⇒ = (11.20)
C LC
Thus, resonance occurs when the magnitudes of the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal.
This frequency is termed as the resonant frequency, ␻0 of the parallel RLC circuit.
1
∴ 0
=
LC
From the equation (11.19), the phase angle of the voltage is given by
⎛⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎞
= tan −1 ⎜ ⎜ − C ⎟ R⎟ (11.21)
⎝⎝ L ⎠ ⎠
From the equation (11.21), it is clear that the phase angle for the voltage also depends on frequency. We have
three observations:
• As ␻ → 0, ␾ → 90 , and in this case the current lags the voltage with the phase relationship being like
that of an RL circuit.
• As ␻ → , ␾ → − 90 , and in this case the current leads the voltage with the phase relationship being
like that of an RC circuit.
• At ␻ ␻0, ␾ 0, and in this case the current and the voltage are in phase, the circuit behaving like a
purely resistive circuit.
The voltage response and phasor diagrams are shown in Fig. 11.8 and 11.9.
Phasor diagrams The voltage and current phasor diagrams for an RLC parallel circuit are shown in
Fig. 11.9.
Bandwidth We define the half-power bandwidth of the RLC circuit as the range of frequencies (or the width
of the frequency band) for which the power dissipated in R is greater than or equal to half the maximum power.
643
Resonance
IC
V IC
ImR V VR V I IR IC
B= R/L=v2 v1 0
0.7071ImR 0
I
IL IL 0
v1 v0 v2 v V
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 11.8 Frequency response of a parallel- Fig. 11.9 Phasor diagrams (a) f f0 (b) f f0 (c) f f0
resonant circuit
2
V Vm Im R
We know that the average power is P= where V = = (11.22)
R 2 2
V 2
Maximum power will be Pmax = m
R
Pmax Vm
Thus, the half-power points occur when P = or V =
2 2
At resonance, the ciruit is purely resistive so that Vm ImR (11.23)
Vm Im R
Therefore, at half-power points, V = = (11.24)
2 2
Im Im R
From equations (11.19) and (11.24), we get, =
2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
+⎜ C − ⎟
R ⎝
2
L⎠
Solving for the frequencies, in similar way as for the series circuit, we get,
2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
=− + ⎜ ⎟ + (11.25)
1
2 RC ⎝ 2 RC ⎠ LC
2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
= + ⎜ ⎟ + (11.26)
2
2 RC ⎝ 2 RC ⎠ LC
1
By definition, the bandwidth (BW) is given by BW = 2
− 1
= (11.27)
RC
1
Also, from equations (11.25) and (11.26), we get = 02 ⇒ 0 = 1 2
1 2
= (11.28)
LC
Thus, the resonant frequency is the geometric mean of the half-power frequencies.
Quality factor or circuit magnification factor (Q)

1
LC = R C
Here, Q = 0
= RC = =R (11.29)
2
− 1
1 0
0
L L
RC
644
1
From equations (11.12) and (11.29), we see that Qseries =
. Therefore, for a parallel RLC circuit, a
Qparallel
high value of Q is achieved via a large value of R resulting high losses. The variations of magnitude and
phase angle of voltage in an RLC parallel circuit for different values of the quality factor (Q) are shown in
Fig. 11.10.
1
0.9 Q=1
0.8 100
Q=2
Phase angle of voltage (degree)

80
Magnitude of voltage
0.7 Q = 10
Q = 10 60
0.6 Q=5
40
0.5 20
0.4 0 Q=1
0.3 20
40
0.2
60
0.1 80
0 100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Frequency (rad/s) Frequency(rad/s)
Fig. 11.10 Variations of magnitude and phase angle of voltage in RLC parallel circuit for different values of Q
Current through elements

Vm
• Current through resistance Since I = and at resonance IR Im, therefore, Vm Im R (11.30)
R
V
• Current through inductance We know, I L = m , using the equation (11.19), we get,
L
V Im 1
IL = =
L ⎛
2 L
1 1 ⎞
+⎜ C −
R2 ⎝ L ⎟⎠
1 RI m
L= ), IL = = QI m (11.31)
0
C 0
L
• Current through capacitance We know, IC Vj␻C; using the equation (11.19), we get,
Im
IC = V C = C
2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
+ C−
R 2 ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
1
L=
), I C = I m 0 RC = QI m (11.32)
0
C
From the equation (11.31) and (11.32) we see that both IL and IC may be very large at resonance and they will
add to zero (current through L and C are 180 out of phase) so that the entire current will be flowing through
645
Resonance
the resistance. For this reason, the resonance in a parallel RLC circuit is known as current resonance. Also,
at resonant condition, from the equations (11.31) and (11.32) we get,
I I
I C = I L = QI m ⇒ Q = C = L
Im Im
Thus, the quality factor for a parallel circuit is also defined as the ratio of current through the inductor or
capacitor at resonance to the source current. For this reason, Q is also known as circuit magnification factor
(here, current magnification).
• Impedance at frequencies near resonant frequency The impedance of the RLC parallel circuit
at any frequency is given by,
1 R R R
Z= = = =
1 1 R ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ R 0⎞
+ + j C 1+ + j RC 1 + j ⎜ RC − ⎟ 1 + j ⎜ 0 RC −
R j L j L ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 0 0
L ⎟⎠
R R
Z= =
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2+ ⎞
1 + jQ ⎜ 1 + − ⎟⎠ 1 + jQ ⎜
⎝ 1 + ⎝ 1+ ⎠
At frequencies near the resonant frequency, ␦ (2 ␦) ⬇ 2 and (1 ␦) ⬇ 1.
R
impedance near resonant frequency, Z=
1 + jQ 2
R
NOTE i) At 2 (half-power frequency) 2Q 1; Z =
1+ j
R
ii) At (half-power frequency) 2Q −1; Z =
1
1− j ( )
11.3 RELATION BETWEEN DAMPING RATIO AND QUALITY FACTOR
The frequency response may be related to the natural response as discussed below.
From Chapter 5, it was seen that the damping ratio is
R
= 0= ; for a series RLC circuit
2L
1
= ; for a paraallel RLC circuit
2 RC
−
From the equation (11.29), Q=
0
= 0 RC = 0 ⇒ 2 1
= 0
(11.33)
2
− 1
2 2 2Q
Also, from Chapter 5, the damped frequency of oscillation is
1
d
= 0
1− 2
= 0
2
− 2
= 0
1− (11.34)
4Q 2
From the equation (11.34), it is seen that the damping coefficient α is inversely proportional to the qual-
ity factor, Q. Also, the transition from underdamped to overdamped response occurs when ␻02 ␣2 (i.e.,
646
at the critical damping condition). Thus, from the equation (11.33), we see that the condition for critical
damping is
1
Q=
2
Similarly, from the equation (11.33)
1 1
when 2 > 2 , Q < (overdamped) and when 2 < 2 , Q > (underdamped)
2 2
11.4 A MORE REALISTIC PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT

A more realistic parallel-resonant circuit is shown in Fig. 11.11. It is a more realistic model because it
accounts for the losses in the inductor through resistance RL and losses in the a
capacitor through resistance RC.
RL RC
⎛ 1 ⎞
Here, (
Z1 = RL + j L ) and Z 2 = ⎜ RC +
⎝ j C ⎟⎠
V
L
C
Y=
1
+
j C R − j L j C 1 − j CRC
= L2 +
( ) b
Fig. 11.11 Real parallel
RL + j L 1 + j CRC RL + 2 L2 1 + 2C 2 RC 2 resonant circuit
⎛ R C RC ⎞
2 2
⎛ C L ⎞
=⎜ 2 L 2 2 + 2⎟
+ j⎜ − 2 2 2⎟
⎝ RL + L 1 + C RC ⎠ ⎝ 1+ RL + L ⎠
2 2 2 2 2
C RC (11.35)
For resonance to occur, the imaginary part of the admittance should be zero.
C L
∴ = 2 ⇒ RL 2C + 2
L2C = L + 2
LRC 2C 2
1+ 2 2
C RC 2
RL + 2 L2
1 ⎛ L − CRL ⎞
2
⇒ 2
( )
LC CRC 2 − L = RL 2C − L ⇒ 0
=
LC ⎝ L − CRC 2 ⎟⎠
⎜
1 ⎛ L − CRL ⎞
2
1
Thus, the resonant frequency is given by, f0 =
2 LC ⎜⎝ L − CRC 2 ⎟⎠
We consider the folowing four conditions:
1 ⎛ CRL ⎞
2
= 1 −
Case (1): RC 0 Here, the resonant frequency is 0
LC ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
Under this condtion, the total admittance becomes, from the equation (11.35)
R
Y0 = 2 L 2 2
RL + 0 L
2
From resonant frequency, 0

2
=
1 RL
−
LC L2
⇒ (R L
2
+ 0
2
)
L2 =
L
C
647
Resonance
RL
Therefore, the admittance is, Y0 = and the impedance under resonant condition becomes,
L
C
⎛ L ⎞
2 2
Z0 =
L
=
1
CRL RL
( )
RL 2 + 0 2 L2 = RL ⎜ 1 + 0 2 ⎟ = RL 1 + Q 2
⎝ RL ⎠
( )
This impedance is known as dynamic resistance of the parallel tuned circuit. It is seen that lower the value
of resistanec RL, higher the value of dynamic resistance of the parallel circuit. The current drawn from the
supply at resonance is,
CR
I0 = V L
L
This current is termed as the make-up current.
The current in the capacitor or inductor branch is called forced oscillatory current, given by I V␻0C
This type of circuit is known as a rejector circuit, since its impedance approaches a maxima and, therefore, the
resultant current is a minima at (or near) resonant frequency.
Impedance near resonant frequency It is obtained by the procedures as explained below.
Impedance at any frequency, ␻ is
⎛ ⎛ j L⎞ ⎛ j ⎞ L ⎛ RL ⎞
⎞
(
RL + j L ⎜ − j ⎟
⎝ C⎠
) RL ⎜ 1 +
⎝ RL ⎠
⎟ ⎜⎝ − C ⎟⎠ CR ⎜1− j L ⎟
L ⎝ ⎠
Z= = = (11.36)
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ j L⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ L ⎛ 1 ⎞
R + j⎜ L − ⎟ RL ⎢1 + ⎜ 1− 2 ⎟ ⎥ 1+ j ⎜ 1− 2 ⎟
L
⎝ C⎠ ⎣ RL ⎝ LC ⎠ ⎦ RL ⎝ LC ⎠
L ⎧⎪ − ⎫⎪
Now,
L
= 0 × =Q (
= Q 1+ ) ⎨as, = 0
⎬ a
RL RL 0 0 ⎩⎪ 0 ⎭⎪
2 1 RL
1 1 1 1 V C
and, = 0
× 2 = ×1= 2
( ) (1 + )
2 2 2 2 L
LC 0
LC 1 +
b
1 1
{As, for high values of Q (Q 10), 0
2
= ⇒ 2
= 1} Fig. 11.12 Parallel
LC 0
LC tuned resonant circuit
Substituting these values in the equation (11.36), with lossless capacitor
L ⎛ R ⎞ ⎡ j ⎤ ⎡ j ⎤
1− j L ⎟ Q 2 RL ⎢1 − ⎥ Q 2 RL ⎢1 − ⎥
Z=
CRL ⎝⎜ L⎠
=
⎢⎣ Q 1 + ( ) ⎥⎦
=
⎢⎣ Q 1 + ( ) ⎥⎦
Near resonant frequency, (2
L⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡2+ ⎤ ␦) ⬇ 2 and (1 ␦ ⬇ 1)
1+ j ⎜ 1− 2 ⎟
+ + ⎢ 2+ ( ) ⎥ 1 + jQ ⎢ ⎥
RL ⎝ LC ⎠ 1 jQ 1 ⎣ 1+ ⎦
⎢ 1+ ( ) ⎥
2
⎣ ⎦
⎡ j⎤
Q 2 RL ⎢1 − ⎥
impedance near resonant frequency, Z0 = ⎣ Q⎦
1 + j 2Q
648
Note At resonant frequency, ␦ 0,

⎡ j⎤
impedance at resonance frequency, Z 0 = Q 2 RL ⎢1 −
⎣ Q ⎥⎦
L
(i) For large values of Q (i.e., Q 10), at resonant frequency, the impedance is Z0 ≈ Q 2 R L =
CR L
Q2R L Rd
(ii) For large values of Q (i.e., Q 10), for near resonant frequency, the impedance is Z0 = =
1 + j2 Q 1 + j2 Q
L
[as, dynamic resistance, R d = ]
CR L
Z0 1
=
R d 1 + j2 Q
Current in parallel tuned circuit

Let, current delivered by the source Is,
current in the inductor branch IL,
current in the capacitor branch IC,
power delivered by the source, Ps Is2 Rd [Rd dynamic resistance]
Power dissipated in the parallel circuit, P IL2 RL IC
Now, Ps P
⇒ I s 2 Rd = I L 2 RL (11.37) IS V
Rd L ⎡ L ⎤ 1 L IL
⇒ IL2 = Is2 = Is2 2 ⎢ Rd = ⎥ ⇒ IL = Is
RL CRL ⎣ CR L ⎦
RL
C Fig. 11.13 Phasor
diagram for parallel
Thus, the parallel tuned circuit is a current amplifier. tuned resonant
Voltage across the capacitor, VC IsRd and current through the capacitor, circuit with lossless
IC ␻0CVC capacitor
V I
∴ Is = C = C
Rd 0
CRd
Is2 RL IC 2 RL I 2 R ⎡ L ⎤
I s 2 Rd = I s 2 RL ⇒ 2
= ⇒ 2 2 2 2
= ⇒ C2 = L × 0
2
C 2 Rd 2 = 0
2
LC ⎢ Rd = ⎥
IL Rd 0
C Rd I L Rd IL Rd ⎣ CRL ⎦
IC ⎡ 1 ⎛ CR 2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ CRL 2 ⎞ 1 ⎡ 1 L⎤
⇒ = LC = LC ⎢ ⎜ 1 − L
⎟ ⎥ = ⎜ 1− ⎟ = 1− 2 ⎢ Q = ⎥
IL 0
⎢ LC ⎝ L ⎠⎥ ⎝ L ⎠ Q ⎢⎣ RL C ⎦⎥
⎣ ⎦
IC 1
= 1− 2
IL Q
649
Resonance
If RL is very large, the currents are not equal. However, for a very low value of RL (for very high value of Q,
Q 10), both the currents are equal. Higher the value of Q, higher will be IC and IL and lower will be the
source current, Is. As Q → , both IC and IL tend to infinity and Is tends to zero.
Effect of source resistance over bandwidth and quality factor Bandwidth for the parallel tuned cir-
cuit is affected by the source resistance as explained below.
a a a
RS
1 RL RL RL
V I V/Rs RS I V/Rs C RS
2 C C
L L L
b b b
(a) (b) (c)
C a C a
RL Re
E RS E
L Le
b b
(d) (e)
Fig. 11.14 Simplification of real parallel circuit to get series equivalent circuit
By circuit-reduction methods, the parallel tuned circuit is simplified as shown from Fig. 11.14 (a) to
Fig. 11.14 (e),
Ze =
(R L
+ j L Rs ) ( R R + j LR ){( R + R ) − j L}
=
RL Rs + j LRs
=
L s s L s
( R + j L ) + R ( R + j L ) + R {( R + R ) + j L}{( R + R ) − j L}
L s L s L s L s
=
{R R ( R + R ) + L R } + j { LR ( R + R ) − LR } = R + j L
L s L s
2 2
s s L s s
(R + R ) + L
2 e e
2 2
L s
R R (R + R )+ L R 2 2
Therefore, the equivalent resistance is R = L s L s s
(R + R ) + L
e 2 2 2
L s
2
LRs
and the equivalent inductance is Le =
(R )
2
L
+ Rs + 2
L2
Since the equivalent circuit is an RLC series circuit, the effective quality factor is
Le LRs 1 1 ⎛ L⎞
Qe = = = = ⎜ Q= R ⎟
(
Re RL RL + Rs + ) 2 2
L RL RL + L
+
2 2 2
1 ⎛ RL + L ⎞
+ R
2 2 2
⎝ L ⎠
L LRs Q ⎜⎝ RL LRs ⎟⎠ L
650
1 1 Q ⎛ L L ⎞
Qe = = = as, at resonance RL 2 + 2
L2 = and Rd =
1 ⎛ RL ⎞ Rd 1 1 ⎛ Rd ⎞ Rd ⎜⎝ C CRL ⎟⎠
+ + 1+
Q ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ Rs Q Q ⎜⎝ Rs ⎟⎠ Rs
L
RL Q
Therefore, Qe = =
⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ Rd ⎞
⎜ 1 + CR R ⎟ ⎜1+ R ⎟
⎝ L s⎠ ⎝ s ⎠
1 ⎛ Rd ⎞
Therefore, the effective bandwidth will be BW ( ) e
= 0
Qe
= 1+
Q ⎜⎝ Rs ⎟⎠ 0
⎛ Rd ⎞ ⎡ L ⎤
( BW ) e
= 0
1+ = 0 ⎢1 + ⎥
Q ⎜⎝ Rs ⎟⎠ Q ⎣ CRL Rs ⎦
Thus, the bandwidth of the circuit depends upon the circuit constants (RL, L and C) and the source resistance
(Rs). For a given resonant frequency, the circuit will be less selective and the bandwidth will be large if L is
large and C is small. For more selectivity, the value of L should be reduced and C increased; however, this
may reduce the value of Rd, which is undesirable.
Note If the source resistance is infinite (Rs → ), then the bandwidth and quality factor of this parallel tuned circuit
is the same as those of the RLC series circuit.
To obtain maximum possible value of power delivered from the source to the load, we have, Rs Rd and
under this condition, the bandwidth becomes,
2
BW =
Q 0
Example 11.4 A coil of 1-H inductance and 10- resistance is connected in parallel with a 100- F capa-
citor. If the supply voltage is 200 V, find the resonant frequency and the current at resonance.
Solution Here, RL 10 ,L 1 H, C 100 F, V 200 V
2
1 1 RL 1 1 102
Resonant frequency is f 0 = − 2 = − = 15.84 Hzz
2 LC L 2 1 × 100 × 10−6 12
L 1
At resonance, the impedance of the circuit is Z0 = = = 1000
CRL 100 × 10−6 × 10
V 200
current in the circuit at resonance is I0 = = = 0.2 A
Z 0 1000
1 ⎛ L ⎞
Case (2): RL 0 Here, the resonant frequency is =
0 ⎜
LC ⎝ L − CRC 2 ⎟⎠
651
Resonance
Under this condtion, the total admittance becomes, from the equation (11.35) a
2 2
C RC RC
Y0 = 0
V L
1 + 0 2C 2 RC 2 C
From resonant frequency, 0

2
=
(
C L − CRC 2
1
) (
⇒ 1+ 0
2
C 2 RC 2 = ) 0
2
LC
b
Fig. 11.15 Real
parallel resonant
2
C 2 RC CRC circuit with a lossless
Therefore, the admittance is Y0 = 0
2
= and the impedance under inductor
0
LC L
L
resonant condition becomes, Z 0 =
CRC
This is the dynamic resistance of the parallel tuned circuit. Here also, lower the value of resistanec RC,
higher is the value of dynamic resistance of the parallel circuit. The make-up current, i.e., current drawn from
CR V
the supply at resonance is I 0 = V C and the forced oscillatory current, given by, I = .
L 0
L
This circuit is also a rejector circuit as the impedance approaches a maxima and the current a minima.
Approaching in the way similar to the case (1), we get the equivalent quality factor and bandwidth of this
resonating circuit as
1 Q 1
Qe = = where Q =
⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ R ⎞ CRC
CRC ⎜ 1 + d ⎟ ⎜ 1 + d ⎟
⎝ Rs ⎠ ⎝ Rs ⎠
1 ⎛ Rd ⎞ 1⎡ L ⎤
and BW = 1+ = ⎢1 + ⎥
Q ⎜⎝ Rs ⎟⎠ 0
Q ⎣ CRC Rs ⎦ 0
1
Case (3): RL RC 0 Here, the resonant frequency is . 0
= RS
LC
This circuit with L and C in parallel is termed a tuned tank circuit. At res- V C L
onance, with capacitive and inductive reactances equal to each other, the total
impedance increases to infinity, meaning that the tank circuit draws no current
from the ac power source. However, for this case, there will be some circulating Fig. 11.16 Tuned tank
current, given by circuit
I = IC = V C = V
1
C ( if R << )
s
⇒ I =V
C
L
LC
The quality factor and bandwidth of this circuit will be same as those of a simple parallel RLC circuit;
R 1
i.e., Q = s = CRs and BW = .
L RsC
L L L
Case (4): RL RC Here, RL = RC = = = X L XC
C C C
652
Under this condition, the imaginary part of the admittance is,

C L XC XL RL 2 X C + X L 2 X C − X L X C 2 + RC 2 X L
IM (Y ) = − = − =
1 + 2C 2 RC 2 RL 2 + 2 L2 X C 2 + RC 2 X L 2 + RL 2 X C 2 + RC 2 X L 2 + RL 2( )( )
X L2 X C + X L2 X C − X L X C 2 + X L2 X C
IM (Y ) = =0
(X C
2
)(
+ RC 2 X L 2 + RL 2 )
Thus, the resonance under this condition will occur at all frequencies.
Example 11.5 Find C which results in resonance in the circuit shown in Fig. 11.17 when 5000 rad/s.
Solution Let the capacitive reactance be XC.
1 1 8 − j 6 8 − jX C ⎛ 8 8 ⎞ ⎛ XC 6 ⎞ 8 8
Y= + = + =⎜ + + j⎜ −
8 + j 6 8 − jX C 100 64 + X C ⎝ 100 64 + X C ⎠ ⎝ 64 + X C 100 ⎟⎠
2 2⎟ 2
j6 C
For resonance to occur, the imaginary part of the admittance should be zero.
⎛ XC 6 ⎞ XC 6 Fig. 11.17 Circuit
∴⎜ − ⎟ =0 ⇒ = of Example 11.5
⎝ 64 + X C
2
100 ⎠ 64 + X C
2
100
⇒ 6 X C 2 − 100 X C + 384 = 0 ⇒ X C = 10.67 or 6
1 1 1 1
XC = ∴C = = = 18.75 F or = 33.33 F
C X C 5000 × 10.67 5000 × 6
11.5 UNIVERSAL RESONANCE CURVE

From the expressions of impedance near resonant frequency,
For a series RLC circuit, (

Z = R 1+ j 2 Q ) or, Y =
(
1
R 1+ j 2 Q )
or,
Y
=
1
Y0 1 + j 2 Q
(11.38)
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ where, Y0 = R = admittance at resonance⎟⎠
R Z 1 Z 1
For a parallel RLC circuit, Z= or, = or, = (11.39)
1 + j 2Q R 1+ j 2 Q Z0 1 + j 2 Q
(where, Z0 R impedance at resonance)
Rd Z 1
For parallel tuned circuit for high values of Q, Z= or, = (11.40)
1 + j 2Q Z 0 1 + j 2Q
(where, Z0 Rd dynamic resistance impedance at resonance)
Y Z
From equations (11.38), (11.39) and (11.40), it is seen that the variations of or for high Q circuits
Y0 Z0
near resonant frequency are identical for series and parallel circuit, given as
1
H= =H∠
1+ j 2 Q
653
Resonance
where, H =
1
and (
= − tan −1 2 Q )
1+ 4 2Q2
The variation of magnitude and phase of this are shown in Fig. 11.18. These curves are known as univer-
sal resonance curve. It gives the magnitude and phase of the quantity by which the maximum admittance or
impedance of a series or parallel circuit is to be multiplied to obtain the associated admittance or impedance
near resonant frequency.
1
Note At half-power points, 2 Q = ±1 , ∴ H = = 0.707 and = ± 45 .
2
0.9 ␾ 100
80
H 0.8
60
0.7 40
20
0.6
0
0.5 ⫺20
0.4 ⫺40
⫺60
0.3
⫺80
0.2 ⫺100
⫺1 ⫺0.8⫺0.6⫺0.4⫺0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 ⫺5 ⫺4 ⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 0 1 2 3 4 5
␦Q ␦Q
Fig. 11.18 Universal resonance curves
11.6 APPLICATIONS OF RESONANCE

Resonance is a very valuable property of reactive ac circuits, employed in a variety of applications.
One use for resonance is to establish a condition of stable frequency in circuits designed to produce ac
signals. For example, when we tune a radio to a particular station, the LC circuits are set at resonance for that
particular carrier frequency. Usually, a parallel (tank) circuit is used for this purpose, with the capacitor and
inductor directly connected together, exchanging energy between each other. Just as a pendulum can be used
to stabilize the frequency of a clock mechanism’s oscillations, so can a tank circuit be used to stabilize the
electrical frequency of an ac oscillator circuit.
Another use for resonance is in applications where the effects of greatly increased or decreased imped-
ance at a particular frequency are desired. A resonant circuit can be used to ‘block’ (present high impedance
toward) a frequency or range of frequencies, thus acting as a ‘filter’ to strain certain frequencies. In fact, these
particular circuits are called filters, discussed in the preceding chapter.
A parallel resonant circuit can also be used as load impedance in output circuits of RF amplifiers. Due to
high impedance, the gain of an amplifier is maximum at resonant frequency.
Therefore, the applications of resonant effects can be summarized as follows:
1. The most common application of resonance is tuning, i.e., as an oscillator circuit.
2. A series resonant circuit is used as a voltage amplifier.
654
3. A parallel resonant circuit is used as a current amplifier.

4. A resonant circuit is used as filter.
5. A realisitic parallel resonant circuit is used as current rejector.
6. A parallel resonant circuit is used as load impedance in output circuits of RF amplifiers.
7. A parallel resonant circuit can be used in induction heating.
In designing any mechanical system or civil structure or electrical system, the effects of resonance must be
taken into consideration. Otherwise, the oscillations of the system in certain conditions may be so large that
the system may be damaged.
Solved Problems
Problem 11.1 A series RLC circuit has the values: R 10 , L 0.01 H, C 100 F. Calculate resonant
frequency, quality factor, bandwidth, and the half-power frequencies.
Solution Here, R 10 ,L 0.01 H, C 100 F.
1 1
resonant frequency, f r = = = 159.15 Hz
2 LC 2 0.01 × 100 × 10−6
L 1 L 1 L 1 0.01
quality factor, Q= =
0
× = = =1
R LC R R C 10 100 × 10−6
R 10
bandwidth, BW = = = 1, 000 rad/s
L 0.01
To find half-power frequencies, we have, 2
R
− 1 = = 1000
L
( ) (i)
1
and 1 2
= = 106
LC
( )= ( )
2
2
+ 1 2
− 1
+4 1 2
= 106 + 4 × 106 = 2.36 × 103 (ii)
Adding equations (i) (ii), ␻2 1.618 103 rad/s

Subtracting equations (ii) – (i), ␻1 0.618 103 rad/s
Problem 11.2 A series RLC circuit has the values: R 100 , L 0.02 H, C 0.02 F. Calculate fre-
quency of resonance. A variable frequency sinusoidal voltage of value 50 V is applied to the circuit. Find
the frequency at which the voltage across L and C is the maximum. Also calculate voltage across L and C at
frequency of resonance. Find the maximum current in the circuit.
Solution Here, R 100 ,L 0.02 H, C 0.02 F.
1 1
resonant frequency, fr = = = 7.957 kHz
2 LC 2 0.02 × 0.02 × 10−6
The frequency at which voltage across C is the maximum is given by
⎛ ⎞
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 R2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 1002
fC = ⎜ − = ⎜ − ⎟ = 7.937 kHz
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ LC 2 L2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 0.02 × 0.02 × 10−6 2 0.02 ( )
2
⎟⎠
⎝
655
Resonance
The frequency at which voltage across L is the maximum is given by

⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎜ 1 ⎟
fL = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟ = 7.977 kHz
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎝
( )
2 2 ⎟ 2 2
C R ⎜ 0.02 × 10−6 × 100 2 ⎟
⎜ LC − ⎟ ⎜ × × −6
− ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ 0.02 0.02 10
⎝ 2 ⎠
Voltage across the inductance or the capacitance at resonance is
L L 0.02
VL = VC = QVm = 0 Vm = 2 f 0 Vm = 2 × × 7.957 × 103 × × 50 = 500 V
R R 100
∴VL = 500∠90 V ∴VC = 500∠ − 90 V
Vm 50
The maximum current in the circuit is given by I max = = = 0.5 A
R 100
Problem 11.3 For a series RLC circuit with R 2 , L 1 mH, C 0.4 F and a supply voltage
v(t) 20sin t, find the
(a) resonant frequency ( 0);
(b) half-power frequencies ( 1 and 2);
(c) quality factor and bandwidth; and
(d) amplitude of the current at 0, 1 and 2.
Solution Here, R 2 ,L 0.001 H, C 0.4 F
1 1
(a) resonant frequemcy, r
= = = 50 krad/s
LC 0.001 × 0.4 × 10−6
(b) To find half-power frequencies, we have,
( 2
− 1 ) = RL = 2000 (i)
1
and 1 2
= = 25 × 106
LC
( )= ( )
2
2
+ 1 2
− 1
+4 1 2
= 4 × 106 + 4 × 25 × 106 = 100 × 103 (ii)
Adding equations (i) (ii), ␻2 51 krad/s

Subtracting equations (ii) – (i), ␻1 49 krad/s
L 1 L 1 L 1 0.001
(c) quality factor, Q= 0
= × = = −6
= 25
R LC R R C 2 0.4 × 10
R 2
bandwidth, BW = = = 2 krad/s
L 0.001
(d) The amplitudes of the currents are,
V 20 I 10
I =
= = = 10 A I =
= = = 7.071 A
R 2 1= 2
0
2 2
656
Problem 11.4 A series-connected circuit has R 4 and L 25 mH. (a) Calculate the value of C that
will produce a quality factor of 50. (b) Find 1, 2 and BW. (c) Determine the average power dissipated at
0, 1, 2. Take Vm 100 V.
Solution Here, R 4 ,L 25 mH 0.025 H, Q 50, Vm 100 V
L 1 L 1 L
(a) Q= 0
= × =
R LC R R C
L 0.025
∴C = 2 2 = 2 = 0.625 F
Q R 50 × 4 2
2 2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1 4 ⎛ 4 ⎞ 1
(b) =− + ⎜ ⎟ + =− + ⎜ ⎟ + = −80 + 8000 = 7920 rad/s
1
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC 2 × 0.025 ⎝ 2 × 0.025 ⎠ 0.025 × 0.625 × 10−6
2 2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1 4 ⎛ 4 ⎞ 1
=− − ⎜ ⎟ + =− − ⎜ ⎟ + = −80 − 8000 = 8080 rad/s
2
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC 2 × 0.025 ⎝ 2 × 0.025 ⎠ 0.025 × 0.625 × 10−6
2
⎛ 100 ⎞
Vrms ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟
2⎠
(c) Average power dissipated at resonant frequency, Pav =
= = = 1.250 kW
0 R 2
Pav = 1.25
Average power dissipated at half-power frequencies, Pav =
= 0
= = 0.625 kW
1= 2 2 2
100 1
Problem 11.5 A series RLC circuit with R 10 H, C =
, L= F is excited from a 10-V,
314 31 , 400
50-Hz ( 314 rad/s) source. Determine the rms values of voltage across (i) resistance, (ii) inductance, and
(iii) capacitance. Give an explanation if any of the answers is more than the source voltage.
100 1
Solution Here, ␻ 314 rad/s, R 10 , L= H C= F, V 10 V,
314 31, 400
100 1 1
X L = L = 314 × = 100 and X C = = = 100
314 C 1
314 ×
31, 400
Since, XL XC, the circuit is under resonance.
V 10
At resonance, the current in the circuit, I 0 = = =1A
R 10
(i) voltage across resistance, VR = I 0 × R = 1 × 10 = 10 V
(ii) voltage across inductance, VL = I 0 × L = 1 × 100 = 100 V
1
(iii) voltage across capacitance, VC = I 0 × = 1 × 100 = 100 V
C
657
Resonance
At resonance, the voltage drops across the inductance and the capacitance will be equal in magnitude but
opposite in phase and thus will nullify each other so that the supply voltage will be equal to the voltage drop
across the resistance.
Problem 11.6 A 20- resistor is connected in series with an inductor, a capacitor and an ammeter across
a 25-V variable frequency supply. When the frequency is 400 Hz, the current is at its maximum value of 0.5 A
and the potential difference across the capacitor is 150 V. Calculate the
(i) capacitance of the capacitor
(ii) resistance and inductance of the inductor
Solution Here, R 20 , Vm 25 V, f 400 Hz, I 0.5 A, VC 150 V
When the current is maximum, the circuit is in resonance and hence total reactances
XL ⬃ XC 0
(i) The capacitane value is calculated as
V 150 1 1
∴ XC = C = = 300 ⇒ = 300 ⇒ C = = 1.325 F
I 0.5 C 2 × 400 × 300 Inductor
(ii) XL ⬃ XC 0, 20⍀
300
∴ X L = XC ⇒ L = 300 ⇒ L= = 0.119 H r L
2 × 400 C
Also, at resonance, circuit resistance circuit impedance
Let, r resistance of the inductor
25V
(
Then 20 + r =)25
0.5
= 50 ⇒ r = 30 Fig. 11.19
Problem 11.7 Voltages across resistance, inductance and capacitance connected in series are 3 V, 4 V
and 5 V respectively. If supply voltage has 50-Hz frequency, what is the magnitude of supply voltage? Find
the resonant frequency of this series RLC circuit.
Solution Here, VR 3 V; VL 4 V; VC 5 V, f 50 Hz
( ) ( )
2 2
Supply voltage is V = VR 2 + VC − VL = 32 + 5 − 4 = 10 = 3.162 V
Now, voltage drop across inductance is, VL ␻L I (i)
1
Voltage drop across capacitance is, VC = ×I (ii)
C
By (ii) (i), we get,
V V
1 1 5
( )
2
2
= C= ⇒ = 2 × C = 2 × 50 × = 123.37 × 103
LC VL LC VL 4
1 1 1
resonant frequency is, f 0 = = 123.37 × 103 = 55.9 Hz
2 LC 2
Problem 11.8 A resistor and capacitor are in series with a variable inductor. When the circuit is connected
to 200-V, 50-Hz supply, the maximum current obtained by varying the inductance is 0.314 A. The voltage across
the capacitor, when current in the circuit is maximum, is 800 V. Find the values of the series circuit elements.
658
Solution Here, V 200 V, VC 800 V, I0 0.314 A

Resonance frequency, f0 50 Hz
The current in series resonant circuit is maximum at resonance. It is given as
V V 200
I0 = ⇒ R= = = 636.95
R I 0.314
Also, at resonance the voltage across the capacitor is
VC 800
VC = QV ⇒ Q = = =4
V 200
L 2 f0 L 2 × 50 × L
Now, Q= 0
= or, 4 = ⇒ L = 8.1 H
R R 636.95
1 1 1
Also, Q= = or, 4 = ⇒ C = 1.25 F
0
RC 2 f 0
RC 2 × 50 × 636.95C
Therefore, the series elements are: R 636.95 L 8.1 H V 1.25 F
Problem 11.9 A circuit is made up of a 10- resistance, a 1- F capacitance and a 1-H inductance all
connected in series. A voltage of 100 V at varying frequencies is applied to the circuit. Find the frequency
(frequencies) at which the circuit would consume only 10% of the power it consumed at resonance.
Solution Here, R 10 , L 1 H, and C 1 F, V 100 V
V 100
At resonance the current in the circuit is, = I0 =
= 10 A
R 10
power consumed at resonance I02 R 102 10 1000 W
Let f be the frequency at which the circuit would consume only 10% of the power it consumed at resonance,
i.e., 100 W.
100 100
Under this condition, the circuit current is I = = = 10 A
R 10
V 100
circuit impedance, Z= = = 10 10
I 10
(X ) (10 10 ) − 10
2
circuit reactance, L
− X C = Z 2 − R2 = 2
= 30
⎛ 1 ⎞
∴ ⎜ 2 fL − = 30
⎝ 2 f C ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
⇒ ⎜ 2 f 1− −6 ⎟
= 30 ⇒ 4 2
f 2 − 60 f − 106 = 0
⎝ 2 f 1 × 10 ⎠
(60 )
2
60 ± +4×4 2
× 106
⇒ f =
2×4 2
= 161.56 Hz or 156.78 Hz
659
Resonance
Problem 11.10 A coil under test is connected in series with a variable calibrated capacitor C and sine
wave generator giving a 10-V rms output at a frequency of 1000 rad/s. By adjusting C, the current in the
circuit is found to be a maximum when C 10.0 F. Further, the current falls down to 0.707 times the maxi-
mum value when C 12.5 F.
(a) Find the inductance of the coil and resistance of the coil.
(b) Find the Q of the coil at 1000 rad/s
(c) What is the maximum current in the circuit?
Solution Here, Vrms 10 V, ␻ 1000 rad/s,
C 10 F for maximum current (Imax)
I
12.5 F for current max
2
1 1 1
(a) 2
= ⇒ L= 2 = 6 = 0.1 H
0
LC 0
C 10 × 10 × 10−6
⎛ 1 ⎞
(b) At half-power frequency, ⎜⎝ L − C ⎟⎠ = R ; where, R is the resistance of the coil
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ 1000 × 0.1 − 1000 × 12.5 × 10−6 ⎟⎠ = R ⇒ R = 20
L 1000 × 0.1
quality factor of the coil, Q= 0
= =5
R 20
V 10
(c) Maximum current in the circuit I max = = = 0.5 A
R 20
Problem 11.11 A parallel RLC circuit has the following values:

(a) R 8 k , L 0.2 mH, C 8 F, V 10 sin t (V)
(b) R 100 k , L 20 mH, C 5 nF, V 20 sin t (V)
Calculate (i) 0; (ii) 1 and 2; (iii) Q and BW; (iv) power dissipated at 0, 1 and 2 .
Solution a) Here, R 8k , L 0.2 mH, C 8 F, V 10 sin␻t (V)
5
1 1 10
(i) ∴ 0
= = = = 25 krad/s
−3 −6 4
LC 0.2 × 10 × 8 × 10
2 2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
(ii) =− + ⎜ ⎟ + =− −6
+ ⎜ −6 ⎟
+
1
2 RC ⎝ 2 RC ⎠ LC 2 × 8 × 10 × 8 × 10
3
⎝ 2 × 8 × 10 × 8 × 10 ⎠ 0.2 × 10 × 8 × 10−6
3 −3
⇒ 1
= 24.992 krad/s
2 2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
= + ⎜ ⎟ + = −6
+ ⎜ −6 ⎟
+
2
2 RC ⎝ 2 RC ⎠ LC 2 × 8 × 10 × 8 × 10
3
⎝ 2 × 8 × 10 × 8 × 10 ⎠ 0.2 × 10−3 × 8 × 10−6
3
⇒ 2
= 25.002 krad/s
660
(iii) ∴ Q = 0
RC = 25 × 103 × 8 × 103 × 8 × 10−6 = 1600
× 10 3
∴ BW = ( 2
− 1 ) = Q = 251600
0
= 15.625 rad/s
1
(iv) At ␻ ␻0, Y =
⇒ Z = R=8 k
R
V 10∠ − 90
∴I = =
Z 8000
= 1.25∠ − 90 mA ( )
As the entire current flows through R at resonance, the average power dissipated at ␻ ␻0 is,
V 2
1 2 1
( )( ) 102
2
P = I 0 R = 1.25 × 10−3 8 × 103 = 6.25 mW or, P = m = = 6.25 mW
2 2 2 R 2 × 8 × 103
Vm 2 102
At ␻ ␻1 ␻2, the power dissipated is, P = = = 3.125 mW
4 R 4 × 8 × 103
(b) Following the same procedures as in the part a., we get,
(i) ␻0 100 krad/s (iii) Q 50, BW 2 rad/s
(ii) ␻1 99 krad/s, ␻2 101 krad/s (iv) 1mW
Problem 11.12 In the circuit shown in Fig. 11.20, find out the value of R such
that the impedance of the whole circuit should be independent of the frequency
of the supply. If voltage 200 V, L 0.16 H and C 100 F, calculate the power R R
⫹
loss in the circuit. V
⫺
Solution Impedance of the inductive branch, ZL (R j␻L) L C
⎛ j ⎞
Impedance of the capacitive branch, ZC = ⎜ R −
⎝ C ⎟⎠ Fig. 11.20
impedance of the whole circuit,
⎛ j ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z L ZC
R+ j L ⎜ R−
⎝
( ) C ⎟⎠
R2 +
L
C
+ jR ⎜ L −
⎝ C ⎟⎠
Z= = =
Z L + ZC ⎛ j ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
R+ j L +⎜ R−
⎝
( ) C ⎟⎠
2R + j⎜ L −
⎝ C ⎠⎟
In this expression, the imaginary term of the numerator is R times the imaginary term of the denominator.
⎛ L⎞
Thus, if the real term, i.e., ⎜ R 2 + ⎟ is also R times the real term of the denominator, i.e., R 2R, then the
⎝ C⎠
term consisting of ␻ will vanish and the impedance will become independent of frequency.
⎛ 2 L⎞ L
⎜⎝ R + C ⎟⎠ = R × 2 R = 2 R ⇒ R = C
2
Thus, the condition is,
0.16
Putting the value of L and C, R= = 40
100 × 10−6
661
Resonance
V 2 2002
Power loss in the circuit, P= = = 1000 W = 1 kW
R 40
Problem 11.13 For the circuit shown in Fig. 11.21 draw the phasor dia-
gram. Derive the condition for the two branch currents IL and IC to be in RL RC
quadrature. ⫹
V
Solution For this resonant circuit, the phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 11.22. ⫺
L C
⎛ L⎞
Phase angle of the inductive branch, L
= tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ Fig. 11.21
⎝ RL ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
Phase angle of the capacitive branch, C
= tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
IC
⎝ RC C ⎠
For the two currents to be in quadrature, the condition is
IS V
⎡ L 1 ⎤ IL
⎛ L⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎢ R + RC ⎥
+ = 90 ⇒ tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ + tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 90 ⇒ tan −1 ⎢ L C ⎥ = 90 Fig. 11.22
L C
⎝ RL ⎠ ⎝ RC C ⎠ ⎢ L 1 ⎥
⎢1− R × R C ⎥
⎣ L C ⎦
L 1
+
RL RC C L L
⇒ = tan 90 = ∞ ⇒ 1 − = 0 ⇒ RL RC =
L RL RC C C
1−
RL RC C
Problem 11.14 A coil of 10- resistance and 0.1 H inductance is connected in

parallel with a capacitor of 100- F capacitance. Calculate the frequency at which
the circuit will act as a non-inductive resistance of R ohms. Find also the value of R. RL
⫹
V
Solution Here, RL 10 , L 0.1 H, C 100 F ⫺ C
The frequency at which the circuit will be non-inductive is the resonant fre- L
quency, given by,
2 Fig. 11.23
1 1 RL 1 1 102
f0 = − = − = 47.8 Hz
2 LC L 2 0.1 × 100 × 10−6 C 0.1 2 ( )
L 0.1
At resonance, R= = = 100
CRL 100 × 10−6 × 10
Problem 11.15 A parallel circuit has a fixed capacitor and variable inductor having a constant quality
factor of 4. Find the value of the inductance and capacitance for the circuit impedance of 1000 at resonant
frequency of 2.4 MHz. What is the bandwidth of the circuit?
Solution Here, Q 4, Z0 1000 , f0 2.4 MHz
662
Now, impedance at resonance, is given by, (

Z 0 = RL 1 + Q 2 ) ⇒ RL =
Z0
(1+ Q )2
=
1000
1+ 42
= 58.82
L L
Also, impedance at resonance, is given by Z 0 = ⇒ = Z 0 × RL: = 1000 × 58.82 = 58.82 × 103 (i)
CRL: C
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
1 1 RL 1
The resonant frequency is given as f0 = − 2 = ⎜ 1− 2 ⎟
2 LC L 2 LC ⎝ Q ⎠
1 1 1
2.4 × 106 = 1− ⇒ LC = 4.1227 × 10−15 (ii)
2 LC 16
⎛ L ⎞
Putting the value of C from (i) into (ii), we get, L⎜ 3⎟
= 4.1227 × 10−15 ⇒ L = 15.57 H
⎝ 58.82 × 10 ⎠
L 15.57 × 10−6
Putting this value in (i), we get, C = = = 0.264 nF
58.82 × 10 3
58.82 × 103
f 0 2.4 × 106
bandwidth of the circuit, BW = = 0.6 MHz
Q 4
Problem 11.16 A coil resonates at 2 MHz when an 18-pF capacitor is shunted across it. When the shunt-
ing capacitor is 81 pF, the resonating frequency becomes 1 MHz. Find the distributed capacitor of the coil
and the self-resonating frequency.
Solution Let the distributed capacitance of the coil be Cd (in pF).
Show when the coil is shunted with another capacitance of C, the total capacitance becomes, (C Cd).
When C 18 pF, the resonating frequency is f0 2 MHz
1 1
2 × 106 = = (i)
2 L C + Cd ( )
2 L 18 + Cd ( )
When C 81 pF, the resonating frequency is f0 1 MHz
1 1
1 × 106 = = (ii)
2 L C + Cd ( 2 ) (
L 18 + Cd )
81 + Cd
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get, = 2 ⇒ Cd = 3 pF
18 + Cd
1
Putting the value of Cd in (ii), we get, 1 × 106 = ⇒ L = 0.3 mH
2 ( )
L 18 + 3 × 10−12
So, the self-resonating frequency of the coil is given as
1 1
f0 = = = 5.31 MHz
2 LCd 2 0.3 × 10−3 × 3 × 10−12
663
Resonance
Problem 11.17 A coil has an inductance of 250 10 6 H. Its reactance to resistance ratio is 170 at a
frequency of 106 Hz. It is connected in parallel with a variable capacitor. Find the
(i) value of the capacitor to produce resonance at 106 Hz
(ii) impedance of the circuit at 106 Hz
(iii) impedance of the circuit at 0.99 106 Hz
Solution Here, L 250 10 6 H, f0 1 MHz
From the given condition,
XL L 2 f L 2 × 106 × 250 × 10−6
= 170 ⇒ = 170 ⇒ RL = = = 9.24
RL f =1 MHZ RL 170 170
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 RL 2 ⎞
2 2
1 1 RL
(i) From the resonance frequency, we get, f0 = − ⇒ f0 = ⎜ 2
⎜ − ⎟
2 LC L2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ LC L2 ⎠
( 2 ) × (10 ) 1 9.24 2
2 2
⇒ 6
= − ⇒ C = 101.32 pF
( )
−6
250 × 10 × C 250 × 10−6 2
L 250 × 10−6
(ii) Impedance at resonance frequency is Z 0 = = = 267.04 k
CRL 101.31 × 10−12 × 9.24
(iii) The frequency, 0.99 106 Hz is very near to the resonance frequency.
Z0
Impedance near resonance frequency for large value of Q (Q 10) is given as, Z=
1 + j 2Q
L 2 × 106 × 250 × 10−6
Here, Q= 0
= = 170
RL 9.24
f − f 0 0.99 − 1
= = = −0.01
f0 1
Z0 267.04 × 103 267.04 × 103
Z= = = = 75.35∠73.61 k ( )
1 + j 2Q 1 + j 2 × 170 × − 0.01 (
1 − j 3.4 )
Problem 11.18 Show that the high-Q coil resonant circuit can
be approximated as shown in Fig. 11.24. R
Solution For the approximated circuit, the resonant frequency C R L C
L
is given as
1 High-Q Approximated equiva-
0
= (See Section 11.2.)
LC coil resonant lent circuit
For the high-Q resonant circuit, the resonant frequency is circuit
given as Fig. 11.24
1 ⎛ CR 2 ⎞
= 1− (i) (See Section 11.4)
0
LC ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
664
Therefore, Q-factor of the inductance is

L L 1 ⎛ CR 2 ⎞ L
Q= = ×
0
⎜ 1− ⎟ = −1
R R LC ⎝ L ⎠ CR 2
L CR 2 1
⇒ = 1 + Q 2
⇒ =
CR 2
L 1+ Q2
1 ⎛ CR 2 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Putting this value in (i), we get, = ⎜ 1− ⎟ = 1−
0
LC ⎝ L ⎠ LC ⎝ 1 + Q 2 ⎟⎠
⎜
⎛ 1 ⎞
For very high values of Q, the term ⎜ becomes negligible and we get the resonant frequency as,
⎝ 1 + Q 2 ⎟⎠
0
=
1
LC
(
1− 0 =
1
LC
)
which is the same as that for the approximated equivalent circuit.
Problem 11.19 A parallel resonant circuit comprises a coil of 150 nH with Q of 20 in parallel with a
capacitor. What is the value of the capacitor? Find also the resistance of the coil and the circuit impedance
at resonance. Take f0 1 MHz.
Solution Here, L 150 nH, Q 20, f0 106 Hz
1 1 1
f0 = ⇒ C= = = 0.168 F
2 LC 4 2
f02 L 4 2
× 1012 × 150 × 10−9
L L 2 × 106 × 150 × 10−9

Q0 = ⇒ R= = = 47.1 m
R Q 20
Problem 11.20 In a two-branch parallel circuit, calculate the resonant frequency

0 if R1 4 and R2 6 , C 20 F and L 1 mH. If R1 is increased, what is its
R1 R2
maximum value for which there is a resonant frequency?
Solution Here, R1 4 , L 1 10 3 H, R2 6 and C 20 10−6 F L C
1 ⎛ L − CR2 ⎞ ⎛ 10−3 − 20 × 10−6 × 36 ⎞

2
1
∴ = ⎜ ⎟ = = 4.537.4 rad/s Fig. 11.25
0
LC ⎝ L − CR12 ⎠ 20 × 10−9 C ⎜⎝ 10−3 − 20 × 10−6 × 16 ⎟⎠
L
When R1 is increased, resonant frequency will also increase. For R12 = , the resonance will occur at ␻ → .
C
Beyond this value of R1, the quantity within the square root will become imaginary and no real frequency
will give resonance.
Maximum value of R1 is obtained as,
L 1 × 10−3
R1 = = = 7.071
C 20 × 10−6
665
Resonance
Problem 11.21 A coil of inductance L and resistance R, in series with a capacitor is supplied at a constant
voltage from a variable frequency source. Find the values of that frequency, in terms of R, L and 0 at which
the circuit current would be half as much as at resonance. Hence, or otherwise, determine the bandwidth
and selectivity of the circuit.
V
Solution The current at resonance is I 0 =
R
and current at any other frequency is
V
I=
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R +⎜ L−
2
⎝ C ⎟⎠
I0 I
For this problem, I= ⇒ 0 =2
2 I
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R +⎜ L−
2
C ⎟⎠
2 2
⎝ ⎛ 1 ⎞ L ⎛
2 2
1 ⎞
= 2 ⇒ R +⎜ L− ⎟
2
= 4 R 2
⇒ 3 = 1−
R ⎝ C⎠ R 2 ⎜⎝ 2
LC ⎟⎠
2 2
L2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎡ 1 ⎤ L ⎛ ⎞
2 2 2 2 2 2
⇒ 3 = 2 ⎜1− 0
2 ⎟ ⎢ 0
= ⎥=
0
2 ⎜
1− 0
2 ⎟ × 2
R ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ LC ⎦ R ⎝ ⎠ 0
2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 3
=Q ⎜ 2
− 0
⎟ ⇒ ±⎜ − 0
⎟ = Q
⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
If the two frequencies are ␻2 and ␻1, (␻2 ␻0 ␻1) then,
⎛ ⎞ 3 ⎛ ⎞ 3
⎜
2
− 0
⎟ = Q and ⎜
0
− 1
⎟= Q
⎝ 0 2⎠ ⎝ 1 0⎠
− 3 3 + 4Q 2 ⎫
+
∴ = 0 ⎪
0
1
2Q ⎪
⎬
3 0 + 0 3 + 4Q 2 ⎪
and 2
= ⎪
2Q ⎭
Alternately,
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ L − C ⎟⎠ = 3R ⇒ ⎜⎝ L − C ⎟⎠ = ± 3R
2
2
3R ⎛ 3R ⎞ 1
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC
666
2 ⎫
3R ⎛ 3R ⎞ 1 ⎪
Taking the positive roots of ␻, 1
=− + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎪
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC ⎪
⎬
1 ⎪⎪
2
3R ⎛ 3R ⎞
= + ⎜ ⎟ +
⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC ⎪⎭
2
2L
3 0
bandwidth BW = ( 2
− 1 )= Q
=
3R
L
Problem 11.22 A series circuit consisting of a coil and a capacitor is excited by a sinusoidal voltage
source of E volts and variable frequency. The resonant frequency of the circuit is f0 and quality factor of the
circuit is Q. Calculate the frequency at which the ratio of capacitor voltage to the source voltage is maximum
and the maximum value of this ratio.
1
Solution Here, f 0 =
2 LC
L 1 1 L
Q= 0
= =
R 0
RC R C
E
The current, I=
⎛ 1 ⎞
R + j⎜ L −
⎝ C ⎟⎠
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
capacitor voltage, V = I × 1 = 1 ⎢ E ⎥= E
=
E
C
j C j C⎢
⎢ R+
⎛
j⎜ L −
1 ⎞⎥ ⎛
⎥ j RC − C ⎜ L −
1 ⎞ 1− ( 2
)
LC + j RC
⎣ ⎝ C ⎟⎠ ⎦ ⎝ C ⎟⎠
V 1
⇒ C=
E 1− (
− LC + j RC
2
)
This ratio will be maximum when the denominator is minimum.
d ⎡⎛
( ) ⎤
(
1 − 2 LC + 2 R 2C 2 ⎞ ⎥ = 0 ⇒ 2 1 − 2 LC −2 LC + 2 R 2C 2 = 0 )( )
2
∴ ⎢
d ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
⇒ − 4 LC + 4 3 L2C 2 + 2 R 2C 2 = 0 ⇒ 2 2 L2C 2 = 2 LC − R 2C 2
1 ⎛ R 2C ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 L⎞ 1
∴ = 1− ⎜ = &Q= ⎟ ⇒ = 1−
LC ⎜⎝ 2 L ⎟⎠ ⎝ 0
LC R C⎠ 0
2Q 2
VC 1
Putting this value, the maximum value of the ratio is, = (i)
E
(1− )
2
max
2
LC + 2 2
RC 2
667
Resonance
2
⎡ ⎛ 1 R2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ 1 R2 ⎤ ⎛ R 2C 2 ⎞ R 2C R 4C 2
(1− )
2
Now, 2
LC + 2
R C = ⎢1 − ⎜
2 2
− 2 ⎟ LC ⎥ + R 2C 2 ⎢ − 2 ⎥ = ⎜1−1+ + −
⎢⎣ ⎝ LC 2 L ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎣ LC 2 L ⎦ ⎝ 2 L ⎟⎠ L 2 L2
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 + 4Q 3 − 2 4Q 3 − 1
( ) 1 1
2
⇒ 1− 2
LC + 2
R C =⎜
2 2
+ − = =
⎝ 2Q 2 ⎟⎠ Q 2Q 4 4Q 4 4Q 4
VC 2Q 2
Thus, from (i), =
E max 4Q 3 − 1
Problem 11.23 Impedances Z2 and Z3 in parallel are in series with impedance Z1 across a 100-V, 50-Hz
ac supply.
Z1 = ( 6.25 + j1.25 ) , Z2 = ( 5 + j0 ) , Z 3 = ( 5 − jX C )
Determine the value of the capacitance of XC such that the total current of the circuit will be in phase with the
total voltage. What is then the circuit current and power?
Solution Here, (
Z1 = 6.25 + j1.25 ) , (
Z2 = 5 + j 0 ) , (
Z3 = 5 − j X C ) Z1
Z2
V 100 V f 50 Hz
Total impedance,
( )
Z3
Z Z 5 5 − jX C
ZT = Z1 + 2 3 = 6.25 + j1.25 +
Z2 + Z3 10 − jX C
( ) 100 V, 50Hz
⎛ 250 + 5 X C ⎞ ⎛ 25 X C ⎞ 2 Fig. 11.26

= ⎜ 6.25 + 2 ⎟
− j⎜ − 1.25⎟
⎝ 100 + X C ⎠ ⎝ 100 + X C 2
⎠
The total current will be in phase with the total voltage if the impedance is purely resistive.
⎛ 25 X C ⎞
∴⎜ − 1.25⎟ = 0 ⇒ X C 2 − 20 X C + 100 = 0
⎝ 100 + X C
2
⎠
(X )
2
⇒ C
− 10 = 0 ⇒ X C = 10
1 1
⇒ = 10 ⇒ C = = 318 F
2 fC 2 × 50 × 10
250 + 500
Putting XC 10, impedance, ZT = 6.25 + = 10
200
V 100
current, I= = = 10 A
ZT 10
power, P I 2R 102 10 1 kW
Problem 11.24 In a series RLC circuit with variable capacitance, the current is at maximum value with
capacitance of 20 F and the current reduces to 0.707 times the maximum value with a capacitance of 30 F.
Find the values of R and L. What is the bandwidth of the circuit if supply voltage is 20 sin(6.28 103) t volts?
668
6.28 × 103
Solution Here, Vm 20, ␻ 6.28 103; ∴f= = = 1000 Hz
2 2
We know that the current is maximum at resonance. At this condition the value of C is C 20 F.
1 1 1
∴ f0 = ⇒ L= = = 1.2665 mH
( ) ( )
2 −6 2
2 LC C 2 f0 20 × 10 × 2 × 1000
Here, with variable capacitance, L and f0 remain constant. At half-power frequency, the current becomes
0.707 times the current at resonance with C 30 F. At this condition, the resistance of the circuit is equal
to the reactance of the circuit.
⎡ ⎤
∴ ( )
R = X L − X C = ⎢ 2 × 1000 × 1.2665 × 10−3 −
1
−6 ⎥
2 × 1000 × 30 × 10 ⎦
= 2.652
⎣
f0 R 2.652
bandwidth, BW = = = = 333.26 Hz
Q 2 L 2 × 1.2665 × 10−3
Problem 11.25 (a) Show that the sum of energy stored by the inductor and the capacitor connected in
series at resonance at any instant is constant and is given by LI2.
(b) Show that the sum of energy stored by the inductor and the capacitor in a parallel RLC circuit at reso-
nance at any instant is constant and is given by CV2.
Solution (a) Let i and v be the intantaneous current through the inductor and the voltage across the capaci-
tor at any instant of time, t.
Let, i Im cos ␻t
1 1
energy stored in inductor, WL = Li 2 = LI m 2 cos 2 t
2 2
2
⎤ I m 2 ⎡⎛ sin t ⎞ ⎤
2 2
1 q2 1 ⎡ ⎤ 1 2⎡
t t t
2 C 2C ⎢⎣ ∫0 ⎥⎦ 2C m ⎢⎣ ∫0
energy stored in capacitor, WC = = ⎢ idt ⎥ = I ⎢ cos tdt ⎥ = ⎢⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎥⎦ 2C ⎢⎣⎝ 0⎥⎦
I 2
1
2
I L ⎛ 1 ⎞
= m × 2 sin 2 t = m sin 2 t ⎜ at resonance 0 = ⎟
2C 2 ⎝ LC ⎠
Total energy stored at resonance,

1
( 1
)
W = WL + WC = LI m 2 cos 2 t + sin 2 t = LI m 2 = LI 2
2 2
(b) Let, v Vm cos ␻t
1 1
energy stored in capacitor, WC = Cv 2 = CVm 2 cos 2 t
2 2
2
⎤ Vm 2 ⎡⎛ sin t ⎞ ⎤
2 2
1 2 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤ 1 2⎡
t t t
energy stored in Inductor, WL = Li = L ⎢ ∫ vdt ⎥ = Vm ⎢ ∫ cos tdt ⎥ = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥

2 2 ⎢⎣ 0 L ⎥⎦ 2 L ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ 2 L ⎢⎣⎝ 0⎥ ⎦
V 2
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= m × 2 sin 2 t = CVm 2 sin 2 t ⎜ at resonance 0 = ⎟
2L 2 ⎝ LC ⎠
669
Resonance

1
( 1
)
W = WC + WL = CVm 2 cos 2 t + sin 2 t = CVm 2 = CV 2 (Proved)
2 2
Problem 11.26 Determine the resonant frequency, the source

current and the input impedance for the circuit shown in Fig. 11.27 RL RC
for each of the following cases:
200V
Case I RL 150 RC 100
Case II RL 150 RC 0 0.24H 3mF
Case III RL 0 RC 0
Solution Fig. 11.27
Case I Here RL 150 , L 0.24 H, RC 100 , and
C 3 F
⎛ 2 L ⎞
1 ⎛ L − CRL ⎞ 1 1 ⎜ RL − C ⎟
2
1
Resonant frequency, f0 = =
2 LC ⎜⎝ L − CRC 2 ⎟⎠ 2 LC ⎜ R 2 − L ⎟
⎝ C C⎠
⎛ 1502 − 0.24 ⎞
=
1 1 ⎜ 3 × 10−6 ⎟ = 170 Hz
2 0.24 × 3 × 10−6 ⎜ 1002 − 0.24 ⎟
⎝ 3 × 10−6 ⎠
Reactances at this frequency, X L = j 2 × 170 × 0.24 = j 256
j
XC = − = − j 312
2 × 170 × 3 × 10−6
∴ IL =
200
150 + j 256
(
= 0.34 − j 0.582 A and I C = )200
100 − j 312
= 0.186 + j 0.582 A ( )
total source current, ( ) ( ) (
I = I L + I C = 0.34 − j 0.582 + 0.186 + j 0.582 = 0.526 A )
200
Input impedance = = 380
0.526
Case II Here RL 150 , L 0.24 H, RC 0, and C 3 F
1 ⎛ CRL ⎞ 1 ⎛ 3 × 10−61502 ⎞
2
1 1
Resonant frequency, f0 = ⎜ 1− = 1− ⎟ = 159 Hz
2 LC ⎝ L ⎟⎠ 2 0.24 × 3 × 10−6 ⎜⎝ 0.24 ⎠
Reactances at this frequency, XL j2␲159 0.24 j240
j
XC = − = − j 334
2 × 159 × 3 × 10−6
∴ IL =
200
150 + j 240
(
= 0.374 − j 0.598 A and I C =
200
)
− j 334
= j 0.598 A
total source current, I (IL IC) (0.374 j0.598) j0.598 0.374 A

670
200
input impedance = = 535 .
0.374
Case III Here RL 0, L 0.24 H, RC 0, and C 3 F
1 1 1 1
Resonant frequency, f0 = = = = 188 Hz
2 LC 2 0.24 × 3 × 10−6
Reactances at this frequency, XL j2␲
188 0.24 j283
j
XC = − = − j 283
2 × 188 × 3 × 10−6
200 200
∴ IL = = − j 0.706 A and I C = = j 0.706 A
j 283 − j 283
total source current, I (IL IC) 0A
200
input impedance = = ∞.
0
Problem 11.27 A voltage of v 2000 sin t 400 sin 3 t 100 sin 5 t is applied to a series circuit
having R 10 and C 30 F and a variable inductance. i) Find the value of inductance so as to give reso-
nance at 3rd harmonic frequency. ii) What are the rms values of voltage and current with this inductance in
circuit? Take 300 rad/s.
Solution Here, ␻ 300 rad/s, R 10 , C 30 10−6 F
resonant frequency ␻0 3 ␻ 900 rad/s
1 1
(i) = 900 ⇒ L = = 41.152 mH
LC 9002 × 30 × 10−6
(ii) For 1st Harmonic (␻ 300 rad/s)
−j
R = 10, X L = 300 × 41.152 × 10−3 = 12.3456 XC = = − j111.11
1 1
300 × 30 × 10−6
(
∴ Z1 = 10 + j 12.3456 − 11.11 = 10 − j 98.77 ) ( ) = 99.27∠95.78 ( )
∴ I1 =
2000
Z1
=
2000
99.27∠95.78
= 20.15∠ − 95.78 A ( )
For 3rd Harmonic (␻ 900 rad/s)
−j
R = 10 , X L = 900 × 41.152 × 10−3 = 37.037 , X C = = − j 37.037 = XL
3 3
900 × 30 × 10−6
(
∴ Z 3 = 10 + j 37.037 − 37.037 = 10 )
= 40∠0 ( A )
400 400
∴ I3 = =
Z 3 10∠0
For 5th Harmonic (␻ 1500 rad/s)
671
Resonance
−j
R = 10 , X L = 1500 × 41.152 × 10−3 = 61.728 , X C = = − j 22.22
5 5
1500 × 30 × 10−6
( ) (
∴ Z 5 = 10 + j 61.728 − 22.22 = 10 − j 39.506 ) = 40.752 ∠75.795 ( )
∴ I5 =
1000
Z5
=
100
40.752 ∠75.795
= 2.454 ∠ − 75.795 A ( )
rms value of the current,
( 20.15) ( )
2 2
I 2 + I 32 + I 52 + 402 + 2.454
I rms = 1
2
=
2
( )
= 31.72 A
rms value of the voltage,

( 2000) + ( 400) + (100)
2 2 2
V 2 + V32 + V52
Vrms = 1
2
=
2
( )
= 10441.63 V
Summary
1. In an electrical system, the phenomenon of cancella- 4. The series resonant circuit acts as a voltage amplifier,
tion of reactances when inductor and capacitor are in whereas a parallel resonant circuit acts as a current
series or cancellation of susceptances when they are in amplifier.
parallel, is termed resonance. 5. Under resonant condition, all circuits act as resistive so
2. In series resonance, the current at resonance is the that the power factor of the circuit is unity.
maximum, whereas in case of parallel resonance, the 6. Both for series and parallel resonant circuits, the
current at resonance is the minimum. 1
resonant frequency is 0 = and bandwidth is
3. The quality factor for a series resonant circuit is 0 L or LC
R f
1 1 L BW = 0 .
or , whereas the quality factor for paral- Q
0
RC R C
7. The concept of resonance is useful in oscillator circuits,
R C voltage amplifier, current amplifier, in RF amplifier and
lel circuit is or ␻0RC or R .
0
L L other filter circuits.
Short-Answer Question
1. What is resonance in an ac circuit? Discuss the In electrical systems, resonance occurs when the system
applications of resonance in electrical systems. contains at least one inductor and one capacitor. In this
Any system having at least a pair of complex conjugate system, the phenomenon of cancellation of reactances
poles has a natural frequency of oscillation. If the fre- when the inductor and capacitor are in series, or cancella-
quency of the system driving force coincides with the tion of susceptances when they are in parallel is termed as
natural frequency of oscillation, the system resonates resonance. The circuit under resonance is purely resistive
and the system response becomes maximum. This phe- in nature and is termed ‘resonant circuit’ or ‘tuned circuit’.
nomenon is known as ‘resonance’ and the frequency at • Applications of resonance in electrical systems
which this phenomenon occurs is known as ‘resonant Resonance is a very valuable property of reactive ac
frequency’. circuits, employed in a variety of applications.
672
One use for resonance is to establish a condition of Maximum energy stored Electromagnetic energy in
stable frequency in circuits designed to produce ac inductor or electrostatic energy in capacitor
signals. For example, when we tune a radio to a par- 1 1
ticular station, the LC circuits are set at resonance for LI 2 or CV max 2
2 max 2
that particular carrier frequency. Usually, a parallel
(tank) circuit is used for this purpose, with the capacitor 1
LI max 2 2 fL L
and inductor directly connected together, exchanging Therefore, Q =2 2 = =
2
energy between each other. Just as a pendulum can be ⎛ I max ⎞ 1 R R
used to stabilize the frequency of a clock mechanism’s ⎜⎝ ⎟ R ×f
2⎠
oscillations, so can a tank circuit be used to stabilize the
electrical frequency of an ac oscillator circuit. L 1 1 L
Another use for resonance is in applications where
Q= = =
R RC R C
the effects of greatly increased or decreased imped-
ance at a particular frequency are desired. A resonant • Relationship between bandwidth and quality factor
circuit can be used to ‘block’ (present high impedance Quality factor for a circuit is defined as
toward) a frequency or range of frequencies, thus Resonant frequency
acting as a ‘filter’ to strain certain frequencies. In fact, Q= = 0 = 0
these particular circuits are called filters, discussed in

Bandwidth BW 2
− 1
the preceding chapter.

• Selectivity Selectivity of the circuit is defined as
A parallel resonant circuit can also be used as load the reciprocal of quality factor, i.e.,
impedance in output circuits of RF amplifiers. Due to
high impedance, the gain of amplifier is maximum at 1 BW
selectivity = =
resonant frequency. Q 0
Therefore, the applications of resonant effects can be 3. Show that a circuit must have a large value of Q0 (Q
summurized as follows: factor at resonance frequency) to be highly selective.
1. The most common application of resonance is Quality factor for a circuit is defined as
tuning, i.e., as an oscillator circuit. Resonant frequency
2. A series resonant circuit is used as voltage amplifier. Q= = 0
and the selectivity
Bandwidth 2
− 1
3. A parallel resonant circuit is used as current
amplifier. of the circuit is defined as the reciprocal of the quality
4. A resonant circuit is used as filter. factor, i.e.,
5. A realisitic parallel resonant circuit is used as cur- 1 BW
selectivity = =
rent rejector. Q 0
6. A parallel resonant circuit is used as load imped-
Therefore, a circuit will be highly selective if it has a
ance in output circuits of RF amplifiers
high value of Q. For a series RLC circuit, a high value
7. A parallel resonant circuit can be used in induction
of the quality factor implies a narrow resonant
heating.
peak and a low value of Q implies a broad resonant
In designing any mechanical systems or civil structure peak.
or electrical system, the effects of resonance must be
taken into consideration. Otherwise, the oscillations of 4. Prove that in a series resonant circuit, the voltage
the system in certain conditions may be so large that across a capacitor and inductor is Q factor times the
the system may be damaged. supply voltage.
For the series resonant circuit, the supply voltage, vs
2. Define the Q factor for the series resonant circuit
Vm sin ␻t and the current is i Im sin(␻t ␾). The phasor
and express it in terms of the circuit parameters.
equivalents of vs and i are V and I, respectively.
What is the relationship between bandwidth and
quality factor for a RLC circuit? Define selectivity. Using phasors,
Quality factor (Q) V V V
I= = = (1)
Maximum energy stored Z R + j L− j ⎛ 1 ⎞
It is defined as, Q = 2 R + j ⎜ L−
Energy dissipated per cycle C ⎝ C ⎟⎠
673
Resonance
Thus, the current magnitude, • Voltage across capacitance at resonance
Vm
I = (2) We know, V = I ; using the equation (2), we get,
2 C
⎛ 1 ⎞ j C
R2 +⎜ L− ⎟
⎝ C⎠ I Vm 1
VC = =
The resonance occurs for the condition, C ⎛
2 C
1 ⎞
R2 +⎜ L−
L=
1
⇒ =
1
(3) ⎝ C ⎟⎠
C LC
1 V
• Voltage across inductance at resonance
At resonance, (i.e. , 0
L= ), VC = m = QV m (5)
0
C 0
RC
We know, VL IZL j␻LI, using the equation (2), we get, From equations (4) and (5) we see that at resonance,
LV m
VL = L I = VC VL
⎛ 1 ⎞
2 VC = V L = QV m ⇒ Q = =
R2 +⎜ L− Vm Vm
⎝ C ⎟⎠
Thus, we prove that in a series resonant circuit, the
1 LV m voltage across capacitor and inductor is Q factor
At resonance, (i.e. 0 L = ), V L = 0
= QV m (4)
C R times the supply voltage.
0
5. Compare the properties of series and parallel resonance.

Comparison of series and parallel resonance.
Particulars Series resonance Parallel resonance
Differences Circuit impedance at resonance Minimum Maximum
Circuit Admittance at resonance Maximum Minimum
Current in the circuit at resonance Maximum Minimum
Circuit for f f0 Inductive Capacitive
Circuit for f f0 Capacitive Inductive
Amplification of Voltage Current
L 1 1 L R C
Q-factor 0 or or or ␻0RC or R
R 0
RC R C 0
L L
Similarities Power factor of the circuit at Unity Unity
resonance
1 1
Resonant frequency 0
= 0
=
LC LC
f0 f0
Bandwidth BW = BW =
Q Q
Half-power frequencies 0
= 1 2 0
= 1 2
6. The series resonant circuit is often regarded as the hand, in case of parallel resonance, the impedance at
acceptor circuit and the parallel resonant as the resonant frequency is the maximum so that the current
rejector circuit. Explain. in the series circuit becomes the minimum.
In case of series resonance, the impedance at resonant For this reason, the series resonant circuit is often
frequency is the minimum so that the current in the regarded as the acceptor circuit and the parallel reso-
series circuit becomes the maximum. On the other nant circuit as the rejector circuit.
674
In a series resonant circuit, 8. Show that the resonant frequency 0 of a series RLC
⎛ ⎞ circuit is the geometric mean of 1 and 2, the lower
impedance, Z = ⎜ R + j L − j
C ⎟⎠
and at resonant fre- and upper half-power frequencies respectively.
⎝
quency, Z0 R. Here, the supply voltage, vs Vm sin ␻t and the current
⎛ 1 ⎞ is i Im sin(␻t ␾). The phasor equivalents of vs and i
At resonance, ⎜ L = and thus, the current
C ⎟⎠
are V and I, respectively.
⎝
Using phasors,
⎛ V ⎞
magnitude ⎜ I r = m ⎟ is the maximum. V V V
⎝ R ⎠ I= = = (1)
Z R + j L− j ⎛ 1 ⎞
R + j ⎜ L−
In a parallel resonant circuit, C ⎝ C ⎟⎠
⎛ L ⎞
impedance at resonant frequency ⎜ Z 0 =
CR L ⎟⎠
is Thus, the current magnitude,
⎝
the maximum. Therefore, the current at resonance Vm
I = (2)
2
⎛ CR L ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ I 0 = V L ⎟ is the minimum. R +⎜ L−
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ C ⎟⎠
7. The series resonance is called voltage resonance and We define the half-power bandwidth of the RLC
the parallel resonance the current resonance. Why? circuit as the range of frequencies (or the width of
In a series resonant circuit, the frequency band) for which the power dissipated
in R is greater than or equal to half the maximum
⎛ 1 ⎞
at resonance, i.e., ⎜ L= , the voltage across the power.
⎝
0
C⎟
0 ⎠ We know that the average power is
LV m
inductor is V L = 0
= QV m 2 Im
R P = I R where I = (3)
2
V
and the voltage across the capacitor is VC = m = QV m Maximum power will be Pmax Im2R
0
RC
From the above two equations, we see that both VL and VC Thus, the half-power points occur when P = Pmax or
2
may be very large at resonance and they will add to zero I
(voltages across L and C are 180 out of phase). At resonant I = m
2
condition, the voltage across the inductor and capacitor
At resonance, the circuit is purely resistive, so that
are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign, thus cancel-
ing each other so that the entire voltage appears across Vm
Im = (4)
the resistance. For this reason, the resonance in a series R
RLC circuit is known as voltage resonance. Im Vm
Therefore, at half-power points, I = = (5)
In a parallel resonant circuit, 2 2R
⎛ 1 ⎞ From equations (2) and (5), we get
at resonance, i.e., ⎜ L= , the current through
⎝
0
C⎟
0 ⎠
Vm Vm
=
2
RI m ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2R
the inductor is I L = = QI m R2 +⎜ L−
0
L ⎝ C ⎟⎠
and the current through the capacitor is To solve for the frequencies, squaring both sides and
冷IC冷 Im␻0RC QIm equating the denominators,
From the above equations, we see that both IL and IC 2
may be very large at resonance and they will add to ⎛ 1 ⎞
R2 +⎜ L− = 2R 2
zero (current through L and C are 180 out of phase) ⎝ C ⎟⎠
so that the entire current will be flowing through the 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
resistance. For this reason, the resonance in a parallel ⇒ ⎜ L− =R2 ⇒ ⎜ L− = ±R
RLC circuit is known as current resonance. ⎝ C ⎟⎠ ⎝ C ⎟⎠
675
Resonance
2 11. The shape of resonance curve depends on Q of the

R ⎛R⎞ 1 coil. Why?
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC The bandwidth of a series RLC circuit, defined as,
We see that, mathematically, there are 4 possible values BW = 0
, depends upon the Q of the coil. A circuit
of ␻. Taking the positive roots, the half-power frequen- Q
cies are will be highly selective (narrow bandwidth) if it has a
high value of Q. For a series RLC circuit, a high value of
2
R ⎛R⎞ 1 the quality factor implies a narrow resonant peak and a
=− + ⎜ ⎟ + (6) low value of Q implies a broad resonant peak.
1
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC
Thus, the shape of resonance curve depends on Q of
2
R ⎛R⎞ 1 the coil.
= + ⎜ ⎟ + (7) The variations of magnitude and phase angle of cur-
2
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC
rent in an RLC series circuit for different values of Qual-
Also, from equations (7) and (8), we get ity factor (Q) are shown in Fig. 11.28.
1 1
1 2
=
= 02 ⇒ 0 = 1 2 (8)
LC Q=1
0.9
Thus, the resonant frequency is the geometric mean of
Magnitudes of current
0.8 Q=5
the half-power frequencies.
0.7
9. At resonance, the current is maximum in a series 0.6 Q = 10
circuit and minimum in a parallel circuit. Why? 0.5
In a series circuit, at resonance the inductive and capac- 0.4
itive reactances cancel each other and the impedance 0.3
is minimum and equal to the resistance of the circuit. 0.2
Hence in a series resonant circuit, the current will be
0.1
the maximum.
0
On the other hand, in a parallel circuit, at resonance 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
the resultant susceptance is zero and the admittance is Frequency (rad/s)
minimum and equal to the conductance of the circuit. 100
Phase angle of current (degree)
Hence in parallel resonant circuit, the current will be 80 Q = 10

minimum. 60 Q=5
10. In a series RLC circuit, the voltage across L and C at res- 40 Q=1
onance may exceed even the supply voltage. Why? 20
0
At resonance in a series RLC circuit, the voltages across 20
inductor and capacitor are given as,
40
LV m V 60
VL = 0
= QV m and VC = m = QV m
R 0
RC 80
100
L 1 1 L 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
where, Q = = =
R RC R C Frequency (rad/s)
From the above equations, we see that both VL and VC Fig. 11.28 Variation of Magnitude and phase angle of
may be very large at resonance and even may exceed current in an RLC series circuit for different values of Q
the supply voltage (if Q 1). However, the two volt-
ages across L and C are 180 out of phase and thus will 12. Explain the effect of increase in L ratio on the
C
cancel each other. following factors:
At resonant condition, the voltage across the induc- (a) resonant frequency, (b) Q, and
tor and capacitor are equal in magnitude and opposite (c) bandwidth of an RLC series circuit.
in sign, thus canceling each other so that the entire (a) Effect of increase in L ratio on resonant fre-
C
voltage appears across the resistance. quency
676
1 The resonance occurs for the condition,

The resonant frequency is given as 0
LC 1 1
L= ⇒ = (3)
If the value of L is increased, the resonant frequency 0
C 0
LC
0
will decrease.
If the value of C is decreased, the resonant frequency • Voltage across inductance
will increase. We know, VL IZL j␻LI, using the equation (2),
(b) Effect of increase in L ratio on quality factor (Q) we get
C
The quality factor for a series RLC circuit is given as LV m
VL = L I =
L 1 1 L ⎛
2
Qseries
0
or or 1 ⎞
R2 +⎜ L−
C ⎟⎠
R RC R C
0 ⎝
Therefore, if the ratio L
C is increased, the Q-factor will 1 LV m
increase in case of a series RLC circuit. At resonance, (i.e., 0
L= ), V L = 0
= QV m (4)
0
C R
Also, the quality factor for a parallel RLC circuit is
• Voltage across capacitance
given as
1 R C I
Qparallel or ␻0RC or R We know, VC = ; using the equation (2), we get
Q series 0
L L j C
Therefore, if the ratio L I Vm

C is increased, the Q-factor will VC = =
1
decrease in case of a parallel RLC circuit. C ⎛
2 C
1 ⎞
R2 +⎜ L−
(c) Effect of increase in L ratio on bandwidth of ⎝ C ⎟⎠
C
an RLC series circuit 1 Vm
At resonance, (i.e., L= ), VC = RC = QV m (5)
The bandwidth of a series RLC circuit is given as 0
C 0
0
f R
BW = 0 = From the equation (4) and (5) we see that both VL and VC
Q L may be very large at resonance and they will add to zero
It is seen that the bandwidth is independent of the (voltage across L and C are 180 out of phase). The varia-
value of C. However, if the value of L is increased, the tion of the voltages with frequency is shown in Fig.11.29.
bandwidth will decrease.
2.5
13. In an RLC series circuit, the source frequency is Voltage across capacitor
varied from zero to infinity. How do the values of 2 Voltage across
voltage across L and C change? Draw a curve show- inductor
ing these variations. Derive an expression for the 1.5
maximum values of these voltages and the fre- Voltage
Voltage
quencies at which the maximum values occur. 1 across

resistor
For the series resonant circuit, the supply voltage
0.5
vs Vm sin ␻t and the current is i Im sin(␻t ␾). The
phasor equivalents of vs and i are V and I, respectively.
0 ␻c ␻L
Using phasors, 0 1 2 ␻0 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency, (rad/s)
V V V
I= = = (1) Fig. 11.29 Variation of voltage across resistor, capacitor
Z R + j L− j ⎛ 1 ⎞ and inductor with frequency
C R + j ⎜⎝ L − C ⎟⎠
• Maximum values of voltages across L and C
Thus, the current magnitude,
To find the frequency at which inductor voltage will be
Vm
I = (2) maximum, we have
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R2 +⎜ L− ⎟
d
⎡V ⎤ = 0
⎝ C⎠ d ⎣ L⎦
677
Resonance
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ L 1 ⎤ Ic
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ + ⎥
−1 ⎢ R L RC C
d ⎢ LV m ⎥ 1 ⇒ tan ⎥ = 90
⇒ ⎢ ⎥=0 ⇒ = ⎢ L 1 ⎥
⎢ 1− ×
L
d ⎢ Is
1 ⎞ ⎥ ⎥
2
⎛ C 2R 2 V
⎢ R +⎜ L−
2
⎥ LC − ⎣ RL RC C ⎦
⎢⎣ ⎝ C ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ 2 IL
L 1
⎛ ⎞ + Fig. 11.31
RL RC C
⎛ 1 ⎞⎜ 1 ⎟ ⇒ = tan90 = ∞
Thus, fL = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1−
L
⎝2 ⎠⎜ C 2R 2 ⎟ R L RC C
⎜ LC − ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
L L
To find the frequency at which the capacitor voltage ⇒ 1− = 0 ⇒ R L RC =
R L RC C C
d
will be maximum, we have, ⎡V ⎤ = 0
d ⎣ C ⎦ 15. Show that the sum of energy stored by the inductor
and the capacitor connected in series at resonance
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ at any instant is constant and is given by LI2.
d ⎢ Vm 1 ⎥ 1 R2 Let i be the instantaneous current through the series
⇒ ⎢ ⎥=0 ⇒ C
= − circuit at any instant of time, t.
d ⎢ ⎛
2 C⎥ LC 2 L2
1 ⎞
⎢ R +⎜ L−
2
⎥ Let, i Im cos ␻t
⎢⎣ ⎝ C ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ 1 1
energy stored in inductor, WL = Li 2 = LI m 2 cos2 t
2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 R2 ⎞ energy stored in capacitor,
Thus, fC = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ −
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ LC 2 L 2 ⎟⎠ 1q2 1 ⎡
t
⎤
2
1 2⎡
t
⎤
2
WC = = ⎢ ∫ idt ⎥ = I m ⎢ ∫ cos tdt ⎥

From the expressions, it is observed that fL fC. How- 2 C 2C ⎣⎢ 0 ⎥⎦ 2C ⎢⎣ 0 ⎦⎥
ever, from the expressions of fL and fC, it is also observed 2
I 2 ⎡⎛ sin t ⎞ ⎤ I m 2 1 2
t
that if R is very small (or Q is very large), both fL and
= m ⎢⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥ = 2C × 2 sin t
fC approach f0. For circuits with Q 10, the maximum 2C ⎢⎝
⎣ 0⎦
voltages across R, L and C will practically occur at the
resonant frequency f0. I L2
⎛ 1 ⎞
= m sin2 t ⎜⎝ at resonance 0 = ⎟
2 LC ⎠
14. For the circuit shown,
draw the phasor dia- RL Total energy stored at resonance,
RC
gram. Derive the condi-
tion for the two branch V ⫹
⫺
IL IC
1
2
( 1
2
)
W = WL + WC = LI m 2 cos2 t + sin2 t = LI m 2 = LI 2
currents, IL and IC to be in
quadrature. L C 16. Show that the sum of the energy stored by the
For this resonant circuit, the inductor and the capacitor in parallel RLC circuit at
phasor diagram is shown in any instant is constant at resonance frequency and
Fig. 11.30 is equal to CV 2.
Fig. 11.31.
Phase angle of the induc- Let v be the instantaneous voltage across the parallel
circuit at any instant of time, t.
⎛ L⎞
tive branch, L
= tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ Let, v Vm cos ␻t
⎝ RL ⎠ energy stored in capacitor,
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 1
Phase angle of the capacitive branch, C
= tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ WC = Cv 2 = CV m 2 cos2 t
⎝ RC C ⎠ 2 2
For the two currents to be in quadrature, the condition is energy stored in inductor,
2 2
1 ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡t ⎤
t
⎛ L⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 1
+ = 90 ⇒ tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ + tan−1 ⎜ WL = Li 2 = L ⎢ ∫ v dt ⎥ = V m 2 ⎢ ∫ cos tdt ⎥
L C ⎟ = 90 2 2 ⎢⎣ 0 L ⎥⎦ 2 L ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎝ RL ⎠ ⎝ RC C ⎠
678
2
V 2 ⎡⎛ sin t ⎞ ⎤ V m 2 1 2
t
= m ⎢⎜ ⎥ = × 2 sin t
2 L ⎢⎝
⎣
⎠⎟ 0 ⎥ 2 L
⎦
1
( 1
)
W = WC + WL = CV m 2 cos2 t + sin2 t = CV m 2 = CV 2
2 2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= CV m 2 sin2 t ⎜ at resonance 0 = ⎟
2 ⎝ LC ⎠
Exercise
1. A generator supplies a variable frequency voltage of becomes maximum at a frequency 600 Hz and falls
constant amplitude 100 V(rms) to a series RLC circuit 2
where R 5 , L 4 mH and C 0.01 F. The fre- 400
quency is to be varied until maximum current flows. to half the maximum value at Hz. If the resis-
2
Predict the maximum current, the frequency at which
tance in the circuit is 3 , find L and C.
it occurs, and the resulting voltage across the induc-
tance and the capacitance. [20 A(rms); 7,958 Hz; 4 kV] [10.4 mH; 267.3 F]
2. If the bandwidth of a resonant circuit is 10 kHz and the 8. An RLC series circuit has R 100 ohms, L 500 mH
lower half-power frequency is 120 kHz, find out the and C 40 F. Calculate the
value of the upper half-power frequency and the qual- (i) resonant frequency
ity factor of the circuit. [130 kHz, 12.5] (ii) lower half-power frequency
3. A series RLC circuit consists of a 100- resistor, an induc- (iii) upper half-power frequency
tor of 0.318 H and a capacitor of unknown value. When (iv) bandwidth
this circuit is energized by a 230 0 -V, 50-Hz sinusoi- (v) Q factor
dal ac supply, the current was found to be 2.3 0 A. Also derive the expression for the above.
Find (i) the value of capacitor in micro-farad, (ii) the
[223.6 rad/s; 22.5 rad/s; 222.5 rad/s; 200; 1.118]
voltage across the inductor, and (iii) the total power
consumed. [31.86 F; 230∠90 V (leading); 529 W] 9. Calculate the value of C which
results in resonance for the
4. For a series RLC circuit, the inductor is variable. Source
circuit shown in Fig.11.32 4
voltage is 200 2 sin100 t . The maximum current 5
when frequency is 1000 Hz,
obtainable by varying the inductance is 0.314 A and
and find Q-factor for each
the voltage across the capacitor then is 300 V. Find the j8 C
branch.
circuit element values. [900 ; 3.332 F; 3.04 H]
[31.83 F, 2 (for R-L), 1 (for R-C)]
5. It is desired to design a series resonant circuit with the
following specifications. 10. A capacitor is connected in Fig. 11.32
parallel with a coil having L
C 250 10 12 F, f0 600 kHz, BW 20 kHz
5.52 mH and R 10 , to a
Calculate Q0, R and L of the circuit. Also, calculate the 100-V, 50-Hz supply. Calculate R
current at 500 kHz as a fraction of the current at reso- the value of the capacitance for ⫹
C
nance. [30; 35.37 ; 0.28 mH; 0.09 Ir] which the current taken from ⫺
L
6. A 10-mH coil is connected in series with a loss-free the supply is in phase with the
capacitor to a variable frequency source of 20 V. The voltage. [53.6 F]
current in the circuit has the maximum value of 0.2 A Fig. 11.33
11. A parallel circuit has a fixed C
at a frequency of 100 kHz. Calculate: (i) the value of and a variable L. The quality
capacitance, (ii) the Q-factor of the coil, (iii) the half- factor of the inductor is Q 4. Find the values of L
power frequencies and C for the circuit impedance of (100 j0) ohm
[253.3 pF, 62.83, 99.204 Kz, 100.796 Hz] at f 2.4 MHz. What is the bandwidth at matched
7. A series RLC circuit is excited from a constant-voltage condition?
variable frequency source. The current in the circuit [1.557 H, 2.648 nF, 1.2 MHz]
679
Resonance
12. Find the resonant frequency for
the circuit shown in Fig.11.34. 5 2 1 R L2 − L
(a) the resonant frequency is = C
[263 Hz] 0
LC RC 2 − L
13. For a practical tank circuit 10 mH 40␮F C
shown in Fig.11.35, the reso- (b) the impedance is independent of frequency if
nance occurs at 1 MHz. Assum- Fig. 11.34
R L = RC = L
ing a high-Q coil, find the quality C
factor of the high-Q coil at reso-
10⍀ 17. What is the condition for resonance in the circuit
nance frequency. [2000]
shown in Fig. 11.39? For what value of L will the circuit
14. Calculate the impedance of the 50pF
resonate at all frequencies? [␻ 0; L 0]
parallel tuned circuit, as shown in L L
Fig.11.36, at a frequency of 500 kHz
and for the bandwidth of opera- Fig. 11.35
tion equal to 20 kHz. The resistance 1 1
of the coil is 5 . [3.13 k ] V1
15. A coil of resistance R and L
1H 1F
inductance L is shunted by V
a capacitor C. Show that R
(a) the resonant frequency Fig. 11.39
2
1 R
is, 0
= − , (b) the Fig. 11.36 18. Find the resonant frequency for the circuits. Also, find
LC L2 the quality factor, Q. What will be the impedances at
effective resistance is L , resonance?
CR 1 1 R
R [(i) − , 0 RC , ;
and (c) the circulating cur- ⫹
V C
LC R 2C 2 1+ 2 R 2C 2
C ⫺
rent is V .
L L R R L
(ii) , , ]
16. For the parallel resonant (
L CR − L 2
) 0
L CR
circuit, prove that Fig. 11.37
RL L C
L
R L R
C
RC XC
V (a) (b)
Fig. 11.38 Fig. 11.40
Questions
1. (a) What is resonance in an ac circuit? Or,
(b) Discuss the effects of resonance in electrical sys- State and explain the condition of resonance in a series
tems. RLC circuit of an ac circuit. Draw the phasor diagram.
2. Discuss briefly the phenomenon of electrical reso- 3. Show that = for a series RLC circuit,
r l h
nance in simple RLC circuits. Derive an expression for
where ␻r the resonant frequency
the condition for resonance in RLC circuits. Also, draw
the phasor diagrams. ␻l lower half-power frequency
680
␻h upper half-power frequency (c) The series resonance is called voltage resonance
of the circuit. and the parallel resonance the current resonance.
Why?
Or,
10. At resonance, the current is
Show that the resonant frequency ␻0 of a series RLC RL RC
maximum in a series circuit and
circuit is the geometric mean of ␻1 and ␻2, the lower
and upper half-power frequencies respectively.
minimum in a parallel circuit. V ⫹ IL IC
Why? ⫺
4. (a) Define the terms ‘Q factor’ and ‘bandwidth’. L C
11. For the circuit shown, draw the
(b) Derive the expression for ‘Q factor’ for RL and RC phasor diagram. Derive the
series circuit. condition for the two branch Fig. 11.41
(c) Define the Q factor for the series resonant circuit currents, IL and IC to be in
and express it in terms of the circuit parameters. quadrature.
(d) What is the relationship between bandwidth and 12. The shape of a resonance curve depends on Q of the
quality factor for an RLC circuit? coil. Why?
Or, 13. Derive an expression for the resonant frequency of
f −f 1 a parallel circuit consisting of an inductance L and
Show that 2 1 = Or, resistance R in one branch and a capacitance C in the
f0 Q0
other.
Resonant frequency 14. A coil of resistance R and inductance L is shunted by a
quality factor =
Bandwidth capacitor. Shoe that for rejector (parallel) resonance, the
where, f2 and f1 are half-power frequencies, f0 is the L
effective resistance is . Show also that the circulat-
resonant frequency and Q0 is the Q factor at CR
resonant frequency.
C
(e) Show that (i) f1f2 f02 and (ii) f12 f22 2 f02 ing current is V so long as the resistance is small.
L
where f0 is the resonance frequency and f1, f2 are the half- Or,
power frequencies of a series resonant circuit A resistive inductive coil is connected in parallel with
5. (a) Define selectivity and half-power frequency. a condenser and the combination is connected with a
(b) Show that a circuit must have a large value of Q0 (Q sinusoidal emf. Derive the expression for current flow-
factor at resonance frequency) to be highly selective. ing through the two branches and hence find the con-
6. Prove that in a series resonant circuit, the voltage dition for obtaining the minimum input current and
across a capacitor and inductor is Q factor times the the value of the maximum impedance of the circuit.
supply voltage. 15. A series combination of a capacitance C and resistance
7. In a series RLC circuit, the voltage across L and C at RC is shunted by an inductive coil having resistance RL
resonance may exceed even the supply voltage. Why? and inductance L and the combination is connected
8. (a) Describe the phenomenon of resonance in parallel to an ac source. Derive the expression for the resonant
circuits and explain its Q factor. frequency of the circuit. Also, show that the imped-
ance of the circuit will be independent of frequency
(b) Prove that the Q factor of a parallel resonant circuit
(or, the circuit will be under resonant condition at any
is reciprocal of that for a series resonant circuit.
L
(c) Find an expression for impedance at the antireso- frequency) if RC = R L = .
nance of a parallel tuned circuit and also sketch the C
variation of the impedance of the same circuit with 16. (a) Show that the sum of energy stored by the inductor
frequency. and the capacitor connected in series at resonance
9. (a) Compare the properties of series and parallel at any instant is constant and is given by LI 2.
resonance. (b) Show that the sum of the energy stored by the
(b) The series resonant circuit is often regarded as the inductor and the capacitor in a parallel RLC circuit
acceptor circuit and the parallel resonant as the at any instant is constant at resonance frequency
rejector circuit. Explain. and is equal to CV 2.
681
Resonance
1. A high Q coil has 10. A choke coil having a resistance R and an inductance L
(i) large bandwidth (ii) high losses in series with R is shunted by a capacitor. The dynamic
(iii) low losses (iv) flat response impedance of the resonant circuit would be
2. The Q of a circuit can be increased by (i)
R (ii) C
LC RL
(i) increasing the bandwidth
(ii) decreasing the bandwidth (iii) L (iv) 1
RC RLC
(iii) increasing R
(iv) by none of the above 11. The dynamic resistance of a parallel resonant circuit is
given by
3. In a parallel RLC circuit, the quality factor at resonance
LC
is given by (i) (ii) LCRL
RL
L C
(i) R (ii) R C L
C L (iii) (iv)
LR L CR L
1 L 1 C
(iii) (iv) 12. The quality factor of an RLC circuit will increase if the
R C R L (i) R decreases (ii) R increases
4. In a series RLC circuit, the maximum voltage across the (iii) voltage increases
inductor occurs at a frequency 13. Resonant frequency fr of a series LRC circuit is related
(i) equal to resonant frequency to half-power frequencies f1 and f2 as
(ii) less than resonant frequency
(iii) greater than resonant frequency (i) f r = (f 1
+ f2 ) (ii) f = f f
2 r 1 2
5. An RLC series circuit consists of a resistance of 1kilo-
( )
2
ohm, an inductance of 0.1 H and a capacitance of 10 (iii) fr f2 f1 (iv) f r = f1 + f2
micro micro-farad. The Q-factor of the circuit will be
(i) 100 (ii) 50 14. In an RLC series resonant circuit, the ratio of the current
1 at half-power point to the current at resonance is
(iii) 10 (iv)
100 1
(i) ½ (ii)
2
6. A capacitor of 0.01 farad has a leakage resistance of
100 ohms across its terminals. The quality factor of it (iii) 1 (iv) 2
at 10rad/s should be 15. In an RLC series resonant circuit, at half-power points
1 (i) the current is half of the current at resonance
(i) (i) 1 (ii) the impedance is half the impedance at reso-
10
nance
(iii) 10 (iv) 100 (iii) the resistance is equal to the resultant reac-
7. An RLC resonant circuit has a resonant fre- tances
quency of 1.5 MHz and a bandwidth of (iv) none of the above is true
10 kHz. If C 150 F, then the effective resistance of 16. The quality factor of series RLC increases if
the circuit will be (i) R decreases
(i) 29.5 (ii) 14.75 (ii) R increases
(iii) 9.4 (iv) 4.7 (iii) impedance increases
8. In a parallel RLC circuit, if L 4 H, C 0.25 F and R (iv) voltage increases
40 then the value of Q at resonance will be 17. Consider the following statements with respect to a
(i) 1 (ii) 10 series RLC circuit under resonance condition
(iii) 20 (iv) 40. 1. All the applied voltage appears across R.
9. In an RLC parallel circuit, at resonance the circuit is 2. There is no voltage across either L or C.
(i) purely resistive (ii) purely inductive 3. The voltage across L and C are equal and equal to
(iii) purely capacitive (iv) none of these their maximum values.
682
Of these statements, (iii) will change the maximum value of current
(i) 1 alone is correct (ii) 2 alone is correct (iv) will increase the selectivity of the circuit
(iii) 1 and 3 are correct (iv) 1 and 2 are correct. 23. A circuit with a resistor, inductor and capacitor in
18. An RLC series circuit has f1 and f2 as the half-power series is resonant of f0 Hz. If all the component values
frequencies and f0 as the resonant frequency. The are now doubled, the new resonant frequency is
Q-factor of the circuit is given by (i) 2f0 (ii) still f0
f +f f −f
(i) 1 2 (ii) 1 0 (iii) f 0 (iv) f 0
2f 0 f2 − f0 4 2
f0 f2 − f1 24. Voltage across capacitor in RLC series circuit is maxi-
(iii) (iv) mum
f2 − f1 f0
(i) at resonance
19. When Q-factor of a circuit is high then (ii) just before resonance
(i) power factor of the circuit is high (iii) just after resonance
(ii) impedance of the circuit is high (iv) much after resonance
(iii) bandwidth is large 25. The current magnification of a parallel resonant cir-
(iv) none of these cuit with lossless capacitor is
20. Consider the following statements regarding the fre- 1 C
(i) C (ii)
quency response curves of a series RLC circuit:
RL R L
1. At half-power frequencies, the current in the circuit
is one-half of the current at resonant frequency. 1 L
(iii) (iv) RC
2. At half-power frequencies, the power factor angle R C L
of the circuit is 45 .
26. The current magnification of a series resonant circuit is
3. At resonant frequency, the power factor angle of
(i) unity (ii) zero
the circuit is 90 .
4. Maximum power occurs at resonant frequency. L L
(iii) (iv)
R R
Of these statements
(i) 1, 2 and 4 are correct 27. In a series RLC circuit excited by a voltage e E sin ␻t,
1
(ii) 1, 2 and 3 are correct where LC < 2
(iii) 2 and 4 are correct
(iv) 1 and 4 are correct (i) current lags the applied voltage
21. Consider the following statements about the quality (ii) current leads the applied voltage
factor of an RLC circuit: (iii) current is in phase with the applied voltage
1. For the critically damped circuit, the quality factor (iv) voltages across L and C are equal
Q = 1/2. 28. Consider the following statements:
2. Higher the value of quality factor, higher will be In a network at resonance,
the bandwidth of the circuit. 1. the admittance is maximum
3. Higher the value of the quality factor, lower will be 2. the power factor is unity irrespective of the net-
the bandwidth of the circuit. work
4. For under-damped circuits, the value of Q is greater 3. the Q of a series RLC resonant circuit is indepen-
than ½. dent of R
Which of these statements are correct? Of these statements,
(i) 1 and 2 (ii) 1 and 3 (i) 1 and 3 are correct
(iii) 2 and 4 (iv) 1, 3 and 4. (ii) 1 and 2 are correct
22. In a series resonance circuit, increasing inductance (iii) 2 and 3 are correct
to twice its value and reducing capacitance to half its (iv) 1 alone is correct.
value 29. For a series RLC circuit, the power factor at the lower
(i) will change its resonance frequency half-power frequency is
(ii) will change the impedance at resonance fre- (i) 0.5 lagging (ii) 0.5 leading
quency (iii) unity (iv) 0.707 leading
683
Resonance
30. An electric circuit contains R, L and C in series with 34. In a series RLC circuit at resonance
a voltage source. The current through the circuit at (i) impedance is maximum
resonant frequency is I0. The frequencies at which the (ii) admittance is maximum
current would reduce to 0.707I0 is given by f01 and f02. (iii) impedance is purely reactive
The resonant frequency of the circuit is the (iv) current is minimum
(i) geometric mean of f01 and f02 35. A series resonant circuit implies
(ii) arithmetic mean of f01 and f02 (i) zero pf and maximum current
(iii) difference of f01 and f02 (ii) unity pf and maximum current
(iv) harmonic mean of f01 and f02 (iii) unity pf and minimum current
31. Consider the following statements regarding the situ- (iv) zero pf and minimum current
ation at resonant frequency. 36. A series RLC circuit will have unity power factor if
1. For a series RLC circuit, current is minimum. operated at a frequency of
2. For a series RLC circuit, voltage across C is mini- 1
mum. (i) 1 (ii)
3. For a series RLC circuit, current is maximum. LC LC
4. For a parallel RLC circuit, total impedance is maxi- 1 1
(iii) (iv)
mum. 2
LC 2 LC
Of these statements, 37. Which of the following coils will have large resonant
(i) 1 and 2 are correct (ii) 2 and 3 are correct frequency?
(iii) 3 and 4 are correct (iv) 1 and 4 are correct. (i) A coil with low resistance
32. A parallel circuit consists of two branches. One branch (ii) A coil with large resistance
has RL and L connected in series, and the other has (iii) A coil with large distributed capacitance
RC and C connected in series. Consider the following (iv) A coil with low distributed capacitance
statements: 38. In a series resonant circuit, with the increase in L
1. The two branch currents will be in quadrature if (i) resonant frequency will decrease
L (ii) bandwidth will decrease
R L RC =
C . (iii) Q will increase
2. The impedance of the whole circuit is indepen- (iv) all of the above
1 39. In an RLC parallel circuit, the line current at resonance is
dent of frequency, if RL RC and = . (i) minimum at unity power factor
LC
(ii) minimum at lagging power factor
3. The circuit is in resonance for all the frequencies
(iii) maximum at leading power factor
if RL RC.
(iv) maximum at lagging power factor
4. The two branch currents will be in phase at
1 40. Which of the following statements is incorrect for par-
= allel resonance?
LC . (i) The power factor is unity
Of these statements, (ii) The current at resonance is minimum
(i) 1 and 2 are correct (iii) The impedance at resonance is minimum
(ii) 2 and 3 are correct (iv) The susceptance of the circuit is zero
(iii) 1 and 3 are correct 41. A series RLC circuit is excited by an ac voltage
(iv) 3 and 4 are correct v(t) 1 sin t. If L 10 H and C 0.1 F then the peak
33. At resonant frequency, an RLC series circuit draws value of the voltage across R will be
maximum current due to the reason that (i) 0.707
(i) the difference between capacitance reactance (ii) 1
and inductance reactance is zero (iii) 1.414
(ii) the impedance is more than the resistance (iv) indeterminate as the value of R is not known
(iii) the voltage across the capacitor equals the 42. In the given circuit, at resonance, IR ampere is equal to
applied voltage (i) 0 (ii) 10
(iv) the power factor is less than unity (iii) 5 (iv) 0.5
684
(iii) 2 and 3 are correct
(iv) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
5A R 0.5 H 50 μF 48. In a series resonant circuit, which one of the follow-
IR ing will increase on increasing the inductance to four
times its value and reducing the capacitance to one-
Fig. 11.42 fourth of its value?
(i) Resonant frequency
43. At resonance, the parallel circuit (ii) Current at resonant frequency
constituted by an iron-cored coil (iii) Impedance at resonant frequency
and a capacitor behaves like RL (iv) Selectivity of the circuit
(i) an open-circuit C
49. A series RLC circuit draws current at leading power
(ii) a short-circuit
L factor at
(iii) a pure resistor of value R
(iv) a pure resistor of value (i) the resonant frequency
much higher than R Fig. 11.43 (ii) frequencies less than the resonant frequency
(iii) frequencies more than the resonant frequency
44. In a series RLC high Q circuit, the
current peaks at a frequency (iv) frequencies both less and more than the reso-
(i) equal to the resonant frequency nant frequency
(ii) greater than the resonant frequency 50. For the circuit shown
(iii) less than the resonant frequency in Fig. 11.45, if R
(iv) none of the above is true 10 , XL 0.1 and R XL
I XC
XC 0.1 , then the
I
current through R is
I2
I1 (i) 0
2 (ii) 10I Fig. 11.45
+ (iii) I
V C
_ (iv) 0.1I
1 51. The quality factor of a series RC circuit is
(i)
Fig. 11.44 RC
45. For the given ac circuit if the value of C is chosen such (ii) ␻RC
that V and I are in phase then I1 leads I2 by an angle (iii) C
R
given by
(i) 0 (ii) 45 (iv) 1
(iii) 90 (iv) 135 RC
46. The quality factor of a series circuit consisting of 52. A series RLC circuit under resonance condition is
20- resistance, 0.05-H inductance and 1 F capaci- called
tance is (i) an oscillator circuit
(i) 20.15 (ii) 11.2 (ii) a rejecter circuit
(iii) 8.7 (iv) 4.5 (iii) an acceptor circuit
47. Consider the following statements: (iv) none of these
A circuit is said to be in resonance when the 53. The value of Z in figure
1. current delivered by the source is in phase with the which is most appropri- 5⍀
source voltage ate to cause parallel res-
2H Z
2. load current is in phase with the load voltage onance at 500 Hz is
3. power factor of the circuit is unity (i) 125.00 mH
Of these statements, (ii) 304.20 F
Fig. 11.46
(i) 1 and 3 are correct (iii) 2.0 F
(ii) 1 and 2 are correct (iv) 0.05 F
685
Resonance
54. The circuit shown in Fig. 11.47 is I (iii) 3 rad/s
energized by a sinusoidal volt- (iv) 4 rad/s
age source V1 at a frequency V2
0.1H
which causes resonance with a V1
current of I. VC
The phasor diagram which is 1F 1⍀

Fig. 11.47
applicable to this circuit is
(i)
I V2 V1 Fig. 11.48
Vc 56. A series RLC circuit has a resonance frequency of 1 kHz
(ii) I and a quality factor Q 100. If each R, L and C is dou-
bled from its original value, the new Q of the circuit is
V2 (i) 25 (ii) 50
(iii) 100 (iv) 200
VC V1 57. Consider the following statements S1 and S2.
S1: At the resonant frequency the impedance of a
(iii) V1 (iv) V1 series R-L-C circuit is zero.
VC
V2 S2: In a parallel G-L-C circuit, increasing the conduc-
V2 I
tance G results in increase in its Q factor.
I Which one of the following is correct?
VC (i) S1 is FALSE and S2 is TRUE.
55. The resonant frequency for the given circuit will be (ii) Both S1 and S2 are TRUE.
(i) 1 rad/s (iii) S1 is TRUE and S2 is FALSE.
(ii) 2 rad/s (iv) Both S1 and S2 are FALSE.
Answers
1. (iii) 13. (ii) 25. (iii) 37. (iv) 49. (i)
2. (ii) 14. (ii) 26. (i) 38. (iv) 50. (iv)
3. (ii) 15. (iv) 27. (ii) 39. (i) 51. (ii)
4. (iii) 16. (i) 28. (ii) 40. (iii) 52. (iii)
5. (i) 17. (i) 29. (iv) 41. (iv) 53. (iv)
6. (i) 18. (iii) 30. (i) 42. (ii) 54. (iii)
7. (iv) 19. (iv) 31. (iii) 43. (iii) 55. (iv)
8. (ii) 20. (iii) 32. (ii) 44. (iv) 56. (i)
9. (i) 21. (iv) 33. (i) 45. (i) 57. (iii)
10. (iii) 22. (iv) 34. (ii) 46. (i) 58. (ii)
11. (iv) 23. (iv) 35. (ii) 47. (ii) 59. (iv)
12. (i) 24. (ii) 36. (iv) 48. (iv)
12 Network Functions and
Their Time-Domain and
Frequency-Domain Response
Introduction
In any network, the functions relating the voltages and currents at different parts of the network are
known as network functions. These functions act as operators which relate the response of the network
to the source of the network.
In this chapter, the concept of impedance and admittance functions is discussed. Also, the time-
domain and frequency domain behaviours of the systems are studied.
12.1 TERMINAL AND TERMINAL PAIRS

A general network is represented by a box. If a conductor is connected to a node of the network and is brought
out of the network for access then the end of this conductor is called a terminal.
A pair of terminals is commonly known as a port, across which a device can be connected.
Figure 12.1 shows a one-port and a two-port networks.
Figure 12.1 (c) shows a general n-port network. Here, the driving force (energy source) may be connected to
one or more ports.
2 3
Port 2 Port 3
2 3
1 4
Port 1 Port 4
1 4
1 2
1 Network
Network n n
2 1 2
Port n
Fig. 12.1 (a) One-port network Fig. 12.1 (b) Two-port network Fig. 12.1 (c) General n-port network
687
Network Functions and Their Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Response
12.2 NETWORK FUNCTIONS FOR A ONE-PORT NETWORK

For a one-port network with zero initial condition and with no internal voltage or current source except the
dependent sources, the transform impedance Z(s) is defined as the ratio of the transform voltage V(s) to the
V s ( ).
transform current I(s) at the port, i. e., Z s =() I (s)
()
I s
The transform admittance is the reciprocal of the transform impedance, i. e., Y s = () 1
= .
() ()
Z s V s
12.3 NETWORK FUNCTIONS FOR TWO-PORT NETWORKS

Two-port network functions are broadly divided into two groups:
(I) Transfer function, and
(II) Driving point function.
12.3.1 Transfer Function

It is defined as the ratio of an output transform to an input transform, with zero initial condition and with no
internal energy sources except the controlled sources.
For a two-port network, having the variables I1(s), I2(s), V1(s), and V2(s), the transfer function can take the
following four forms:
V1 ( s ) V (s)
Voltage transfer function G12 ( s ) = ; G21 ( s ) = 2
V2 ( s ) V1 ( s )
I1 ( s ) I2 (s)
Current transfer function 12
(s) = ; 21
(s) =
I2 (s) I1 ( s )
V1 ( s ) V (s)
Transfer impedance function Z12 ( s ) = ; Z 21 ( s ) = 2
I2 (s) I1 ( s )
I1 ( s ) I (s)
Transfer admittance function Y12 ( s ) = ; Y21 ( s ) = 2
V2 ( s ) V1 ( s )
Note i) For a one-port network, Z(s) 1/Y(s); but for a two-port network, in general Z12 1/Y12; G12 1/ 12 .
ii) Z and Y functions will become z and y parameters under the conditions of open-circuits or short-circuits.
12.3.2 Driving Point Function

It takes two forms
Driving Point Impedance [Z(s)] For a two-port network in zero state with no internal energy sources, the
driving point impedance is the ratio of transform voltage at any port to the transform current at the same port.
V1 ( s ) V (s)
Z11 ( s ) = ; Z 22 ( s ) = 2
I1 ( s ) I2 (s)
688
Driving Point Admittance [Y(s)] For a two-port network in zero state with no internal energy sources, the
driving point admittance is the ratio of transform current at any port to the transform voltage at the same port.
I (s) I (s)
Y11 ( s ) = 1 ; Y22 ( s ) = 2
V1 ( s ) V2 ( s )
Note (i) Driving point impedance and admittance functions together are known as immittance function.
(ii) Z and Y functions will become z and y parameters under the conditions of open-circuits or short-circuits.
12.4 POLES AND ZEROS OF NETWORK FUNCTIONS

We consider a network function given by the ratio of two polynomials as
an s n + an−1 s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0
()
F s =
bm s m + bm−1 s m−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s 2 + b1 s + b0
(12.1)
It is often convenient to factor the polynomials in the numerator and denominator, and to write the transfer
function in terms of those factors:
( ) = K ( s − z )( s − z )⋅⋅⋅( s − z )
N s
()
F s =
D( s )
1 2 n
( s − p )( s − p )⋅⋅⋅( s − p )
1 2 m
(12.2)
where, the numerator and denominator polynomials, N(s)and D(s), have real coefficients defined by the sys-
a
tem’s differential equation and K = n is a positive constant, known as scale factor.
bm
From Eq. (12.2), we observe the following:
At s zi, i 1,2,3, , n the numerator polynomial N(s) 0; these complex frequencies are known as the
zeros of the network function F(s). At zeros, the value of the network function is zero, i.e., Lim F s = 0.
s → zi
()
At s pi, i 1,2,3, , m, the denominator polynomial D(s) 0; these complex frequencies are known as the
()
poles of the network function F(s). At poles, the value of the network function is infinity, i.e., Lim F s = ∞.
s → pi
At any frequencies other than poles and zeros, the network function has a finite zero value. The values
of poles and zeros of F(s) and their locations in the s-plane completely specify a network function. All the
coefficients of polynomials N(s) and D(s) are real, therefore the poles and zeros must be either purely real,
or appear in complex conjugate pairs. In general for the poles, either pi i, or else pi, pi 1 i j i.The
existence of a single complex pole without a corresponding conjugate pole would generate complex coef-
ficients in the polynomial D(s). Similarly, the system zeros are either real or appear in complex conjugate
pairs.
The poles and zeros are properties of the transfer function, and therefore of the differential equation describ-
ing the input–output system dynamics. Together with the gain constant K they completely characterize the dif-
ferential equation, and provide a complete description of the system.
2
Example 12.1 A linear system is described by the differential equation, d y + 5 dy + 6 y = 2 du + 1
2
dt dt dt
Find the system poles and zeros.
689
2s +1
Solution From the differential equation the transfer function is F s = ()
s + 5s + 6 2
⎡ s+ 1 ⎤
2s +1
which may be written in factored form as F s = 2 () 1
= ⎢ 2 ⎥
(
s + 5s + 6 2 ⎢ s + 3 s + 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
)( )
The system therefore has a single real zero at s = − 1 and a pair of real poles at s 3 and s 2.
2
Example 12.2 A system has a pair of complex conjugate poles p1 , p2 1 j2 , a single real zero z1
4, and a gain factor k 3. Find the differential equation representing the system.
Solution The network function is
(s − z) s − ( −4 ) s+4 s+4
F (s) = K =3 =3 =3 2
( s − p1 )( s − p2 ) {s − ( −1 − j 2 )}{s − ( −1 + j 2 )} ( s + 1 − j 2 )( s + 1 − j 2 ) s + 2s + 5
d2 y dy du
and the differential equation is + 2 + 5 y = 3 + 12
dt 2 dt dt
12.5 POLE ZERO DIAGRAM

The plot of poles and zeros of a network function in the s-plane is generally termed as pole-zero configuration
or p–z pattern or pole–zero diagram or pole-zero plot of the network function.
A system is characterized by its poles and zeros in the sense that they allow reconstruction of the input/output
differential equation. In general, the poles and zeros of a network function may be complex, and the system dynam-
ics may be represented graphically by plotting their locations on the complex s-plane, whose axes represent the real
and imaginary parts of the complex variable s. Such plots are known as pole–zero plots.
It is usual to mark a zero location by a circle (O) and a pole location by a cross (×). The location of the poles and
zeros provide qualitative insights into the response characteristics of a system. Many computer programs are avail-
able to determine the poles and zeros of a system from either the network function or the system state equations.
Example 12.3 Draw the pole–zero plot of the network function given as j
s-plane
s−a
F( s) =
a
, where, a, b1, and b2 are positive constants.
( s − b1 )( s + b 2 ) b2 b1
Solution The zero is at s a and the poles are at s b1 and s b2. Fig. 12.2 Pole –zero plot
The pole-zero plot is shown in Fig. 12.2. of Example 12.3
12.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF POLES AND ZEROS

The significance of poles and zeros for different types of network functions are explained below.
V s ()
For Driving Point Impedance Functions Here, the network function is F s = Z s = () ()
At poles, Z(s) and at zeros, Z(s) 0.
I s ()
Therefore, poles of Z(s) imply–zero current for a finite voltage, i.e., open-circuit, and
zeros of Z(s) imply–zero voltage for a finite current, i.e., short-circuit.
Thus, a one-port network has an open-circuit at pole-frequencies and a short-circuit at zero-frequencies.
690
()
I s
For Driving Point Admittance Functions Here, the network function is F s = Y s = () () V (s)
At poles, Y(s) , which implies zero voltage for a finite current, i.e., short-circuit, and at zeros, Y(s) 0,
which implies zero current for a finite voltage, i.e., open-circuit.
For Transfer Functions We consider a voltage ratio transfer function,
()
V2 s
()
G21 s =
V (s)
()
∴ V2 s = G21 s V1 s () ()
1
If the input V1(s) or v1(t) is given and G21(s) is known, the output V2(s) or v2(t) can be obtained as follows:
n
Ki m Kj
() () ()
V2 s = G21 s V1 s = ∑ +∑
(
i =1 s − pi )
j =1 s − p
j ( )
where, n and m are the number of poles of G21(s) and V1(s), respectively.
Taking inverse Laplace transform, the output voltage is
⎡ n K m Kj ⎤ n m
() () ()
v2 t = L−1 ⎡⎣G21 s V1 s ⎤⎦ = L−1 ⎢ ∑ i
+∑ ⎥ = ∑ K e pit + ∑ K e p j t
⎣
(
⎢ i =1 s − pi )
j =1 s − p ( ⎥ i =1
j ⎦ )
i
j =1
j
The frequencies pi are the natural frequencies of free oscillations. These frequencies depend entirely upon the
network transfer function G21(s).
The frequencies pj are the frequencies of forced oscillations, which depend entirely upon the source V1(s).
Thus, the poles determine the time-variation of the response, while the zeros determine the magnitudes of
the response (given by the magnitudes of coefficients Ki and K j).
For Other Network Functions Significance of poles and zeros in other network functions, namely, Y21(s),
Z21(s) and 21(s) is the same as discussed for voltage transfer ratio, G21(s).
12.7 NATURAL RESPONSE AND NATURAL FREQUENCIES

The natural response or source-free response of a network is the response with no source excitation; it is the
response of the network to its initial conditions. This response is also known as the transient response.
The natural response of a system is also described as the response to unit impulse excitation. It is character-
ized by the natural frequencies of oscillation of the system.
We consider a driving-point impedance function as
V s () ( )( ) (
s − z1 s − z2 ⋅⋅⋅ s − zn )
()
Z11 s = 1 = K (12.3)
I1 s() ( )( ) (
s − p1 s − p2 ⋅⋅⋅ s − pm )
For two different cases, two different natural frequencies are defined.
12.7.1 Open-Circuit Natural Frequencies (OCNF)
If I1 0, i.e., the input is open-circuited, then from Eq. (12.3), V1 0 unless Z11(s) is infinite. Therefore, with
input open-circuited, for a voltage to exist, it is necessary that Z11(s) is infinite.
In this case, the poles of Z11(s), i.e., p1, p2, …, pm are known as the open-circuit natural frequencies (OCNF)
of the network.
691
12.7.2 Short-Circuit Natural Frequencies (SCNF)

If V1 0, i.e., the input is short-circuited, then from Eq. (12.3), I1 will be zero unless Z11(s) is zero. Therefore, with
input short-circuited, for a current to exist, it is necessary that Z11(s) is zero.
In this case, the zeros of Z11(s), i.e., z1, z2, …, zn are known as the short-circuit natural frequencies (SCNF) of
the network.
We conclude that
(i) the poles of an impedance function are OCNF of the network
(ii) the zeros of an impedance function are SCNF of the network
(iii) the poles of an admittance function are SCNF of the network
(iv) the zeros of an admittance function are OCNF of the network
12.8 RELATION BETWEEN POLE POSITION, NATURAL RESPONSE AND STABILITY

12.8.1 Pole Position and Natural Response
As the transfer function completely represents a system differential equation, its poles and zeros effectively
define the system response. In particular, the system poles directly define the components in the homogeneous
or natural response. The unforced or natural response of a linear BIBO system to a set of initial conditions is
n
()
y t = ∑ Ki e it (12.4)
i =1
where, the constants Ki are determined from the given set of initial conditions and the exponents i are the
roots of the characteristic equation of the system. The characteristic equation is
()
D s = an s n + an−1 s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a1 s + a0 (12.5)
and its roots are the system poles, that is i pi.

Therefore, the natural response may be written as
n
()
y t = ∑ Ki e
pi t
(12.6)
i =1
12.8.2 Pole Position and System Stability

The stability of a linear system may be determined directly from its transfer function. An nth order linear system
is asymptotically stable only if all of the components in the homogeneous response from a finite set of initial
conditions decay to zero as time increases, i.e.,
n
Lim ∑ Ki e i = 0
pt
t →∞ i =1
(12.7)
where pi are the system poles. In a stable system, all components of the homogeneous response must decay to
zero as time increases. If any pole has a positive real part, there is a component in the output that increases
without bound, causing the system to be unstable.
For a linear system to be stable, all of its poles must have negative real parts, i.e., they must lie within the left-
half of the s-plane.
A system having one or more poles lying on the imaginary axis of the s-plane has non-decaying oscillatory
components in its natural response, and is defined as a marginally stable system.
692
The location of the poles in the s-plane therefore defines the n components in the homogeneous response
and the stability of the system as described below:
1. A real pole pi in the left-half of the s-plane defines an exponentially decaying component, Ke t,
in the homogeneous response. The rate of the decay is determined by the pole location; poles far from
the origin in the left-half plane correspond to components that decay rapidly, while poles near the origin
correspond to slowly decaying components. In this case, the system is a stable system.
2. A pole at the origin pi 0 defines a component that is constant in amplitude and defined by the initial
conditions. In this case, the system is a marginally stable system.
3. A real pole in the right-half s-plane corresponds to an exponentially increasing component Ke t in the homo-
geneous response; thus defining the system to be unstable. In this case, the system is an unstable system.
4. A complex conjugate pole pair ( j ) in the left-half of the s-plane combine to generate a response
component that is a decaying sinusoid of the form Ae t sin( t )where A and are determined by
the initial conditions. The rate of decay is specified by ; the frequency of oscillation is determined by .
The system is a stable system.
5. An imaginary pole pair, i.e., a pole pair lying on the imaginary axis, ± j , generates an oscillatory component
with a constant amplitude determined by the initial conditions. The system is a marginally stable system
6. A complex pole pair in the right half-plane generates an exponentially increasing component. The system
is an unstable system.
These results are summarized in Fig. 12.3.
J (s)
R (s)
0
Stable region Unstable region
Fig. 12.3 Pole position and system stability
12.9 RESTRICTION ON THE LOCATION OF THE POLES AND ZEROS IN THE s-PLANE
().
N s
We consider a network function, ()
F s =
D( s )
1. The coefficients in the polynomials N(s) and D(s) must be real and positive.
2. Complex and imaginary poles must be conjugate.
3. The real part of all poles and zeros must either be negative or zero. Thus, all poles and zeros must lie on
the left half of the s-plane or on the imaginary axis.
4. If the real part of any pole or zero is zero then that pole or zero must be simple, not repeated. This
includes the origin.
5. Polynomials N(s) and D(s) must not have missing terms between those of highest and lowest order unless
all even terms or all odd terms are missing.
6. The degree of N(s) and D(s) may differ by zero or one only.
7. The lowest degree of N(s) and D(s) may differ by one at most.
693
12.10 NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR DRIVING POINT FUNCTIONS

(RESTRICTION ON POLE-ZERO LOCATIONS IN THE s-PLANE
FOR DRIVING POINT FUNCTIONS)
3. The real part of all poles and zeros must either be negative or zero. Thus, all poles and zeros must lie on
the left half of the s-plane or on the imaginary axis.
4. If the real part of any pole or zero is zero then that pole or zero must be simple, not repeated. This includes
the origin.
5. Polynomials N(s) and D(s) must not have missing terms between those of highest and lowest degree
unless all even terms or all odd terms are missing.
6. The degree of N(s) and D(s) may differ by zero or one only.
7. The lowest degree of N(s) and D(s) may differ by one at most.
12.10.1 Explanations of the Conditions

The Coefficients in the Polynomials N(s) and D(s) Must be Real and Positive Any network function
may be written as
a s n + a s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0
()
F s = n m n−1 m−1
bm s + bm−1 s + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s 2 + b1 s + b0
(12.1)
where the coefficients a’s and b’s are real and positive. Hence, as s is real, N(s) and D(s) will also be real.
Complex and Imaginary Poles Must be Conjugate Let N(s) have a pair of conjugate zeros given as
( a jb) and ( a jb). () ( )( ) ( )

2
(
∴ N s = s + a + jb s + a − jb = s + a + b 2 = s 2 + 2 as + a 2 + b 2 )
This N(s) is real function as both a and b are real.
Now, let N(s) have two complex zeros ( a jb) and ( c jb) which are not conjugate.
Then, () ( )( ) ( ) (
∴ N s = s + a + jb s + c + jd = s + ⎡⎣ a + c + j b + d ⎤⎦ s + ⎡⎣ ac − bd + j bc + ad ⎤⎦
2
)
which is not a real function. Hence such zeros are inadmissible in network functions.
Therefore, we conclude that in a real network function, all complex and/or imaginary zeros and poles must
occur in conjugate pairs.
The Real Part of All Poles and Zeros Must Either be Negative or Zero With two conjugate zeros
( a jb) and ( a jb), the network function is N(s) s2 2as (a2 b2).
In order that N(s) be real, the second term ‘2as’ must be positive or ‘a’ must be positive, i.e., a must be
negative.
This restriction that the real part of a pole and zero be negative or zero, arises from the assumption that
any network constituted by passive elements must be stable; i.e., bounded input must produce bounded output
(BIBO stability).
We consider a driving point impedance Z(s). Let the denominator contain a pole at s s1 ( j ). Then,
the factor (s s1) will cause a time-domain response given as
response, ()
y1 t = A1e 1 = A1e t e j
st t
694
As the network function is real, the denominator must also contain a factor (s s2) where, s2 ( j ). The
corresponding time-domain response is
response, ()
y2 t = A2 e 2 = A2 e t e − j
st t
Combining these two, the total response is given as

response, y(t) y1(t) y2(t) e t [A1e j t A2e j t ] A0e t sin ( t )
From this expression, it is observed that the response must be bounded if 0.
Thus, we conclude that the real parts of all poles and zeros for a driving point function must be either nega-
tive or zero. This means that the poles and zeros must lie on the left half of the s-plane or on the imaginary axis;
no pole or zero should lie on the right half of the s-plane.
If the Real Part of Any Pole or Zero is Zero then that Pole or Zero Must be Simple, not
Repeated For the poles or zeros located on the imaginary axis, the real parts are zero. The restriction for
such poles or zeros is that they must be simple, not multiple or repeated.
This is because if the poles or zeros be of order ‘n’ then the time-domain response contains terms t n 1 and
this term becomes infinite as t → ; resulting in an unstable system.
Therefore, these poles or zeros must be simple.
Polynomials N(s) and D(s) Must not have Missing Terms Between Those of Highest and Lowest
Degree Unless All Even Terms or All Odd Terms are Missing The polynomials N(s) and D(s) have
the factors:
K; (s a); (s2 bs c); (s2 d )
where K, a, b, c and d are all real and positive; ‘a’ can be zero, too.
When the product of these factors is taken, there is no mechanism for a negative sign to be introduced and
the coefficients of all the terms in N(s) and D(s) will be positive and real.
Also, since negative sign cannot be introduced, there exits no chance of cancellation of a positive term with
a negative term. Thus, polynomials N(s) and D(s) have all coefficients non-zero. However, two conditions may
happen:
(i) If the polynomial is composed of factors like (s2 d ) only; the polynomial contains only even-order
terms, all odd-order terms being missing.
(ii) If the polynomial is composed of a simple (not multiple) pole or zero at the origin and other factors like
(s2 d) then the polynomial contains only odd terms, all even-order terms being missing.
The Degree of N(s) and D(s) may Differ by Zero or One Only
We consider the behaviour of a one-port network at very high and very low frequencies.
At Very High Frequencies Here, impedance of an inductor, ZL(s) sL is very large compared to the imped-
ance of any other element. The impedance of a capacitor, ZC s = ()1

sC
is very small and may be neglected.
Hence, at very high frequencies, if a network contains an inductor, the impedance function of the network is
represented by an equivalent inductance Leq as shown in Fig. 12.4 (a). If the network does not contain L then
either the resistor will dominate the impedance function of the network or the equivalent network would be
⎛ 1 ⎞
short circuit ⎜ → 0 as s → ∞⎟ , as shown in Fig. 12.4 (b).
⎝ sC ⎠
695
L eq Req Ceq Geq [ 1/Req ]
Fig. 12.4 (a) Z(s) at Fig. 12.4 (b) Z(s) Fig. 12.4 (c) Y(s) Fig. 12.4 (d) Y(s)
high frequencies with at high frequencies at high frequencies at high frequencies
L present with L absent with C present with C absent
Similarly, at high frequencies, the admittances of an inductor and a capacitor will be,
YL s = ()1
sL
and YC s = sC ()
and thus, YL is very small and YC (s) is very large. Thus, the admittance function may be represented by an
equivalent capacitance Ceq. If the network does not contain a capacitor C then the admittance function may be
⎛ 1 ⎞
represented by a conductance Geq ⎜ = ⎟ or an open circuit.
⎝ Req ⎠
Therefore, we conclude that the equivalent representation of a one-port network at high frequencies involves
at most one kind of element.
At Very Low Frequencies At low frequencies, also, similar considerations may be drawn for impedance
and admittance function of a one-port network.
• Requisite Conditions for a Driving Point Voltage to Assume Equivalent Representation of Fig. 12.4 (a) to (d) We
consider a network function,
an s n + an−1 s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0
()
F s =
bm s m + bm−1 s m−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s 2 + b1 s + b0
(12.1)
The value of the network function F(s) when s → is,

⎡ a s n + a s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0 ⎤ ⎛ an s n ⎞ ⎛a ⎞
()
Lim ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = Lim ⎢ n m n−1 m−1
s →∞ ⎢ b s + b
⎥ = Lim ⎜ m⎟
= Lim ⎜ n ⎟ s n− m
s + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s + b1 s + b0 ⎦⎥ s→∞ ⎝ bm s ⎠ s→∞ ⎝ bm ⎠
2
s →∞
⎣ m m −1
But, we have already established that a one-port network assumes one of the three forms of Fig. 12.4 (a) to (d) at
s →∞
⎣ ⎦ ()
high frequencies (i.e., s → ). Therefore, it is necessary that Lim ⎡ F s ⎤ assumes one of the three forms, namely s,
1 or 1 .
s
n − m ≤1 or, ( n − m) = −1, 0, or 1
where n and m are the degrees of polynomials N(s) and D(s), respectively.
Hence, we conclude that the degrees of the polynomials N(s) and D(s) for a driving point function may differ
by one at most.
Lowest Degree of N(s) and D(s) may Differ by One at Most At low frequencies, as s → 0, the higher
order terms in N(s) and D(s) may be neglected, so that, the network function is
a0 + a1 s + ⋅⋅⋅
()
F s =
b0 + b1 s + ⋅⋅⋅
696
()
For this function to assume one of the four forms given by Fig. 12.4 (a) to (d), it is necessary that, Lim ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦
s →0
is either s, a or 1 .
s
Three possibilities are there:
Case (1) a0 0 and b0 0
⎛ as ⎞ ⎛a ⎞
Here,
s →0
()
Lim ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = Lim ⎜ 1 ⎟ = Lim ⎜ 1 ⎟ s
s →0 ⎝ b + b s ⎠ s →0 ⎝ b ⎠
0 1 0
Thus, the network function F(s) represents

• an inductor, if F(s) is a driving point impedance
• a capacitor, if F(s) is a driving point admittance
Case (2) b0 0 and a0 0
⎛ a s + a0 ⎞ ⎛a ⎞1
Here,
s →0
()
Lim ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = Lim ⎜ 1
s →0 ⎝
⎟ = Lim ⎜ 0 ⎟
b s ⎠ s →0 ⎝ b ⎠ s
1 1
Thus, the network function F(s) represents

• a capacitor, if F(s) is a driving point impedance
• an inductor, if F(s) is a driving point admittance
Case (3) a0 0 and b0 0
⎛ a + a s⎞ a
Here,
s →0
()
Lim ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = Lim ⎜ 0 1 ⎟ = 0
s →0 ⎝ b + b s ⎠ b
0 1 0
Thus, the network function F(s) becomes a constant which represents a resistor.
In all three cases, the difference of the degree of the terms in N(s) and D(s) is either one [Case (1) and
Case (2)] or zero [Case (3)]. Therefore, we conclude that, in any driving point function F(s), the terms of lowest
degree in the numerator and denominator may differ by one at most.
Example 12.4 Verify whether the following network functions represent the driving point immittance:
s 4 + 2 s3 − 2 s + 1 s2 + s + 2
()
(a) F s =
s 3 + s2 − 2 s + 12
()
(b) F s =
s + 5s 3 + 6 s
4
()
(c) F s =
(
s2 s2 − 2 s + 6 ) ()
(d) F s =
s2 + 5s + 4
s+3 s2 + 6 s + 10
s4 + 2s3 − 2s +1
Solution (a) F s = () s 3 + s 2 − 2 s + 12
This function does not represent a driving point function because of the following reasons:
(i) In N(s), one coefficient is negative.
(ii) In D(s), one coefficient is negative.
(iii) In N(s), one coefficient is missing.
(iv) In D(s), by factorization, D(s) (s 3)(s2 2s 4), which has two poles on the right half of the s-plane.
697
s2 + s + 2
()
(b) F s =
s 4 + 5s 3 + 6 s
(i) The difference of degrees of N(s) and D(s) is 2, which is more than the permitted maximum value
of 1.
(ii) In D(s), by factorization, D(s) s2 (s2 5s 6), which has two poles at origin, which is not
allowed.
()
(c) F s =
(
s2 s2 − 2s + 6 )
s+3
(i) The difference of lowest degree terms of N(s) and D(s) is 2, which is more than the permitted maxi-
mum value of 1.
(ii) In N(s), a repeated zero is at origin, which is not allowed.
(iii) In N(s), (s2 2s 6) has two poles in the right-half of the s-plane.
(iv) The difference of degrees of N(s) and D(s) is 3, which is more than the permitted maximum value of 1.
s 2 + 5s + 4
()
(d) F s =
s 2 + 6 s + 10
This function represents driving point function because all conditions are satisfied.
12.11 NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR TRANSFER FUNCTIONS (RESTRICTION ON

POLE-ZERO LOCATIONS IN THE s-PLANE FOR TRANSFER FUNCTIONS)
3. The real part of all poles and zeros must either be negative or zero. Thus, all poles and zeros must lie
on the left half of the s-plane or on the imaginary axis.
4. If the real part of any pole or zero is zero then that pole or zero must be simple, not repeated. This
includes the origin.
5. The polynomial D(s) may not have any missing terms between those of highest and lowest degree
6. The polynomial N(s) may have missing terms between those of highest and lowest degree; some coef-
ficients of N(s) may be negative, too.
7. The degree of N(s) may be as small as zero, independent of the degree of D(s).
8. (a) For the voltage ratio transfer functions, G and current ratio transfer functions, α, the maximum degree
of N(s) is the degree of D(s).
(b) For transfer impedance Z and transfer admittance Y, the maximum degree of N(s) is the degree of
D(s) plus one.
12.12 TIME DOMAIN BEHAVIOUR FROM POLE–ZERO PLOT

The time-domain response of a given network can be determined from the pole-zero plot of the network func-
tion and the knowledge of the network sources.
698
We consider a network function as given in Eq. (12.2), i.e.,

( ) = K ( s − z )( s − z ) ⋅⋅⋅ ( s − z )
N s
F s =() D( s )
1 2 n
(12.2)
( s − p )( s − p ) ⋅⋅⋅ ( s − p )
1 2 m
where, z1, z2, …, zn are the zeros, p1, p2, …, pm are the poles and K is a scale factor.
Assuming all the zeros and poles to be distinct, the network function can be written by partial fraction
expansion as
K1 K2 Km
F s =() +
s − p1 s − p2
+ ⋅⋅⋅+
s − pm
(12.8)
Any of the coefficients can be found by the Heaviside method as
( ) ()
Ki = ⎡⎣ s − pi F s ⎤⎦ = K
pi − z1 pi − z2 pi − z3 ⋅⋅⋅ pi − zn ( )( )( ) ( ) (12.9)
s = pi
( )(
pi − p1 pi − p2 pi − p3 ⋅⋅⋅ pi − pi −1 pi − pi +1 ⋅⋅⋅ pi − pm )( ) ( )( ) ( )
In this equation, pi, zn and pm all are complex numbers. Therefore, the factors like (pi zn) and (pi pm) are the
difference between two complex numbers. This difference can be written as
( p − z )= M ∠
i 1 1i 1i ( p − p )= N ∠
i 1 1i 1i
( p − z )= M ∠
i 2 2i 2i and ( p − p )= N ∠
i 2 2i 2i
(pi zn)
jv
pi
...
...
( p − z )= M ( p − p )= N
Zn
i n ni
∠ ni i m mi
∠ mi
s
0
where, M’s and N’s are the magnitudes of the phasors (pi zn) and (pi pm),
respectively and ’s and ’s are the corresponding phase angles. Fig. 12.5 Determination
of coefficients of K’s
Figure 12.5 shows the difference of two complex quantities in the s-plane.
Now, expressing each term in terms of its magnitude and phase angle, the coefficients can be written as
M1i M 2 i M 3i ⋅⋅⋅ M ni
Ki = K
N1i N 2 i N 3i ⋅⋅⋅ N mi
∠ ( 1i
+ 2i
+ 3i
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ ni )−( 1i
+ 2i
+ 3i
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ mi ) (12.10)
Productof allthe directed linesf romaallzerosto pi

or, Ki = K
Productof allthe directed linesf romother remaining polesto pi
Thus, all coefficients can be found out using Eq. (12.10). The time-domain response can be found out by taking
the inverse Laplace transform,
⎡ K K2 Km ⎤
()
f t = L−1 ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = L−1 ⎢ 1 + ()
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ ⎥
⎣ s − p1 s − p2 s − pm ⎦
Example12.5 Draw poles and zeros for V ( s ) = 2

5s
and evaluate v(t) by making use of a pole–
s + 7 s +12
zero diagram.
Solution ()
V s =
5s
=
5s
s + 7 s + 12 s + 3 s + 4
2
( )( )
The function has a zero at s 0 and two poles at s 3, 4. The pole-zero diagram is shown in Fig. 12.6.
699
To find the inverse Laplace transform of V(s), we use pole–zero diagram. jv

Since the factors (s 3) and (s 4) appear in the denominator polynomial, the
time-domain response will be v(t) K1 e 4t K2e 3t s
The coefficients K1 and K2 are evaluated using the pole–zero diagram. 4 3 0
M1 4 ␪1 180 N1 1 1 180 Fig. 12.6 Pole–zero
5s
4 ∠180 4 ∠180 diagram for
Hence, K1 = K = 5× = 20 ( s + 3)( s + 4 )
1∠180 1∠180
M2 3 ␪1 180 N1 1 01 0
3∠180 3∠180
Hence, K2 = K = 5× = −15
1∠0 1∠0
4t 3t
Substituting the values of K1 and K2 we get v(t) 20e 15e
12.13 FREQUENCY DOMAIN BEHAVIOUR FROM POLE–ZERO PLOT

The steady-state response of a system for a sinusoidal input is known as frequency response. According to
Fourier theorem, any function can be represented as a summation of sinusoids of different amplitudes, phases
and frequencies. Therefore, the response of a network to any arbitrary excitation can be calculated by calculating
the response to each of its sinusoidal components and then applying the superposition theorem.
The plots of the amplitude and phase of the response of a network against radian frequency (␻) are known
as frequency response plots.
12.13.1 Sinusoidal Network Function and Its Amplitude and Phase Plots
Let F(s) be a network function given by Eq. (12.1) as
an s n + an−1 s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0
()
F s =
bm s m + bm−1 s m−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s 2 + b1 s + b0
(12.1)
For sinusoidal steady-state response, we put s j␻ so that the function becomes
( ) + a ( j ) + ⋅⋅⋅+ a ( j ) + a ( j ) + a
n n−1 2
an j
( )
F j = n−1 2 1 0
b ( j ) + b ( j ) + ⋅⋅⋅+ b ( j ) + b ( j ) + b
m m −1 2 (12.11)
m m −1 2 1 0
⎛ a ⎞ ( j − z )( j − z )( j − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( j − z )
or, F( j )=⎜ ⎟ n 1 2 3 n
(12.12)
⎝ b ⎠ ( j − p )( j − p )( j − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( j − p )
m 1 2 3 m
This F( j␻), in general is a complex function and may be written as

F(j␻) Re[F((j␻)] Im[F((j␻)] (12.13)
␾(␻)
or, in polar form, F(j␻) F(j␻) e (12.14)
where, F(j␻) is the magnitude of the network function F(j␻) and ␾(␻) is the phase angle.
( )= {Re ⎡⎣ F ( j )⎤⎦} + {Im ⎡⎣ F ( j )⎤⎦}

2 2
∴F j (12.15a)
700
⎡ Im ⎡ F j ( )⎤⎦ ⎤⎥
( ) = tann −1
⎢ ⎣ (12.15b)
⎢ Re ⎡ F j
⎣ ⎣ ( )⎤⎦ ⎥⎦
A frequency response plot shows the variation of one or more coordinates of the network function F(j ) with .
The four different coordinates are
1. Re[F(j )] versus
2. Im[F(j )] versus
3. F(j ) versus
4. ( ) versus
Note (i) The plot of amplitude and phase of the network function is referred as complex loci plot.
(ii) The plot of magnitude and phase in logarithmic scale is referred as Bode plot.
12.13.2 Complex Locus Plot

For a network function F( j ), having the general form given by Eq. (12.12) and with real and imaginary parts
given by Eq. (12.13), (12.14) and (12.15), the complex locus plot is a plot which describes two informations,
simultaneously, namely,
Im[F( j v)]
(i) the rectangular coordinates Re[F(j )] and Im[F(j )] with as the param- 0 Re[F( j v)]
eter, and
f(v) Locus
(ii) the polar coordinates F(j ) and ( ) with as the parameter.
From Fig. 12.7, it is observed that, for a given frequency , a point P represents P
v
the network function F( j ) Re[F( j )] Im[F( j )] on a complex F( j )-
plane. As is varied, the tip of the point P representing the network function Fig. 12.7 Complex locus
F( j ) moves tracing a locus on the complex frequency plane. This is known as of F( j ) and ( ) with
complex loci. varying
Note The knowledge of complex locus is used to test ‘Nyquist criterion’ and for this reason complex locus is referred
as the ‘Nyquist plot’.
12.13.3 Frequency Response from Pole–Zero Plot or s-plane Phasors

We consider a network function of the general form given by Eq. (12.16) as
( )= K
F j
(j )( j
− z1 )( j
− z2 ) (
− z3 ⋅⋅⋅ j − zn )
( j − p )( j 1
− p )( j 2
− p ) ⋅⋅⋅( j
3
− pm ) (12.16)
where, z1, z2, …, zn are the finite zeros and p1, p2, …, pm are the finite poles.
Each of these factors in the numerator and denominator is a complex quantity, and may be interpreted as
a vector in the s-plane, originating from the point zi or pi and directed to the point j at which the frequency
response is to be evaluated. Each of these vectors from the n-zeros and m-poles to a test point s j has a
magnitude and an angle given as
⎛ − ⎞
( ) ( )
2
j − zi = 2
+ j − = ri ; ∠ j − zi = tan −1 ⎜ zi
⎟=
⎝ −
zi zi i
zi ⎠
701
⎛ − ⎞
( ) ( )
2
j − pi = + j − = qi ; ∠ j − pi = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟=
2 pi
and,
⎝ −
pi pi i
pi ⎠
where, for zero, zi = ( zi
+j zi ) and for a pole, pi = ( pi
+j pi ).
Therefore, the network function may be written as F j ( ) = K Productof allzeroslinesto j
Prodductof allpoleslinesto j
Hence, the magnitude and phase angle of the complete frequency response may be written as
n
∏(j − zi ) r1r2 ⋅⋅⋅ rn

F j( ) =K
Productof allzeroslinesto j
=K i =1
m
=K
q1q2 ⋅⋅⋅ qm
(12.17)
Prod
ductof allpoleslinesto j
∏( j − pi )
i =1
and angle, ∠F j ( ) = (Summation of anglesof the vectorsf romzerosto j -point )

− (Summation of anglesof the vectorsf rompolesto j -point )
n m
(
= ∑ ∠ j − zi − ∑ ∠ j − pi = ) ( ) ( 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ ⋅⋅⋅ + n )−( 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ n ) (12.18)
i =1 i =1
It is explained in Fig. 12.8. j␻

Thus, the network function at any value of jω q1 j ␻1
r2 s-plane
may be determined geometrically from the pole– jv1 ␪1 r
s-plane q21
zero plot, except for the overall gain factor, K. The p1
|
␾1
2
p
␾
magnitude of the function is proportional to the p1 ␴
1
|jv
s z1 0
product of the geometric distances on the s-plane (j v1 p2)
0 ␪2
from each zero to the point jω divided by the prod- p2 p2
uct of the distances from each pole to the point.
The angle of the function is the sum of the angles Fig. 12.8 Frequency response function from pole–zero plot:
of the vectors associated with the zeros minus the (a) Vector from a pole (or zero)
sum of the angles of the vectors associated with (b) Vectors from all poles and zeros
the poles.
• Physical Interpretation of the Frequency Response from Pole–Zero Plot The graphical method
can be very useful for deriving a qualitative picture of a system frequency response.
For example, we consider the sinusoidal response of a first-order system with a pole on the real axis at s = − 1
as shown in Fig. 12.9 a, and its Bode plots in Fig. 12.9 b. Even though the gain constant K cannot be determined
from the pole–zero plot, the following observations may be made directly by noting the behavior of the magnitude
and angle of the vector from the pole to the imaginary axis as the input frequency is varied:
1. At low frequencies, the gain approaches a finite value, and the phase angle has a small but finite lag.
2. As the input frequency is increased, the gain decreases (because the length of the vector increases), and
the phase lag also increases (the angle of the vector becomes larger).
3. At very high input frequencies, the gain approaches zero, and the phase angle approaches ␲/2.
702
jv |H( jv)|
K
K/q1
jv2
s-plane K/q2
q2
q1 0 v
u2 jv1 H( jv) v1 v2
u1 0 v
s
p 1/t 0 u1
u2
90
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.9 The pole-zero plot of a first-order system and its frequency response
functions
As a second example, consider a second-order system, with the damping ratio chosen so that the pair
of complex conjugate poles is located close to the imaginary axis as shown in Fig. 12.10 (a). In this case,
there is a pair of vectors connecting the two poles to the imaginary axis, and the following conclusions
may be drawn by noting how the lengths and angles of the vectors change as the frequency moves up the
imaginary axis:
1. At low frequencies, there is a finite (but undetermined) gain and a small but finite phase lag associated
with the system.
2. As the input frequency is increased and the test point on the imaginary axis approaches the pole, one
of the vectors (associated with the pole in the second quadrant) decreases in length and at some point
reaches a minimum. There is an increase in the value of the magnitude function over a range of frequen-
cies close to the pole.
3. At very high frequencies, the lengths of both vectors tend to infinity, and the magnitude of the frequency
response tends to zero, while the phase approaches an angle of ␲ radians because the angle of each vector
approaches ␲/2.
|H(jv)|
jv
p1 jv 2
v
jv 1 H( jv) v1 v
s v
0
p2 180
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.10 Pole–zero plot of a first-order system and its
frequency response functions
The following generalizations may be made about the sinusoidal frequency response of a linear system,
based upon the geometric interpretation of the pole–zero plot:
1. If a system has an excess of poles over the number of zeros, the magnitude of the frequency response
tends to zero as the frequency becomes large. Similarly, if a system has an excess of zeros, the gain
703
increases without bound as the frequency of the input increases. This cannot happen in physical energetic
systems because it implies an infinite power gain through the system.
2. If a system has a pair of complex conjugate poles close to the imaginary axis, the magnitude of the fre-
quency response has a peak or resonance at frequencies in the proximity of the pole. If the pole pair lies
directly upon the imaginary axis, the system exhibits an infinite gain at that frequency.
3. If a system has a pair of complex conjugate zeros close to the imaginary axis, the frequency response has
a notch in its magnitude function at frequencies in the vicinity of the zero. If the pair of zeros lie directly
upon the imaginary axis, the response is identically zero at the frequency of the zero, and the system does
not respond at all to sinusoidal excitation at that frequency.
4. A pole at the origin of the s-plane (corresponding to a pure integration term in the network function)
implies an infinite gain at zero frequency.
5. Similarly, a zero at the origin of the s-plane (corresponding to a pure differentiation) implies a zero gain
for the system at zero frequency.
Example 12.6 A second-order system has a pair of complex conjugate poles at s 2 j3 and a single
zero at the origin of the s-plane. Find the network function and use the pole–zero plot to evaluate the func-
tion at s 0 j5.
J(s)
Solution From the given data, the network function is obtained as j 5 s-plane
() s s p1 j3
F s =K =K 2
( ( ))( (
s − −2 + j 3 s − −2 − j 3 ))
s + 4 s + 13
2 z1
R(s)
The pole-zero plot is shown in Fig. 12.11. p2 j3

From the figure, the magnitude and phase angle of the network function is obtained as
Fig. 12.11 Pole–
( 0 − 5)
2
zero plot
()
F s =K =K
5
(0 − ( −2 )) + (5 − 3) (0 − ( −2 )) + (5 − ( −3))
2 2 2 2
4 34
⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 8⎞
and phase angle, ()
∠F s = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = −31
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
12.13.4 Asymptotic Change of Magnitude with Frequency in Terms of Poles

and Zeros—Bode Plot
Bode plot or Bode diagram is the curve that provides variation of magnitude and phase of a network function
with frequency in a logarithmic scale.
We consider a network function given as
( ) = K ( s − z )( s − z )( s − z )⋅⋅⋅( s − z )
N s
()
F s =
D( s )
1 2 3 n
( s − p )( s − p )( s − p )⋅⋅⋅( s − p )
1 2 3 m
= F ( s ) ∠F ( s ) = M ∠ = Me j
(12.19)
Taking the natural log,
() () ()
Log e ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = Log e ⎡ F s ∠F s ⎤ = log e ⎡⎣ Me j ⎤⎦
⎣ ⎦
()
ln ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = ln M + j . (12.20)
where, In M is the logarithmic gain or simply gain in neper, and ␾ is the phase angle in radian.
704
Alternately, the gain is expressed in decibel (dB), where, Gain in dB 20 log10 M
Note Relationships (i) Gain in dB 8.68 gain in Neper

(ii) Angle in degree 57.3 angle in radian
• Advantages of Bode Plot

1. The product factors in F( j␻) become additive terms because of the use of logarithm.
2. The shape of the Bode plot is such that for most of the commonly used plots in servo systems, it can
approximately represent the exact function by straight-line aysmptotes.
• Procedure for Bode Plot The way to make Bode plot is
• to split the function into its constituent parts,
• to plot the magnitude and phase of each part, and
• to add them.
The different constituent parts of a network function are
1. A constant term,
2. A real pole,
3. A real zero,
4. A pole at the origin,
5. A zero at the origin,
6. A complex conjugate pair of poles, and
7. A complex conjugate pair of zeros.
For each part, procedure for plotting a Bode plot is explained below.
A constant term Consider a constant term, H(s) H( j␻) K
Magnitude Clearly the magnitude is constant H( j␻) K
Phase The phase is also constant.
Phase is 0 , if K is positive, or any even multiple of 180 .
Phase is 180 , if K is negative or any odd multiple of 180 .
Example 12.7 Plot the Bode diagram for the function H(s) 15.
Solution Here, H(s) 15
H( j␻) 15 23.5 dB H (j␻) 0
The Bode plot is shown in Fig. 12.12.
Bode plot for constant term 50

Phase (degrees)
40
Magnitude (dB)
20 0
0 50
20 100
40 150
60 100 101 102 103
100 101 102 103 Frequency, ␻ (rad/s)
Fig. 12.12 Bode plot of a constant term
705
Key Concept: Bode Plot of Gain Term

• For a constant term, the magnitude plot is a straight line.
• The phase plot is also a straight line, either at 0 (for a positive constant) or 180 (for a negative
constant).
A Real Pole Consider a simple real pole
H s =() 1
s
, H j( )= 1
1+ 1+ j
0 0
The frequency ␻0 is called the break frequency, the corner frequency or the 3 dB frequency.
Magnitude The magnitude is given by
⎛ 2⎞
⎛ ⎞
( )
H j =
1
= −20 log10 ⎜ 12 + ⎜
⎜ ⎝
⎟
⎟ ⎟ , in dB
0⎠
1+ j ⎝ ⎠
0
We consider three cases for the value of the frequency:

Case 1 ␻ ␻0 This is the low-frequency case. We can write an approximation for the magnitude of the
transfer function
⎛ 2⎞
⎛ ⎞
H j ( ) = −20 log10 ⎜ 12 + ⎜
⎜ ⎝ ⎠
⎟
⎟ ⎟ = −20 log10 1 = 0, ⎡⎣() << 0
⎤⎦
⎝ 0
⎠
Case 2 ␻ ␻0 This is the high-frequency case. We can write an approximation for the magnitude of the
transfer function
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
( )
H j = −20 log10 ⎜ 12 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ = −20 log10 ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ = −20 log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎝ 0⎠ ⎟ ⎜ ⎝ 0⎠ ⎟ ⎝ 0⎠
⎡⎣ >> 0 ⎤⎦
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The high-frequency approximation is a straight line
with a slope of 20 dB/decade going through the 20
break frequency at 0 dB. That is, for every factor of 10 Asymptotic High-frequency
increase in frequency, the magnitude drops by 20 dB. 10 approximation
asymptote
Case 3 ␻ ␻0 The break frequency. At this fre- U
Magnitude
quency
10
Low-frequency
⎛ ⎞2
⎛ ⎞ asymptote
( )
H j = −20 log10 ⎜ 12 + ⎜
⎜ ⎝
⎟
⎟ ⎟,
⎠
= 0
20
Break frequency
(3 dB)
⎝ 0
⎠ 30
Exact function
= −20 log10 ( 2 ) = −3.01 dB ≈ 3 dB 40
10 10 1 v 0
(dotted line)
10 2 10 3
This point is shown as a grey circle on the diagram in Frequency, v(rad/s)
Fig. 12.13. Fig. 12.13 Magnitude Bode plot of a real pole
706
To draw a piecewise linear approximation, use the low-frequency asymptote up to the break frequency, and
the high- frequency asymptote thereafter.
The resulting asymptotic approximation is shown by the thick line. The maximum error between the asymptotic
approximation and the exact magnitude function occurs at the break frequency and is approximately 3 dB.
The rule for drawing the piecewise linear approximation for a real pole can be stated thus:
For a simple real pole, the piecewise linear asymptotic Bode plot for magnitude is at 0 dB until the break
frequency and then drops at 20 dB per decade (i.e., the slope is 20 dB/decade).
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
Phase The phase of a single real pole is given by ∠H j ( ) = −∠⎜⎝ 1 + j −1
⎟ = − tan ⎜ ⎟
0⎠ ⎝ 0⎠
We again consider three cases for the value of the frequency:
Case 1 ␻ ␻0 This is the low-frequency case. At these frequencies, we can write an approximation for the
( ) ()
phase of the transfer function ∠H j ≈ − tan −1 0 = 0 = 0 radian
The low-frequency approximation is shown by the straight line in the middle of the diagram in Fig. 12.14.
Case 2 ␻ ␻0 This is the high-frequency case. We can write an approximation for the phase of the transfer
function ∠H j ( ) ≈ − tan (∞ ) = −90
−1
2
=−
radian
The high frequency approximation is as shown by the line at the bottom of the diagram. It is a straight line
with a slope at 90 .
Case 3 ␻ ␻0 At the break frequency, ∠H j( ) ≈ − tan (1) = − 45

−1
=−
4
radian
This point is shown as a circle on the diagram in Fig. 12.14.

A piecewise linear approximation is not as easy in this 90
Piecewise linear Low-frequency
case because the high and low frequency asymptotes do not approximation asymptote
45
intersect. Instead, we use a rule that follows the exact function
Phase
fairly closely, but is also arbitrary. Its main advantage is that it 0

is easy to remember. The rule can be stated as follows: Break-frequency
Follow the low-frequency asymptote until one-tenth the High-frequency
45 asymptote
break frequency (0.1 ␻0 ). Then decrease linearly to meet Exact
the high-frequency asymptote at ten times the break frequency
90
(10␻0 ).
This line is shown in Fig. 12.14. Note that there is no 100 0.1v0 101 v0 10v 103
error at the break frequency and about 5.7 of error at one- Frequency, v(rad/s)
tenth and ten times the break frequency. Fig. 12.14 Phase plot of a real pole
Example 12.8 Real pole
A network function is given as H s = () 1

. Sketch the Bode plot for this function.
1+ s
10
Solution The low-frequency asymptote is the dashed dark grey line, the exact function is the solid black line,
and the dotted line represents 0.
707
Magnitude plot Phase plot

20 45
Phase-degrees
Magnitude-dB 0 0
45
20
90
40 135
1
10 100 101 102 103 10 1
100 101 102 103
1
10 Frequency-v, rad-s
Fig. 12.15 Bode plots of H( s ) =
s + 10
Example 12.9 Repeated real pole
Find the Bode plot for the function, H s = () 1
(1+ s 30)
2
Solution This function has a double pole at 30 radians per second. The slope of the asymptote is −40 dB/
decade and the phase goes from 0 to 180 .
Magnitude plot Phase plot

20 45
Phase-degrees
0
Magnitude-dB
0 45
20 90
35
40 80
60 0 225
10 101 102 103 100 101 102 103
1
1 Frequency-v, rad-s
Fig. 12.16 Bode plots of H( s ) =
(1+ s 30)
2
Key Concept: Bode Plot for Real Pole

(i) For a simple real pole, the piecewise linear asymptotic Bode plot for magnitude is at 0 dB until the break
frequency and then drops at 20 dB per decade (i.e., the slope is −20 dB/decade). An nth order pole has a
slope of −20n dB/decade.
(ii) The phase plot is at 0 until one-tenth the break frequency and then drops linearly to −90 at ten times
the break frequency. An nth order pole drops to −90 ·n.
A real zero The piecewise linear approximation for a zero is much like that for a pole. Consider a simple zero:
s
H s = 1+ , H j = 1+ j () ( )
0 0
Magnitude The development of the magnitude plot for a zero follows that for a pole. Refer the previous section
for details. The magnitude of the zero is given by H j ( ) = 1+ j

0
708
Again there are three cases:

1. At low frequencies, ␻ ␻0, the gain is approximately zero.
2. At high frequencies, ␻ ␻0, the gain increases at 20 dB/decade and goes through the break frequency
at 0 dB.
3. At the break frequency, ␻ ␻0, the gain is about 3 dB.
The rule for drawing the piecewise linear approximation for a real zero can be stated thus:
For a simple real zero, the piecewise linear asymptotic Bode plot for magnitude is at 0 dB until the break
frequency and then increases at 20 dB per decade (i.e., the slope is 20 dB/decade).
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
Phase The phase of a simple zero is given by ∠H j( ) = ∠⎜⎝ 1 + j −1
⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟
0⎠ ⎝ 0⎠
The phase of a single real zero also has three cases:

1. At low frequencies, ␻ ␻0, the phase is approximately zero.
2. At high frequencies, ␻ ␻0, the phase is 90 .
3. At the break frequency, ␻ ␻0, the phase is 45 .
The rule for drawing the phase plot can be stated thus:
Follow the low-frequency asymptote until one-tenth the break frequency (0.1␻0 ). Then increase linearly to
meet the high-frequency asymptote at ten times the break frequency (10 ␻0 ).
Example 12.10 Determine Bode plot for the network function, H s = 1+ () s

30
.
Solution The low-frequency asymptote is the dashed dark grey line, the exact function is the solid black line,
and the lightest line represents 0.
Phase plot
Magnitude plot 135
Phase-degrees
20
Magnitude-dB
90
45
0 0
45
20 100 101 102 103
100 101 102 103 Frequency-␻,rad-s 1
⎛ s⎞
Fig. 12.17 Bode plot of H( s ) = ⎜ 1+
⎝ 30 ⎟⎠
Key Concept: Bode Plot of Real Zero

• For a simple real zero, the piecewise linear asymptotic Bode plot for magnitude is at 0 dB until the break
frequency and then rises at 20 dB per decade (i.e., the slope is 20 dB/decade). An nth order zero has
a slope of +20n dB/decade.
• The phase plot is at 0° until one-tenth the break frequency and then rises linearly to +90° at ten times
the break frequency. An nth order zero rises to +90°n.
A pole at the origin A pole at the origin is easily drawn exactly. We consider
() 1
H s = ,
s
( )=
H j
1
=− j 0
j
0
709
Magnitude The magnitude is given by H j( )= −j 0

= 0
This function is represented by a straight line on a Bode plot with a slope of −20 dB/decade and going
through 0 dB at 1rad/s. It also goes through 20 dB at 0.1rad/s, −20 dB at 10 rad/s.
The rule for drawing the magnitude for a pole at the origin can be thus:
For a pole at the origin, draw a line with a slope of −20 dB/decade that goes through 0 dB at 1 rad/s.
Phase The phase of a simple zero is given by ∠H j ( )= ∠− j 0

= − 90
The rule for drawing the phase plot for a pole at the origin can be stated thus:
The phase for a pole at the origin is −90 .
Key Concept: Bode Plot for Pole at Origin

• For a simple pole at the origin, draw a straight line with a slope of 20 dB per decade and going through
0 dB at 1 rad/s. An nth order pole has a slope of −20n dB/decade.
• The phase plot is at 90 . An nth order pole is at 90 n.
A zero at the origin A zero at the origin is just like a pole at the origin but the magnitude increases, and
the phase is positive.
Key Concept: Bode Plot for Zero at Origin

• For a simple zero at the origin, draw a straight line with a slope of 20 dB per decade and going
through 0 dB at 1 rad/s. An nth order zero has a slope of 20n dB/decade.
• The phase plot is at 90 . An nth order zero is at 90 n.
A Complex Conjugate Pair of Poles The magnitude and phase plots of a complex conjugate
(under-damped) pair of poles are more complicated than those for a simple pole. We consider the trans-
fer function:
2
H s = () s2 + 2
0
s+ 2
, with 0 < < 1
0 0
Magnitude The magnitude is given by

⎛ 2
2⎞
⎛ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎟
⎜
( )=
H j
1
= −20 log10 ⎜ ⎜1− ⎜
⎜⎝ ⎝ ⎟ ⎟ +⎜2
⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎟ ⎟ , in dB
0⎠ 0⎠ ⎟
2
⎛ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎜⎝ ⎠
⎜1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ +⎜2 ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎝ 0⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎝ 0⎠
We consider three cases for the value of the frequency:

Case 1 ␻ ␻0 This is the low-frequency case. We can write an approximation for the magnitude of the
transfer function
( )
H j = −20 log10 1 = 0 ()
The low-frequency approximation is shown in Fig. 12.18 (a).
710
Case 2 ␻ ␻0 This is the high-frequency case. We can write an approximation for the magnitude of the
transfer function
⎛⎛ ⎞
2
⎞ ⎛ ⎞
H j ( ) = −20 log10 ⎜ ⎜
⎜⎝ ⎝ ⎟ ⎟ = − 40 log10 ⎜
⎟⎠ ⎟
0⎠ ⎝ 0⎠
The high-frequency approximation is shown as straight line with a slope of −40 dB/decade going
through the break frequency at 0 dB. That is, for every factor of 10 increase in frequency, the magnitude
drops by 40 dB.
Case 3 ␻ ␻0 It can be shown that a peak occurs in the magnitude plot near the break frequency. The exact
height and location can be determined by differentiating the expression for the magnitude of the transfer
function with respect to frequency and setting it to zero.
d 1
∴ =0 ⇒ r
= 0
1− 2 2
d ⎛ ⎛
2
⎞
2
⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎜1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ +⎜2 ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎝ 0⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎝ 0⎠
The peak has a magnitude of H j ( r ) = −20 log 10 (2 1− 2 2

), in dB
The actual peak frequency is not important when drawing Bode diagrams by hand because if the peak is
large enough to draw, the peak frequency is very near the break frequency. This point is shown as a circle
in Fig. 12.18 (a).
⎛ ⎞
Note that the peak only exists for 0 < < 0.707 ⎜ = 1 ⎟ , and the frequency of the peak is typically very
⎝ 2⎠
near the break frequency. For 0, the peak is exactly at the resonant frequency but the peak frequency drops
as increases. However, even for a fairly large 0.3 (a small peak of only 5 dB), the resonant frequency is
r
= 0
1 − 2 2
= 0
1 − 0.18 = 0 .91 0 which is only a 9% deviation from the break frequency. It is gener-
ally accurate enough to put the peak at the resonant frequency.
To Draw a Piecewise Linear Approximation

• The low-frequency asymptote is used up to the break frequency,
• The high-frequency asymptote is used thereafter,
• A smooth curve is drawn between the low- and high-frequency asymptote that goes through the peak
value.
The rule for drawing the piecewise linear approximation for a complex conjugate pair of poles can be
stated thus:
For the magnitude plot of complex conjugate poles, draw a line of 0 dB at low frequencies, go through a
peak of height, H j ( r ) = −20 log10 (2 1− 2 2

), in dB at the break frequency and then drop at 40 dB per
decade (i.e., the slope is −40 dB/decade). The high frequency asymptote goes through the break frequency.
711
Phase The phase of a complex conjugate pole is given by

⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
∠H j ( ) = − tan −1 ⎜ 0
2⎟
⎜ ⎛ ⎞ ⎟
⎜ 1 − ⎜⎝ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ 0⎠ ⎠
We again consider three cases for the value of the frequency:
Case 1 ␻ ␻0 This is the low-frequency case. At these frequencies, we can write an approximation for the
phase of the transfer function H ( j␻) tan 1(0) 0 radian
The low-frequency approximation is shown in Fig. 12.18 (b).
Case 2 ␻ ␻0 This is the high-frequency case. We can write an approximation for the phase of the transfer
function H ( j␻) 180
The high frequency approximation is as shown in Fig. 12.18 (b). It is a straight line at −180 .
Case 3 ␻ ␻0 The break frequency. At this frequency, H ( j␻) 90

This point is shown as a circle in Fig. 12.18 (b).
A piecewise linear approximation is not easy in this case, and there are no hard and fast rules for draw-
ing it. The most common way is to look up a graph in a textbook with a chart that shows phase plots for
many values of . Another way is to connect the low-frequency asymptote to the high-frequency asymp-
tote starting at
⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 2
= 0 and ending at =
2
0
⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
If 0.02, the approximation can be simply a vertical line at the break frequency.
The rule for drawing phase of an underdamped pair of poles can be stated as follows:
⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Follow the low-requency asymptote at 0 until ␻0 . Then decrease linearly to meet the high
2
2
frequency asymptote at −180 at = .
0
⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Example 12.11 Draw the Bode plot for the network function, H s = () 100
s2 + 2 s + 100
.
Solution Here, H s = () 100

s + 2 s + 100
2
712
i.e., ()
H s = 2
1
, 0
= 10, =1
⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + 2 ⎜ ⎟ +1
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 0⎠
The curve is shown in Fig. 12.18.
The peak will have an amplitude of 5.02 or 14 dB.
The resulting asymptotic approximation is shown as a black dotted line, and the exact response is a black
solid line.
Magnitude plot Phase Plot
20 45
Resonant Low-frequency asymptote
0 0
Magnitude-dB
peak
Phase-degrees
20 45 Piecwise linear
Low-frequency
40 asymptote 90 approximation
60 Exact response
135 Exact response
High frequency
80 180
asymptote High-frequency asymptote
100 225
10 1 100 101 102 103
10 1 100
101 102 103
1
Frequency-␻, rad-s Frequency-␻, rad-s 1
100 100
Fig. 12.18 (a) Bode magnitude plot of H( s ) = Fig. 12.18 (b) Bode phase plot of H( s ) =
s + 2s + 100
2 s 2 + 2s + 100
Key Concept: Bode Plot for Complex Conjugate Poles

• For the magnitude plot of complex conjugate poles, draw a 0 dB line at low frequencies, go through
a peak of height, H j ( r ) = −20 log 10 (2 1− 2 2
), in dB at the break frequency and then drop at
40 dB per decade (i.e., the slope is 40 dB/decade). The high-frequency asymptote goes through
⎛ ⎞
the break frequency. Note that the peak only exists for 0 < < 0.707 ⎜ = 1 ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
• To draw the phase plot, simply follow the low-frequency asymptote at 0 until = 0 . Then
2
2
decrease linearly to meet the high frequency asymptote at −180 at = .
0
⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
If 0.02, the approximation can be simply a vertical line at the break frequency.
A complex conjugate pair of zeros A complex pair of zeros yields results similar to that for a complex
pair of poles. The differences are that the magnitude has a dip instead of a peak, the magnitude increases above
the break frequency and the phase increases rather than decreasing.
713
Example 12.12 Complex conjugate zero

Show the Bode plots for the function, H(s) 0.01s2 0.02s 1.
Solution The graph below corresponds to a complex conjugate zero with
2
⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞
()
H s = ⎜ ⎟ + 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 1,
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 0⎠
0
= 10, = 0.1
The dip in the magnitude plot will have a magnitude of 0.2 or −14 dB.
Phase plot
Magnitude plot 225
100 180
80
Phase-degrees
135
Magnitude-dB
60 90
40
45
20
0
0
45
1
20 10 100 101 102 103
1
10 1
100 101 102 103 Frequency-v,rad-s
Fig. 12.19 Bode plots of H(s) 0.01s2 0.02s 1
Key Concept: Bode Plot of Complex Conjugate Zeros

• For the magnitude plot of complex conjugate zeros, draw a 0-dB line at low frequencies, go through a dip
of magnitude
H j( r ) = 20 log10 (2 1− 2 2
), i n dB
at the break frequency and then rise at 40 dB per decade (i.e., the slope is 40 dB/decade).The high-frequency
⎛ ⎞
asymptote goes through the break frequency. Note that the peak only exists for 0 < < 0.707 ⎜ = 1 ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
• To draw the phase plot, simply follow the low-frequency asymptote at 0 until = 0 then
2
2
increase linearly to meet the high frequency asymptote at 180 at = 0
⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Rules for Making Bode Plots
The table below summarizes what to do for each type of term in a Bode plot.
714
Table 12.1 Rules for Making Bode Plots
Term Magnitude Phase

K 0: 0
Constant: K 20 log10( K )
K 0: 180
1 • Low-freq. asymptote at 0 dB • Low-freq. asymptote at 0 .

Real pole:
s • High-freq. asymptote at 20 dB/dec • High-freq. asymptote at 90 .
+1 • Connect asymptotic lines at ␻0, • Connect with straight line from 0.1·␻0
0
to 10·␻0.
s • Low-freq. asymptote at 0 dB • Low-freq. asymptote at 0 .
Real zero*: +1
0 • High-freq. asymptote at 20 dB/dec. • High-freq. asymptote at 90 .
• Connect asymptotic lines at ␻0. • Connect with line from 0.1·␻0 to 10·␻0.
Pole at origin: 1 • 20 dB/dec; through 0 dB at ␻ 1. • 90 for all ␻.

s
*
Zero at origin : s • 20 dB/dec; through 0 dB at ␻ 1. • 90 for all ␻.
Underdamped • Low-freq. asymptote at 0 dB. • Low-freq. asymptote at 0 .
poles: • High-freq. asymptote at 40 dB/dec. • High-freq. asymptote at 180 .
1 • Connect asymptotic lines at ␻0. • Connect with straight line from ‡
2
⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞ • Draw peak† at freq. ⎛ 2⎞
⎜ ⎟ + 2 ⎜ ⎟ +1
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 0⎠ = 1− 2 2
with amplitude ⎝ ⎠ 2
r 0 = 0 to = 0
⎛ 2⎞
(2 )
2
(
H j r ) = −20 ⋅ log10
1− 2 log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Underdamped • Draw low-freq. asymptote at 0 dB. • Low-freq. asymptote at 0 .
zeros*: • Draw high-freq. asymptote at 40 • Draw high-freq. asymptote at 180 .
2
⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞ dB/dec. • Connect with a straight line from ‡
⎜ ⎟ + 2 ⎜ ⎟ +1 • Connect asymptotic lines at ␻0.
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 0⎠ ⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
• Draw dip† at freq. = 0 ⎝ ⎠ 2
r = 0 to =
1− 2 2
2 0
⎛ 2⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟
with amplitude ⎝ ⎠
(
H j r ) = +20 ⋅ log 10 (2 1− 2
).
Notes:
* Rules for drawing zeros create the mirror image (around 0 dB, or 0 ) of those for a pole with the same 0.
1
† For underdamped poles and zeros, peak exists only for 0 < < 0.707 = and peak frequency is typically very near 0.
2
‡ For underdamped poles and zeros, if 0.02 draw phase vertically from 0 to 180 degrees at 0.
For nth order pole or zero make asymptotes, peaks and slopes n times higher than shown (i.e., second-order asymptote is 40 dB/decade,
and phase goes from 0 to –180 ). Don’t change frequencies, only plot values and slopes.
715
Solved Problems
Problem 12.1 Calculate the driving-point impedance of the networks shown in Fig. 12.20, and obtain the
pole–zero plot.
(a) 1F (b) 10 5 (c) 1/4 3/4
4/3F 2F 4/3 F
Z (s) 1/2 H Z(s) 10 H 5H
2
Fig. 12.20
Solution
s
1 2 × 2 1 2s 2s2 + s + 4
(a) Here, driving point impedance, Z s = + ()
= + =
s s
+2
s s+4 s s+4 ( )
2
(b) Driving point impedance, Z s = 10 + () =

( )
10 s 5 + 5s 50 + 150 s + 50 s + 50 s 2 ⎛ s 2 + 4 s + 1⎞
= 10 ⎜
10 s + 5 + 5s 5 + 15s ⎟
⎝ 3s + 1 ⎠
1 1 3 3
× ×
8 s 2 + 17 s + 6
(c) Driving point impedance, ()
Z s =
1 4 3s
+ + 4 4s = 3 + 1 + 9
=
4
s
1 1
+
3 3 4 s 2 s + 4 12 s + 12 4 s s + 1 s + 2
+ ( )( )
3 4 3s 4 4s
Note The pole-zero plot is left as a task for the reader.
Problem 12.2 Determine the driving point admittance function for the networks shown in Fig. 12.21 and
plot the pole–zero pattern in the s-plane.
(a) R
(b)
Y(s) C R L
Y (s) C L
Fig. 12.21
Solution
1
× R + sL (R + sL )
(a) Here, driving point impedance, Z s = Cs () =
LCs + RCs + 1
2
1
Cs
+ R + sL ( )
LCs 2 + RCs + 1
Therefore, driving point admittance, Y s =
1
= ()
Z s R + sL ()
2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1 R
The admittance function has two zeros at s = − ± ⎜ ⎟ − and a pole at s = − .
2L ⎝ 2 L ⎠ LC L
716
(b) Here, driving point impedance, Z s = () 1 1

1
+ + Cs
R sL
⎛1 1 ⎞ RLCs 2 + sL + R
Therefore, driving point admittance, Y s = () 1
= ⎜ + + Cs⎟ =
()
Z s ⎝ R sL ⎠ sRL
2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
The admittance function has two zeros at s = − ± ⎜ − and a pole at s 0.
2 RC ⎝ 2 RC ⎟⎠ LC
Problem 12.3 Determine the voltage transfer ratio

( ) of the networks shown.
V2 s
V (s)
1
(a) R (b) R1 R2
V1(s) C V2(s) V1 (s) C1 C2 V2 (s)
(Take: R1 R2 1 , and C1 C2 1F)

(c) L L (d) 1H 1H
V1 C C C C C V2 V1 1F 1F 1F 1 V2
(Take: L 1H, C 1F)

Fig. 12.22
Solution
R1 R2
⎛ sC ⎞
V1 s ()
(a) Here, the current in the circuit, I s = ()
=⎜ V s
1 ⎝ 1 + RCs ⎟⎠ 1
()
R+ V1(s) I1 C1 I2 C
2
V2(s)
sC
1 ⎛ sC ⎞
() ()
∴V2 s = I s × = V s ×
sC ⎜⎝ 1 + RCs ⎟⎠ 1
1
sC
() Fig. 12.23
V2 s ( )= 1
∴G21 s =() V1 s ( ) 1 + RCs
⎛ 1 ⎞
(b) Consider Fig. 12.23. By KVL for two meshes, ()
1
⎜ R1 + sC ⎟ I1 s − sC I 2 s = V1 s
⎝ ⎠
() ()
1 1
⎛ 1 ⎞
and −
1
sC1
()
I1 s + ⎜ R2 +
⎝
1
+ I s =0
sC1 sC2 ⎟⎠ 2
()
717
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ R1 + sC ⎟ V1 s
⎝
()
1⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
−
1
sC1
0 V1 s ⎜ ⎟
⎝ sC1 ⎠
()
Solving for I2(s), ()
I2 s =
⎛
=
1 ⎞ R
⎜ R1 + sC ⎟ −
1 R1 R2 +
1
sC1
(
R1 + R2 + 1 + 2
1
sC2 s C1C2
)
⎝ 1⎠
sC1
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
− ⎜ R2 + sC + sC ⎟
sC1 ⎝ 1 2⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
V1 s ⎜ 2 ⎟ ()
⎝ s C1C2 ⎠
()
∴V2 s = I 2 s ×
1
()
=
R
)
sC2
R1 R2 +
1
sC1
R1 + R2 + 1 + 2
1
sC2 s C1C2
(
1
Putting the values of R1 R2 1 and C1 C2 1 F, we get, ∴
( )= s V2 s 2
=
1
V (s) 3 1 s + 3s + 1
2
1+ + 1
s s2
(c) The extreme left capacitance has no effect on the voltage ratio required. We
2 2
can omit the capacitance. The transform impedance network is shown below. I1 s/s 1 I2 s/s 1
Here, the driving point impedance at the Port 1 is
1⎛ s 1⎞ 2s2 +1 V1 1/s 1/s V2
() s
Z s = 2 +
+
s ⎜⎝ s 2 + 1 s ⎟⎠
= 2 +
s s2 s2 +1 s(
= 2 +
2s2 +1 )
s +1 1
+ 2 +
s 1 s +1 2
+ 2
s s + 1 s 3s 2 + 2 ( ) Fig. 12.24
s s +1 s s s +1
3s 4 + 2 s 2 + 2 s 4 + 3s 2 + 1 5s 4 + 5s 2 + 1
= =
( )(
s s 2 + 1 3s 2 + 2 ) (
s s 2 + 1 3s 2 + 2 )( )
()
() Zs =
input current, I1 s =
V1 s V1 s()
()
= V1 s ⎢
(
⎡ s s 2 + 1 3s 2 + 2 )( ) ⎤⎥
() 5s + 5s + 1
4 2
⎣ (
⎢ 5s 4 + 5s 2 + 1 ) ⎥
⎦
( )(
s s 2 + 1 3s 2 + 2 )
1 1
s2 +1
()
∴ I 2 s = I1 s ×()1
s
s 1
= I1 s ×
2
s
s
= I1 s × 2 ()
3s + 2
()
+ + +
s s2 +1 s s s2 +1
( )(
⎡ s s 2 + 1 3s 2 + 2 ⎤ s 2 + 1
= V1 s ⎢() ⎥× =V s ⎢
)
⎡ s s2 +1 2
()
( ) ⎤
⎥
⎣ ( ⎦ ⎣⎢
)
⎢ 5s 4 + 5s 2 + 1 ⎥ 3s 2 + 2 1 ⎢ 5s 4 + 5s 2 + 1 ( ) ⎥
⎥⎦
718
⎡ s s2 +1 2
( ) ⎤ ⎡
( ) ⎤
2
s2 +1
Now, () 1
()
V2 s = I 2 s × = V1 s ⎢ 4 () 1
⎥ × =V s ⎢ () ⎥
s ⎢ 5s + 5s 2 + 1
⎢⎣ ( ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ (
⎥ s 1 ⎢ 5s 4 + 5s 2 + 1
) ⎥
⎥⎦
( ) = ( s + 1)
2
2
V2 s
∴
V ( s ) ( 5s + 5s + 1)
1
4 2
(d) The extreme left capacitor does not have any effect on the required 1H 1H
voltage ratio. We may ignore it. Also, the 1- resistor and 1-F capaci-
tor in the output can be paralleled. So, the network becomes as shown V1 I1 1F I2
1/s 1 V2
in Fig. 12.25.
By KVL,
Fig. 12.25
⎛ 1⎞ 1
()
⎜⎝ s + s ⎟⎠ I1 s − s I 2 s V1 s () () ⇒ ( s + 1) I ( s ) − I ( s ) = sV ( s )
2
1 2 1 (i)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1
()
− I1 s + ⎜ s + +
s ⎝
()
I s = 0 ⇒ − s + 1 I 1 s + s 3 + s 2 + 2 s + 1 I 2 s = 0.
s s + 1⎟⎠ 2
( ) () ( ) () (ii)
( s + 1)
2
sV1 s ()
(
− s +1 ) 0 (
s s + 1 V1 s) ()
Solving for I2, I 2 s = () =
( s + 1)2
−1 ( s + 1)( s
2 3
+ s + 2s +1 − s +1
2
) ( )
(
− s +1 ) ( s + s + 2 s + 1)
3 2
s ( s + 1)V ( s ) ( s + 1)V ( s )
= = 1 1
(
s s 4 + s 3 + 3s 2 + 2 s + 1 ) ( s 4 + s 3 + 3s 2 + 2 s + 1 )
()
∴ V2 s = I 2 s × () 1
= 4 3
s + 1 V1 s ( ×
1 V s
= 4 3 1 2
) () ()
(
s + 1 s + s + 3s + 2 s + 1 s + 1 s + s + 3s + 2 s + 1
2
) ( )
∴
( )=
V2 s 1
V (s) (s
1
4
+ s 3 + 3s 2 + 2 s + 1 )
⎛I ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
Problem 12.4 Find the current transfer ratio ⎜ 2 ⎟ and voltage transfer ratio ⎜ V2 ⎟ of the networks
⎝ I1 ⎠ ⎝ V1⎠
(a) I1 2 I2 (b) I1
2H 2H
I2
1 2 1
1 1
V1 1/2 1 V2 2F 2F V2 1
1 2
1
Fig. 12.26
719
Solution I1
2 I3 I2
1 2
3 1
()
(a) By KVL for the three meshes, we get, I1 s + I 2 s − I 3 s = V1 s
2 2
() () () V1 I1
1
1/2
1
I2 1 V2
1 2
1 5
I s + I2 s + I3 s = 0
2 1 2
() () () Fig. 12.27
()
− I1 s + I 2 s + 4 I 3 s = 0 () ()
Solving for I1 and I2,
()
V1 s
1
2
−1
3
2
V1 s () −1
5 1
0 1 0 1
2 2
0 1 4 −1 0 4
9V1 s( ) =V 3V1 s( ) = −V (s)
()
I1 s =
3 1
=
9 1 (s) and I 2 s = () 3 1
=−
9
1
3
−1 −1
2 2 2 2
1 5 1 5
1 1
2 2 2 2
−1 1 4 −1 1 4
⎛I ⎞ 1
∴⎜ 2 ⎟ = −
⎝ I 1⎠ 3
⎛V ⎞ 1× I2 1
and ∴⎜ 2 ⎟ = − =
⎝ I 1⎠ I1 3
(b) Here, by KVL for the three meshes, we get
2H 2H
I1 I2
1
I1 2F 2F V2 1
I3
1
Fig. 12.28
⎛ 1⎞
() 1
()
⎜⎝ 2 s + 2 s ⎟⎠ I1 s + 0 − 2 s I 3 s = V1 s () ⇒ ( 4 s + 1) I ( s ) + 0 − I ( s ) = V ( s )
2
1 3 1
(i)
⎛ 1 1⎞
−
1
2s
() 1
() ()
I1 s + I 2 s + ⎜ 2 s + + ⎟ I 3 s = 0 ⇒ − I1 s + I 2 s + 4 s 2 + 2 I 3 s = 0
2s ⎝ 2s 2s ⎠
() () ( ) () (ii)
⎛ 1⎞
⎝ 2s ⎠
1
() ()
0 + ⎜1+ ⎟ I2 s + I3 s = 0 ⇒ 0 + 2s +1 I2 s + I3 s = 0
2s
( ) () () (iii)
720
Solving for I1 and I2, we get,

()
V1 s 0 −1
0 1 (4s 2
+2 )
0 ( 2 s + 1) 1 ( ) ( )( )
V1 s ⎡⎣1 − 2 s + 1 4 s 2 + 2 ⎤⎦
()
I1 s = =
( 4 s + 1)
2
0 −1 ( ) ( )( ) (
4 s 2 + 1 ⎡⎣1 − 2 s + 1 4 s 2 + 2 ⎤⎦ + 1 × 2 s + 1 )
−1 1 (4s 2
+2 )
0 ( 2 s + 1) 1
=−
()
V1 s ⎡⎣8 s 3 + 4 s 2 + 4 s + 1⎤⎦
16 s 4 + 8 s 3 + 12 s 2 + 4 s + 1
( 4 s + 1) V ( s )
2
1
−1
−1 0 (4s 2
+2 )
0 0 1 ()
V1 s
()
I2 s = =
( 4 s + 1)
2
0 −1 ( 4 s + 1) ⎡⎣1− ( 2 s + 1)( 4 s
2 2
) (
+ 2 ⎤⎦ + 1 × 2 s + 1)
−1 1 (4s 2
+2 )
0 ( 2 s + 1) 1
V (s)
= 1
16 s 4 + 8 s 3 + 12 s 2 + 4 s + 1
⎛I ⎞ 1
∴⎜ 2 ⎟ = − 3
⎝ I1 ⎠ 8s + 4 s 2 + 4 s + 1
⎛V ⎞ 1× I2 1
∴⎜ 2 ⎟ = − =
⎝ V1 ⎠ V1 16 s + 8 s + 12 s 2 + 4 s + 1
4 3
Problem 12.5 Find the transfer function

()
V s
of the network shown in
()
I s CC
R1
Fig. 12.29. i (t) Rg v(t )
L1
Solution Here, current through the resistance Rg is
Fig. 12.29
R1 + sL1
IR = I s
g
() 1
R1 + sL1 + + Rg
sCC
=I s ()
(
sCC R1 + sL1 )
(
s L1CC + sCC R1 + Rg + 1
2
)
721
(
sRg CC R1 + sL1 )
()
∴V s = I R × Rg = I s ()
g
s L1CC + sCC R1 + Rg + 1
2
( )
∴
V s ()
= 2
sRg CC R1 + sL1 ( )
()
I s s L1CC + sCC R1 + Rg +1 ( )
Problem 12.6 Find the driving point impedance at the terminals 1 1 of the ladder networks shown in
Fig. 12.30.
(a) 1H 1H (b) 1 1H 1 1H 1 1H
1 2 1 2
1F 1F 1F 1F 1F
1 2
1 2
Fig. 12.30
Solution
(a) The driving point impedance at 1 1 is,
s 4 + 3s 2 + 1
()
Z11 s = s +
1
1
=
s2 + 2s
s+
1
s+
s
(b) The driving point impedance at 1 1 is,
s 6 + 3s 5 + 8 s 4 + 11s 3 + 11s 2 + 6 s + 1
(
Z11 = s + 1 + ) 1
1
=
s 5 + 2 s 4 + 5s 3 + 4 s 2 + 3s
s+
( s + 1) + 1
1
s+
( s + 1) + 1s
Problem 12.7 Determine the network functions Y21 and Z21 for the network
shown. I1 2H
I2
Solution Writing two mesh equations,
V1 1F V2
(I ) 1s = V
1F
1
− I2 1
⇒ I1 − I 2 = sV1 (i)
⎛ 2⎞
1
− I1 + ⎜ 2 s + ⎟ I 2 = 0 ⇒ − I1 + 2 s 2 + 2 I 2 = 0
s ⎝ s⎠
( ) (ii)
Fig. 12.31
⎡1 −1 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ sV ⎤
⇒ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ −1 ( )
2 s + 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
2
722
1 sV1
−1 0 sV1
∴ I2 = =
1 −1 2s2 +1
−1 (2s 2
+2 )
I2 s
∴ Y21 = = 2
V1 2 s + 1
sV1 −1
1 V
∴V2 = I 2 = 21 and I1 =
0 (2s 2
+2 ) = 2( s + 1) sV
2
1
s 2s +1 1 −1 2s2 +1
−1 (2s 2
+2 )
V2 V 2s +1 1 2
∴ Z 21 = = 21 × =
(
I1 2 s + 1 2 s + 1 sV1 2 s s 2 + 1
2
) ( )
Problem 12.8 Determine driving point impedance, Z11, transfer impedance, Z21 1H 1H
and voltage transfer function, G21 for the network shown. 1 2
Solution The driving point impedance at 1 1 is, 1F 1F
1 2
s 4 + 3s 2 + 1
1
Z11 = s + = 2 Fig. 12.32
1 s + 2s
s+
1
s+
s
To find the transfer impedance, Z21, we start from the right end,
∴ I 2 = V2 × s
( ) I1 1H 1H
∴V ′ = I 2 × s + V2 = s 2 + 1 V2 1 2
I2
( ) (
∴ I1 = I 2 + V ′s = V2 s + s + s V2 = s + 2 s V2
3 3
) V1 1F V 1F V2
V2 1 1 2
∴ Z 21 = = 3
I1 s + 2 s Fig. 12.33
Also, ( ) ( ) (
V1 = I1 × s + V ′ = s 4 + 2 s 2 V2 + s 2 + 1 V2 = s 4 + 3s 2 + 1 V2 )
V2 1
∴ G21 = = 4
V1 s + 3s 2 + 1
723
Problem 12.9 Determine the current transfer ratio, 21 and driv- 1 R1 1 2

ing point impedance, Z21 for the circuit shown.
Solution By KCL at the node 1, I1 C 1 1F C2 2F V
2
V1 − V2
1
+ sV1 = I1 or, V1 1 + s − V2 = I1 ( ) (i)
Fig. 12.34
V −V
By KCL at the node 2, 2 1 + 2 sV2 = 0 or, − V1 + V2 1 + 2 s = 0
1
( ) (ii)
(1 + s ) I1
−1 0 I1
Solving for V2, V2 = =
(1 + s ) −1 2 s + 3s
2
−1 (1 + 2 s )
V2 1 0.5
∴ Z 21 = = =
I1 2 s 2 + 3s s s + 1.5 ( )
I 2 V2 × 2 s 0.5 × 2 s 1
∴ = = = =
21
I1 I1 (
s s + 1.5 s + 1.5 )
Problem 12.10 Obtain

( ) and V ( s ) for the network shown in Fig. 12.35.
V s ab
I( s ) V (s)
i(t) 2H
Solution Here, the current, 1
v(t) 1
⎛ 2⎞ a
V s () V s ⎜ 2 + 2s + ⎟
⎝ s⎠
() 1F 1F
b
()
I s =
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
=
⎛ s + 1⎞ ⎛ 2 s + s + 1⎞
2
Fig. 12.35
⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 + 2 s + s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠
i 2(t)
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ i (t ) i 1(t)
⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 1 + 2 s + s ⎟⎠
2H
1
v(t) 1
( ) = ( s + 1)( 2 s + s + 1)
a
V s
2 b
1F 1F
∴
I (s) 2 s ( s + s + 1)
2
Fig. 12.36
Also, the voltage between the points a and b is,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ V s ⎟ V s ()
⎡ s 2s +1 s ⎤ () ( )
Vab () ( )( ) ()
s = I 2 s 2 s + 1 − I1 s × 1 = ⎜ ⎟ × 2s +1 − =V s ⎢ 2 (− )
⎥
2 s + s + 1 s + 1 ⎥⎦
()
⎜ 2s +1+ 1 ⎟ 1+
1 ⎢
⎣
⎝ s⎠ s
()
) ( )(( )
V s s V s 2s2
= (
⎡ s +1 2s +1 − 2s2 + s +1 ⎤ =)( ) (
( )(
s +1 2s2 + s +1 ⎣ ) ⎦ s +1 2s2 + s +1
)
724
∴
( )=
Vab s 2s 2
V ( s ) ( s + 1)( 2 s 2
+ s +1 )
Problem 12.11 Find out ()
V1 s
and ()
I2 s
for the network shown in
i1(t ) 3/2H 1/2H i2(t )
I (s)
1
V (s)
1
v1(t ) 4/3F 1
Fig. 12.37. Consider the mutual inductance to be negligible.
Solution Here,
( ) is the driving point impedance, Z(s).
V1 s Fig. 12.37
I (s)
1
3 ⎛1 ⎞ 3
()
Z s = s+
3
× s + 1⎟
4 s ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ 3 2
= s+ 2
s +1
=
3 s3 + 2s2 + 2s +1 ( )
2 3 1 2 2s + 4s + 3 2s2 + 4s + 3
+ s +1
4s 2
Also, by current division rule,
3
V s ()
()
I 2 s = I1 s ×() 4 s = 1 × 2
3
3 1
+ s +1
Z s 2s + 4s + 3 ()
4s 2
∴ 2
I s() =
1
× 2
3
= 3
1
() (
V1 s 3 2
)
3 s + 2s + 2s +1 2s + 4s + 3 s + 2s + 2s +1
2
2s + 4s + 3
2
Problem 12.12 For the given bridged T network, find the driv-
ing point admittance Y11 and the transfer admittance Y21 with a 1F
2- load resistor connected across the Port 2. I3 1
1 2 2
⎛ 2⎞ 2 1
Solution By KVL, ⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ I1 + s I 2 − I 3 = V1
V1 I1 2F I2 V2 2
2 ⎛ 1 2⎞ 1
I1 + ⎜ + ⎟ I 2 + I 3 = V2 1
s ⎝ 2 s⎠ 2 2
Fig. 12.38
1 ⎛ 3 2⎞
− I1 + I 2 + ⎜ + ⎟ I 3 = 0
2 ⎝ 2 s⎠
⎛ 1⎞ 1
⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ s
−1
1 ⎛ 1⎞ s+2
∴ = ⎜⎝ 1 + s ⎟⎠ 1 =
s s2
⎛ 1⎞
−1 1 ⎜⎝ 2 + s ⎟⎠
725
⎛ 1⎞
⎜ 1 + s ⎟⎠
1+1 ⎝
1
s 2 + 3s + 1
11 ( )
= −1
⎛ 1⎞
=
s2
1 ⎜⎝ 2 + s ⎟⎠
1
1
s2 + 2s +1
( ) s
1+ 2
= −1 =−
12
⎛ 1⎞ s2
1 ⎜2+ ⎟
⎝ s⎠
s 2 + 3s + 1 s 2 s 2 + 3s + 1
∴ Y11 = 11
=− × =
s 2
s+2 s+2
s2 + 2s +1 s2 s2 + 2s +1
∴ Y21 = 21
=− × = −
s2 s+2 s+2
Problem 12.13 Determine the voltage transfer function of the symmetrical 1F

A B
lattice network shown in Fig. 12.39.
1H 1F
1H
1 1F 1H
s× V1 1 V2
Sol: Let, Z1 Series arm impedance = s= s
1F
1 s2 +1
s+
s C D
1H
1 s +1 2
Fig. 12.39
Shunt arm impedance = s + =
Z2
s s
Rearranging the figure, we have Fig. 12.40 as shown. I1 A
1 I1 I
Applying KVL to the mesh 1ABDC1 , we get, I
Z1 Z2
V1 ( s ) = I ′( s ) Z1 ( s ) + I 2 ( s ) × 1 + Z1 ( s ) ⎡⎣ I1 ( s ) − I ′( s ) + I 2 ( s ) ⎤⎦ V2
V1 B I2 2 1
D
or, V1 ( s ) = I 2 ( s ) ⎡⎣ Z1 ( s ) + 1⎤⎦ + Z1 ( s ) I1 ( s ) (i) 2
Z1
Z2
Applying KVL to the mesh 1ADBC1 , we get, 1 C
V1 ( s ) = Z 2 ( s ) ⎡⎣ I1 ( s ) − I ′( s ) ⎤⎦ − I 2 ( s ) × 1 + Z 2 ( s ) ⎡⎣ I ′( s ) − I 2 ( s ) ⎤⎦ Fig. 12.40 Equivalent
network
or, V1 ( s ) = Z 2 ( s ) I1 ( s ) − ⎡⎣ Z 2 ( s ) + 1⎤⎦ I 2 ( s ) (ii)
Multiplying (i) by Z2(s) and (ii) by Z1(s) and subtracting (ii) from (i),
V1 ( s ) ⎡⎣ Z 2 ( s ) − Z1 ( s ) ⎤⎦ = I 2 ( s ) ⎡⎣ Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s ) + 2 Z1 ( s ) Z 2 ( s ) ⎤⎦
I2 (s) Z 2 ( s ) − Z1 ( s )
or, =
V1 ( s ) Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s ) + 2 Z1 ( s ) Z 2 ( s )
Now the output voltage V2(s) I2 (s) 1
726
s2 +1 s
V2 ( s ) Z 2 ( s ) − Z1 ( s ) − 2
= = s s +1
V1 ( s ) Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s ) + 2 Z1 ( s ) Z 2 ( s ) s s2 +1 s2 +1 s
+ +2× × 2
s +1
2
s s s +1
( s + 1) − s ( s + 1+ s )( s + 1− s ) ( )
2
V2 ( s ) s − s + 1
2 2 2 2 2
= = ⇒ = 2
s 2
+ ( s + 1) + 2 s ( s + 1)
2
2
( s +1+ s )
2 2
2
(
V1 ( s ) s + s + 1 )
Note This symmetrical lattice network is used as an all-pass network because it has the property for sinusoidal inputs
that every thing which comes in goes out without any change in magnitude but distortion in phase.
Z2
Problem 12.14 Determine the condition under which the input impedance of
the network shown will be equal to R. R
Z in Z1 R
Solution Here, input impedance for the network,
Z in =
Z2 R ZR
+ 1 = 1
(
Z + Z 2 R 2 + 2 Z1 Z 2 R ) Fig. 12.41
Z 2 + R Z1 + R Z1 + R Z 2 + R ( )( )
According to the given condition,
Z in = R
( Z + Z ) R + 2Z Z R = R
1 2
2
1 2
⇒ R = Z1 Z 2
( Z + R )( Z + R )
1 2 Za
R0 R0
V1 Zb Z 0 V2
Problem 12.15 (a) If ZaZb Z02 and R0 Z 0 , show that the voltage transfer
V 1
function of the network is given by, 2 = . Fig. 12.42
V1 1+ Z a /R 0
(b) Under the condition ZaZb R02 and R0 Z0, show that the input impedance of A A
the network of Fig. 12.42 is R0.
B
Solution Replacing the R0, R0, and Za delta by equivalent star, we have, Z0 V
V1 2
RZ R2 Zb
A= 0 a B=
R0 + Z a 2 R0 + Z a
(a) Let, I1 Input current, Fig. 12.43
I2 current through Z0.
∴V1 = I1 Z in = I1 Z 0
B + Zb
and V2 = I 2 Z 0 = I1 Z
A + B + Z0 + Zb 0
727
V2 B + Zb 1 1
So, the voltage transfer function is = I1 Z0 × =
V1 A + B + Z0 + Zb I1 Z 0 A + Z0
1+
B + Zb
Now,
R0 Z a
+ Z0
A + Z0 R0 + Z a R0 Z a + 2 R0 Z 0 + Z a Z 0 R0 Z a + 2 R0 Z 0 + Z a R0
= = =
B + Zb R0 2
R0 + 2 R0 Z b + Z a Z b
2
Z a Zb + 2 Z0 Zb + Z a Zb
+ Zb
2 R0 + Z a
=
(
2 R0 Z 0 + Z a ) [putting the coonditions, R0 = Z 0 , Z a Z b = Z 0 2 ]
2Z ( Z
b 0
+Z ) a
Z Z Z
= 0 = 20 = a
Zb Z0 Z0
Za
V2 1 1
∴ = = (Proved)
V1 A + Z0 Za
1+ 1+
B + Zb Z0
(b) So, the input impedance, Z in = A +

( A + Z )( B + Z ) = A( A + B + Z
0 b 0 ) (
+ Zb + A + Z0 B + Zb )( )
A + Z0 + B + Zb A + B + Z0 + Zb
=
(
Z 0 A + B + Z 0 + Z b + 2 A B + Z b + A2 − Z 0 2 ) ( ) = Z0 +
( )
2 A B + Z b + A2 − Z 0 2
A + B + Z0 + Zb A + B + Z0 + Zb
2 R0 Z a ⎛ R0 2 ⎞ R0 2 Z a 2
= Z0 + ⎜ + Zb ⎟ + − Z0 2
2 R0 + Z a ⎝ 2 R0 + Z a ( )
2
⎠ 2 R0 + Z a
3 2 2
2 R0 Z a 2 R0 Z a Z b R0 Z a
= Z0 + + + − Z0 2
(2R + Z ) 2 R0 + Z a 2 R + Z ( )
2 2
0 a 0 a
3 2 2
2 R0 Z a R0 Z a 2 R0 Z a Z b
= Z0 + + + − Z0 2
(2R + Z ) (2R + Z ) 2 R0 + Z a
2 2
0 a 0 a
R Z (2R + Z ) 2R Z Z
2
R0 2 Z a 2R Z Z
= Z0 + 0
+ a 0 a 0 a b
− Z0 2 = Z0 + + 0 a b − Z0 2
(2R + Z ) 2R + Z 2 R0 + Z a 2 R0 + Z a
2
0 a
0 a
Z0 2 Z a 2 Z0 Z0 2
Z in = Z 0 + + − Z0 2 [ putting t he conditions, R0 = Z 0 , Z a Z b = Z 0 2 ]
2 Z0 + Z a 2 Z0 + Z a
= Z0 +
(
Z0 2 2 Z0 + Z a )−Z 2
= Z 0 + Z 0 2 − Z 0 2 ⇒ Z in = Z 0
2 Z0 + Z a 0
728
Problem 12.16 A network and a pole–zero pattern for

jb
driving point impedance Z(s) are shown in Fig. 12.44.
a s-plane
(a) Write an expression for Z(s).
(b) Specify the parameters R, L, G and C as a function of a, R c
Z(s) C G
b and c if Z(0) 1.
jb
Solution Fig. 12.44
(a) From the pole zero pattern it is seen that the driving
point impedance Z(s) has a zero at s c and two
complex conjugate poles at s a jb.
()
Z s =K
s+c
=K
s+c ( )
( )(
s + a + jb s + a − jb 2
s + a + b2 ) ( )
c ⎛ a2 + b2 ⎞
Given: Z(0) 1. ∴1 = K ⇒ K = ⎜ c ⎟
a2 + b2 ⎝ ⎠
⎛ a2 + b2 ⎞ s+c
∴Z s =⎜ () ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ s + a 2 + b2 ( )
=
(a 2
) (
+ b s + a + b2 c
2 2
) (i)
cs 2
+ 2 acs + ( a 2
+ b )c 2
(b) For the network shown, the admittance function is
()
Y s =
1
= G + Cs +
1
=
LCs 2 + GL + RC s + 1 + GR ( )
()
Z s R + sL R + sL
R + sL
∴Z s =() (ii)
(
LCs 2 + GL + RC s + 1 + GR )
From equations (i) and (ii), comparing the coefficients of numerator and denominator,
(
R = a2 + b2 c )
L = (a 2
+b ) 2
c c c c
LC = c ⇒ C = = 2 2 C= = 2
(
L a +b ) L a + b2 ( )
( ) (
Also, 1 + GR = a 2 + b 2 c ⇒) G=
(a 2
)
+ b2 c − 1
(
c a + b2 2
)
729
Problem 12.17 Write down the driving-point impedance Z(s) of the network shown R1 C2
in Fig. 12.45 Locate the poles and zeros of Z(s) on the s-plane.
If v(t) e 5t is applied to the network at t 0, calculate i2(t) in R2, while R1 R2 1 , Z(s) L1 R2
L1 ½ H and C2 ½ F.
Solution Here, driving point impedance, Fig. 12.45
s⎛2 ⎞
+1 ⎡ ⎤
( ) ( )
2
()
Z s = 1+
2 ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ s s+2
= 1+ 2 = 2 =
( )
2 s 2 + 2 s + 2 2 ⎢⎣ s + 1 + 1⎥⎦
s ⎛2 ⎞ s + 2s + 4 s + 2s + 4 ( )
2
+ ⎜ + 1⎟ s +1 + 3
2 ⎝s ⎠
The driving-point impedance Z(s) has two complex conjugate zeros at, s 1 j and two complex conju-
gate poles at, s = −1 ± j 3.
V1 s ()
For a source of V1(s), the current I1(s) is, I1 s = () Z (s)
I1(s) R1 I2(s)C2
The current I2(s) is V1(s) L1 R2

s
s2
()
I 2 s = I1 s × () s
2
2
()
= I1 s ×
s2 + 2s + 4
Fig. 12.46 (a)
+1+
2 s
( )×
V1 s s2 s2
= = V s × ()
Z (s) s 2
+ 2s + 4 1 2 s2 + 2s + 2 ( )
()
For the given voltage, v t = e −5t ⇒ V1 s = () 1
s+5
s2 k1 k2 k2 *
∴ I2 s = () = + +
( )(
2 s + 5 s + 2s + 2 2
) s + 5 s + 1 + j1 s + 1 − j1
s2 25 jv
where, k1 = =
(
2 s + 2s + 2
2
) s =−5
34 2
1
s2 4 + j1 2 1
k2 = =− =− − j s
( )(
2 s + 5 s + 1 − j1 ) s =−1− j 1
34 17 34 2 1 0
1
s2 2 1 2
k2 * = =− +j
( )(
2 s + 5 s + 1 + j1 ) s =−1+ j 1
17 34
Fig. 12.46 (b)
2 1 2 1
25 −j − − +j
()
∴ I 2 s = 34 + 17
s+5
34 + 17
s + 1 + j1 s + 1−
34
− j1
730
25 −5t ⎛ 2 1 ⎞ − 1+ j1 t ⎛ 2 1 ⎞ − 1− j1 t
()
∴ i2 t =
34
e +⎜− − j ⎟ e ( ) +⎜− + j ⎟ e ( )
⎝ 17 34 ⎠ ⎝ 17 34 ⎠
=
25 −5t 2 − t jt − jt
34 17
( 1
e − e e + e + j e − t e jt − e − jt
34
) ( )
25 4 1
= e −5t − e − t coss t − e − t sin t
34 17 34
Problem 12.18 A two-terminal network consists of a coil having an inductance L and a resistance R
shunted by a capacitance C. The poles and zero of the driving point function Z(s) of this network are
1 3
Pole at − ± j ; Zero at 1 j0
2 2
If Z( j0) 1, determine the values of R, L and C.
Solution Here, driving-point impedance, Z(s) is
( R + sL ) × sC1
R + sL
()
Z s = =
1 LCs 2 + RCs + 1
(i)
R + sL + (
sC
)
From the given values of poles and zero, we get the driving-point impedance function as
( s + 1) ( s + 1)
()
Z s =K
⎛ 1
=K
3⎞ ⎛ 1 3⎞ s2 + s +1
⎜s+ + j ⎟⎜s+ − j ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎝ 2 2 ⎠
0 +1
Given that: ( )
Z j0 = 1 ⇒ 1 = K
0 + 0 +1
⇒ K =1
s +1
s + s +1
∴Z s = () 2
(ii)
Comparing the coefficients of numerators and denominators of (i) and (ii), we get,
R 1 L 1H C 1F
Problem 12.19 The transform voltage of a network is given as
V (s) =
3s
( s + 2 ) s2 + 2 s + 2 ( )
Draw its pole-zero diagram and hence obtain v(t).
Solution Here, ()
V s =
3s
=
3s
( s + 2 )( s 2
+ 2s + 2 ) ( s + 2 ) ⎡⎢⎣( s + 1) + 1⎤⎥⎦
2
Zero is at origin (s 0)
731
Poles are at s 2, ( 1 j1) jv

The pole–zero diagram is shown. j1
s
k1 k2 k2 *
()
V s =
3s
= + + 1 0
) ( s + 2)
2
( s + 2 )( s 2
+ 2s + 2 s + 1 + j1 s + 1 − j1
From the pole-zero diagram, the constants k1, k2 and k2* can be evaluated as follows. Fig. 12.47
Product of all the directed lines from all zeros to pi
k1 = K
Product of all the directed lines from other remaining poles to pi
2 ∠180
=3 = −3
2 ∠450 × 2 ∠ − 45
2 ∠45 3
∴ k2 = 3 =
2 ∠135 × 2 ∠ − 90 2
3
∴k2 * =
2
3 3
−3
()
V s = + 2 + 2
( )
s + 2 s + 1 + j1 s + 1 − j1
⎛ e jt − e − jt ⎞
()
v t = e ( ) + e ( ) − 3e −2 t = 3e − t ⎜
3 − 1+ j1 t 3 − 1− j1 t
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
− 3e −2 t = 3e − t cos t − 3e −2 t
Problem 12.20 Draw poles and zeros for the transform voltage
s2 + 3s + 2
()
V s =
s2 + 7s + 12
and evaluate v(t) either analytically or by making use of pole–zero diagram.
Solution Here, ()
V s =
s 2 + 3s + 2
=
(
s +1 s + 2 )( )
s + 7 s + 12 s + 3 s + 4
2
( )( )
The function has poles at s 3 and 4 and zeros at s 1 and 2.
The pole-zero diagram is shown in Fig. 12.48. jv
Since the numerator and denominator of V(s) have the same power of s, the
numerator has to be brought down on one degree less to evaluate v(t). s
24 23 22 21
s 2 + 3s + 2 4 s + 10 s+ 5
()
∴V s = 2 = 1− 2 = 1− 4 2 = 1 − V1 s (i) () Fig. 12.48 Pole–zero
s + 7 s + 12 s + 7 s + 12 s+3 s+4 ( )( ) diagram of 2
s2 + 3s + 2
s + 7s + 12
s+ 5
where, ()
V1 s = 4 2
( s + 3)( s + 4 )
732
jv
This function has one zero at s = − 5 and two poles at s 3 and s 4.
2
The pole–zero diagram of V1(s) is shown in Fig. 12.49. s
s+ 5 k k 24 23 225
()
Let, V1 s = 4 2 = 1 + 2 Fig. 12.49
( )(
s+3 s+4 s+3 s+4 )
0.5∠180 1.5∠180
From pole-zero diagram, k1 = 4 = −2 k2 = 4 =6
1∠0 1∠180
6 2
∴V1 s =
−
s+4 s+3
()and ∴ v1 t = 6 e − 4 t − 2 e − 3t ()
The inverse Laplace of 1 cannot be evaluated from the pole–zero diagram. However, we know that inverse
Laplace of 1 is impulse function, ␦(t).
() () () ()
Therefore, from (i), v t = t − v1 t = t + 2 e − 3t − 6 e − 4 t
Problem 12.21 The locations of the poles and zeros

of the driving point impedance Z(s) of the circuit shown R2
R1 jv
in Fig. 12.50 (a) are shown in Fig. 12.50 (b). Calculate the Z(s)
values of the components. It is given that Z( j0) 5. C L s
Solution From Fig. 12.50 (a), the driving point imped- 210 26 22 21
ance is given as (a) (b)
Fig. 12.50
( R + sL )⎛⎜⎝ R + Cs1 ⎞⎟⎠
2 1
( )
R1 LCs 2 + R1 R2C + L s + R2
()
Z s =
1 LCs
= 2
+ ( R + R )Cs + 1
R1 + sL + R2 + 1 2
Cs
⎛ R R C + L⎞ R2
s2 + ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ s + R LC
⎝ R LC ⎠
= 1 1
(i)
1 2 ⎛ R +R ⎞ 1
s +⎜ 1 2 ⎟ s+
R1 ⎝ R1 L ⎠ R1 LC
Again, from Fig. 12.50 (b), the driving point impedance function is written as
( s + 2 )( s + 6 ) = s + 8s + 12
2
()
Z s =5 (ii)
( s + 1)( s + 10) 1 s + 11 s + 2
2
5 5
From (i) and (ii), comparing the coefficients of the numerators and denominators, R1 5
R2
= 12 ⇒ R2 = 60 CL (iii)
R1 LC
1
and = 2 ⇒ CL = 0.1 (iv)
R1 LC
733
Form (iii) and (iv), R2 6

R1 + R2 11 5 + 6 11
Also, = ⇒ = ⇒ L =1
R1 L 5 5L 5
0.1
∴C = = 0.1
L
Therefore, the component values are R1 = 5 , R2 = 6 , L = 1 H, and C = 0.1 F
Problem 12.22 The pole–zero diagram of the driving point jv

impedance function of the network of Fig. 12.51 (a) is shown in
Fig. 12.51 (b). At dc the input impedance is resistive and equals to R j4
Z(s) s
2 . Determine the values of R, L and C. C
L 2 1 0
j4
Solution From Fig. 12.51 (a), the driving point impedance is
given as (a) (b)
Fig. 12.51
( R + sL ) × Cs1 R
s+
Z s = () 1
=
R
L
1
(i)
R + sL + Cs + s +
2
Cs L L
From Fig. 12.51 (b), the driving-point impedance function is written as,
( s + 2) s+2
()
Z s =K =K (ii)
( s + 1 + j 4 )( s + 1 − j 4 ) s 2
+ 2 s + 17
Since dc input impedance is 2 , ()

∴Z 0 =2 ⇒ 0= K ×
2
17
⇒ K = 17
( s + 2)
s+2
()
∴ Z s = 17 = (iii)
( s + 1 + j 4 )( s + 1 − j 4 )
1 2 2
s + s +1
17 17
Comparing the coefficients of the numerators and denominators of (i) and (iii), we get, R 2 , L 1 H,
1
and C = F
17
Problem 12.23 Draw the asymptotic Bode plot for the following functions:
(
20 s + 2 ) (
200 s + 1 )
( ) s( s +s1+(3s + 2
(a) G s = (b) G s =() ()
(c) G s =
) ) (
s s + 4 s + 16
2
) ( s + 10 )
2
Solution
⎛ s⎞ ⎛ s⎞
3⎜ 1 + ⎟ 1.5 ⎜ 1 + ⎟
s+3 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
()
(a) G s = = =
( )(
s s +1 s + 2 ) (
⎛ s⎞
) ⎛ s⎞
2s 1 + s ⎜1 + ⎟ s 1 + s ⎜1 + ⎟ ( )
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
734
For this function,

(i) For the constant K 1.5, magnitude 20 log10(1.5) 3.52 dB and phase 0
(ii) For a simple zero at s 3
⎛ 2 ⎞
⎛ ⎞
Magnitude 20 log10 ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ; Phase tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
The magnitude contributes to a straight line of slope 20 dB/decade for 3.
(iii) For a simple pole at origin (s 0),
Magnitude 20 log10 Range of Factor Resultant slope
Phase 90 starting Pole at origin 20 dB/decade
This magnitude contributes to a straight 0 1 – 20 dB/decade
line of slope 20 dB/decade passing through 1 2 Pole at s 1 40 dB/decade
the intersection of 0 dB at 1.
2 3 Pole at s 2 60 dB/decade
(iv) For the simple pole at s 1,
)
3 Pole at s 3 40 dB/decade
Magnitude −20 log10 1 + 2 (
1
Phase tan ( )
(v) For a simple pole at s 2,
⎛ 2 ⎞
⎛ ⎞
Magnitude − 20 log10 ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ; Phase − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ Bode diagram
Phase (deg) Magnitude (dB)
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 60
40
The magnitude contributes to a straight line of slope 20 20
0
dB/decade for 2. 20
Therefore, the slopes for different ranges of values of are as 40
given below. 90
Also, the phase angle,
135
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
∠G j ( ) = tan ⎜ ⎟ − 90 − tan −1
⎝ 3⎠
−1
( ) −1
− tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
180
10 2
10 1 100 101
F r eque ncy (r ad/s)
The Bode magnitude and phase plots are shown in Fig. 12.52. Fig. 12.52
⎛ s⎞ ⎛ s⎞
20 × 2 ⎜ 1 + ⎟ 2.5⎜ 1 + ⎟
()
(b) G s =
20 s + 2( =
) ⎝ 2⎠
=
⎝ 2⎠
(
s s + 4 s + 16
2
⎛s )2
s ⎞ ⎡ 2
16 s ⎜ + + 1⎟ s ⎢⎛ s ⎞ + s + 1⎥
⎤
⎝ 1 6 4 ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ 4 ⎥⎦
(i) For the constant K 2.5, magnitude 20 log10(2.5) 7.96 dB and phase 0.
(ii) For a simple zero at s 2,
⎛ 2 ⎞
⎛ ⎞
Magnitude 20 log10 ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ; Phase tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
735
(iii) For a simple pole at origin (s 0),

Magnitude 20 log10 ; Phase 90
This magnitude contributes to a straight line of slope 20 dB/decade passing through the intersec-
tion of 0 dB at 1.
(iv) For the complex conjugate poles, 0.5 and 0 4 rad/s
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
Magnitude −20 log10 ⎢ ⎜ 1 − ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Bode diagram
( )

⎡ ⎤ 40
20
−1
⎢ 4 ⎥ ⎛ 4 ⎞
Phase − tan ⎢ 2 ⎥
= − tan −1 ⎜ 2⎟
0
⎢1−
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦ ( )
⎥ ⎝ 16 − ⎠ 20
40
60
This magnitude contributes to a straight line of slope 40 45
dB/decade for 4. 90
Also, phase angle is, 135
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
( )
∠G j = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ − 90 − tan −1 ⎜
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 16 − ⎠2⎟
180
10 1
100 10 1
Frequency (rad/s)
10 2
The Bode magnitude and phase plots of the function are Fig. 12.53
()
(c) G s =
(
200 s + 1 ) = 2(1 + s )
( s + 10)
2 2
⎛ s⎞
⎜⎝ 1 + 10 ⎟⎠
(i) For the constant K 2, magnitude 20 log10 (2) 6 dB; and phase 0.
(ii) For the simple zero at s 1,
Magnitude = 20 log10 ( 1 + ); 2
Phase tan 1( )
This contributes to a straight line of slope 20 dB/decade for 1.
(iii) For the double poles at s 10,
2
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
Magnitude −20 log10 ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ = − 40 log10 ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ; Phase −2 tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎟ ⎜ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎟ ⎝ 10 ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
This magnitude contributes to a straight line of slope 40 dB/decade for 10.
Therefore, the slopes of the magnitude curve for different ranges of values of are given below.
Range of Factor Resultant slope
starting Constant K 2 0 dB/decade
0 1 – 0 dB/decade
1 10 Zero at s 1 20 dB/decade
10 Repeated poles at s 10 40 dB/decade
736
The Bode magnitude and phase plots of the function are shown in Fig. 12.54 below.
Bode diagram

30
20
10
0
10
20
45
0
45
90 2
10 10 1 10 0 101 102 103
Fr e qu enc y (r ad /s )
Fig. 12.54
Problem 12.24 The Bode diagram of a function is shown in Fig. 12.55. Find the function.
Magnitude in dB
(a) (b) 6 dB 1 2 4
Phase in degree
log10v
40 D 6
0.01 0 100 6
0.1 1 10
90
40 80
u 270
80
Fig. 12.55
Solution (a) From the Bode plot, we get the following information:
(i) At low frequency, phase 90 and magnitude decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade.
This implies that there is a simple pole at origin (s 0).
(ii) At ␻ 1 rad/s, the slope changes to 40 dB/decade. The phase curve is a straight line of slope 45 per
decade passing through 180 at ␻ 1
This implies that there is a simple pole at s 1.
Hence, the function can be written as F s = () K

(
s s +1 )
To find the constant K, we consider the value of magnitude at ␻ 1. From Bode diagram, at ␻ 1,
20 = 20 log10 K − 20 log10 1 ⇒ K = 1 ()
F s = () 1
(
s s +1 )
(b) From the Bode plot, it is seen that the function has poles at s 1 and 4 and zero at s 2
[ 6 dB/octave 20 dB/decade]. Hence, the function can be written as
⎛ s⎞
⎜⎝ 1 + 2 ⎟⎠ s+2 ( )
()
F s =K = 2K
⎛ s⎞ ⎛ s ⎞ s +1 s + 4 ( )( )
⎜⎝ 1 + 1 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 + 4 ⎟⎠
737
Also, to find the constant K, it is seen that at ␻ 1, F( j␻) 6 dB

∴ 20 log10 K = −6 ⇒ K = 0.5
( s + 2 ) = 2 × 0.5 ( s + 2 ) = ( s + 2 )
Therefore, the network function becomes, ()
F s = 2K
( s + 1)( s + 4 ) ( s + 1)( s + 4 ) ( s + 1)( s + 4 )
Problem 12.25 Construct the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the impedance 10
function of the network shown in Fig. 12.56.
Solution Here, () 1 1 + 10 s
Z s = 10 + =
( ) Z (s) 1F
s s
Following the steps, as mentioned in Prob. 12.24, Bode plots are drawn and shown in Fig. 12.56
Fig. 12.57 below.
Bode diagram
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
45
90
1
10 10 101 10 2 10 3
F r eq ue nc y (ra d/s )
Fig. 12.57
Problem 12.26 Draw the complex locus plot of the voltage ratio transfer function G21 of the following RC
networks:
(a) R (b) C
V1(s) C V2 (s) V1(s) R V2(s)
Fig. 12.58
Solution
(a) Here, the voltage ratio transfer function is G21 s =
1
1 + RCs
()
For steady-state, s j␻.
∴ G21 j ( ) = 1 + j1 RC = 1 + 1
2 2 2
RC
−j
RC
1+ R C
2 2 2
∴ Re ⎡⎣G21 j ( )⎤⎦ = X = 1 + 1
2
R 2C 2
(i)
and Im ⎡⎣G21 j ( ) ⎤ =Y = −
⎦
RC
1 + 2 R 2C 2
(ii)
738
For complex locus plot, we have to evaluate ␻ from (i) and (ii).
Y Y Y
= RC ⇒ =
X XRC v
Substituting this value of ␻ in (i), we get, ½ 0 X
2 2 0
1 X 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
X= = or, ⎜ X − ⎟ + Y 2 = ⎜ ⎟ v
⎛ Y ⎞ 2 2
2
X +Y
2 2
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
1+ ⎜ RC
⎝ XRC ⎟⎠
Fig. 12.59
This is a circle with centre at (½, 0) and radius ½.

The upper half of the circle corresponds to negative frequencies, ranging from ␻ to ␻ 0.
The locus for negative frequencies is the image of that for positive frequencies. This is because the
real part Re[G21( j␻)] has even symmetry while the imaginary Im[G21( j␻)] part has odd symmetry.
At =
RC
1
( )
, the magnitudes of real and imaginary parts are equal and Re ⎡⎣G21 j ⎤⎦ = Im ⎡⎣G21 j ( )⎤⎦ = 12
so that, G21 j = ( ) 1
. This frequency ( =
1
RC
) is known as half-power frequency.
2
C
(b) Here, G21 s = () RCs
1 + RCs
V1(s) R V2(s)
For steady-state, s j␻. Fig. 12.60

2 2 2
∴G21 j ( ) =
j RC
=
RC
1 + j RC 1 + R C
2 2 2
+j
RC
1+ R C
2 2 2
2
R 2C 2
( )⎤⎦ = X = 1 +
∴ Re ⎡⎣G21 j 2 2 2
RC
(i)
and ( )
Im ⎡⎣G21 j ⎤⎦ = Y =
RC
1 + 2 R 2C 2
(ii)
Y 1 X
= ⇒ =
X RC YRC
Substituting this value of ␻ in (i), we get,
Y
2
⎛ X ⎞ 2 2 v
⎜⎝ YRC ⎟⎠ R C X2 ⎛ 1⎞
2
⎛ 1⎞
2
X= = 2 orr, ⎜ X − ⎟ + Y 2 = ⎜ ⎟ ½ 0 X
⎛ X ⎞ 2 2
2
X +Y 2
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 0
1+ ⎜ RC
⎝ YRC ⎟⎠
v
This is a circle with centre at (½, 0) and radius ½. Fig. 12.61

739
The upper half of the circle corresponds to negative frequencies, ranging from ␻ to
␻ 0. The locus for negative frequencies is the image of that for positive frequencies. This is
because the real part Re[G21( j␻)] has even symmetry while the imaginary Im[G21( j␻)] part has odd
symmetry.
At =
1
RC
( )
, the magnitudes of real and imaginary parts are equal and Re ⎡⎣G21 j ⎤⎦ = Im ⎡⎣G21 j ⎤⎦ =
1
2
( )
so that, G21 j =( ) 1
. This frequency ( =
1
RC
) is known as half-power frequency.
2
Problem 12.27 Draw the complex locus plot of the admittance function of the networks shown below.
(a) R (b)
L
Y (s) L Y(s) c R2
R1
Fig. 12.62
Solution The admittance function is Y s = () 1

R + sL
∴Y j ( ) = R +1j L
=
R
R 2 + 2 L2
−j 2
L
R + 2 L2
∴ Re ⎡⎣Y j ( )⎤⎦ = X = 1 + R L 2 2
(i)
and Im ⎡⎣Y j ( )⎤⎦ = Y = − 1 + L

2
L2
(ii)
Y L YR
By (ii) (i), we get= ⇒ =
X R XL
Substituting this value of ␻ in (i), we get
2 2 Y
R X2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
X= = or, ⎜ X − ⎟ + Y 2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎛ YR ⎞ 2
R +⎜
2
L
2
(
R X 2 +Y 2 ) ⎝ 2R⎠ ⎝ 2R⎠
v
1/2R 1/R X
v 0
⎝ XL ⎟⎠ v
Fig. 12.63
1 1
This is a circle with centre at ( , 0) and radius .
2R 2R
It is observed that at ␻ 0 Y j( ) = R1 and as → ∞, Y j ( ) =0

L
(b) This network may be considered to be parallel connection of three Y(s) c R2
R1
sub-networks:
(i) a resistor R2 Fig. 12.64
740
(ii) a capacitor C
(iii) series combination of R1 and L
Total admittance is given as
Y j ( ) = R1 + j C+
1
=Y j
R1 + j L R2
( )+Y ( j )+Y ( j )
C R1 − L
2
The complex loci for the three admittances can be drawn separately as shown in Fig. 12.65 below.
Im[YR ]
1 L
Im[YR ] Im[Yc ] To 1/R1

2
v v 0
1/R2 v
v 0
0
v Re[YR ]
Re[YR ] 0 1 L
2 Re[YC ] v
Fig. 12.65 (a) Fig. 12.65 (b) Fig. 12.65 (c) Complex locus
Complex locus for R2 Complex locus for C for R1 -L
The point-by-point phasor addition of these three loci gives the locus of the complete admittance of the
network given. This is shown below in Fig. 12.65.
Im[Y ]
v
v 0
0 Re[Y ]
v v 0
Fig. 12.65 (d) Complex

locus for the entire
network
Problem 12.28 Find the frequency response plot of the following network functions:
s2 + 1.03
( ) ( s + 325( s + 4
(a) F s = ()
(b) F s =
25
(c) F s =()
) ) s + s + 9.25
2
s2 + 1.23
Solution
()
(a) F s =
25
( )(
s+3 s+4 )
Here, F(s) has two poles at s 3, 4
For steady-state s j␻,
F j ( )= 25
=F j ( ) ∠F ( j )
( j +3 j +4 )( )
⎛ ⎞ −1 ⎛ ⎞
∴F j ( )= 25
and ∠F j ( ) = − tan −1
⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ − tan ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
( 9 + )(16 + )2 2
741
The values of magnitude and phase angles are tabulated as follows:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
F(j␻) 2.06 1.95 1.57 1.18 0.915 0.675 0.525 0.412 0.332
F(j␻) 0 33 60 83 99 110 120 127 133
Also, as ␻ → , F(j␻) → 0 and F(j␻) → 180 .

The magnitude and phase plots are shown in Fig. 12.66.
|F( j v)| 2.2

2 F( j v) 0
1.8 20
1.6 40
1.4 60
1.2 80
1 100
0.8 120
140
0.6
160
0.4
180
0.2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 v
v
Fig. 12.66
()
(b) F s =
25
=
25
s 2 + s + 9.25 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 2
⎜⎝ s + 2 ⎟⎠ + 3
1
Here, F(s) has two poles at: s = − ± j 3
2
For steady state s j␻,
( )=
F j
25 25
=
=F j ( ) ∠F ( j )
(j ) + j + 9.25 9.25 − + j
2 2
⎛ ⎞
( )=
∴F j
25
and ∠F j ( ) = − tan −1
⎜⎝ 9.25 − ⎟⎠
( 9.25 − )
2 2
2
+ 2
The values of magnitude and phase angles are tabulated as follows:
␻ 0 1 2 3 4 5
F(j␻) 2.71 3.0 4.38 8.8 3.2 2.56
F(j␻) 0 7 25 85 159.5 173
Also, as ␻ → , F(j␻) → 0 and F(j␻) → 180 .

The magnitude and phase plots are shown in Fig. 12.67.
742
F( j v) 0
|F(jv)| 9
8
20
40
7 60
6 80
5 100
4
3 120
2 140
1 160
0 180
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 5 101520 2530 35 40 45 50
v v
Fig. 12.67
Problem 12.29 Find the frequency response plot from the pole–zero plot for the following function:
()
F s =
5s
s + 6 s + 25
2
Solution Here, ()
F s =
5s
=
5s
jv
( )
s + 6 s + 25 s + 3 2 + 4 2
2
18.4 j5
The function has poles at s 3 j4 and zero at s 0. j4
The pole–zero diagram of the function is shown in Fig. 12.68. s
To find the magnitude of the function at a point (say, j5, i.e., ␻ 5 rad/s), we have, 3 0
71.6
5×5
( )
F j5 =
5
= = 0.83
j4
10 × 90 6
Fig. 12.68
( )
∠F j 5 = 90 − 18.4 − 71.6 = 0
Also, at ␻ 0 , F(j0) and F(j0) 90 and at ␻ → , since the vector length from all poles and zeros are
( )
all tending to infinity and there are two poles, F j∞ = 0 and ∠F j∞ = 90 − 90 − 90 = − 90 ( )
Similarly, at some other frequency, like ␻ 10,
5 × 10
( )
F j10 = = 0.52
45 × 205
( )
∠F j10 = 90 − 63.5 − 77.9 = −51.4
In this way, the magnitudes and phases for different values of ␻ can be calculated from the pole–zero plot.
The plots are shown in Fig. 12.69 below.
|F( j v)| 0.9

0.8 F( j v)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3 v
0.2 0
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90
v 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Fig. 12.69
743
Summary
1. In any network, the functions relating the voltages and 9. The plot of poles and zeros of a network function
currents at different parts of the network are known as in the s-plane is known as pole–zero diagram of
network functions. the network function. The locations of poles and
2. A pair of terminals is commonly known as a port, across zeros in the s-plane describes the behaviour of
which a device can be connected. the s system.
3. For a two-port network, there are two types of network 10. The natural response or transient response or source-
functions, transfer functions and driving point func- free response of a network is the response with no
tions. source excitation; it is the response of the network to
4. Transfer function is the ratio of an output transform to an its initial conditions or response due to unit impulse
input transform, with zero initial condition and with no excitation.
internal energy sources except the controlled sources. 11. For a stable system, all poles must lie in the left half of
5. Four types of transfer function are the s-plane. For a marginally stable system, the poles
may lie at the origin.
voltage transfer function,
12. For driving point and transfer function, the pole–zero
V1( s ) V (s) locations in the s-plane must satisfy some necessary
G12 ( s ) = ; G21( s ) = 2
V2 ( s ) V1( s ) conditions as given in sections 12.10 and 12.11.
current transfer function, , 13. The time-domain response of a given network can be
I (s) I2 ( s ) determined from the pole–zero plot of the network
12
(s) = 1 ; 21
(s) = function and the knowledge of the network sources.
I2 ( s ) I1( s )
For a network function,
transfer impedance function N s () (
s − z1 s − z2 ⋅⋅⋅ s − z n )( ) ( )
()
F s = =K
V (s) V (s)
Z12 ( s ) = 1 ; Z 21( s ) = 2 , and
I2 ( s ) I1( s )
D s () (
s − p1 s − p2 ⋅⋅⋅ s − pm )( ) ( )
K K K
transfer admittance function, = 1 + 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ m
s − p1 s − p2 s − pm
I (s) I (s)
Y12 ( s ) = 1 ; Y21( s ) = 2 Coefficients,
V2 ( s ) V1( s )
( )()
K i = ⎡⎣ s − pi F s ⎤⎦
s = pi
6. Driving point immittance is the ratio of transform volt-
age or current at any port to the transform voltage or
=K
( p − z )( p − z )( p − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( p − z )
i 1 i 2 i 3 i n
current at the same port, in zero state with no internal ( p − p )( p − p )( p − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( p − p )( p − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( p − p )
i 1 i 2 i 3 i i −1 i i +1 i m
energy sources.
7. Four types of driving point immittance functions are If (pi zn ) Mni ␪ni and ( pi pm) Nmi ␣mi, where M s
and N s are the magnitudes of the phasors ( pi zn ) and ( pi
V1( s ) V (s) I (s) I (s)
Z11( s ) = ; Z 22 ( s ) = 2 and Y11( s ) = 1 ;Y22 ( s ) = 2 pm), respectively and ␪ s and ␣ s are the corresponding
I1( s ) I2 ( s ) V 1
( s ) V 2
(s) phase angles, the coefficients can be written as
( )=
N s M1i M2 i M3 i ⋅⋅⋅ Mni
( )−
8. For a network function of the form F s = () Ki = K ∠ + + + ⋅⋅⋅+
()
D s N1i N2 i N3 i ⋅⋅⋅ Nmi 1i 2i 3i ni
K
( s − z )( s − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − z ) , at
1 2 n the complex frequen-
− ( 1i
+ 2i
+ 3i
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ mi
( s − p )( s − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − p )
1 2 m Producct ofall the directedlinesfrom all zerosto pi
cies, s zi , i 1, 2, 3, . . ., n, the numerator poly- =K
Product ofall the directed linesfrom other remaining polesto pi
nomial N(s) 0, and these frequencies are known
as the zeros of the network function F(s). Similarly, at 14. The frequency-domain response of a given network
the complex frequencies s pi , i 1, 2, 3, . . ., m, can be determined from the pole–zero plot of the
the denominator polynomial D(s) 0 and these fre-
network function and the knowledge of the network
quencies are known as the poles of the network func-
sources. For a network function,
tion F(s).
744
( ) = K ( s − z )( s − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − z )
N s Hence, the magnitude and phase angle of the com-
()
F s =
D( s )
1 2 n
plete frequency response may be written as
( s − p )( s − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − p )
1 2 m s= j
( j − z )( j − z )( j − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( j − z ) ( ) = K Product
F j
Productt of all poles lines to j
=K 1 2 3 n
( j − p )( j − p )( j − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( j − p ) n
1 2 3 m
∏(j − zi ) r1r2 ⋅⋅⋅ rn
=K i =1
K
( )
2
If, j − z i = 2
+ j − = ri m
q1q2 ⋅⋅⋅ qm
zi zi
∏(j − pi )
⎛ − ⎞ i =1
( )
∠ j − z i = tan−1 ⎜
⎝ −
zi
⎟= i and angle
zi ⎠
F( j␻) (summation of angles of the vectors from
( )
2
and, j − pi = 2
+ j − = qi zeros to j␻-point) (summation of angles
pi pi
of the vectors from poles to j␻-point)
⎛ − ⎞ n m
( )
∠ j − pi = tan−1 ⎜
pi
⎟= (
= ∑ ∠ j − z i − ∑ ∠ j − pi ) ( )
⎝ −
i i
pi ⎠ i =1 i =1
then the network function may be written as )=( 1

+ 2
+ 3
+ ⋅⋅⋅ + n )−( 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ n )
15. The variation of magnitude and phase of a network
( ) = K Product
F j
Productt of all poles lines to j function with frequency in logarithmic scale is known
as Bode plot.
1. What are the poles and zeros? What information At s pi, i 1,2,3...., m, the denominator polynomial
do they provide in respect of the network to which D(s) 0; these complex frequencies are known as the
they relate? poles of the network function F(s). At poles, the value of
We consider a network function given by the ratio of the network function is infinity, i.e., Lim F(s) . s → Pi
two polynomials as • Significance of poles and zeros The values of poles
and zeros of F(s) and their locations in the s-plane com-
an s n + an−1s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1s + a0
()
F s =
bm s m + bm−1s m−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s 2 + b1s + b0
(1) pletely specify a network function. All the coefficients
of polynomials N(s) and D(s) are real, therefore the
poles and zeros must be either purely real, or appear
It is often convenient to factor the polynomials in the in complex conjugate pairs. In general for the poles,
numerator and denominator, and to write the transfer either pi ␴i , or else pi , pi 1 ␴ j␻i. The existence of
function in terms of those factors: a single complex pole without a corresponding conju-
N s ( ) = K ( s − z )( s − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − z ) gate pole would generate complex coefficients in the
()
F s = 1 2 n
(2) polynomial D(s). Similarly, the system zeros are either
D s ( ) ( s − p )( s − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − p )
1 2 m real or appear in complex conjugate pairs.
where, the numerator and denominator polynomials, The poles and zeros are properties of the trans-
N(s)and D(s), have real coefficients defined by fer function, and therefore of the differential equa-
a tion describing the input–output system dynamics.
the system’s differential equation and K = n
bm Together with the gain constant K they completely
is a positive constant, known as scale factor. characterize the differential equation, and provide a
From Eq. (2), we can observe the following: complete description of the system.
At s zi,i 1,2,3....,n, the numerator polynomial N (s) 0; 2. What do you understand by driving point imped-
these complex frequencies are known as the zeros of ance of a two-port network? Enumerate important
the network function F(s). At zeros, the value of the net- properties of driving point impedance functions of
work function is zero, i.e., Lim F(s) 0. s →Z i
a two-port passive network.
745
For a two-port network in zero state with no internal • Properties of transfer function
energy sources, the driving point impedance is the 1. The coefficients in the polynomials N(s) and D(s)
ratio of transform voltage at any port to the transform are real and positive.
current at the same port. 2. Complex and imaginary poles are conjugate.
V1( s ) V2 ( s ) 3. The real part of all poles and zeros is either
Z11( s ) = ; Z 22 ( s ) = negative or zero. Thus, all poles and zeros lie
I1( s ) I2 ( s )
on the left half of the s-plane or on the imagi-
• Properties of driving point impedance nary axis.
1. The coefficients in the polynomials N(s) and D(s) 4. If the real part of any pole or zero is zero then that
are real and positive. pole or zero is simple, not repeated. This includes
2. Complex and imaginary poles are conjugate. the origin.
3. The real part of all poles and zeros is either nega- 5. The polynomial D(s) may not have any miss-
tive or zero. Thus, all poles and zeros lie on the ing terms between those of highest and lowest
left half of the s-plane or on the imaginary axis. degree unless all even terms or all odd terms are
4. If the real part of any pole or zero is zero then missing.
that pole or zero is simple, not repeated. This 6. The polynomial N(s) may have missing terms
includes the origin. between those of highest and lowest degree;
5. Polynomials N(s) and D(s) do not have missing some coefficients of N(s) may be negative, too.
terms between those of highest and lowest degree 7. The degree of N(s) may be as small as zero, inde-
unless all even terms or all odd terms are missing. pendent of the degree of D(s).
6. The degree of N(s) and D(s) differs by zero or one 8. (a) For the voltage ratio transfer functions, G, and
only. current ratio transfer functions, ␣, the maxi-
7. The lowest degree of N(s) and D(s) may differ by mum degree of N(s) is the degree of D(s).
one at most. (b) For transfer impedance Z and transfer admit-
tance Y, the maximum degree of N(s) is the
3. What do you understand by the transfer function degree of D(s) plus one.
of a system? State its properties.
It is defined as the ratio of an output transform to an 4. What is natural response of a network? Define
input transform, with zero initial condition and with open-circuit natural frequency (OCNF) and short-
no internal energy sources except the controlled circuit natural frequency (SCNF)? How does the
sources. natural response of a network depend on the posi-
For a two-port network, having the variables I1(s), I2(s), tion of poles in the s-plane?
V1(s), and V2(s), transfer function can take the following Natural response of a network The natural response
four forms or source-free response of a network is the response with
1. Voltage transfer function no source excitation; it is the response of the network
to its initial conditions. This response is also known as
V1( s ) V (s)
G12 ( s ) = ; G21( s ) = 2 the transient response.
V2 ( s ) V1( s )
The natural response of a system is also described as
2. Current transfer function the response to unit impulse excitation. It is characterized
by the natural frequencies of oscillation of the system.
I1( s ) I2 ( s )
12
(s) = ; 21
(s) = We consider a driving-point impedance function as
I2 ( s ) I1( s )
( ) = K ( s − z )( s − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − z ) . For two differ-
V1 s
()
Z11 s = 1 2 n
3. Transfer impedance function
( ) ( s − p )( s − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − p )
I1 s 1 2 m
V1( s ) V (s)
Z12 ( s ) = ; Z 21( s ) = 2 ent cases, two different natural frequencies are defined.
I2 ( s ) I1( s )
Open-circuit natural frequencies (OCNF) If I1 0,
4. Transfer admittance function i. e., the input is open-circuited then from the above
equation, V1 0 unless Z11(s) is infinite. Therefore, with
I1( s ) I (s) input open-circuited, for a voltage to exist, it is neces-
Y12 ( s ) = ; Y (s) = 2
V2 ( s ) 21 V1( s ) sary that Z11(s) is infinite.
746
In this case, the poles of Z11(s), i. e., p1, p2, …, pm are finite set of initial conditions decay to zero as time
known as the open-circuit natural frequencies (OCNF) of increases, i.e.,
the network. n
Lim ∑ K i e i = 0
pt
(1)
Short-circuit natural frequencies (SCNF) If V1 0, t →∞ i =1
i. e., the input is short-circuited then from the above
equation, I1 will be zero unless Z11(s) is zero. Therefore, where pi are the system poles. In a stable system, all
with input short-circuited, for a current to exist, it is components of the homogeneous response
necessary that Z11(s) is zero. must decay to zero as time increases. If any
In this case, the zeros of Z11(s), i.e., z1, z2, … , zn are pole has a positive real part, there is a com-
known as the short-circuit natural frequencies (SCNF) of ponent in the output that increases without
the network. bound, causing the system to be unstable.
We can summarize as For a linear system to be stable, all of its poles must
have negative real parts, i.e., they must lie within the left
(i) the poles of an impedance function are OCNF of
half of the s-plane.
the network
(ii) the zeros of an impedance function are SCNF of A system having one or more poles lying on the
the network imaginary axis of the s-plane has non-decaying oscilla-
(iii) the poles of an admittance function are SCNF of tory components in its natural response, and is defined
the network as a marginally stable system.
(iv) the zeros of an admittance function are OCNF of The location of the poles in the s-plane therefore
the network defines the n components in the homogeneous response
and the stability of the system as described below:
Pole Position and natural response As the trans-
fer function completely represents a system differ- 1. A real pole pi −␴ in the left half of the s-plane
ential equation, its poles and zeros effectively define defines an exponentially decaying component,
the system response. In particular, the system poles Ke− ␴t, in the homogeneous response. The rate of
directly define the components in the homogeneous the decay is determined by the pole location; poles
or natural response. The unforced or natural response far from the origin in the left half plane correspond
of a linear BIBO system to a set of initial conditions is to components that decay rapidly, while poles near
n
()
y t = ∑ Ki e it the origin correspond to slowly decaying compo-
i =1 nents. In this case, the system is a stable system.
where, the constants Ki are determined from the given 2. A pole at the origin pi 0 defines a component
set of initial conditions and the exponents ␭i are that is constant in amplitude and defined by the
the roots of the characteristic equation of the initial conditions. In this case, the system is a mar-
system. The characteristic equation is, ginally stable system.
()
D s = an s n + an−1s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a1s + a0
3. A real pole in the right half s-plane corresponds
to an exponentially increasing component Ke␴t
and its roots are the system poles, that is ␭i pi. in the homogeneous response; thus defining the
Therefore, the natural response may be writ- system to be unstable. In this case, the system is
n
an unstable system.
ten as y(t) ∑K e
i =1
i
pi t
4. A complex conjugate pole pair (␴ j␻) in the left

5. Explain how the stability of a network depends on half of the s-plane combine to generate a response
the position of poles in the s-plane. component that is a decaying sinusoid of the form
Or, Ae−␴t sin(␻t ␸) where A and ␸ are determined by
Prove that for BIBO stability, the roots of the char- the initial conditions. The rate of decay is specified
acteristic equation or the poles of the system trans- by ␴; the frequency of oscillation is determined by
fer function cannot be located in the right half of ␻. The system is a stable system.
s-plane or on the j -axis 5. An imaginary pole pair, i.e., a pole pair lying on the
The stability of a linear system may be determined imaginary axis, j␻, generates an oscillatory com-
directly from its transfer function. An nth order linear ponent with a constant amplitude determined by
system is asymptotically stable only if all of the the initial conditions. The system is a marginally
components in the homogeneous response from a stable system
747
6. A complex pole pair in the right half-plane gener- Bode plot or Bode diagram is the curve that provides
ates an exponentially increasing component. the variation of magnitude and phase of a network func-
system is an unstable system tion with frequency in logarithmic scale.
These results are summarized in Fig. 12.70. We consider a network function given as
( ) = K ( s − z )( s − z )( s − z ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − z )
N s
()
F s = 1 2 3 n
ᑣ(s)
( ) ( s − p )( s − p )( s − p ) ⋅⋅⋅( s − p )
D s 1 2 3 m
= F ( s ) ∠F ( s ) = M∠ = Me j
Taking the natural log,

() () ()
Loge ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = Loge ⎡ F s ⎤ ∠F s = loge ⎡⎣ Me j ⎤⎦
⎣ ⎦
ᑬ(s)
0 or ()
ln ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = ln M + j
where, ln M is the logarithmic gain or simply gain in

neper, and ␾ is the phase angle in radian.
Stable region Unstable region
Alternately, the gain is expressed in decibel (db), where,
Fig. 12.70 Pole position and system stability gain in db 20 log10 M
• Advantages of bode plot
From the above discussion, we conclude that for BIBO
stability, the roots of the characteristic equation or the 1. The product factors in f (j␻) become additive
poles of the system transfer function cannot be located terms because of the use of logarithms.
in the right half of the s-plane or on the j␻-axis. 2. The shape of the Bode plot is such that for most
of the commonly used plots in servo systems, it
6. What is a Bode plot? What are the advantages of can approximately represent the exact function
using Bode plot? by straight-line aysmptotes.
Exercises
1. Calculate the driving-point impedance of the network a) C1 C2
shown in Fig. 12.71 and obtain the pole–zero plot.
(a) 2H (b) 5 10
V1(s) R1 R2 V2(s)
Z(s) 1 1F Z(s) 10F 5F
(c)
5 5 [Ans: R1R2C1C 2 s 2 ]
Z(s)
10 H 10 F ( R + R )C s + 1+ R C s ( R C s + 1)
1 2 2 1 1 2 2
Fig. 12.71 b)
2F 2F
[Ans: (a)
2s + 1
2
(b)
( )(
s + 0.04 s + 0.01 )
2s 2 + s + 1 (
s s + 0.03 ) V1(s) 2 2F 1 V2(s)
(c)
( )(
5 1+ 2 s 1+ 50 s )]
100 s 2 + 100 s + 1
Fig. 12.72
2. Determine the voltage transfer ratio
( ) of the net- V1 s
V (s) 2 [Ans:
8s 2
]
works shown in Fig. 12.72. 12 s + 12 s + 1
2
748
3. For the resistive two-port network of Fig. 12.73 deter-
mine: (a) G21, (b) Z21, (c) Y21, and (d) ␣21. j3
I1 2 2 2 I2 3 s-plane
1
V1 1 1 1 V2 1 Z (s) C G R
L
j3
Fig. 12.76
Fig. 12.73
(a) Write an expression for Z(s).
[ 1; 1; − 1; − 1 ] (b) Specify the parameter R, L, G and C if Z(0) 1.
41 56 41 56
⎛ s +1 ⎞
4. For the ladder network shown in Fig. 12.74, ()
[a) Z s = 18 ⎜ 2
⎝ s + 6 s + 18 ⎟⎠
; b) R 18 Ω;
(a) obtain driving-point impedance function at the port 1 17 1 1

L 18 H; G C F]
(b) find voltage transfer function V2 s () 18 18
7. The transform voltage of a network is given as
V1 s ()
()
V s =
(
4 s +1 )
1 1/s 1/s ( s + 2)( s + 3)
Draw its pole–zero diagram and hence obtain v(t).
V1 s s s V2
[Ans: v t = 4 e −2t + 8e −3t ] ()
8. The transform current I(s) in a network is given by the
following equation:
Fig. 12.74 I s = () 2s
s +1 s + 2( )( )
s + 3s + 3s 3 + 4 s 2 + s + 1
5 4
s5
[ ; 5 ]
3s + 4 s + 1
4 2
s + 3s + 3s 3 + 4 s 2 + s + 1
4
Plot the poles and zeros in the s-plane and hence
obtain the time–domain response.
5. For a T-twin network as shown in Fig. 12.75, compute
I s () ()
[Ans: i t = 4 e −2t − 2e − t ]
()
Y12 s = 1 with V1(s) set to zero.
V2 s() 9. The zeros and poles of a network are given below:
Find the relationship between C1R1 and C2R2 for Y12(s) Zeros: 1, ( 1 j1) Poles: 2, ( 1 j2)
to exhibit a complex pair of zeros in the j␻-axis.
If H(0) 4, find the network function H(s) and draw the
C2 pole–zero plot.
C1
( s + 1)( s + 3)
10. Draw poles and zeros for V s = () and
( s + 2)( s + 4 )
R1 R1 evaluate v(t) either analytically or by making use of
V1 R2 C1 V2
pole zero diagram. [Ans: v t = t − e − e ]
2
() ()
1 −2t 3 −4 t
2
11. Draw the asymptotic Bode plot for the following function:
Fig. 12.75
()
(a) G s =
1
[R1C1 2R2C2] ( )(
s 1+ 0.5s 1+ 0.05s )
6. A network and a pole–zero pattern for driving-point ()
(b) V s =
(
200 s + 2 )
impedance Z(s) are shown in Fig. 12.76. (
s s 2 + 10 s + 100 )
749
12. Find the frequency response plot of the following net- 14. The Bode diagram of a function is shown in Fig. 12.77.
work function: 100
Find the function. [Ans: ]
s 2 + 1.03
F s = 2 () ( s + 1)( s + 5)
s + 1.23
26dB v 1v 5
13. Find the frequency response plot from the pole–zero 6
plot for the following function:
dB
s 2 + 1.21 12
()
F s = 2
s + 1.44 Fig. 12.77
Questions
1. (a) Write short notes on driving point impedance and 3. What are poles and zeros? What information do they
transfer impedance. provide in respect of the network to which they
relate?
or,
4. Explain how time-domain response of a system can
Define driving point impedance and transfer
be determined from the s-plane plot of the poles and
impedance of a network.
zeros of its network function and from the transform of
(b) Define precisely the following network functions the network sources.
with reference to a two-port network:
5. (a) Briefly discuss the restriction on pole–zero loca-
(i) Driving-point impedance tion in the s-plane for driving point impedance
(ii) Transfer admittance functions.
(iii) Voltage transfer ratio (b) Briefly discuss the restriction on the pole–zero
(vi) Current transfer ratio location in the s-plane for transfer functions.
(v) Transfer impedance 6. (a) Explain how the frequency-domain response of a

system can be determined from the s-plane plot of
2. (a) Define precisely the various transfer functions of a the poles and zeros of its network function.
two-terminal pair passive network.
(b) What information do you get about the sinusoidal
(b) What do you understand by driving point imped- frequency response of a linear system from the
ance of a two-port network? Enumerate important pole–zero plot?
properties of driving point impedance functions of
a two-port passive network. 7. What is a Bode plot? Explain the technique for drawing
it. What are the advantages of using a Bode plot?
(c) What do you understand by the transfer function
of a system? State its properties.
1. For the network shown in 1H 3. Zd(s) has two real poles and two complex conju-
Fig.12.78, which of the fol- gate zeros.
lowing statements are true? 4. Zd(s) has two complex conjugate poles and two
10
s →0
()
1. lim Z d s = 1
Zd (s)
1 1F
complex conjugate zeros.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
lim Z d
s →∞
( s ) = 10 below:
Fig. 12.78
2. lim Z d
s →0
( s ) = 10 (i) 1 and 3 (ii) 1 and 4 (iii) 2 and 3 (iv) 2 and 4
lim Z d
s →∞
(s ) = 1 2. In Fig. 12.79, Z1(s) and Z2(s) are the driving point
impedances of the networks. Match List 1 with List 2
750
and select the correct answer using the codes given 5. The voltage ratio transfer R
below the lists: function for the network
C shown in Fig. 12.82 under Input C Output
R L
sinusoidal steady conditions
is G( j␻). Match List I with
Z1(s) R L C List II and select the correct Fig. 12.82
Z 2(s)
answer using the codes given
below the lists:
Fig. 12.79
List I List II
List 1 List 2 (Frequency) (G( j␻))
(Stipulated condition for (Value of the 1. 0 A. 1 0
the impedance) impedance) 1
2. B. 0 −90
A. lim Z1 s
s→0
() 1. R 3.
RC
C. 0.707 45
B. lim Z ( s ) 2. sL
s →∞ 1
1 Codes:
C. lim Z ( s ) 3. (i) A B C
s→0 2
sL
j 1 1 3 2
D. Z2(s) at s j␻= 4.
LC sC (ii) A B C
1 2 3
Codes: (iii) A B C
(i) A B C D 2 1 3
2 4 4 1 (iv) A B C
(ii) A B C D 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 6. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
(iii) A B C D using the codes given below the lists:
2 4 3 1
List I List II
(iv) A B C D
(Location of poles on (Type of response)
1 3 4 2
s-plane)
3. Consider the following statements regarding the two-
port network shown in Fig. 12.80. The transfer func- A. 1.
t
tions of the network would include
I1 I2
Two-port B. 2.
V1 V2 t
network
Fig. 12.80 C. 3.
t
(i) V2/V1, I2/I1, V2/I1 and I2/V1 (ii) V2/I2 and V1/I1
(iii) V2/V1 and I2/I1 (iv) V2/I1 and I2/V1. D. 4.
t
4. For the network shown in
R1 1
Fig. 12.81, Z(0) 3 Ω and
Z(∞) 2 Ω. The values of R1 Z(s ) 5. t
and R2 will respectively be 1F R2 1F
(i) 2 Ω, 1 Ω
(i) A B C D
(ii) 1 Ω, 2 Ω Fig. 12.81
4 1 2 3
(iii) 3 Ω, 2 Ω (ii) A B C D
(iv) 2 Ω, 3 Ω. 5 1 4 3
751
(iii) A B C D (i) (ii)
2 3 5 4 t t
(iv) A B C D
2 1 3 4 (iii) (iv)
7. Consider the following statements: t t
1. Transfer impedance is the reciprocal of transfer Fig. 12.85
admittance.
11. If an impedance has the pole–zero jv
2. One can derive transfer impedance of a network pattern as shown in Fig. 12.86, it
if its driving-point impedance and admittance are must be composed of j
known.
(i) RC elements only 1 j 1 s
3. Driving point impedance is the ratio of the Laplace
(ii) RL elements only
transform of voltage and current functions at the
input. (iii) LC elements only Fig. 12.86
Of these statements, (iv) RLC elements
(i) 1, 2 and 3 are correct 12. The voltage transfer func-
tion of the two-port net- R1 C
(ii) 1 and 2 are correct V1
work given in Fig. 12.87 V2
(iii) 2 and 3 are correct has L R2
(iv) 3 alone is correct (i) a zero at the origin
8. Consider the following statements regarding driving (ii) a zero at ∞ Fig. 12.87
point admittance function having two complex con- (iii) no zero
jugate poles: (iv) a zero at j1
( ) P( s ) Q( s )
1. Closer the poles to j␻-axis, higher the Q of the
circuit. 13. For a transfer function H s = where P(s)
2. Value of Q varies inversely as the damping ratio. and Q(s) are polynomials in s
3. A circuit with low R has low Q. (i) the degree of P(s) is always greater than the
Of these statements, degree of Q(s)
(i) 1 and 3 are correct (ii) the degree of P(s) and Q(s) are the same
(ii) 2 and 3 are correct (iii) the degree of P(s) is independent of the degree
(iii) 1 and 2 are correct of Q(s)
(iv) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (iv) the maximum degree of P(s) and Q(s) differ at the
most by one
9. The pole–zero con- j␻
figuration of a net- 14. A network has its response with time
s- plane as shown in Fig. 12.88. Which one of
work transfer function t
is shown in Fig. 12.84.
␴ the following diagrams represents
2 1 1 2 the location of the poles in this net-
The magnitude of the
-pole work? Fig. 12.88
transfer function will
-zero (i) (ii)
(i) decrease with fre-
quency Fig. 12.84
(ii) increase with frequency
(iii) initially increase and then decrease with fre-
quency (iii) (iv)
(iv) be independent of frequency
10. Which one of the pairs of poles and responses is cor-
rectly matched?
752
15. Which one of the following circuits has a driving–
( )
R1 R2
2 s2 + s + 1 Y G jB
point impedance of Z s = ()
s2 + s +1
2 ? XL1 XL2
(i) 1 1F Fig. 12.92

(ii) 1H 1F (ii) B
(i) B R1
1H 1 G
1 1
G R1
(iv) 1 1H
(iii) B (iv) B
(iii) 1F 1
G R1
1 1F
1H 1 R1 G
Fig. 12.89 20. A system has a single pole. The constant multiplier ‘K’
16. A pole–zero pattern of a is 1. For the given excitation sin t, the response is 2
jv
particular filter is shown in with 45 lagging. The system has a pole and a zero
j2 s-plane respectively at
Fig. 12.90. It is that of a/an
j1
(i) low-pass filter s (i) zero and 1
(ii) high-pass filter j1 -plane (ii) infinity and −1
(iii) band-pass filter j2 -zero (iii) −1 and zero
(iv) all-pass filter (iv) zero and −1
Fig. 12.90
17. An RC driving point impedance function has zeros at 21. Consider the following functions:
s 2 and s 5. The admissible poles for the func- s 3 + 3s 2. s + 3s + 1
3
1.
tion would be
(
2 s2 +1 ) (
5 s2 +1 )
(i) s 0; s 6
(ii) s 1; s 3
3.
s2 +1
4.
(
3 s 3 + 7s
2 )
(iii) s 0; s 1 3s s + 14 s + 30
4 2
(iv) s 3; s 4 Which of these are valid driving point impedance

18. Figure12.91 indicates the locus for Locus of I functions?
the total current taken by a two- (i) 1, 2 and 3 (ii) 1, 3 and 4
branch parallel circuit fed from a
V (iii) 1, 2 and 4 (iv) 2, 3 and 4
constant voltage ac source V, when
one element of the circuit is varied. Fig. 12.91 22. A driving point impedance function is given by
Each branch contains two elements ( s + k )( s + k )( s + k )
(R, L or C) in series. Consider the following combina- ()
F s = 1 2 3
tions: ( s + 1)( s + 2)( s + 3)( s + 4 )

1. Fixed R and C The product k1k2k3 cannot be more than
2. Fixed R and variable L (i) 48 (ii) 24
3. Variable R and fixed R (iii) 10 (iv) 4
4. Fixed R and variable C 23. A pole of driving point admittance function implies
The arrangements at the two branches are respectively (i) zero current for a finite value of driving voltage
(i) 1 and 2 (ii) 2 and 3 (ii) zero voltage for a finite value of driving current
(iii) 1 and 4 (iv) 2 and 4 (iii) an open-circuit condition
19. The admittance locus of the circuit shown in Fig.12.92 is (iv) none of (i), (ii) and (iii) mentioned in the question
753
24. The driving point func- 0.75 0.5F s |H(j v)|
(i)
tion of the circuit shown in s +1 db
Fig.12.93 when s → 0 and s Z(s) 0.5F 2H 10 s 20 dB/dec
(ii) 20
→ ∞, (the elements are nor- s +1 v(rad/s)
malized) will respectively be Fig. 12.93 10 1
(iii)
1 2 1 s +1
(i) and (ii) and 0.75 1 Fig. 12.94
s s s (iv)
(iii) 0.75 and
2
(iv)
2
and 0.75
s s +1( ) 2
s s 32. The driving point imped-
Z (s) 2 1F 1
25. When the input frequency is varied from zero to infin- ance of the network
ity causing variations in magnitude and phase angle, shown in Fig. 12.95 is
the traced locus by phasor is called the given by Fig. 12.95
(i) polar plot (ii) Bode plot
( 2)
4 s+ 3 (s + 32 )
(s + 5 4 ) (s + 5 4 )
(iii) locus plot (iv) none of these (i) (ii)
26. The frequency at which two asymptotes meet is
(s + 5 4 ) 1 (s + 2 )
known as
3
(i) corner or break frequency
(s + 32 ) ( 4)
(iii) (iv)
(ii) threshold frequency 4 s+ 5
(iii) cut-off frequency
33. The R-L-C series circuit shown is A R
(iv) critical frequency supplied from a variable frequency
27. For a constant gain k, log-magnitude curve in Bode voltage source. The admittance- v C L
plot is locus of the R-L-C network at ter-
minals AB for increasing frequency B
(i) zero (ii) negative
␻ is Fig. 12.96
(iii) positive (iv) negative or positive
(ii)
depending upon the (i) Im
value of k
Im ␻
28. Slope of a factor k, in plotting the Bode magnitude
curve is ␻ Re Re
(i) 0 (ii) (iii) (iv)
(iii) 90 (iv) none of these Im Im
␻
29. A system has fourteen poles and two zeros. The slope Re
␻ Re
of its highest frequency asymptote in its magnitude
plot is 34. In Fig. 12.97, all phasors are
with reference to the poten- V 0 VXY R
(i) −40 dB/decade
tial at the point O. The locus
(ii) −240 dB/decade X Y
of the voltage phasor VYX as R V 0
(iii) −280 dB/decade is varied from zero to infinity
(iv) −320 dB/decade is shown by O
30. A network function can be completely specified by Fig. 12.97
(i) real parts of zeros (i) 2V (ii) Locus ofVXY
0
VXY VXY
(ii) poles and zeros
Locus of VXY 0 2V
(iii) real parts of poles
(iv) poles, zeros and a scale factor (iii) 2V (iv) Locus ofVXY
0
VXY
VXY
31. The frequency response for a network function H(s) is
Locus ofVXY 0 2V
given in Fig. 12.94. H(s) is given by
754
35. Consider the Bode 20 log |H(jv)| 36. A linear, time-invariant, causal continuous time system
magnitude plot 0 20 dB/decade has a rational transfer function with simple poles at
shown in Fig. 12.98. 20 s −2 and s −4, and one simple zero at s −1. A
The transfer func- unit step u(t) is applied at the input of the system. At
tion H(s) is 1 10 100 vin rad steady state, the output has a constant value of 1. The
Fig. 12.98 impulse response of this system is
( s + 10) ( )
10 s + 1 ( ) (
(i) ⎡⎣exp −2t + exp − 4t ⎤⎦u t ) ()
(i) (ii)
( s + 1)( s + 100) ( s + 1)( s + 100) ( ) ( ) ( ) ()
(ii) ⎡⎣ − 4 exp −2t − 12 exp − 4t − exp −t ⎤⎦u t
( )
102 s + 1 (
102 s + 100 ) (iii) ⎡ − 4 exp( −2t ) + 12 exp( − 4t ) ⎤u (t )
(iii) (iv) ⎣ ⎦
( s + 10)( s + 100) ( s + 10)( s + 10) (iv) ⎡ − 0.5 exp( −2t ) + 1.5 exp( − 4t ) ⎤u (t )
⎣ ⎦
Answers
1. (i) 9. (iv) 17. (ii) 25. (i) 33 (i)

2. (i) 10. (i) 18. (iii) 26. (i) 34. (ii)
3. (i) 11. (iv) 19. (ii) 27. (iv) 35. (iii)
4. (i) 12. (i) 20. (iv) 28. (i) 36. (iii)
5. (i) 13. (iii) 21. (ii) 29. (iii)
6. (iv) 14. (iv) 22. (ii) 30. (iv)
7. (iv) 15. (i) 23. (ii) 31. (iii)
8. (iii) 16. (iii) 24. (ii) 32. (ii)
13 Elements of Realizability
and Network Synthesis
PART I ELEMENTS OF REALIZABILITY
Introduction
In earlier chapters, we have determined the response of a circuit when its excitation was given. In this
chapter, we will discuss the methods of synthesizing a network when the excitation and response of the
network are given. The starting point of any network synthesis problem is to know the system function or
network function, H(s), defined as the ratio of response, R(s) to the excitation, E(s), i.e., H( s ) =
().
R s
E( s )
To study whether a network can be synthesized from a given function i.e., whether the function is
realizable as a physical passive network, is known as elements of realizability.
In this chapter, in the first part, we will discuss the different considerations of a physically realizable
system. In the second part, we will discuss the various properties and synthesis methods for different
one-port networks.
13.1 ELEMENTS OF REALIZABILITY THEORY

The basic consideration for any network synthesis problem is to determine whether a network function H(s),
given by the ratio of response transform R(s) to the excitation transform, E(s), i.e.,
()
R s
()
H s =
E(s)
(13.1)
can be realized as a physical passive network. This study is known as ‘elements of realizability theory’.
Two important properties for realizability are
1. Causality, and
2. Stability.
756
Causality A system is said to be causal if the output of the system depends only on the input at the present
time and/or in the past, but not the future value of the input. Thus, a causal system is non-anticipative, i.e.,
output cannot come before the input.
On the other hand, the output of a non-causal system depends on the future values of the input.
1
Example The moving-average system described by y[ n] = {x[ n] + x[ n − 1] + x[ n − 2 ]}
3
1
is causal; but the moving-average system described by y[ n] = {x[ n + 1] + x[ n] + x[ n − 1]}
3
is non-causal since the output depends on the future value of the input x[n + 1].
In a network-synthesis problem, causality means that
a voltage cannot appear between any pair of terminals h(t) = e a t u(t)
in a network before a current is impressed or vice-versa. h(t ) = e atu(t)
This means that the response of the network must be
zero for t 0, i.e., h(t) 0 for t 0.
0 t 0 t
For example, the impulse response, h(t) e at u(t) Fig. 13.1 (a) Causal Fig. 13.1 (b) Non-
is causal and thus, realizable; but the impulse response, and realizable causal and non-realizable
h(t) e a t is not causal. impulse response impulse response
Sometimes, a non-causal impulse response can be made
causal by shifting or delaying it appropriately. For example,
the impulse response of Fig. 13.2 (a) is non-realizable; but it h(t) h(t T )
is made realizable by shifting it by an amount of time, T, as
shown in Fig. 13.2 (b),
T 0 t
In the frequency domain, the condition for causality is Fig. 13.2 (a) Non- 0 t
given by the Paley–Wiener criterion. According to this cri- realizable impulse Fig. 13.2 (b) Realizable
terion, the necessary and sufficient condition for an ampli- response impulse response
tude function H( j␻) to be causal and realizable is that
∞ log H j ( )
∫
−∞ 1+ 2
d <∞ (13.2)
provided (i) h(t) possesses a Fourier transform H( j ); and

∞
∫ H( j )
2
(ii) H( j ␻) 2 is integrable, i.e., d < ∞.
−∞
The physical meaning of the Paley–Wiener criterion is that the amplitude H(j␻) of a realizable network must
not be zero over a finite band of frequencies. For example, the characteristics of an ideal low-pass (or high-
pass) filter is not realizable as the amplitude of it is zero beyond (or below) the cut-off frequency.
Stability A stable system is one where the output does not diverge as long as the input does not diverge. A
bounded input produces a bounded output. For this reason, this type of system is known as bounded input-
bounded output (BIBO) stable system.
Mathematically, a stable system must have the following property:
If x(t) be the input and y(t) be the output, then the output must satisfy the condition y (t ) ≤ M y <∝ ; for all t
757
Elements of Realizability and Network Synthesis
whenever the input satisfies the condition x (t ) ≤ M x < ∞ ; for all t

where, Mx and My both represent a set of finite positive numbers.
If these conditions are not met, i.e., the output of the system grows without limit (diverges) from a bounded
input then the system is unstable.
In a linear system, if the excitation e(t) and response r(t) is bounded, i.e.,
()
e t < K1 , 0 ≤ t ≤ ∞ and ()
r t < K2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ ∞
∞
()
then by convolution theorem, we get, r t < K1 ∫ h ( )d < K2
0
∞
which requires that, the impulse response h(t) be absolutely integrable, i.e., ∫ h( ) d
0
<∞
()
or in other words, Lim h t = 0 for all values of t
t →∞
or, h(t) K for all values of t, where K is a real positive finite number.
From Chapter 12, Section, 12.8, we see that the stability of a network function depends upon the positions
of its poles and zeros. From this concept, we can list the necessary and sufficient conditions of a network
function so that it represents a stable network, as follows.
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of a Network Function for a Stable Network
1. The function should not have any pole in the right half of the s-plane.
2. The poles on the imaginary axis should be simple (not repeated).
3. The difference in the degree of the numerator and denominator polynomials can at most be unity.
13.2 HURWITZ POLYNOMIAL

A polynomial P(s) is said to be Hurwitz if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. P(s) is real when s is real.
2. The roots of P(s) have real parts which are zero or negative, i.e., all roots of P(s) lie in the left half of the
s-plane or a simple root on the imaginary axis.
A polynomial is known as strictly Hurwitz if it does not have any zero in the right half of the s-plane or
on the imaginary axis.
• Properties of a Hurwitz Polynomial If the Hurwitz polynomial is
()
P s = a0 + a1 s + a2 s 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ an−1 s n−1 + an s n (13.3)
then P(s) has the following properties:
(1) All the coefficients (ai) of P(s) must be real and positive.
(2) The roots of both the even and odd parts of P(s) lie on the j␻-axis only.
(3) All the quotients of the continued fraction expansion of the ratio of even to odd parts or odd to even
parts must be positive.
(4) If the polynomial P(s) is Hurwitz and m(s) is a multiplication factor then the polynomial p1(s) m(s)P(s)
is also Hurwitz if m(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial.
(5) The continued fraction expansion of the ratio of P(s) and its derivatives P’(s) have all positive coefficients.
758
Example 13.1 Check whether the following polynomials are Hurwitz or not:
(a) F(s) s4 s3 5s2 3s 4 (b) F(s) s7 2s6 2s5 s4 4s3 8s2 8s 4
Solution
(a) F(s) s4 s3 5s2 3s 4
Here, the odd part is o(s) s3 3s and even part is e(s) s4 5s2 4
e s ()
∴ continued fraction expansion is C s = ()
o s ()
s 4 + 5s 2 + 4
s 3 + 3s s
s 4 + 3s 2
s 3 + 3s s
2s2 + 4
s3 + 2s 2
2s2 + 4
s 2s
2s2
s s
4
s 4
×
( ) = s+
e s
∴ continued fraction expansion is C s = () o( s ) s
1
1
+
1 2
2s +
s
4
Here, all quotients, 1, ½ , 2, ¼ are positive. Therefore, the polynomial F(s) is Hurwitz.
(b) F(s) s7 2s6 2s5 s4 4s3 8s2 8s 4
( ) = 2 s + s + 8s + 4
e s 6 4 2
Here, ()
C s =
o( s ) s + 2 s + 4 s + 8 s
7 5 3
s7 + 2 s5 + 4 s 3 + 8s
2 s + s + 8s + 4
6 4 2 s
s5 2
s7 + + 4s3 + 2s
2
3 5 2 s6 + s 4 + 8s 2 + 4 4 s
s + 6s 6
2 2s + 8s 2 3
3 5
s + 6s
s4 + 4 2 3s
3 5 2
s + 6s
2
×
759
Here, the continued fraction has terminated abruptly with a common factor (s4 4) which can be factorized as
(s ) ( ) ( )( )
2
4
+ 4 = s + 2 − 4s = s + 2s + 2 s − 2s + 2
2 2 2 2
2
where the second factor (s 2s 2) is not Hurwitz as it has a negative coefficient.
Therefore, F(s) is not Hurwitz.
13.3 POSITIVE REAL FUNCTIONS

The driving point impedance and admittance functions (immittance functions) which can be physically real-
izable by linear time-invariant passive RLC elements are known as positive real functions (PRF). Since these
functions were first studied by Otto Brune, they are also known as Brune’s functions.
A function F(s) is said to be a positive real function if it satisfies the following conditions:
1. F(s) is real for real s, i.e., F(␴) is real.
2. The real part of F(s) is greater than or equal to zero when the real part of s is greater than or equal to
()
zero, i.e., Re ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ ≥ 0 for Re ⎡⎣ s ⎤⎦ ≥ 0
13.3.1 Complex Plane Interpretation of Positive Real Functions

We consider the s-plane and F(s) plane as shown in Fig. 13.3.
If F(s) is a prf then a point ␴0 on the positive real axis of
j Im[F(s)]
the s-plane would correspond to a point F(␴0) on the positive
jv F(s) plane
real axis of the F(s) plane. Also, a point Si in the right half of s-plane
the s-plane would correspond to a point F(Si) in the right half o si o F(si )
of the F(s) plane. s Re [F(s)]
In other words, for a positive real function, the right-half of the s0 F(s0)
s-plane corresponds to the right-half of the F(s) plane and the real
Fig. 13.3 Complex plane interpretation of prf
axis of the s-plane corresponds to the real axis of the F(s) plane.
13.3.2 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Testing PRF

The necessary and sufficient conditions to test prf are as follows:
1. All poles of the function should lie on the left half of the s-plane; they cannot lie in the right half of the
s-plane.
2. Only simple poles with positive real residues can exist on the imaginary ( j␻) axis.
3. The poles and zeros of a positive real function are real or occur in conjugate pairs.
4. The highest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials can at most differ by one.
5. The lowest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials can at most differ by one.
• Explanation of the Conditions
All Poles of the Function Should Lie on the Left Half of the s-Plane; They Cannot Lie in the Right
Half of the s-Plane Let there be a pole s0 in the right half of the s-plane. By Laurent series expansion
about s0,
K− n K − n+1
() ( ) ( )
r
F s = + + ⋅⋅⋅+ K1 s − s0 + ⋅⋅⋅+ K r s − s0 + ⋅⋅⋅
(s − s ) (s − s )
n n−1
0 0
where, n is real and finite.

760
K− n
In the neighbourhood of the pole s0, F(s) can be approximated by F s ≈ ()
(s − s )
n
0
( )
n
F(s) can be represented in polar form by substituting each term by its polar form, i.e., let s − s0 = r n e jn
j
()
and K − n = Ke so that, F s = n e ( )
r
K j −n
ReZ(s) K
rn
() K
(
∴ Re ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = n cos − n
r
) p f
r
f 2p f u
This is shown in Fig. 13.4. r
When ␪ varies between 0 and 2␲, the sign of Re[F(s)] will change 2n times. Fig. 13.4 Variation of Re Z(s)
Since Re[F(s)] 0 when Re[s] 0, it is observed that any change of sign of with pole position in polar form
Re[F(s)] in the right half s-plane will show that the function is not positive real.
1
Therefore, we cannot have a pole in the right half of the s-plane. As the function is also a prf, it is
clear that there cannot be any zeros in the right half of the s-plane. F s ()
Only Simple Poles with Positive Real Residues can Exist on the Imaginary (j␻) Axis From the prop-
erty 1, it is observed that if n 1 and ␾ 0 then poles may exist on the j␻-axis.
The condition n 1 implies that the pole is simple and ␾ 0 implies that the residue is positive real.
Therefore, only a simple pole may exist on the j␻-axis. It is also seen that the zeros on the j␻-axis must
also be simple.
The Poles and Zeros of a Positive Real Function are Real or Occur in Conjugate Pairs It is seen that
if a complex pole or zero occurs without its conjugate pair, F(s) cannot be real even when s is real.
Therefore, poles and zeros must either be real or must occur in conjugate pairs.
The Highest Powers of the Numerator and Denominator Polynomials may Differ by one at most Let,
( )= a s
N s n
+ an−1 s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0
()
F s = n
D( s ) b s m
+ bm−1 s m−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s 2 + b1 s + b0
(13.4)
m
If (m n) 2 then F(s) will have a zero of order 2 or more at s .

If (n m) 2 then F(s) will have a pole of order 2 or more at s .
Since F(s) cannot have multiple poles on the j␻-axis (the property 2), these situations cannot exist.
n m 1 (13.5)
The Lowest of Powers of the Denominator and Numerator Polynomials may Differ by one at
1
most From the property 4, by substituting for s, this property is proved.
s
13.3.3 Properties of Positive Real Functions

1. The summation of several positive real functions is also a positive real function.
2. If F(s) and W(s) are positive real functions then F(W(s)) is also a positive real function (prf).
⎛ 1⎞
3. If F(s) is prf then F ⎜ ⎟ is also prf.
⎝ s⎠
761
4. If F(s) is prf then 1 is also prf.

F (s)
()
N s
()
5. If F s =
D( s )
is prf then F1(s) N(s) D(s) will also be prf.
() ()
F1 s F2 s
6. ()
If F1(s) and F2(s) are prf then F3 s =
F (s) + F (s)
is also prf.
1 2
• Explanation of the Properties

The Summation of Several Positive Real Functions is also a Positive Real Function Let, F1(s) and
F2(s) be both prf, so that F(s) F1(s) F2(s)
When Re[s] 0, then Re[F1(s)] 0 and Re[F2(s)] 0
∴ Re[F1(s)] Re[F2(s)] 0 or Re[F(s)] 0
Also, when s is real, both F1(s) and F2(s) are real; then the summation of two real numbers is also a real number.
Hence, [F1(s) F2(s)] is a prf.
If F(s) and W(s) are Positive Real Functions then F(W(s)) is also a Positive Real Function (prf ) Accord-
ing to the definition of prf, if Re[s] 0 then Re[F(s)] 0 and Re[W(s)] 0; and then Re[F(W(s))] 0.
Also, when s is real, both F(s) and W(s) are real and hence F (W(s)) is also real.
As F (W(s)) satisfies both the conditions of a prf, it is a prf.
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
1
()
If F(s) is prf then F ⎜ ⎟ is also prf From the property 2, if W s = is a prf then F W s = F ⎜ ⎟
⎝s ⎠ s ⎝ s⎠
( ( ))
is also a prf.
F(s)
1
s
()
If F(s) is prf then 1 is also prf From the property 2, if F s = , then F W s =
1
W s
( ( ))
is also a prf.
()
13.3.4 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Positive Real Functions
The necessary and sufficient conditions for a rational function with real coefficients F(s) to be positive real are
(1) F(s) must not have any pole in the right-half of the s-plane
(2) F(s) may have only simple poles on the j -axis with real and positive residue
( )⎤⎦ ≥ 0 for all
(3) Re ⎡⎣ F j
• Proof of the Conditions

Condition (1): F(s) must not have any Pole in the Right Half of the s-Plane This condition requires
that we have to test that the denominator of F(s) does not have any root in the right half of the s-plane. In
other words, we must test whether the denominator of F(s) is Hurwitz. The procedure of testing of a Hurwitz
function has been discussed in section 13.2.
Condition (2): F(s) may have only Simple Poles on the j -Axis with Real and Positive Residue This
condition is tested making a partial fraction of F(s) and then checking whether the residues of the poles on the
imaginary axis (j ) are positive and real.
762
Condition (3): Re[F( j )] 0 for all . This condition is tested by finding the real part of F( j ) from the
given function F(s).
()
N s
Let, ()
F s =
D( s )
Separating the even parts and odd parts of N(s) and D(s),
() ()
i.e., say, N s = EN s + ON s () and () ()
D s = ED s + OD s ()
() ()
EN s + ON s
∴F s = () ED (s) + O (s)
D
Multiplying both N(s) and D(s) by [ED(s) OD (s)], we get,
() () ()
⎡ E s + ON s ⎤ ⎡ ED s − OD s ⎤ ()
()
F s =⎢ N ⎥×⎢ ⎥
() () ()
⎢⎣ ED s + OD s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ED s − OD s ⎥⎦ ()
() ( ) () ()
E s ED s − ON s OD s ED s ON s − EN s OD s
= N +
() () () () (13.6)
(
ED 2 s − OD 2 s) () ED 2 s − OD 2 s () ()
We know, product of two even functions is an even function; product of two odd functions is also an even
function and product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.
Therefore, the even part of F(s) is
() () () ()
EN s ED s − ON s OD s
()
Even ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ =
E (s) − O (s)
2 2
(13.7)
D D
and the odd part of F(s) is
() () () ()
ED s ON s − EN s OD s
()
Odd ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ =
E (s) − O (s)
2 2
(13.8)
D D
It is observed that if s j then the even part of any polynomial is real while the odd part of the polynomial
is imaginary.
∴F j ( ) = Re ⎡⎣ F ( j )⎤⎦ + j Im ⎡⎣ F ( j )⎤⎦
where, Re[F( j )] Even[F( j )] Even[F(s)] s j and jIm[F( j )] Odd[F( j )] Odd[F(s)] s j
Hence, to test the condition (3), we first find out Re[F( j )] by finding even [F(s)] and then putting s j .
Now we have to check whether Re[F( j )] 0 for all .
The denominator of Re[F( j )] is always positive, because ⎡⎣ ED 2 s − OD 2 s ⎤⎦
s= j
()
= ⎡⎣ ED 2 () ( ) + O ( )⎤⎦ ≥ 0
D
2
for all .
The numerator of Re[F( j )], given by P( ) (say) must be positive, i.e.
P ( ) ≡ ⎡⎣ E ( j ) E ( j ) − O ( j )O ( j )⎤⎦ ≥ 0
N D N D
for all (13.9)
763
If we plot P( ) with , we see that P( ) must not have positive real roots of the type shown in Fig. 13.5 (a),
i.e., P( ) must never have a single real root of . However, P( ) may have double roots [Fig. 13.5 (b)]
because P( ) need not become negative.
P( )
P( )
Single Double
root root
Fig. 13.5 (a) Plot of Fig. 13.5 (b) Plot of
P( ) with with single P( ) with with double
root root
Example 13.2 Determine whether the following polynomials are positive real:
3s2 + 5
()
(
s s2 + 6 )
()
(a) F s = (b) F s =
(
s s +1 2
) (s 2
+2 )
2
( )
2
10 s + 1 s 3 + 3s2 + 4 s + 12
()
(c) F s = ()
(d) F s =
( s + 2 )( s 2
− 6s + 5 ) s 3 + 5s2 + 9 s + 5
Solution
3s 2 + 5
()
(a) F s =
(
s s2 +1 )
3s 2 + 5
By partial fraction expansion, F s = () 3
= +
2 3
= + F1 s ()
(
s s +1 2
s )
s s +1 s
2
( )
() 2 K1 K K *
where, F1 s = = + 2 + 2
(
s s +1
2
) s s + j1 s − j1
2
∴ K1 = =2
s + 1 s =0
2
2 2
∴ K2 = = = −1
(
s s − j1 ) s =− j 1
(
− j1 −2 j1 )
2 2
∴ K2 * = = = −1
(
s s + j1 ) s = j1
( )
j1 2 j1
()
2
∴ F1 s = −
1
−
1 2
= − 2
2
s s + j1 s − j1 s s + 1
()
3 2
∴F s = + − 2
2 5
= − 2
s s s +1 s s +1
2
764
As the coefficients of the poles s j1 is negative, F(s) is not positive real.
(b) F s = ()
(
s s +6 2
)
(s )
2
2
+2
For this function, zeros are at s = 0, ± j 6
Poles are at s = ± j 2 multiple ( )
As the poles on the imaginary axis are not simple, the function is not a positive real function.
( ) ( )
2 2
10 s + 1 10 s + 1
(c) F (s) = =
( s + 2 )( s − 6 s + 5) ( s + 2 )( s − 1)( s − 5)
2
For this function, zeros are at s 1 (repeated)

Poles are at s 2, 1, 5
Since the function has two poles (s 1, 5) of the right half of the s-plane, the function is not a prf.
() s 3 + 3s 2 + 4 s + 12 s + 3 s + 4
2
( )(
s + j2 s − j2 s + 3 ) ( )( )( )
(d) F s = = =
s + 5s + 9 s + 5 ( )( ) ( )( )
3 2 2 2
s + 4 s +1 s + 4 s +1
All poles are in the left half of the s-plane; hence the residues should not be tested. We have to check
whether Re[F( j )] 0 for all .
Here, () (
EN s = 3s 2 + 12 ON s = s 3 + 4 s ) () ( )
ED ( s ) = ( 5s 2
+ 5) O ( s ) = ( s + 9 s )
D
3
Even ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = ()
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = ( 3s
2
)( ) (
+ 12 3s 2 + 12 − s 3 + 4 s s 3 + 9 s )( )
E (s) − O (s) ( 5s + 5) − ( s )
2 2 2 2
D D
2 3
+ 9s
− s + 2 s + 39 s + 60
6 4 2
=
− s 6 + 7 s 4 − 31s 2 + 25
( )⎤⎦ = Even ⎡⎣ F ( s )⎤⎦ = ++ 27 −+ 39 + 600

6 4 2
∴ Re ⎡⎣ F j
31 s= j 6 4 2
+ 25
or, Re ⎡⎣ F ( j ) ⎤⎦ =
( + 2 )( − 2 )( + 6 − 5) 4 2
+ 7 + 31 + 25 6 4 2
The denominator is always positive for all values of . But the numerator has zero of odd multiplicity with
positive real values and is negative for 2.
s+a
Example 13.3 Find the condition for the following function to be positive real: F ( s ) = 2
s + bs + c
Solution For the function to be positive real, it must satisfy the three conditions:
(i) For all the poles and zeros to be in the left half of the s-plane or on the j -axis, it is necessary that, a, b, c 0
(ii) For F(s) to have simple poles and all real positive residues (Ki), it is required that b 0. When b 0,
the function becomes F s = s + a ()
s2 + c
765
() () ( ) ()
(iii) For the third condition, EN s = a, ED s = s + c ; ON s = s, OD s = bs.
2
()
It is required that, E
N ( j ) E ( j ) − O ( j )O ( j ) ≥ 0
D N D
or,
⎣ ( 2
)
⎡ a s + c − s × bs ⎤
⎦ s = j ≥ 0 or, a − ( 2
+c +b) 2
≥0
or, (b − a )
+ ac ≥ 0 2
Therefore, for the function to have negative real roots, it is necessary that b a
Hence, when b 0, a 0.
To summarize, the conditions that must be satisfied for F(s) to be positive real function are
(1) a, b, c 0 and (2) b a
13.3.5 Sturm’s Test for Positive Real Functions

It has been observed in Section 13.3.3 that for a function to be prf, it is necessary that
P ( ) ≡ ⎡⎣ E ( j ) E ( j ) − O ( j )O ( j )⎤⎦ ≥ 0
N D N D
for all (13.9)
Since P( ) is an even polynomial, we can write
P ( )= P 0
2n
+ P2 2 n− 2
+ P4 2 n− 4
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ P2 n− 2 2
+ P2 n (13.10)
If all the coefficients of P( ) are positive then P( ) is positive for all values of between 0 and . However,
if all the coefficients of P( ) are not positive then a test, known as ‘Sturm’s Test’ is carried out.
Sturm’s test, given as a theorem, is explained below.
• Sturm’s Theorem This theorem states that the number of zeros of a given polynomial P(x) in the interval
0 x is equal to (S S0) where S and S0 are the number of sign changes in the set (P0, P1, …, Pn) evalu-
ated at x 0 and x respectively, and
() () ()
dP0 x
P0 x = P x and P1 x = () dx
and subsequent functions are,
( )=
) − P ( x))
Pi − 2 x P(x
( x+ i
( x) 1 2 (13.11)
Pi −1 i −1
where, 1 and 2 are constants.
The procedure for finding Pi(x) is continued till Pn(x) is a constant. Every time P(x) goes through a zero,
the sign of P(x) changes. If there are no zeros of P(x) in the range 0 x , the sturm condition is satisfied
and the function becomes a prf.
s 3 + s2 + 3s + 5
Example 13.4 Check the positive realness of the following function: F ( s ) =
s2 + 6 s + 8
Solution The inspection for the three conditions is carried out as follows:
() ( ) () (
(i) D s = s 2 + 6 s + 8 , ED s = s 2 + 8 , OD s = 6 s ) ()
766
s2 + 8 s
6s
s2 6
s
s
86
s 48
6
×
D(s) is Hurwitz. Hence the condition (1) is satisfied.
(ii) Since there is no pole on the imaginary axis, the condition (2) does not exist.
(iii) Here, () ( ) () ( ) ()
D s = s 2 + 6 s + 8 , ED s = s 2 + 8 , OD s = 6 s
N ( s ) = ( s + s + 3s + 5), E ( s ) = ( s + 5), O ( s ) = ( s + 3s )
3 2
N
2
N
3
∴ P ( ) = ⎡⎣ E ( s ) E ( s ) − O ( s )O ( s ) ⎤⎦
N D N D s= j
= ⎡⎣( s + 5)( s + 8 ) − ( s + 3s )( s ) ⎤⎦
2 2 3
= ⎡⎣ −5s − 5s + 40 ⎤⎦ 4 2
s= j s= j
∴ P ( ) = −5 + 5 + 40
4 2
The condition that must be satisfied is, P( ) 0

⎡ −5 4 + 5 2 + 40 ⎤ ≥ 0
⎣ ⎦
Since all coefficients are not positive, we carry Sturm’s test.
()
Here, P0 x = −5 x 2 + 5 x + 40
dP0 x ( )=
∴ P1 x =() dx
( −10 x + 5)
−5 x 2 + 5 x + 40
( −10 x + 5 ) 5
−5 x 2 + x
x −1
2 4 ( )
2
5
x + 40
2
5 5
x−
2 4
165
4
( ) = x + − P ( x ) = x − 1 − −165 4
P0 x
∴
P ( x)
( ) P ( x ) 2 4 −10 x + 5
1 2
2
1 1
P ( x) = −
165
∴ 2
4
767
P0 P1 P2 No. of sign changes S S0

x 0 S0 1
x S 0 1
Since (S S0) 1, P( ) is not positive for all values of .ww

Hence, F(s) is not a prf.
PART II: SYNTHESIS OF DRIVING POINT FUNCTIONS
Introduction
Evaluation of elements of a network from its driving point impedance or admittance function is known
as driving point synthesis.
The concern of this chapter is to determine the characteristic response of the network for a given
excitation. The tools for synthesizing a network, i.e., network synthesis will be introduced. Network
synthesis is therefore, defined as synthesizing a network based on a given network function. However, it
is to be mentioned that there could be different networks, satisfying the given network function. Hence,
the network synthesis cannot give a unique solution (network) for the given function.
In this part of this chapter, the discussion will be restricted to basics of network synthesis based
on driving point function (mainly driving point admittance and transfer function) of general passive,
one-port network.
13.4 BASIC SYNTHESIS PROCEDURE

The basic principle involved in the synthesis of driving point functions is to break up a positive real function
Z(s) [or Y(s)] into a sum of simpler positive real functions Z1(s), Z2(s), …, Zn(s) and then to synthesize these
individual Zi (s) as elements of the overall network whose driving point impedance is Z(s).
() () ()
∴ Z s = Z1 s + Z 2 s + ⋅⋅⋅+ Z n s ()
Here, each Zi (s) function represents a single element R, L or C or a suitable series or parallel combination of
R, L or C.
We consider a driving point function,
( )= a s
N s n
+ an−1 s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0
()
F s =
D( s ) b s
n
m
+ bm−1 s m−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s 2 + b1 s + b0
m
This function F(s) can be decomposed by either of the following methods or a combination of these. The
methods are
1. Removal of a pole at infinity
2. Removal of a pole at origin
3. Removal of conjugate imaginary poles
4. Removal of a constant
768
Removal of a Pole at Infinity If the order of N(s) of F(s) is one greater than that of D(s) of F(s), i.e.,
⎛a ⎞
(n m) 1 then we can take out the term ⎜ n ⎟ s and can write the function as
⎝ bm ⎠
⎛ an ⎞ sL
()
F s =⎜ ⎟ s+ F' s
⎝ bm ⎠
()
where F (s) is the remainder of F(s).
sC
Z(s) Z (s) Y(s) Y (s)
⎛a ⎞
Now, the term ⎜ n ⎟ s represents (a) Impedance (b) Admittance
⎝ bm ⎠
network network
• An inductor if the function F(s) is an impedance function
Fig. 13.6 Removal of a pole at infinity
• A capacitor if the function F(s) is an admittance function
⎛a ⎞
[L C ⎜ n ⎟ s]
Removal of a Pole at the Origin Removal of a pole at ⎝ bm ⎠
the origin is possible if the denominator is such that we can take ‘s’ as common. This is possible if b0 0 in
Eq. (13.4) and by rearranging, we get,
an s n + an−1 s n−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0

()
F s =
bm s m + bm−1 s m−1 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s 2 + b1 s
K0 c s n−1 + cn− 2 s n− 2 + ⋅⋅⋅ c1 s + c0
= + n−1m−1
s bm−1 s + bm− 2 s m− 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b2 s + b1
()
= F1 s + F2 s ()
⎛a ⎞ sC
where, K0 = ⎜ 0 ⎟ and F2(s) is the remainder of F(s).
⎝ b1 ⎠ Z(s) Z2(s) Y(s) sL Y2(s)
⎛K ⎞
The term ⎜ 0 ⎟ represents (a) Impedance (b) Admittance
⎝ s ⎠
network network
• A capacitor if the function F(s) is an impedance function Fig. 13.7 Removal of a pole at the
• An inductor if the function F(s) is an admittance function ⎛a ⎞
origin [L C K0 ⎜ 0 ⎟ ]
Removal of Conjugate Imaginary Poles Let F(s) have a pair ⎝ b1 ⎠
of imaginary poles at s = ± j p . Then, F(s) will have a factor in the
() (
denominator as F1 s = s + j p )( s − j ) = ( s + )
p p
2
N s ()
∴F s =() =
2 Ks
()
+ F′ s
( s + ) D ′( s )
p
2
s + p2
⎛ 2 Ks ⎞ ⎡ j2 K ⎤
Here, Re ⎜ 2⎟
= Re ⎢ 2 ⎥ = 0 and hence, it represents a suitable combination of L and C so
⎝ s + p ⎠ s= j ⎢⎣ − + p ⎥⎦
2
that F’(s) is also a positive real function.

2 Ks
The term represents two types of networks:
s + p2
769
(a) If F(s) is an impedance function then it will represent a parallel combination of L and C as explained
below.
1 ⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟s
sL ×
sC = ⎝ C ⎠ = 2 Ks
() () ()
Z ′ s = Z L s ZC s =
1 1 s + p2
sL + s2 +
sC LC
2K 1
where, L = 2 and C = . L
p
2K C
Y(s) Y (s)
It is given in Fig. 13.8 (a). L
Z(s) C Z (s)
(b) If F(s) is an admittance function then it will represent

(b) Admittance network
a series combination of L and C as explained below. (a) Impedance network
2K 1
2K 1 C = 2 and L =
⎛ 1⎞ L = 2 and C = 2 K
⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ s
p
2 K
()
p
1 1 2 Ks
Y′ s = = = =
()
Z L s + ZC s () sL +
1
s2 +
1 s + p2
Fig. 13.8 Removal of conjugate imaginary poles
sC LC
1 2K Re[Z( j )]
where, L= and C = 2 .
2K p
Ki
It is given in Fig. 13.8 (b).
0 i
Removal of a Constant If Re[Z( j )] is minimum at some point i and if the Fig. 13.9 Variation of
value of Re[Z( j i)] Ki as shown in Fig. 13.9, we can remove a constant K Ki from Re[ Z( j )] with
Re[Z( j )] so that the remainder is still positive real. This is because
R
Re[Z( j )] will still be greater than or equal to zero [Re[Z( j )] 0] for
Z(s) Z (s) Y(s) G Y (s)
all values of .
Now, removing a constant K from F(s) will result in a function as
F(s) K F (s) (a) Impedance (b) Admittance
The constant K will represent network network
Fig. 13.10 Removal of a Constant
• A resistance if F(s) is an impedance function
⎛1 ⎞
• A conductance if F(s) is an admittance function [R K, G ⎜ ⎟ ]
⎝K⎠
The four methods discussed here will be very useful to synthesize a
network for a given impedance or admittance function.
Example 13.5 Synthesize the network which has an impedance or admittance function as given:
s2 + 4 s + 20 7s + 2
()
(a) Z s = ()
(b) Y s =
(
s s+5 ) 2s + 4
Solution
s 2 + 4 s + 20
()
(a) Z s =
(
s s+5 )
770
Here, Z(s) has a pole at s 0. By partial fraction expansion,

s 2 + 4 s + 20 4
Z s = () = +
s
()
= Z s + Z2 s ()
( )
s s+5 s s+5 1
1
Z1(s) is a capacitor of value, C = F .
4 1
Z2(s) is a parallel combination of R and L where, R = 1 , L = H
5
The synthesized network is shown in Fig. 13.11 (a).
7s + 2
()
(b) Y s =
2s + 4
Here, we synthesize the network by removing the min [ReY( j )]. The real part of Y( j ) is
⎡ ( j 7 + 2 )( 4 − j 2 ) ⎤ ⎡ 24 ⎤ 8 + 14
( )⎤⎦ = Re ⎢ 4 + j 2 4 − j 2 ⎥ = Re ⎢ 8 + 1416 + 4+ j
2 2
⎡ ReY j ⎥=
⎣
⎢⎣ ( )( ) ⎥⎦ ⎣ 2
⎦ 16 + 4
2
d ⎡ 8 + 14 2
⎤
For minimum value, ⎢ ⎥=0 ⇒ =0
⎣ 16 + 4
2
d ⎦
1/4F
( ) 1 1 1/5H
At 0, min ⎡⎣ ReY j ⎤=
⎦ 2
Z(s)
1 Fig. 13.11 (a) Synthesized

We remove Y1 = mho from Y(s), so that the remainder
2 network of Ex 13.5 (a)
1 ⎛ 7 s + 2 ⎞ 1 3s
() ()
Y2 s = Y s − = ⎜ − =
2 ⎝ 2 s + 4 ⎟⎠ 2 s + 2 1/3
Y(s) 2
3/2F
1 3
It is a series combination of R and C, where, R = , C= F.
3 2 Fig. 13.11 (b) Synthesized
The synthesized network is shown in Fig. 13.11 (b). network of Ex 13.5 (b)
13.5 METHODS OF SYNTHESIS

The network synthesis does not provide a unique solution to a given problem. For a given positive real func-
tion F(s), the network can be synthesized by any one of the following two methods:
1. Foster forms, and
2. Cauer forms.
Foster Forms The networks synthesized by partial fraction expansion methods are called Foster type of
networks.
Foster form I provides series impedance network realization Z(s), and Foster form II provides parallel
admittance network realization Y(s).
Cauer Forms
The networks synthesized by continued fraction expansion methods are called Cauer type of networks. By
this technique, the synthesized network is of a ladder type. Cauer forms are of two types.
771
Cauer I Form The first Cauer form of a network realization is obtained by repeated removal of poles at
infinity (s ), which corresponds to arrange the numerator and denominator of the network function in
descending powers of ‘s’ and then to find the continued fraction expansion.
Cauer II Form The second Cauer form of network realization is obtained by repeated removal of poles
at origin (s 0), which corresponds to arrange the numerator and denominator of the network function in
ascending powers of ‘s’ and then to find the continued fraction expansion.
It may be mentioned here that in both the forms of the networks, Foster and Cauer, the number of ele-
ments are one greater than the number of internal critical frequencies, which are the poles and zeros of the
network function excluding those at s 0 and s . Both the forms of network give the minimum number
of elements for a specified network function. For this reason, Foster and Cauer forms of network are termed
canonical network (canonic means that the network contains the minimum possible number of elements).
Thus, there are four basic canonic forms of networks while dealing with the synthesis:
(a) Foster I form,
(b) Foster II form,
(c) Cauer I form, and
(d) Cauer II form.
13.6 DRIVING POINT SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORT NETWORKS WITH TWO TYPES

OF ELEMENTS
Evaluation of the elements of a network from its driving point impedance or admittance (i.e., Immittance)
functions is known as driving point synthesis. We discuss here the properties and synthesis of driving point
immittance functions of one-port networks with two passive elements. The three different networks are
1. LC network,
2. RL network, and
3. RC network.
13.6.1 Properties and Synthesis of LC Driving Point Functions

We consider the impedance of a passive one-port network, given as,
() ()
EN s + ON s
()
Z s =
ED (s) + O (s)
D
where, EN (s) and ED (s) are the even parts of the numerator and denominator polynomials, respectively, and
ON (s) and OD (s) are the odd parts of the numerator and denominator polynomials, respectively.
1
( )⎤⎦ I
2
Now, the average power dissipated by the passive network is, Average Power = Re ⎡⎣ Z j
2
where I is the input current.
For a purely reactive network, we know that the average power is zero.
∴ Re ⎡⎣ Z j ( )⎤⎦ = 0 or ( )⎤⎦ = 0
Even ⎡⎣ Z j
EN ( s ) E ( s ) + O ( s )O ( s )
where, ()
Even ⎡⎣ Z s ⎤⎦ = D N
E (s) − O (s)
2 2
D
D D
772
Since, ( )⎤⎦ = 0
Even ⎡⎣ Z j
∴ EN ( j ) E ( j ) − O ( j )O ( j ) = 0
D N D
(13.12)
To satisfy Eq. (13.12), there may be two cases:
Case (1) EN 0 OD
ON s ()
For this case, Z s =() ED (s)
Case (2) ED 0 ON
EN s ()
For this case, Z s =() OD (s)
From the above discussion, we have the following properties of LC driving point functions
Properties of LC Driving Point Functions
1. Driving-point immittance function [ZLC(s)] or [YLC(s)] is the ratio of even to odd or odd to even polyno-
mials.
2. Since both Ei(s) and Oi(s) are Hurwitz, they have only imaginary roots. Thus, the poles and zeros of the
immittance function are on the imaginary ( j ) axis.
3. The poles and zeros of the immittance function interlace on the j -axis, i.e., the poles and zeros alter-
nate on the imaginary axis.
4. The highest as well as the lowest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials must differ by unity.
5. There must be either a zero or pole at origin (s 0) and infinity (s ).
Explanation of Properties 3, 4 and 5 We consider a general LC immittance function as
an s n + an− 2 s n− 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a2 s 2 + a0
F s =() bm s m + bm− 2 s m− 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b3 s 3 + b1 s
We test the constraints on the coefficients ai and bj.
• For the function to be a positive real function, the coefficients ai and bj must be real and positive.
• As the impedance function cannot have multiple poles or zeros on the j -axis and since s is on the
j -axis, the highest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials can at most differ by unity.
Similarly, the lowest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials can differ at most by unity.
• The orders of the adjacent terms in the numerator and denominator polynomials must differ by two. For
example, if the highest power of the polynomial is 2n, the next highest order term must be (2n 2), the
next (2n 4), and so on. There cannot be any missing terms, i.e., no two adjacent terms of either polyno-
mial may differ by more than two powers.
From the above discussion, we can write the LC impedance function Z(s) as
()
Z s =
(
K s2 + 1
2
)( s + )( s + ) ⋅⋅⋅( s + ) ⋅⋅⋅
2
3
2 2
5
2 2
i
2
(
s s2 + 2
2
)( s + )( s + ) ⋅⋅⋅( s + ) ⋅⋅⋅
2
4
2 2
6
2 2
j
2
where, 1 2 3 4 5 6 .
773
Here, , 3, 5, , i are known as internal zeros

1
2, 4, 6, , j are known as internal poles

The critical frequencies at s 0 and s are known as the external critical frequencies.
Expanding Z(s) into partial fraction,
K0
()
2K s 2K s
Z s = + 2 2 2 + 2 4 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ K∞ s
s s + 2 s + 4
where, Ki are the residues of the poles. As all poles are on the j -axis, Ki must be real and positive for Z(s)
to be positive real function.
Let, s j ; then
K0
( )= j
2 K2 j 2 K4 j
Z j + + + ⋅⋅⋅+ K∞ j
2
2
− 2
4
2
− 2
⎡ K ⎤
( )
2K 2 K4
= j ⎢− 0 + 2 2 + + ⋅⋅⋅+ K∞ ⎥ = jX
⎢⎣ 2
− 2
4
2
− 2
⎥⎦
where, X( ) is a pure reactance. X( )
Differentiating X( ) with respect to ,
( ) + ⋅⋅⋅
0
( )= K
2 3 4
dX 2 K2 2
+ 2
2
0
+ K∞ +
( )
2 2
2
− 2 Fig. 13.12 Plot of X( )
2
versus
Since all Ki are positive, it is seen that for an LC impedance function,

dX ( )≥0
Similarly, for an LC admittance function, it can be shown that

dB
≥0
( )
where, B( ) is a pure susceptance of the LC function.
We see that the slope of the curve of X( ) [or, B( )] versus is always positive. The plot is shown in
Fig. 13.12.
It is seen that whenever any critical frequency is passed through, there is a change of sign of X( ) [or, B( )].
Thus, if a function is an LC immittance function, the poles and zeros must alternate on the j -axis. This
is known as separation property.
Example 13.6 Test whether the following functions are LC immittance functions:
()
(a) F s =
(
Ks s2 + 4 ) (b) F s = () s 5 + 4 s 3 + 5s
( s + 1)( s + 3)
2 2 3s 4 + 6 s2
F( s ) =
K ( s + 1)( s + 9 )
2 2
(d) F s = ()
(
2 s2 + 1 s2 + 9 )( )
( )
(c)
( s + 2 )( s + 10 )
2 2
s s +4 2
774
Solution The above functions are/ are not LC immittance functions, because, they do not satisfy the prop-
erties as explained below:
(a) Here, separation property is not satisfied; so it is not an LC immittance function.
(b) Here, poles and zeros do not occur on the j -axis; so it is not an LC immittance function.
(c) Here, powers of s in the numerator and denominator are same, they do not differ by one. So it is not an
LC immittance function.
(d) All conditions are satisfied; so it is an LC immittance function.
Synthesis of LC Driving Point Immittance Functions
We discuss the synthesis using four methods.
Foster Form I As all poles and zeros of an LC immittance function lie on the j -axis., the LC impedance
K
()
2K s 2K s
function can be written as Z s = 0 + 2 2 2 + 2 4 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ K∞ s
s s + 2 s + 4
Each term in the above equation represents an impedance of an element or a combination of elements and all
elements are connected in series.
K0 1
For example, represents a capacitor of value, (F);
s K 0
Ks represents an inductor of value, K (H);

2 K2 s
represents a parallel combination of L and C
s + 2
2
2
(H)
2 K2
where, L= 2
and C=
1
2 K2
( )
F
2
⎧ 1 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎫
⎪ sL × ⎜⎝ C ⎟⎠ s ⎪
⎪ sC = 2 K2 s ⎪
⎨ ∴ L C = = ⎬
⎪ 1 1 s2 + 22 ⎪
sL + s2 +
⎪⎩ sC LC ⎪⎭
Figure. 13.13 shows the Foster form I of LC impedance function. L1 L2
1 C0 K
Here, C0 = ; L∞ = K∞;
K0
1 1 Z(s)
C1 C2
C1 = ; C2 =
2 K2 2 K4
Fig. 13.13 Foster form I of LC
2 K2 2 K4 impedance function
L1 = 2
; L2 = 2
;
2 4
Foster Form II The LC admittance function can be written as

K0
()
2K s 2K s
Y s = + 2 2 2 + 2 4 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ K∞ s
s s + 2 s + 4
775
Here, each term in the above equation represents an admittance of an element or a combination of elements
and all elements are connected in parallel.
K0 1
For example, represents an inductor of value, K (H);
s 0
K s represents a capacitor of value, K (F);

2 K2 s
represents a series combination of L and C
s +
2
2
2
( F)
2 K2
where, L=
1
2 K2
( )
H and C = 2
2
⎧ s ⎫
⎪⎪ 1 L = 2 K s ⎪⎪
⎨∴ YLC = = 2 ⎬
2
⎪ 1 1 s + 2 ⎪
2
sL + s2 +
⎪⎩ sC LC ⎪⎭
Figure. 13.14 shows the Foster Form II of LC admittance function.
1 1 1 2K 2K
Here, L0 = ; L1 = ; L2 = ; C1 = 22 ; C2 = 24 ; C∞ = K∞
K0 2 K2 2 K4 2 4
Determination of First and Last Elements in LC Foster Forms

C1 C2 Cn
Foster Form I For LC impedance function (see Fig. 13.13). Y(s) L0 C
L1 L2 Ln
If there is a pole at s 0, the first element C0 is present.
Fig. 13.14 Foster form II of LC
If there is a zero at s 0, the first element C0 is absent.
admittance function
If there is a pole at s , the last element L is present.
If there is a zero at s , the last element L is absent.
Foster Form II For LC admittance function (see Fig. 13.14).

If there is a pole at s 0, the first element L0 is present.
If there is a zero at s 0, the first element L0 is absent.
If there is a pole at s , the last element C is present.
If there is a zero at s , the last element C is absent.
Cauer Form I In this method, the numerator and denominator polynomials are arranged in the descending
power of s. In every step, a pole at infinity (s ) is eliminated. If the order of the numerator of the original
function is 2n and the order of the denominator is (2n 1), we use continued fraction expansion method to
eliminate a pole at infinity (s ).
Whatever be the form of the original function, in this method a pole at infinity (s ) is removed in every
step. Therefore, if the order of the numerator of the original function is less than that of its denominator, the
function is inverted and continued faction expansion is carried out.
The final network synthesized by this method is a ladder network, with inductors in series arms and
capacitors in shunt arms, as shown in Fig. 13.15.
776
L1 L2 L3 L C1 C2 C3 C
ZLC C1 C2 C3 C ZLC L1 L2 L3 L
Fig. 13.15 Cauer form I of LC Network Fig. 13.16 Cauer Form II of LC Network
Cauer Form II In this method, the numerator and denominator polynomials are arranged in the ascending
power of s. In every step, a pole at origin (s 0) is eliminated. In this case, the power of s in the denominator
polynomial must be one greater than that of the numerator. If the order of the denominator of the original func-
tion is less than that of its numerator, the function is inverted and continued fraction expansion is carried out to
remove a pole at origin (s 0).
The final network synthesized by this method is a ladder network, with capacitors in series arms and
inductors in shunt arms, as shown in Fig. 13.16.
Determination of First and Last Elements in LC Cauer Forms

We consider a driving point impedance function given as
an s n + an− 2 s n− 2 + ⋅⋅⋅ a2 s 2 + a0
()
Z s =
bm s m + bm− 2 s m− 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ b3 s 3 + b1 s
(13.13a)
Cauer Form I Cauer form I suggests a ladder network with inductors in series and capacitors in shunt. Two
cases may arise:
(1) If n m, i.e., the order of numerator polynomial is more than that of the denominator polynomial:
s →∞ ⎣
()
Here, Lim ⎡ Z s ⎤ = ∞ , i.e., there is a pole at infinity (s
⎦
) and the first element is a series inductor L1.
The impedance function takes the form,
()
Z s = sL1 +
1
1 (13.13b)
sC1 +
1
sL2 +
sC2 + ⋅⋅⋅
(2) If m n, i.e., the order of the numerator polynomial is less than that of the denominator polynomial:
s →∞ ⎣
()
Here, Lim ⎡ Z s ⎤ = 0 , i.e., there is a zero at infinity (s
⎦
) and this is possible if the first element is a
shunt capacitor (C1), i.e., L1 is zero in this case. The impedance function takes the form,
()
Z s =
1
1 (13.13c)
sC1 +
1
sL1 +
sC2 + ⋅⋅⋅
To determine the last element in Cauer form I, from (13.13b) and (13.13c), we see that if Z(s) has a
zero at s 0, the last element will be a series inductor. On the other hand, if Z(s) has a pole at s 0,
the last element will be a shunt capacitor.
777
L1 L2 L1 L2 L
Z(s) C C2 Z(s) C C2
1 1 C
13.17 (a) With 13.7 (b) With 13.18 (a) With zero 13.18 (b) With pole
n m n m at s 0 at s 0
Fig. 13.17 Determination of first element Fig. 13.18 Determination of last element in Cauer
in Cauer form I realization of LC impedance form I realization of LC impedance function
function
Cauer Form II Cauer form II suggests a ladder network with capacitor in series and inductors in shunt.
Therefore, the impedance function can be written as
()
Z s =
1
+
sC1 1
1
1
(13.13d)
+
sL1 1 1
+
sC2 1
sL2 + ⋅⋅⋅
For the equation (13.13d), two cases may arise:
(i) When a0 0, i.e., the lowest-order term in the denominator polynomial is higher than that of the
numerator polynomial:
()
From (13.13d), Lim ⎡⎣ Z s ⎤⎦ = ∞ , i.e., there is a pole at s 0 and hence, the first element in the ladder
s →0
network is a series capacitor.
(ii) When a0 0, i.e., the lowest-order term in the numerator polynomial is higher than that of the denomi-
nator polynomial:
()
From (13.13d), Lim ⎡⎣ Z s ⎤⎦ = 0 , i.e., there is a zero at s 0 and hence, the first element in the ladder
s →0
network is a shunt inductor.
To determine the last element in Cauer form II, from (13.13d) we see that if Z(s) has a zero at s , the
last element will be a series capacitor. On the other hand, if Z(s) has a pole at s , the last element will be
a shunt inductor.
C1 C2 C1 C2 C
Z(s) L1 L2 Z(s) L L2
1 L
(a) With a0 0 (b) With a0 0 (a) With zero at (b) With pole at s
s
Fig. 13.19 Determination of first element in Cauer Fig. 13.20 Determination of last element in
form II realization of LC impedance function Cauer form II realization of LC impedance function
Example 13.7 Synthesize the first and second Foster forms of LC networks for the impedance function:
()
Z s =
( s + 1)( s + 9 )
2 2
s(s + 4 )
2
778
Solution Foster form I
Z s =()
( s + 1)( s + 9) = s + 10s + 9 = s ( s + 4 ) + 6 s
2 2 4 2 2 2 2
+9
s( s + 4) 2
s( s + 4) s( s + 4)2 2
6s2 + 9 K0 2 K1 s
= s+ = s+ +
(
s s +4 2
) s s2 + 4
⎡ 6s2 + 9 ⎤ 9 ⎡ 6 s 2 + 9 ⎤ − 6 × 4 + 9 15
where, K0 = ⎢ 2 ⎥ = and, 2 K1 = 2Lt ⎢ ⎥= =
⎣ s + 4 ⎦ s =0 4 s →−4
⎣ s
2
⎦ −4 4
∴Z s = s+ 4
15 s
()
+ 2 4 = s+
1
+
1
9 ( )
s s +4 4 4 1
s+
( )
s
9 15 15 s
16
15/16 H
1H 4/9F
8/3 H 8/5 H
Y(s)
Z (s) 5/72F
4/15 F 3/8 F
Fig. 13.21 (a) Foster Fig. 13.21 (b) Foster

form I of Example 13.7 form II of Example 13.7
Foster form II
()
Z s =
1
=
s2 +1 s2 + 9 ( )( )
Y s ()
s s2 + 4 ( )
⇒ Y s = ()
(
s s2 + 4 ) =
2 K1 s
+
2 K2 s
( s + 1)( s + 9)
2 2
s +1 s2 + 9
2
⎡ s( s + 4) ⎤ 3
2
(
⎡ s s2 + 4 ) ⎤⎥ = 5 s
where, 2 K1 s = 2Lt ⎢ ⎥= s and 2 K 2 s = 2Lt ⎢ 2
s →−1 ⎢ s2 + 9 ⎥ 8 s →−9 ⎢ s + 1 ⎥ 8
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
( ) ( )
3 s 5 s
Y (s) = 8 + 8 =
1
+
1
s +1
2
8 1 s +9
2
8 1
s+ s+
3 3
8s
5 5
72
s ( )
The synthesized network is shown in Fig. 13.21 (b).
Example: 13.8 Find the first and second Cauer forms of LC networks for the impedance function:
s 4 + 10 s2 + 9
()
Z s =
s3 + 4 s
779
Solution Cauer form I

s 4 + 10 s 2 + 9
s3 + 4s s → Z1
s4 + 4s2
s3 + 4s
s
6s + 9 3 3
2
→Y
Y1
s + s 6
2
5 6 s 2 + 9 12
s s → Z2
2 6s2 5
5
s
5
92 s → Y2
5 18
s
2
×
Therefore, the elements of the network are
1 12 5
L1 = 1 H, C1 = F, L2 = H, C2 = F
6 5 18
The synthesized network is shown in Fig. 13.22 (a). 1H 12/5H
Cauer form II
ZLC
s 4 + 10 s 2 + 9 4s + s3
()
Z s =
1
= ⇒ Y s = () 1/6F 5/18F
Y s () s3 + 4s 9 + 10 s 2 + s 4
We expand Y(s) by continued fraction expansion method. Fig. 13.22 (a) Cauer
form I of Example 13.8
9 + 10 s 2 + s 4
9
4s + s 3
9 → Z1
9 + s2 4s 4/9F 60/961 F
4
ZLC
31/16H 31/15 H
4s + s3
31 2 4 16
s +s 16 → Y1
4 4 s + s 3 31s Fig. 13.22 (b) Cauer form
31
II of Example 13.8
31 2 4
s +s
15 3 4 961
s → Z2
31 31 2 60
s
4
15 3
s
31 15
s 4
→ Y2
15 3 31s
s
31
×
780
Therefore, the elements of the network are

4 31 60 31
C1 = F, L1 = H, C2 = F, L2 = H
9 16 961 15
13.6.2 Properties and Synthesis of RC Impedance and RL Admittance Driving

Point Functions
Impedance of a parallel RC network is
Z RC s = ()
1
Cs =
1R×
C ( ) (13.14)
1 s+ 1
R+ RC
Cs
Admittance of a series RL network is
()
YRL s =
1
=
( )
1
L (13.15)
R + sL s + R
L
Equations (13.14) and (13.15) show that the nature of the two expressions is same and the pole of each function
lies in the left half of the s-plane.
If we assume that all driving point functions can be realized by two kinds of elements (RC or RL), then
Foster forms I and II can be applied to synthesize RC or RL immittance functions. Therefore, the properties
of RC or RL immittance functions can be derived from the known properties of driving point impedance of
LC network by process of mapping the j -axis into the -axis.
• Properties of RC Impedance and RL Admittance Functions

1. Poles and zeros lie on the negative real axis, and they alternate.
C1 C2
2. The residues of the poles must be real and positive. C0
R
3. The critical frequencies nearest to the origin or at the origin must be a pole,
whereas, the critical frequency nearest to infinity or at infinity must be a zero. Z(s) R1 R2
• Explanation of the Properties Replacing all the inductances of Foster I LC

Fig. 13.23 Foster
network by resistances, we have a general RC impedance as shown in Fig. 13.23. form I of RC impedance
function
K0
()
K1 K2
Here, Z RC s = + + + ⋅⋅⋅+ K∞ (13.16)
s s+ 1 s+ 2
1 1 1 K K
where, C0 = , C1 = , C2 = , ⋅⋅⋅ R1 = 1 , R2 = 2 , R∞ = K∞
K0 K1 K2 1 2
Similarly, if the function is an RL admittance function, the synthesized net-

work will be as shown in Fig. 13.24. R1 R2
YRL(s) L0 R
Here, L1 L2
1 1 1
L0 = , L1 = , L2 = , ⋅⋅⋅ R1 = 1 , R2 = 2 , R∞ = K∞ Fig. 13.24 Foster form II or RL
K0 K1 K2 K1 K2 admittance function
781
In order that Eq. (13.16) represents RC driving point impedance (or RL driving point admittance), the
constants Ki and i all must be real positive.
Thus, we see that all poles and zeros lie on the negative real axis.
We now find out the locations of critical frequencies. To do that, we find the slope of Z(s) at s .
K0
( )=
K1 K2
Z + + + ⋅⋅⋅+ K∞
+ 1 + 2
∴
dZ ( )=− K 0
−
K1
−
K2
− ⋅⋅⋅
( ) ( )
2 2 2
d + +
1 2
∴
dZ ( ) ≤0
d
Now, we find out the behaviour of Z(s) as varies. For this, we consider two extreme conditions:
• At 0, (i.e., the case for dc)
• if C0 capacitor is present, it is open-circuited and Z(0) , i.e., there is a pole at 0.
• if C0 is absent, [Z(0) = R1 R1 ... R ], because all capacitors are open-circuited.
• At
• if R resistor is present, all capacitors are short-circuited and therefore, Z( ) R .
• if R is absent, Z( ) 0, i.e., there is a zero at .
To summarize,
Z 0 = ∞; () if C0 is present
= ∑ Ri ; if C0 is absent
( )
Z ∞ = R∞; if R∞ is present
= 0; if R∞ is absent
Z(0) Z( )
From the above explanation, we conclude that the critical frequency nearest to the origin must be a pole
and the critical frequency nearest to infinity must be zero.
Now, we examine whether the poles and zeros of an RC impedance function alternate. We consider,
( s + )( s + )
Z RC s =() 2
( 4
< < < )
( s + )( s + )
1 3
1 2 3 4
Since the critical frequency nearest to the origin must be a pole, we assume it to Z(s)
be s 1 while the critical frequency nearest to infinity is a zero, we assume it to be
s 4. We plot Z( ) vs from 0 to following the steps as given below. Z(0)
Z( )
(i) At ()
0, Z RC 0 = 2 4
> 1. s
s4 s3
s2
s1
1
1 3
(ii) As the slope of ZRC( ) is always negative as decreases ( increases),

ZRC( ) must increase until s 1 is reached.
(iii) At 1, ZRC( ) changes sign and is negative until the next critical fre- Fig. 13.25 Plot of Z( )
quency is reached. Vs. 2
(iv) The next critical frequency ( 2) is a zero where the function ZRC( ) is zero.
782
(v) Since ZRC(␴) increases with decreasing ␴ (or increasing ␴) the third critical frequency must be a
pole at s ␴3.
(vi) Because Z(␴) changes sign at ␴3, the final critical frequency must be zero at s 4.
(vii) Beyond ␴4, the curve becomes asymptotic to Z( ) 1.
From this analysis, we see that the poles and zeros of an RC impedance (or RL admittance) function must
alternate.
Example 13.9 Test whether the following functions represent RC impedance.
( ) ((s + 2)(( s + 4) () ( )( )
s +1 s + 8
(a) F s = (c) F s = s + 2 s + 4
) ) s +1
(c) F( s ) =
( s + 1)( s + 2 ) ( ) ( s( s)(+ 2 ( s)+( 6 )
(d) F s =
s +1 s + 4 s + 8
s( s + 3) ) )
Solution
( s + 1)( s + 8)
(a) F s =()
( s + 2 )( s + 4 )
The poles are at s 2, 4
Zeros are at s 1, 8
This function is not an RC or RL immittance function because poles and zeros lie on the negative real
axis, but they do not alternate.
The critical frequency nearest to the origin is a zero, whereas the critical frequency nearest to infinity
is a pole; these are not permissible.
Hence the given impedance is not an RC function.
( s + 2 )( s + 4 )
(b) F s =() s +1
This function is not an RC or RL immittance function because the poles and zeros do not interlace.
(c) F s =()
(
s +1 s + 2 )( )
s s+3 ( )
This function is not an RC or RL immittance function because the poles and zeros do not interlace.
( s + 1)( s + 4 )( s + 8)
(d) F s =() s ( s + 2 )( s + 6 )
This function is an RC or RL immittance function since it satisfies all conditions.
Synthesis of RC Impedance and RL Admittance Functions

Foster Forms It has already been discussed that RC impedance (or RL admittance) functions can be syn-
thesized by Foster I and Foster II forms. However, before partial fraction expansion of ZRC(s) [or, YRL(s)], it is
important to remove the minimum real part of ZRC( j␻) from the original function ZRC(s).
It can be proved that Re[ZRC( j␻)] ZRC( ). Therefore,
• we have to remove ZRC( ) as a resistor, if the numerator polynomial is of higher degree than the denomi-
nator polynomial
783
• there is no need to remove the real part as ZRC( ) 0, if the numerator polynomial is of lower degree
than the denominator polynomial
• ZRC( ) is obtained by dividing the numerator by the denominator and taking the quotient; partial fraction
of the remainder is then obtained, if the degree of the numerator polynomial and denominator polyno-
mial is same
For an RC impedance and RL admittance functions, Foster form I and form II networks are shown in
Fig. 13.23 and Fig. 13.24, respectively.
Determination of First and Last Elements in Foster Forms of RC Impedance or RL Admittance
Functions
Foster Form I For RC impedance function (see Fig. 13.23),
For ␴ 0, if Z(s) then C0 is present
if Z(s) 0 then C0 is absent
For ␴ , if Z(s) is a constant then R is present
if Z(s) 0 then R is absent
Foster Form II For RL admittance function (see Fig. 13.24),
For ␴ 0, if Z(s) 0 then L0 is present
if Z(s) is a constant then L0 is absent
For ␴ , if Z(s) then R is absent
if Z(s) is a constant then R is present
Cauer Forms The synthesis of RC impedance (or RL admittance) functions by Cauer forms can be obtained
by the continued fraction expansion method.
In Cauer Form I, the continued fraction expansion is about infinity and the polynomials are arranged in
descending power of s. The quotients thus obtained represent the elements of a ladder network. The final
synthesized network is a ladder network with the elements as
resistors in series arms and capacitors in shunt arms for RC impedance function
inductors in series arms and resistors in shunt arms for RL admittance function
In Cauer form II, the continued fraction expansion is about the origin and the polynomials are arranged in
ascending power of s. The quotients thus obtained represent the elements of a ladder network. The final syn-
thesized network is a ladder network with the elements as
capacitors in series arms and resistors in shunt arms for RC impedance function
resistors in series arms and inductors in shunt arms for RL admittance function
If the immittance function of the form,
()
F s = K1 +
1
1
K2 s +
1
K3 +
1
K4 s +
K5 + ⋅⋅⋅
1
K n−1 +
Kn s
784
The Cauer form I can be synthesized. For the RC impedance and RL admittance K1 K3 K5
functions of the above form, networks synthesized by Cauer form I are shown in ZRC
Fig. 13.26 (a) and Fig. 13.26 (b), respectively. K2 K4 K6
On the other hand, for the form of the immittance function, such as
Fig. 13.26 (a) Cauer
()
F s =
1
K1 s
+
1
1
form I of RC impedance
function
K2 +
1 1 K2 K4 Kn 2 Kn
+
K3 s 1 YRL
K4 + 1/K1 1/K3 1/K5 1/Kn 1
1
+ ⋅⋅⋅
K5 s Fig. 13.26 (b) Cauer form I of RL
admittance function
1
+ Kn
K n−1 s
Cauer Form II can be synthesized. For the RC impedance and RL admittance functions of the above form,
networks synthesized by Cauer Form II are shown in Fig. 13.27 (a) and Fig. 13.27 (b), respectively.
K1 K3 K5 1/K2 1/K4
ZRC YRL
1/K2 1/K4 1/K6 K1 K3 K5
Fig. 13.27 (a) Cauer Fig. 13.27 (b) Cauer

form II of RC impedance form II of RL admittance
function function
Determination of First and Last Elements in Cauer Forms of RC Impedance or RL Admittance

Functions
Cauer Form I For RC impedance function (see Fig. 13.26 a).
For s , if Z(s) 0, the first element is a shunt capacitor
If Z(s) is a constant, the first element is a series resistor
For s 0, if Z(s) , the last element is a shunt capacitor
If Z(s) is a constant, the last element is a series resistor
For RL admittance function (see Fig. 13.26 b).
For s , if Y(s) 0, the first element is a series inductor
If Y(s) is a constant, the first element is a shunt resistor
For s 0, if Y(s) , the last element is a series inductor
If Y(s) is a constant, the last element is a shunt resistor
Cauer Form II For RC impedance function (see Fig. 13.27 a).
For s 0, if Z(s) , the first element is a series capacitor
If Z(s) is a constant, the first element is a shunt resistor
For s , if Z(s) 0, the last element is a series capacitor
785
For RL admittance function (see Fig. 13.27 b).

For s 0, if Y(s) , the first element is a shunt inductor
If Y(s) is a constant, the first element is a series resistor
For s , if Y(s) 0, the last element is a shunt inductor
If Y(s) is a constant, the last element is a series resistor
Example 13.10 Using Foster form I and Foster form II, synthesize the following function:
( ) ( s( s )+(3 )
3 s+2 s+ 4
F s =
)
Solution ()
F s =
(
3 s+2 s+4)( )
(
s s+3 )
Here, since the degree of numerator and denominator polynomials is same, we remove F( ) from F(s).
F ∞ = Lt ⎢
⎡ 3 1+ 2 1+ 4 ⎤
⎢
() s (
s ⎥=3 )( )
s →∞
⎢
⎣
1+ 3
s
⎥
⎥
⎦ ( )
() () ()
∴ F1 s = F s − F ∞ =
(
3 s+2 s+4 )( )−3
( ) s s+3
3( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) − 3s ( s + 3)
=
s ( s + 3)
9 s + 24
=
(
s s+3 )
K1 K 2
= +
s s+3
9 s + 24
∴ K1 = sF1 s () s =0
=
s + 3 s =0
=8
9 s + 24
(
∴ K 2 = s + 3 F1 s ) () s =0
=
s s =−3
=1
() ()8
∴ F s = F1 s + 3 = +
1
s s+3
+3
• If F(s) is an impedance Z(s), it must be an RC impedance and it is realized by Foster form I as shown in
Fig. 13.28 (a).
1/8F 1/3
3
1F
Fig. 13.28 (a) Foster form I

realization of Example 13.10
786
• If F(s) is an admittance Y(s), it must be an RL admittance and it is realized by Foster form II as shown
in Fig. 13.28 (b).
3
1/3H 1/3
1H
Fig. 13.28 (b) Foster form II

realization of Example 13.10
Example 13.11 Using Cauer Form I and Cauer Form II, synthesize the function of Example 13.10.
Solution ()
F s =
(
3 s+2 s+4)( ) = 3s 2
+ 18 s + 24
(
s s+3 ) s 2 + 3s
Cauer Form I In this form we arrange the numerator and denominator polynomials in descending power
of s and we expand it by continued fraction expansion method.
3s 2 + 18 s + 24
s 2 + 3s 3
3s 2 + 9 s
s 2 + 3s
s
9 s + 24 2 9
s + s
2
3
1 9 s + 24
s 27
3 9s
1
s
s
24 3
1 72
s
3
If F(s) is an impedance function, it must be an RC impedance and it is realized by Cauer form I as shown in
Fig. 13.29 (a). If F(s) is an admittance function, it must be an RL admittance and it is realized by Cauer form
I as shown in Fig. 13.29 (b).
3 27 1/9 H 1/72H
Z(s) YRL
1/9 F 1/72F 1/3 1/27
Fig. 13.29 (a) Cauer form I Fig. 13.29 (b) Cauer form I
realization of Example 13.11 realization of Example 13.11
Cauer Form II In this form we arrange the numerator and denominator polynomials in ascending power
of s and we expand it by continued fraction expansion method.
787
24 + 18 s + 3s 2 8
3s + s 2
24 + 8 s s
3s + s 2
3
10 s + 3s 2
9
3s + s 2 10
10
1 2 10 s + 3s 2 100
s
10 10 s s
1 2
s
10 1
3s 2
1 2 30
s
10
If F(s) is an impedance function, it must be an RC impedance and it is realized by Cauer form II as shown in
Fig. 13.29 (c). If F(s) is an admittance function, it must be an RL admittance and it is realized by Cauer Form
II as shown in Fig. 13.29 (d).
1/8F 1/100F 10/3 30
ZRC YRL
10/3 30 1/8 H 1/100 H
Fig. 13.29 (c) Cauer form II Fig. 13.29 (d) Cauer form II
realization of Example 13.11 realization of Example 13.11
13.6.3 Properties and Synthesis of RL Impedance and RC Admittance Driving

Point Functions
Impedance of a parallel RL network is
R × sL
()
Z RL s =
R + sL
=R
s
(13.17a)
s+ R
L
Admittance of a series RC network is
()
YRC s = =
Cs
1
=
1
1 1 + RCs R s + 1
s (13.17b)
R+ RC
sC
Equations (13.17 a) and (13.17 b) show that the two expressions are of same nature. Therefore, the immit-
tance that represents a series (Form I) Foster RL impedance or a parallel (Form II) Foster RC admittance is
()
Ks K s
given as F s = K + 1 + 2 + ⋅⋅⋅ K s
∞
0
s+ 1 s+ 2
Note The significant difference between RC impedance and RL impedance is that the partial fraction expansion for
the RC impedance is
⎛ K i ⎞ ; whereas, for RL impedance, the corresponding term is ⎛ K is ⎞ .
⎜ s+ ⎟ ⎜ s+ ⎟
⎝ i⎠ ⎝ i⎠
788
The properties of RL impedance (or RC admittance) functions can be derived in the same manner as has
been for RC impedance (or RL admittance) functions.
Properties of RL Impedance and RC Admittance Functions

1. Poles and zeros lie on the negative real axis, and they alternate.
2. The residues of the poles must be real and positive.
3. The critical frequency nearest to the origin or at the origin must be a zero; whereas, the critical fre-
quency nearest to infinity or at infinity must be a pole.
Synthesis of RL Impedance and RC Admittance Functions

Foster Forms If F(s) is an RL impedance or RC admittance function then by partial fraction expansion it
can be written as
( )= K
F s K10
+ +
K2
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ K∞
(13.18)
s s s+ 1 s+ 2
where, all Ki’s are real and positive (i.e., K0, K1, K2, …, K ≥ 0)
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (13.18), by s, we get the function F(s) in the desired form for synthesis.
Case (a) If F(s) is an RL impedance function, Foster form I will be as shown in Fig. 13.30 (a).
K0 K1 K2 Ki K
ZR L(s) K1/s1 K2/s2 Ki /si
Fig. 13.30 (a) Foster form I of RL

impedance
Case (b) If F(s) is an RC admittance function, Foster form II will be as shown in Fig. 13.30 (b).
1/K1 1/K2 1/KI

YRC(s) 1/K0 K
K1/s1 K2/s2 Ki /si
Fig. 13.30 (b) Foster form II of RC admittance
Determination of First and Last Elements in Foster Forms of RL Impedance or RC Admittance

Functions
Foster Form I For RL impedance function (see Fig. 13.30 a).

For ␴ 0, if Z(s) 0 then R0 is absent
if Z(s) is a constant then R0 is present
For ␴ , if Z(s) then L is present
if Z(s) is a constant then L is absent.
Foster Form II For RC admittance function (see Fig. 13.30 b).

For ␴ 0, if Z(s) then R0 is present
if Z(s) is a constant then R0 is absent
789
For ␴ , if Z(s) 0 then C is present

if Z(s) is a constant then C is absent
Cauer Forms In Cauer form I, we arrange the numerator and denominator polynomials in ascending
power of s. We use continued fraction expansion. In this form, we remove the pole at infinity. The quotients
thus obtained represent the elements of a ladder network. The final synthesized network is a ladder network
with the elements as follows:
Inductors in series arms and resistors in shunt arms for RL impedance function.
Resistors in series arms and capacitors in shunt arms for RC admittance function.
In Cauer form II, we arrange the numerator and denominator polynomials in descending power of s. We use
continued fraction expansion. In this form, we remove the pole at the origin. The quotients thus obtained
represent the elements of a ladder network. The final synthesized network is a ladder network with the ele-
ments as follows:
Resistors in series arms and inductors in shunt arms for RL impedance function.
Capacitors in series arms and resistors in shunt arms for RC admittance function.
If the immittance function is of the form
()
F s = K1 s +
1
1
K2 +
1
K3 s +
1
K4 +
K5 s + ⋅⋅⋅
1
1
K n−1 s +
Kn
The Cauer form I can be synthesized. For the RL impedance and RC admittance functions of the above
form, networks synthesized by Cauer form I are shown in Fig. 13.31 (a) and Fig. 13.31 (b), respectively.
On the other hand, if the immittance is function of the form
()
F s = K1 +
1
1
1
+
K2 s 1
K3 +
1 1
+
K 4 s K5 + ⋅⋅⋅
1
1
K n−1 +
Kn
The Cauer form II can be synthesized. For the RL impedance and RC admittance functions of the above
form, networks synthesized by Cauer form II are shown in Fig. 13.32 (a) and Fig. 13.32 (b), respectively.
790
K1 K3 K5 Kn 1
K2 K4 Kn
ZRL 1/K2 1/K4 1/K6 1/Kn 1/Kn YRC K1 K3 K5 Kn 1

2
Fig. 13.31 (a) Cauer form I of RL Fig. 13.31 (b) Cauer form I of RC
impednace function admittance function
K1 K3 K5 Kn
K2 K4 Kn 3 Kn 1
zRL K2 K4 K6 Kn 1
YRC 1/K1 1/K3 1/K5 1/Kn 2
1/Kn
Fig. 13.32 (a) Cauer form II of RL
impednace Fig. 13.32 (b) Cauer form II of RC admittance
Determination of First and Last Elements in Cauer Forms of RL Impedance or RC Admittance

Functions
Cauer Form I For RL impedance function (see Fig. 13.31 a).
For s , if Z(s) , the first element is a series inductor
For s 0, if Z(s) 0, the last element is a series inductor
If Z(s) is a constant, the last element is a shunt resistor
For RC admittance function (see Fig. 13.31 b).
For s , if Y(s) , the first element is a shunt capacitor
If Y(s) is a constant, the first element is a series resistor
For s 0, if Y(s) 0, the last element is a shunt capacitor
If Y(s) is a constant, the last element is a series resistor
Cauer Form II For RL impedance function (see Fig. 13.32 a).

For s , if Z(s) , the first element is a shunt inductor
If Z(s) is a constant, the first element is a series resistor
For s 0, if Z(s) 0, the last element is a shunt inductor
If Z(s) is a constant, the last element is a series resistor
For RC admittance function (see Fig. 13.32 b).
For s 0, if Y(s) 0, the first element is a series capacitor
If Y(s) is a constant, the first element is a shunt resistor
For s , if Y(s) , the last element is a series capacitor
If Y(s) is a constant, the last element is a shunt resistor
Example 13.12 Using Foster Form I and Foster Form II, synthesize the following function:
( ) ( (s + 2 )((s + 6 )
2 s +1 s + 3
F s =
) )
791
Solution
( ) = 2( s + 1)( s + 3) = K
F s 0
+
K1 K
+ 2
s s ( s + 2 )( s + 6 ) s s+2 s+6
∴ K0 = ⎢
( )( ) ⎤⎥
⎡ 2 s +1 s + 3
=
1
( )( ) ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ s + 2 s + 6 s =0
2
∴ K1 = ⎢
( )( ) ⎤⎥
⎡ 2 s +1 s + 3
=
1
⎢⎣ s s + 6 ( ) ⎥⎦ s =−2
4
∴ K2 = ⎢
( )( ) ⎤⎥
⎡ 2 s +1 s + 3
=
5
⎢⎣ s s + 2( ) ⎥⎦ s =−6
4
∴
F s( ) = 12 +
4 + 4
5 1
s s s+2 s+6
1 5
1 4s s
()
∴F s = + + 4
2 s+2 s+6
1 5
1 4s s
If F(s) is an impedance function, i.e., ∴ Z s = + +()
4
2 s+2 s+6
,
1
1 1 K1 1
∴ R0 = K0 = ; R1 = K1 = ; L1 = = 4 = H;
2 4 1
2 8
5
5 K 5
R2 = K 2 = ; L2 = 2 = 4 = H
4 2
6 24
The Foster form I synthesized network is shown in Fig. 13.33 (a).
1/4 5/4
1/2
YRC(s) 4 4/5
ZRL(s) 2
1/8 H 5/24 H 1/8F 5/24F
Fig. 13.33 (a) Foster Fig. 13.33 (b) Foster form II

form I of Example 13.12 of Example 13.12
1 5
s s
()
If F(s) is an admittance function, i.e., Y s = 1 + 4 + 4
2 s+2 s+6
1
1 1 K1 1
∴ R0 = = 2 ; R1 = = 4 ; C1 = = 4 = F;
K0 K1 1
2 8
5
1 4 K 5
R2 = = ; C2 = 2 = 4 = F
K2 5 2
6 24
792
The Foster form II synthesized network is shown in Fig. 13.33 (b).

Example 13.13 Using Cauer form I and Cauer form II, synthesize the function of Example 13.12.
Solution Here, F s = ()
( )( ) = 6 + 8s + 2 s
2 s +1 s + 3 2
( s + 2 )( s + 6 ) 12 + 8s + s 2
6 + 8s + 2 s 2
1
12 + 8 s + s
2
1 2 2
6 + 4s + s
2
12 + 8 s + s 2
3 2 3
4s + s
2 12 + 9 s s
2
3
4s + s2
7 2 8
s + s2
2 8 7
4s + s2
7
7
s + s2
5 22 49
s
14 7 5s
s
2
5 2
s
5
s 2 14 1/2 8/7 5/14
5 2 14 ZRL
s 1/3H 5/49 H
14
If F(s) is an RL impedance function, then the resulting network by Cauer form I Fig. 13.34 (a) Cauer form I
is shown in Fig. 13.34 (a). of Example 13.13
1 1 8 5 5
Here, R1 = , L1 = H, R2 = , L2 = H, R3 = 1/3F 5/49F
2 3 7 49 14
If F(s) is an RC admittance function then the resulting network by Cauer YRC 2 7/8 14/5
form II is shown in Fig. 13.34 (b).
1 7 5 14 Fig. 13.34 (b) Cauer form II
Here, R1 = 2 , C1 = F, R2 = , C2 = F, R3 =
3 8 49 5 of Example 13.13
13.7 SYNTHESIS OF RLC DRIVING POINT FUNCTIONS

Under certain conditions, driving-point functions of an RLC one-port network is synthesized with the use of
either partial fractions or continued fractions. If a positive real function (prf) is not synthesizable with two
kinds of elements only then it is synthesized by partial fractions or continued fractions.
Any driving point immittance function can be completely synthesized by the following steps:
(i) removal of a pole at infinity,
(ii) removal of poles on the j -axis,
793
(iii) removal of a pole at origin, and

(iv) removal of a constant.
However, for some particular immittance functions, none of the above operations is possible. Such func-
tions are known as minimum functions.
13.7.1 Minimum Functions Re[F( j v)]

A driving point impedance or admittance may have a form with no poles or zeros on the F (0) F( )
imaginary axis and with a real part of Z( j␻) [or Y( j␻)] 0 at one or more frequencies.
Such functions are known as minimum positive real function or simply minimum functions.
Thus, a positive real function F(s) is called minimum function, if v
v0
1. it has no poles or zeros on the imaginary axis of the s-plane
Fig. 13.35
2. it has finite, real and positive values at s 0 and s
Minimum function
3. its real part becomes zero at least at one frequency (say, ␻0), i.e., Re[F( j␻0)] 0,
for ␻0 0
The RLC immittance functions are minimum functions. They can be synthesized by the procedure discussed here.
13.7.2 Synthesis Procedure of RLC Immittance Functions
There are two methods of synthesis of RLC immittance functions:
1. Brune’s method, and
2. Bott Duffin method.
Brune’s Method This method of synthesis of minimum function was first suggested by Otto Brune. From
the property of a minimum function that the real part of an impedance function Z(s) be zero at a particular
( ) ( )
frequency, ␻0, i.e., Re ⎡⎣ Z j 0 ⎤⎦ = ± jX 0 with X(␻0) 0; otherwise Z( j␻0) will have a zero on the j␻-axis
which is not allowed for a minimum function.
Two cases may happen:
Case (a): When X(␻0) 0
Case (b): When X(␻0) 0
Case (a): When X(␻0) 0: The steps for synthesis are as follows.
Step (1) In this case, we remove a negative inductor having L =

X ( ) 0 , from Z(s).
1
0
() () () ()
∴ Z s = Z1 s + sL1 or, Z1 s = Z s − sL1
Since L1 < 0, sL1 is positive real. Hence Z1(s) is a prf.

The process of removal of the negative inductor from Z(s) is illustrated in Fig. 13.36 (a).
L1(<0) L1(<0) L3(>0) M

L1(<0)
L L2 La Lb
Z(s) C2 Z 2(s) Z 3(s) Z 3(s)
Z(s) Z1(s) Z(s) Z(s)
2 C2 C2
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 13.36 Steps for Brune's method of synthesis with X( 0) 0
794
Step (2) Now, Z1(s) is a prf and has a pair of zeros at ␻0, since
⎧⎪ X 0 Z j 0 ⎪⎫ ( ) ( )
( )
Z j 0 − j 0 L1 = j 0 L1 − j 0 L1 = 0 ⎨ L1 = = ⎬
⎩⎪ 0 0 ⎭⎪
()
Therefore, Y1 s =
1
has a pair of poles at s = ± j 0 . These poles can be removed as a series LC circuit,
Z1 s ()
s
() () () ()
1 L2 2K s
i.e., Y2 s = Y1 s − = Y1 s − = Y1 s − 2 1 2
1 1 s + 0
sL2 + s2 +
sC2 L2C2
1 2K
so that L2 = and C2 = 21
2 K1 0
This is illustrated in Fig. 13.36 (b).

Step (3) Now, Y2(s) is a prf since the removal of conjugate poles s = ± j ( 0 ) from a prf leaves a prf. Putting
()
Y1 s =
1 , we get,
()
Z1 s
()
Y2 s =
1
−
2 K1 s
=
s 2 + 0 2 − 2 K1 s Z s − sL1 { () }
()
Z s − sL1 s 2 + 0 2 Z s − sL1 s 2 + 0 2 { () }( )
∴ Z2 s = ()
( )(
Z s s2 + ) − sL ( s + ) = − s L + s Z ( s ) − sL + Z ( s )
0
2
1
2
0
2 2
1
2
0
2
1 0
2
s2 (1 + 2 K L ) − 2 K sZ ( s ) +
1 1
s (1 + 2 K L ) − 2 K sZ ( s ) +
1 0
2 2
1 1 1 0
2
Since Z(s) is a prf, Z2(s) has a pole at s as evident from the above equation. This pole can be removed as
− L1
an inductor L3 ( 0), with L3 =
1 + 2 K1 L1
Therefore, the remaining function is Z3(s), which is also a prf such that Z3(s) Z2(s) sL3
This is illustrated in Fig. 13.36 (c).
Step (4) These operations are repeated till the remaining function is a positive constant which can be real-
ized by a resistor.
Step (5) The negative inductor L1 (< 0) in Fig. 13.36 (a) along with inductors L2 and L3 can be replaced by
two mutually coupled inductors La and Lb, so that Fig. 13.36 (c) becomes as shown in Fig. 13.36 (d).
( )
Here, La = L1 + L2 ; Lb = L2 + L3 ; M = L2 ( )
It should be mentioned here that the coefficient of coupling for the coupled inductors is unity; which is
checked below.
Coefficient of coupling, k = M
La Lb
2
⎛ ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
)( )
L1
a b 1 2(
Now, L L = L + L L + L = L + 1
2 3 ⎜ 1 2 K ⎟ ⎜ 2 K − 1 + 2K
⎝
⎟ = ⎜ 2K ⎟
1⎠⎝ 1 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
1
K L
795
M L2 1
∴k = = = 2 K1 × =1
La Lb 1 2 K1
2 K1
Case (b) When X (␻0) 0 The steps for synthesis are as follows.
Step (1) In this case, we remove a positive inductor having L =

X ( ) 0 , from Z(s).
1
0
() ()
∴ Z s = Z1 s + sL1 or, Z1 s = Z s − sL1 () ()
Here, the remaining function Z1(s) is not necessarily a prf because it will have a zero in the right half of the
s-plane. However, we can continue the synthesis process allowing the presence of positive inductors.
Step (2) Now, Z1(s) has a pair of zeros at ␻0. Therefore, Y1 s = () 1

has a pair of poles at s ␻0; which
Z1 s ()
() ()
2 K1 s
can be removed as a series LC circuit, i.e., Y2 s = Y1 s − .
s +
2
0
2
Step (3) Here again, Y2(s) is a not a prf. However, the residue K1 evaluated at j␻0 is a prf. These result,
()
Z2 s =
1
=
{Z ( s ) − sL }( s 1
2
+ 0
2
) .
()
Y2 s ( )
s 1 + 2 K1 L1 − 2 K1 sZ s +
2
() 0
2
Following the procedure similar to Case (a), we find that Z2(s) has a pole at infinity, which can be removed
− L1
as an inductor, L3 = .
1 + 2 K1 L1
Since L1 is positive, the inductor L3 is negative (L3 < 0).
The remaining impedance is, Z3(s) Z2(s) sL3
In order to show that Z3(s) is a prf, we put the value of Z2(s) so that,
()
Z3 s =
(s 2
+ 0
2
){Z ( s ) − sL } 1
− sL3 =
(s 2
+ 0
2
){Z ( s ) − sL } 1
+
sL1
(1 + 2 K L ) s − 2 K sZ ( s ) +
1 1
2
(1 + 2 K L ) s − 2 K sZ ( s ) +
1 0
2
1 1
2
1 0
2
1 + 2 K1 L1
=
(1 + 2 K L )( s + ){Z ( s ) − sL } + sL {(1 + 2 K L ) s − 2 K sZ ( s ) + }
1 1
2
0
2
1 1 1 1
2
1 0
2
{(1+ 2 K L ) s − 2 K sZ ( s ) + }(1+ 2 K L )
1 1
2
1 0
2
1 1
s Z (s) − 2 K L
2
s+ (1 + 2 K L ) Z ( s ) 2 2 2
= 1 1 0 0 1 1
(1 + 2 K L ) s − 2 K Z ( s )(1 + 2 K L ) s + (1 + 2 K L )
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
L L +L L
Now, L2 =
1
2 K1
(
= M , ∴ 1 + 2 K1 L1 = 1 + 1 = 1 2 = a = 2 K1 La
L2 L2 L2
)
La
( ) ( )
2
Similarly, 2 K1 1 + 2 K1 L1 = 2 K1 2 K1 La = 2 K1 La = = Lb
M2
796

()
s 2 Z s − 2 K1 L12 2
s+ 2
()
Z s 2 K1 La
()
Z3 s = 0 0
(2 K L ) 1
()
2
1 a
s2 − sZ s + 0
2
2 K1 La
Lb
This equation has the same form of Z3(s) as of Case (a). Since Z3(s) of Case (a) is a prf, Z3(s) of Case (b)
is also a prf.
Step (4) The above processes are repeated till the remaining function is a positive constant which can be
realized by a resistor. M
The final synthesized network is shown in Fig. 13.37. La Lb
Z 3(s)
Here, La = L1 + L2 ( ) Z(s)
C2
Lb = (L 2
+L ) 3
Fig. 13.37 Brune’s
M = L2 synthesized network X( 0) 0.
L1 > 0 and L2 < 0
Example 13.14 Obtain Brune realization of the following driving point impedance function:
s2 + s + 2
()
Z s =
2 s2 + s + 1
Solution In order to check whether Z(s) is a minimum function, we follow the following steps:
(i) The function has no poles or zeros on the j␻-axis.
1
(ii) At s 0, Z(0) 2 and at s , Z( ) . Thus, the function has finite, real and positive values at s 0
2
and s .
(iii) To find the frequency for which Re[Z( j␻)] 0, we have,
( ) = 12−−2
Z j
2
+j
=
⎡ 2−
⎣ ( 2
) + j ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣(1− 2 ) − j ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣( 2 − )(1− 2 ) +
2 2 2 2 ⎤
⎦+ j {(1− 2 ) − ( 2 − )}
2 2
+j (1− 2 ) + (1− 2 ) + (1− 2 )

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
+ 2
⎡ 2−( )(1− 2
2 2
) + ⎤⎦ = 2 − 4 + 2
2
4 2
( )
∴ Re ⎡⎣ Z j ⎤= ⎣
⎦
(1− 2 ) + −3 +1
2 4 2
2 2 4
For this to be minimum, d ⎡ Re ⎡ Z j

d ⎣ ⎣
( )⎤⎦ ⎤⎦ = 0
∴
(4 4
−3 2
+1 8 )( 3
−8 ) − (2 4
−4 2
)(
+ 2 16 3
−6 )=0 ⇒ =1=
( )
2 0
4 4
−3 2
+1
()
2
2− 1 + j
At = 1, Z j ( ) = Z ( j1) = = − j1
1 − 2 × (1)
0 0 2
+j
797
Thus, the real part is zero at ␻0. 1

So, Z(s) is a minimum function.
Brune’s Synthesis Steps
(1) At ␻0 1, Z( j1) j1; this is removed by a negative inductor, L1 1 H.
() () s2 + s + 2
() ()
∴ Z s = Z1 s − s ⇒ Z1 s = Z s + s = 2 +s=
2 s2 +1 s +1 ( )( )
2s + s +1 2s2 + s +1
(2) Here, Z1(s) has a pair of zeros at s j1. Thus, Y1(s) has a pair of poles at s j1.
2s2 + s +1 K0
()
2 K1 s
Y1 s = = +
(
2 s +1 s +1
2
)( ) s +1 s +1
2
⎡ 2s2 + s +1 ⎤ 1
K0 = ⎢ ⎥ =
( )
where,
⎢ 2 s +1 ⎥
2
2
⎣ ⎦ s =−1
⎡ 2s2 + s +1 ⎤
and, 2 K1 s = ⎢ ⎥ =
s −1
⎡ s −1 2
=⎢
( ) ⎤
⎥ =
s 2 − 2 s + 1 −1 − 2 s + 1 s
= =
( ) ( )
⎢⎣ 2 s + 1 ⎥⎦ s2 =−1 2 s + 1 ⎢ 2 s − 1
⎣
2
( ) ⎥
⎦ s2 =−1
( )
2 −2 −4 2
1 1
s
()
Y1 s = 22 + 2 =
1
s +1 s +1 2s + 2
+
1
2s + 2
s
Therefore, the realized network is shown in Fig. 13.38 (a). The 1H 2H M = 2H
negative inductor along with two other inductors is realized by a Z(s) 2H 1H 4H
2 Z(s) 2
pair of mutually coupled inductors, as shown in Fig. 13.38 (b). 1/2H 1/2 F
Bott–Duffin Method Brune’s method requires the use (a) (b)

of mutually coupled inductors (or transformers) with unity Fig. 13.38 Brune’s realization of Example 13.14
coefficient of coupling. Such transformers are not feasible as network elements from the practical point of view.
An alternative method of synthesis was suggested by B R Bott and R J Duffin using Richard’s transformation
theorem.
Richards transformation theorem states that a function R(s) given by
() ()
kZ s − sZ k
()
R s =
kZ ( k ) − sZ ( s )
(13.19)
is positive real for real and positive value of k if Z(s) is positive real function, and that the degree of R(s) is
not greater than that of Z(s).
Bott–Duffin used this theorem for RLC network synthesis. Solving Eq. (13.19) for Z(s),
( ) ( ) + sZ ( k )
kZ k R s
()
Z s =
k + sR ( s ) k + sR ( s )
(13.20)
Dividing the denominator of each term by the numerator, we get,

798
()
Z s =
1
+
1
1
+
s
+
() k R s
(13.21)
() ()
Z k R s kZ k ( ) sZ ( k ) Z ( k )
In order to associate Eq. (13.21) with a network, it can be written in the general form as
()
Z s =
1
1
1
+
1
1
1
(13.22)
+ +
Z A ZC Z L Z B
where, () ()
ZA = Z k R s (13.23a)
Z (k )
ZB = (13.23b)
R( s )
()
kZ ( k ) 1 1
ZC = ≡ ⇒ C=
s Cs kZ k() (13.23c)
ZL =
sZ k ( ) ≡ sL ⇒ L=
Z k () (13.23d)
k k
In all of the above expressions, Z(k) is always positive if k is positive Z(s) ZA ZB
being prf. Thus, ZA and ZB are prf since R(s) is prf.
The next step for synthesizing ZA and ZB is to find the frequency ␻0 at
which Re[Z( j␻0)] 0, so that Z( j␻0)] jX(␻0). Z(s)
C = 1/kZ(k) L = Z(k)/k
Hence the evaluation of ZA, ZB, C and L has to be done at ␻0. Two cases
may arise: Fig. 13.39 First step synthesized
Case (a): X(␻0) 0 Case (b): X(␻0) 0 network by Bott–Duffin method
Case (a): When X(␻0) 0

Putting s j␻0 in (13.22), we get,
(
Z j 0 ) = jX ( ) =0
1
1
+
1
1
1
+ j 0C +
ZA j ( 0 ) j 0
L ZB j( 0 )
The above equation is satisfied when
1 1
= ∞ and = 0 ⇒ Z A = 0 and Z B = ∞
ZA ZB
Since, ZA Z(k)R(s) 0 (13.24a)
ZB =
( )=∞
Z k
R( s )
and, (13.24b)
we see that R(s) have a pair of zeros at s j␻0. Thus, from (13.19), we get,
799
() ()
kZ s − sZ k = 0 at s = j 0
⇒ kZ ( j ) = j Z ( k )
0 0
Z ( j ) Z (k ) jX ( ) = Z (k )
⇒ = 0
⇒ 0
j 0
k j 0
k
X ( ) = kL
⇒ Z k =k () 0
(13.25)
0
where there is only one real and positive value of k.
Now, L =
X ( ) 0 , is found by Brune’s method so that k may be found by solving Eq. (13.20) for a posi-
0
tive value of k, from which ZA, ZB and C can be evaluated.
Now, the impedance ZA has a zero at s j␻0 (by 13.24a) and ZB has a pole at s j␻0 (by 13.24b). These
zeros and poles are removed by the following expansions:
1 1 2K s 2K s
= YA = + 2 1 2 = YC + 2 1 2 (13.26a)
ZA ZC s + 0 s + 0
and,
2 K2 s
ZB = ZD + (13.26b)
s + 2
0
2
The removal of the conjugate imaginary poles from 1 and ZB causes ZC and ZD to have fewer poles and
ZA
zeros than Z(s). Thus, ZC and ZD are prf of complexity lower than those of ZA and ZB.
The second term in (13.26a) and (13.26b) can be realized by series and parallel LC networks, such as
L2
ZC ZD
2 K1 1 1 2 K2
Here, C1 = 2
; L1 = ; L2 = ; C2 = 2 C1 L 1
0
2 K1 2 K2 0 C2
L
This process is known as Bott–Duffin cycle.
Z(s) C
If ZC and ZD are minimum functions or may be reduced to minimum
functions, then ZC and ZD can be expanded by another Bott–Duffin cycle. Fig. 13.40 Synthesized network by
The process is repeated till the synthesis is completed. Bott–Duffin method with X( 0) 0
Case (b): When X(␻0) 0

Putting s j␻0 in (13.22), we get,
(
Z j 0 ) = jX ( ) = 0
1
1
+
1
1
1
+ j 0C +
(
ZA j 0 ) j 0
L ZB j( 0 )
Since X(␻0) is negative, the above equation is satisfied if
800
1 1
= 0 and = ∞ ⇒ Z A = ∞ and Z B = 0
ZA ZB
Since, () ()
ZA = Z k R s = ∞ (13.27a)
Z (k )
and, ZB = =0 (13.27b)
R( s )
we see that R(s) has a pair of poles at s j␻0. Thus, from (13.19), we get,
() ()
kZ k − sZ s = 0 at s = j 0
⇒ kZ ( k ) − j Z ( j ) = 0
0 0
⇒ kZ ( k ) + X ( ) = 0 {
0 0
Z j ( 0 ) = jX ( )}
0
⇒ kZ ( k ) = − X ( ) 0 0
where kZ(k) is a real positive number since X(␻0) is negative.

1 1
From (13.23c), C = =−
() ( )
(13.28)
kZ k 0
X 0
Then by solving (13.20), for real positive value of k, the ZA, ZB and L can be evaluated.
1
Now, removal of poles of ZA and at s j␻0, gives the impedances ZC and ZD as,
ZB
2 K1 s
Z A = ZC + (13.29a) L1
s2 + 0
2
ZC ZD
1 1 2 K2 s 2K s C2 L2
and, = YB = + = YD + 2 2 2 (13.29b) C1
ZB Z D s2 + 02 s + 0 C L
Z (s)
where, ZC and ZD are positive real.
As in Case (a), with other conclusions remaining same, the synthesized Fig. 13.41 Synthesized network by
network is shown in Fig. 13.41. Bott–Duffin method with X( 0) 0
1 2 K1 2 K2 1
Here, C1 = ; L1 = 2
; C2 = 2
; L2 =
2 K1 0 0
2 K2
NOTE The network synthesized by the Bott–Duffin method has more number of elements than the network
synthesized by Brune’s method. However, by this method, we can avoid the use of transformers as in Brune’s
method.
Example 13.15 Synthesize the impedance function as given below by Bott-Duffin method.
s2 + s + 1
()
Z s =
s2 + s + 4
Solution We check whether Z(s) is a minimum function:
801
(i) The function has no poles or zeros on the j -axis.

1
(ii) At s 0, Z(0) and at s , Z( ) 1. Thus, the function has finite, real and positive values at s 0
4
and s .
(iii) To find the frequency for which Re ⎡ Z j
⎣ ( )⎤⎦ = 0, we have,
1− 2
+j
⎡ 1− ( 2
) + j ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣( 4 − ) − j ⎤⎦ 2
Z j ( ) = = ⎣
4− +j (4 − ) +
2 2
2 2
)( 4 − ) +
( ⎦ + j {( 4 − ) − (1 − )}
⎡ 1− 2 2 2 ⎤ 2 2
=⎣
(4 − ) + (4 − ) +
2 2
2 2 2 2
⎡(1 − )( 4 − 2 2
) + ⎤⎦ = − 4 + 4 2
4 2
∴ Re ⎡⎣ Z ( j ) ⎤⎦ = ⎣
(4 − ) + −7 + 16
2 4 2
2 2
For this to be minimum,

d ⎡
d ⎣ ⎣
Re ⎡ Z j ( )⎤⎦ ⎤⎦ = 0
∴
( 4
−7 2
+ 16 4 )( 3
−8 )−( 4
−4 2
+4 4)( 3
− 14 )=0
( )
2
4
−7 2
+ 16
⇒ 4
− 48 2
+ 72 = 0 ⇒ = 2, 6
⎣⎢ ( ) ⎦⎥ ⎣ ⎦ 5
8
( )
Also, Re ⎡ Z j 2 ⎤ = 0 and Re ⎡⎢ Z j 6 ⎤⎥ = . Therefore, min Re ⎡ Z j
⎣ ( )⎤⎦ = 0 at
0
= 2 .
Thus, the real part is zero at ␻0 √2.

Bott–Duffin synthesis procedure
( )
Z j 2 =
1− 2 + j 2
=
−1 + j 2
=
(−1+ j 2 )(2 − j 2 ) = j 3 2
=j
1
4−2+ j 2 2+ j 2 4+2 6 2
∴X ( )= 0
1
( positive )
2
Step (1) To choose the value of k
kX ( ) k 2 + k +1
()
Z k = 0
or,
k +k +4
2
=k
1
=
k
0 2× 2 2
or k − k + 2 k − 2 = 0 or,
3 2
(k 2
)( )
+ 2 k −1 = 0
Taking only the real value of k, k 1

802
1
Z k ()
1
()
∴Z k = , C =
1
=
1
= 2 F; L =
1
=2= H
2 kZ k
1×
1 k ()1 2
2
Step (2) To find Richard’s function
s2 + s +1 s
()
kZ s − sZ k ()
1
()
Z s −s× −
2 = s2 + s + 4 2 = −s + s − 2s + 2
3 2
()
R s = =
()
kZ k − sZ s 1()
1 × − sZ s
1
−s 2
s + s + 1 −2 s − s 2 − s + 4
2
()
3
2 2 s +s+4
=
(
1− s s + 2
2
)( )
( )(
1 − s 2 s 2 + 3s + 4 )
s2 + 2
=
2 s + 3s + 4
2
This show that R(s) has a pair of zeros at s = ± j 2 .

Step (3) To find the values of impedances ZA and ZB
1 ⎛ s2 + 2 ⎞
() ()
ZA = Z k R s = ⎜ 2
2 ⎝ 2 s + 3s + 4 ⎟⎠
4s2 + 6s + 8 6s 1
or, YA = =4+ 2 =4+
s +2
2
s +2 1 1
s+
6 3s
( ) = 2 ( 2 s + 3s + 4 ) = s
1 2
Z k + 1.5s + 2 2
1.5s 1
ZB = = 1+ 2 = 1+
R( s )
and
s +2
2
s +2
2
s +2 2 4
s+
3 3s
Therefore, the desired synthesized network is as shown in Fig. 13.42.
3/4 H
1/4 1
2/3F
3F1/6H
1/2H
Z(s)
2F
Fig. 13.42 Bott–Duffin synthesized network of

Example 13.15
803
Solved Problems
Problem 13.1 Test the following polynomial for Hurwitz property.
()
F s = s 5 + s 4 + 6 s 3 + 4 s2 + 8 s + 3
Solution ()
F s = s5 + s 4 + 6 s 3 + 4 s 2 + 8s + 3
()
Here, the odd part is o s = s 5 + 6 s 3 + 8 s
and the even part is e ( s ) = s 4
+ 4s2 + 3
()
o s
continued fraction expansion is C s = () e( s)
s5 + 6 s 3 + 8s
s4 + 4s2 + 3 s
s 5 + 4 s 3 + 3s
s4 + 4s2 + 3
2 s 3 + 5s s
s4 + 5 s2 2
2
3 2 2 s 3 + 5s 4
s +3 3 s
2 2s + 4s 3
3 2
s +3
2 3
s s
3 2 2
s
2
ss
3
s3
×
( ) = s+
o s
continued fraction expansion is, C s = () e( s) s
1
1
+
2 4 1
s+
3 3 1
s+
2 s
3
Here, all quotients, 1, 1 2 , 4 3 , 3 2 , 1 3 are positive. Therefore, the polynomial F(s) is Hurwitz.
Problem 13.2 Check whether the polynomial is Hurwitz or not.

()
F s = s 5 + 5s 4 + 9 s 3 + 7s2 + 3s
() (
Solution The given function can be written as F s = s s 4 + 5s 3 + 9 s 2 + 7 s + 3 )
This show that the function has a zero at the origin (s 0). Hence the function is not Hurwitz.
804
Problem 13.3 Test the following polynomials for Hurwitz property.

(i) s 6 + 3s 5 + 8 s 4 + 15s 3 + 17s2 + 12 s + 4
(ii) 2 s 6 + s 5 + 13s 4 + 6 s 3 + 56 s2 + 25s + 25
Solution
(i) s 6 + 3s 5 + 8 s 4 + 15s 3 + 17 s 2 + 12 s + 4
()
Here, the odd part is o s = 3s 5 + 15s 3 + 12 s
and the even part is e ( s ) = s 6

+ 8 s 4 + 17 s 2 + 4
()
e s
continued fraction expansion is C s = () o( s )
s 6 + 8 s 4 + 17 s 2 + 4 s
3s 5 + 15s 3 + 12 s
s 6 + 5s 4 + 4 s 2 3
3s 5 + 15s 3 + 12 s
3s 4 + 13s 2 + 4 s
3s 5 + 13s 3 + 4 s
3s 4 + 13s 2 + 4 3
2 s 3 + 8s s
3s 4 + 12 s 2 2
2 s 3 + 8s
s2 + 4 2s
2 s 3 + 8s
×
We see that, the continued fraction has terminated abruptly with a common factor (s2 4). Therefore, the
function can be factorized as
(s 6
) ( )(
+ 3s 5 + 8 s 4 + 15s 3 + 17 s 2 + 12 s + 4 = s 2 + 4 s 4 + 3s 3 + 4 s 2 + 3s + 1 )
We have to check whether both the factors are Hurwitz.
Since (s2 4) contains only the even function, we have to find the continued fraction expansion of
P s ()
.
P′ s ()
( ) ( ) and P ′( s ) = 2 s
P s = s2 + 4
P( s) s + 4 s 2 1
2
1
∴ = = + = s+
P ′( s ) 2s 2 s 2 1
s
2
2
Since all quotients are positive, (s 4) is Hurwitz.
( ) ( )
For s + 3s + 4 s + 3s + 1 , the even part is s 4 + 4 s 2 + 1 and the odd part is 3s 3 + 3s . By continued
4 3 2
( )
fraction expansion we get the following result.
805
s4 + 4s2 +1 s
3s 3 + 3s
s4 + s2 3
3s 3 + 3s
3s 2 + 1 s
3s 3 + s
3s 2 + 1 3
2s s
3s 2 2
2s
1 2s
2s
continued fraction expansion is

( )= s+
e s 1
o( s ) 3 1
s+
3 1
s+
2 2s
( )
Since all quotients are positive, s 4 + 3s 3 + 4 s 2 + 3s + 1 is Hurwitz. As both the factors of F(s) is Hurwitz,
F(s) is Hurwitz.
(ii) 2 s 6 + s 5 + 13s 4 + 6 s 3 + 56 s 2 + 25s + 25
()
Here, the even part, e s = 2 s 6 + 13s 4 + 56 s 2 + 25
()
The odd part is o s = s 5 + 6 s 3 + 25s
2 s 6 + 13s 4 + 56 s 2 + 25
s 5 + 6 s 3 + 25s 2s
2 s 6 + 12 s 4 + 50 s 2
s 5 + 6 s 3 + 25s
s 4 + 6 s 2 + 25 s
s 5 + 6 s 3 + 25s
We see that the continued fraction has terminated abruptly with a common factor (s4 6s2 25). There-
fore, the function can be factorized as
(2s 6
) ( )(
+ s 5 + 13s 4 + 6 s 3 + 56 s 2 + 25s + 25 = s 4 + 6 s 2 + 25 2 s 2 + s + 1 )
We have to check whether both the factors are Hurwitz.
Since (s4 6s2 25) contains only the even function, we have to find the continued fraction expansion
of
P s() .
()
P′ s
() ()
P s = s 4 + 6 s 2 + 25 and P ′ s = 4 s 3 + 12 s
s 4 + 6 s 2 + 25 s
4 s 3 + 12 s
s 4 + 3s 2 4
806
4 s 3 + 12 s
4
3s + 25 3 100
2
s
4s + s3
3
64 3s 2 + 25 9
− s − s
3 3s 2 64
64
− s
64
25 3 − s
64 75
− s
3
Since the two quotients are negative, (s4 6s2 25) is not Hurwitz. As one factor is not Hurwitz, we need
not test the other factor (2s2 s 1) for Hurwitz.
Thus, we conclude that the given function is not Hurwitz.
Problem 13.4 Test the following polynomial for Hurwitz property.

s 6 + 2 s 5 + 7s 4 + 10 s 3 + 14 s2 + 8 s + 8
()
Solution Here, the even part, e s = s 6 + 7 s 4 + 14 s 2 + 8
()
and the odd part is o s = 2 s + 10 s 3 + 8 s
5
s 6 + 7 s 4 + 14 s 2 + 8 s
2 s 5 + 10 s 3 + 8 s
s 6 + 5s 4 + 4 s 2 2
2 s 5 + 10 s 3 + 8 s
2 s 4 + 10 s 2 + 8 s
2 s 5 + 10 s 3 + 8 s
We see that the continued fraction has terminated abruptly with a common factor F1(s) (2s4 10s2 8).
This factor can be factorized as
() ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )(
F1 s = 2 s 4 + 10 s 2 + 8 = 2 s 4 + 5s 2 + 5 = 2 s 2 + 4 s 2 + 1 = 2 s + j1 s − j1 s + j 2 s − j 2 )( )( )
Here F1(s) has simple zeros on the j␻-axis. Also, all quotients of the Continued fraction expansion are
real and positive.
Hence the function is Hurwitz.
Problem 13.5 Check whether the following polynomials are Hurwitz or not.
()
(a) F s = s 4 + 7s 3 + 4 s2 + 18 s + 6 ()
(b) F s = s + s + 2 s + 4 s + 1
4 3 2
Solution
()
(a) F s = s 4 + 7 s 3 + 4 s 2 + 18 s + 6
Here, the even part e(s) s4 4s2 6
and the odd part is o(s) 7s3 18s
807
s4 + 4s2 + 6
s
7 s 3 + 18 s 18
s + s2
4
7
7
7 s 3 + 18 s
10 2 49
s + 6 3 147 s
7 7s + s 10
5
10 2
s +6
57 7 50
− s − s
5 10 2 399
s
7
57
− s
57
6 5 − s
57 30
− s
5
Since some quotients of the continued fraction expansion are negative, the function is not Hurwitz.
(b) F(s) s4 s3 2s2 4s 1
Here, the even part, e(s) s4 2s2 1
and the odd part is o(s) s3 4s
s4 + 2s2 +1
s3 + 4s s
s4 + 4s2
s3 + 4s
s
− 2s +1
2
s −2
s3 −
2
9 −22 s 2 + 1 4
s − s
2 −2 s 2 9
9
s
9
12 s
9 2
s
2
Since some quotients of the continued fraction expansion are negative, the function is not Hurwitz.
Problem 13.6 Test the following polynomials for the Hurwitz property.
(a) s + 2 s + 2 s + s + 4 s + 8 s + 8 s + 4
7 6 5 4 3 2
(b) 4 s 6 + 2 s 5 + 17s 4 + 8 s 3 + 16 s2 + 6 s + 3
Solution
(a) s 7 + 2 s 6 + 2 s 5 + s 4 + 4 s 3 + 8 s 2 + 8 s + 4
808
The function can be written as

( )( ) () ()
s 7 + 2 s 6 + 2 s 5 + s 4 + 4 s 3 + 8 s 2 + 8 s + 4 = s + 1 s 6 + s 5 + s 4 + 4 s 2 + 4 s + 4 = F1 s F2 s
The given function will be Hurwitz if both F1(s) and F2(s) are Hurwitz. But, F2(s) has the s3 term missing
and thus is not Hurwitz. Hence, the given function is not Hurwitz.
(b) 4 s 6 + 2 s 5 + 17 s 4 + 8 s 3 + 16 s 2 + 6 s + 3
Here, the even part, e(s) 4s6 17s4 16s2 3
and the odd part is o(s) 2s5 8s3 6s
4 s 6 + 17 s 4 + 16 s 2 + 3
2 s5 + 8s 3 + 6 s 2s
s 6 + 16 s 4 + 12 s 2
2 s5 + 8s 3 + 6 s
s4 + 4s2 + 3 2s
2 s5 + 8s 3 + 6 s
We see that the continued fraction has terminated abruptly with a common factor F1(s) (s4 4s2 3).
The given function can be written as
() ( )(
F s = s 4 + 4 s 2 + 3 4 s 2 + 2 s + 1 = F1 s F2 s ) () ()
The given function will be Hurwitz if its factors are Hurwitz. We check the two factors.
For F1(s) (s4 4s2 3), by continued fraction expansion we get the following results. Since this factor
is an even function, we perform continued expansion by

( ) = ( s + 4 s + 3) .
F1 s
4 2
F ′( s )
1 ( 4 s + 8s )
3
s4 + 4s2 + 3 s
4 s 3 + 8s
s4 + 2s2 4
4 s 3 + 8s
2s2 + 3 2s
4s3 + 6s
2s2 + 3
2s s
2s2
2s 2s
3
2s 3
As all quotients are real and positive, F1(s) (s4 4s2 3) is Hurwitz.
For F2(s) (4s2 2s 1) by continued fraction expansion, we get the following results.
4s2 +1
2s 2s
4s2
2s
1 2s
2s
809
As all quotients are real and positive, F2(s) (4s2 2s 1) is Hurwitz.

Since both the factors are Hurwitz, the function is Hurwitz.
Problem 13.7 Determine whether the following function is positive real.

s+5
F( s ) = 2
s + 2s + 2
s+5 s+5
Solution The function can be written as F s = () =
s2 + 2s + 2 s +1 2 +1 ( )
(i) The function has a zero at s 5 and two complex conjugate poles at s 1 j1. Thus, no zero and
poles are on the right half of the s-plane.
(ii) There is no pole on the j␻-axis.
(iii) Also, the residues of the poles need not be tested for positive real residues as none of them are on the
j␻-axis.
Hence, the function is positive real.
Problem 13.8 Test if the following functions are positive real.
( ) ( )( ) ( )
2
s s2 + 6 10 s + 1 s + 2 10 s + 1
(a) (b) (c)
(s 2
+3 )
2
( s + 4 )( s − 3s − 10 )
2
( s + 2 )( s 2
− 6s + 5 )
Solution
()
(a) F s =
(
s s2 + 6 )
(s 2
+ 3)
The given function has zeros at s 0 and s = ± j 6; and poles at s = ± j 3 (multiple). Since the poles on
the j␻-axis are not simple, the function is not positive real.
(b) The given function can be written as
()
F s =
(
10 s + 1 s + 2)( ) =
( )(
10 s + 1 s + 2 )
( s + 4 )( s 2
− 3s − 10 ) ( s + 4 )( s − 5)( s + 2 )
The function has zeros at s 1, and poles at s 4, 5, 2. Since one pole (s 5) lies in the right half
of the s-plane, the function is not a positive real function.
(c) The given function can be written as
( ) ( )
2 2
10 s + 1 10 s + 1
F (s) = =
( s + 2 )( s − 6 s + 5) ( s + 2 )( s − 5)( s − 1)
2
The function has zeros at s 1 (repeated) and poles at s 2, 5, 1. Since two poles (s 5, 1) lie in the
right half of the s-plane, the function is not a positive real function.
810
Problem 13.9 Determine if the following two functions are positive real. Give reasons to justify your
conclusions.
( s + 2 )( s + 3 ) (s + 2)
2
(s )
(a) (b)
( s + 1)( s + 4 ) 2
+4
Solution
( s + 2 )( s + 3)
()
(a) F s =
( s + 1)( s + 4 )
To test the positive realness of the function, we check whether it satisfies the three conditions for positive
realness.
(i) For this function the zeros are s 2, 3 and the poles are s 1, 4. So, no zeros or poles lie in
the right half of the s-plane.
(ii) The function does not have any pole or zero on the j␻-axis; hence the condition (ii) does not arise.
(iii) To check whether Re[F( j␻)] 0 for all ␻:
( ) ()
Here, EN = s 2 + 6 ; ON s = 5s; ED = s 2 + 4 ; OD s = 5s ( ) ()
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = ( s + 6 )( s + 4 ) − 5s × 5s = s
2 2 4
− 15s 2 + 24
()
∴ Re ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = Even ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = () E (s) − O (s) ( s + 4 ) − ( 5s ) − 17 s 2 + 16
2 2 2 2 4
D D
s 2
4
+ 15 2
+ 24
∴ Re ⎡⎣ F j ( )⎤⎦ = 4
+ 17 2
+ 16
This is always positive for any value of ␻.
As three conditions are satisfied, the given function is positive real.
( s + 2)
2
s2 + 4s + 4
()
(b) F s = =
(s 2
+4 ) s2 + 4
Here, the zeros are at s 2 (repeated) and poles are at s j2.
(i) The function has no poles or zeros on the right half of the s-plane.
(ii) The function has two poles on the j␻-axis; but they are simple and their residues are real (i.e., 2 and 2)
and positive.
( ) ()
(iii) Here, EN = s 2 + 4 ; ON s = 4 s; ED = s 2 + 4 ; OD s = 0 ( ) ()
()
∴ Re ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = Even ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = ()
() ()
EN s ED s − ON ( s )O ( s ) = ( s
D
2
)( )
+ 4 s2 + 4 − 4s × 0
=1
E (s) − O
D
2
D
2
(s) (s 2
+ 4)
2
This is always positive.

As three conditions are satisfied, the given function is positive real.
811
s2 + s + 6
Problem 13.10 Check the positive realness of the following function: F ( s ) =
s2 + s + 1
s2 + s + 6
Solution ()
F s =
s2 + s +1
⎛ 1 23 ⎞
The zeros of the function are obtained from the roots of the equation, s 2 + s + 6 = 0 ⇒ s = ⎜ − ± j ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 3⎞
The poles of the function are obtained from the roots of the equation, s 2 + s + 1 = 0 ⇒ s = ⎜ − ± j ⎟
We test the three conditions. ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(i) The zeros and poles lie in the left half of the s-plane.
(ii) No pole is on the j␻-axis.
( ) ()
Here, EN = s 2 + 6 ; ON s = s; ED = s 2 + 1 ; OD s = s ( ) ()
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = ( s + 6 )( s + 1) − s × s = s + 6 s + 6
2 2 4 2
()
∴ Re ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = Even ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ = () E (s) − O (s) ( s + 1) − ( s ) s + s +1
2 2 2 2 4 2
2
D D
( )
2
4
−6 2
+6
2
−3 −3
∴ Re ⎡⎣ F j ( )⎤⎦ = 4
− 2
=
+1 ⎛ 2
1⎞ 3
⎜⎝
2
− ⎟ +
2⎠ 4
This is negative for ( 2

)
−3 <3 ⇒
2
2
( )
< 3 + 3 . Thus, condition (iii) is not satisfied.
Hence, the function is not positive real function.
3s2 + 5
Problem 13.11 Show that the following function P ( s ) = is not a positive real function.
( )
s s2 + 1
Solution ()
P s =
3s 2 + 5
=
(
3 s2 +1 + 2 ) 3
= +
2 3 2
= + −
2s 5 2s
= −
(
s s +1
2
) (
s s +1 2
) (
s s s2 +1 s s s2 +1 s s2 +1 )
Since the coefficient of the poles at s j1 is negative, the given function is not a positive real function.
Problem 13.12 Test if the following two functions are positive real functions. Give reasons for your answer.
s2 + 2 s + 1 s 3 + 5s
()
(a) Y1 s = 5
s 3 + 2 s2 + 2 s + 40
(b) Y2 s = () s 4 + 2 s2 + 1
Solution (a) The given function can be written as
( ) ( )
2 2
s2 + 2s +1 s +1 s +1
()
Y1 s = 5 3 =5 =5
s + 2 s + 2 s + 40 s + 4 s − 2 s + 10 ( )( ) ( ){( ) }
2 2 2
s + 4 s −1 + 9
The function has zeros at s 1 (repeated) and poles at s 4, (1 j3). Thus, the function has two
poles in the right half of the s-plane.
812
Hence, the function is not a positive real function.
(b) The given function can be written as Y2 s = () s 3 + 5s

=
(
s s2 + 5 )
(
s4 + 2s2 +1 s2 +1 2
)
The function has zeros at s = 0, ± j 5 and poles at s j1 (repeated). Therefore, the poles on the
imaginary axis are not simple.
Hence, the function is not a positive real function.
Problem 13.13 Check the positive realness of the functions.
s+2 s2 + 6 s + 8
(a) F( s) = (b) F(s) =
s +1 ( s + 1)( s + 3)
Solution
s+2
(a) F ( s ) =
s +1
F(s) has all the poles lying on the left half of the s-plane. The other condition required for prf is
Re[F( j␻)] 0 for all values for ␻, (since, no pole falls on j␻-axis, second necessary and sufficient
condition need not be checked).
⎡ j +2+
−2 j ⎤ ⎡2+ 2 − j ⎤ 2+
( )⎤⎦ = Re ⎡⎢ jj +2⎤ ⎡ ( j + 2 )(1 − j ) ⎤ 2 2
Re ⎡⎣ F j ⎥ = Re ⎢ ⎥ = Re ⎢ ⎥ = Re ⎢ ⎥=
⎣ +1 ⎦ ⎣ 1+ 2
⎦
2
⎣ 1+
⎦ ⎣ 1+
2
⎦ 1+
2
Thus, Re[F( j␻)] 0 for all values of ␻. Hence F(s) is a positive real function.
s2 + 6s + 8
(b) F ( s ) =
( s + 1)( s + 3)
In the given problem, F(s) is real if ‘s’ is real. F(s) has all the poles lying on the left half of the s-plane.
The other condition required for prf is Re[F( j␻)] 0 for all values of ␻.
s2 + 6s + 8 2s + 5 K K
F (s) = = 1+ = 1+ 1 + 2
( s + 1)( s + 3) ( s + 1)( s + 3) s +1 s + 3
2s + 5 3 2s + 5 1
∴ K1 = = ; K2 = =
s + 3 s = −1 2 s + 3 s = −3 2
31
2 3 ⎛ 1− j ⎞ 1 ⎛ 3 − j ⎞
∴ F (s) = 1+ + 2 , F ( j ) = 1+ ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ 2
( s + 1) ( s + 3) 2 ⎝ + 1 ⎠ 2 ⎝ + 9 ⎟⎠
3 3
Re F ( j ) = 1 + 2 + 2
2
+1 2
+9
Since, Re[F( j␻)] 0 for all values of ␻, the function is prf.
Problem 13.14 Find the conditions for the following functions to be positive real:
s+
()
(a) F s =
K
s+
()
(b) F s =
Ks
s+
(c) F s = () s2 + s +
813
Solution
()
(a) F s =
K
s+
By observation, it is clear that the function will be positive real if ␣, K 0.
()
(b) F s =
Ks
s+
=
s
1
+
K Ks
s
Here, the functions and are positive real if ␣, K 0. Therefore, the sum of these two functions
K Ks
is also a prf. Since the reciprocal of a prf is also a prf, we conclude that the given function is positive real
if ␣, K 0.
s+
()
(c) F s = 2
s + s+
For the function to be positive real, it must satisfy the three conditions:
(i) For all the poles and zeros to be in the left half of the s-plane or on the j␻-axis, it is necessary that,
␣, ␤, ␥ 0
(ii) For F(s) to have simple poles and all real positive residues (Ki), it is required that ␤ 0. When ␤
s+
0, the function becomes, F s = 2() s +
(iii) For the third condition EN (s) (␣), ED(s) (s2 ␥) ON(s) s, OD(s) ␤s.
It is required that EN( j␻)ED( j␻) ON( j␻)OD( j␻) 0
or, [␣(s2 ␥) s ␤s]s j␻ 0
or, ␣( ␻2 ␥) ␤␻2 0
or, (␤ ␣)␻2 ␣␥ 0
Therefore, for the function to have negative real roots, it is necessary that ␤ ␣
Hence, when ␤ 0, ␣ 0.
To summarize, the conditions that must be satisfied for F(s) to be positive real function are
(1) ␣, ␤, ␥ 0, and
(2) ␤ ␣
s 2 + a s + a0
Problem 13.15 Show that the biquadratic function F( s) = 2 1 with positive real coefficients a1,
s + b1s + b0
( ).
2
a0 , b1 and b0 , is positive real if a1b1 = a0 − b 0
Solution We test the positive realness as follows.

(i) As b1 and b0 are positive, the denominator is Hurwitz.
(ii) As b1 is positive, there is no pole on the j␻-axis.
(iii) We check the third condition as explained below.
()
The even part of F(s) is Even ⎡⎣ F s ⎤⎦ =
(s 2
)( )
+ a0 s 2 + b0 − a1b1 s 2
=
( )
s 4 + ⎡⎣ a0 + b0 − a1b1 ⎤⎦ s 2 + a0 b0
(s ) −b s (s ) −b s
2 2
2
+ b0 2 2
1
2
+ b0 2 2
1
814
4
(
− ⎡⎣ a0 + b0 − a1b1 ⎤⎦) 2
+ a0 b0
The real part of F( j␻) is given as Re ⎡⎣ F j ( )⎤⎦ =
(− ) +b
2
2
+ b0 1
2 2
The denominator of Re[F( j␻)] is always positive. We have to check whether the numerator of Re[F( j␻)] is
negative for any value of ␻. The numerator can be factorized as
2
=
(a
0 )
+ b0 − a1b1
±
1
(
2
)
⎡ a0 + b0 − a1b1 ⎤ − 4 a0 b0
1,2
2 2 ⎣ ⎦
There are two cases in which Re[F( j␻)] does not have a simple real root.
Case (I) When the quantity under root is zero (double real root) or negative (complex roots).
( ) ( )
2 2
Here, ⎡ a0 + b0 − a1b1 ⎤ − 4 a0 b0 ≤ 0 ⇒ ⎡ a0 + b0 − a1b1 ⎤ ≤ 4 a0 b0
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
(a ) then ( a + b ) − a b ≤ 2 ( )
2
If 0
+ b0 − a1b1 ≥ 0 , 0 0 1 1
a0 b0 ⇒ a1b1 ≥ a0 − b0
If (a
0
+ b ) − a b < 0 , then a b − ( a + b ) ≤ 2
0 1 1 1 1 0 0
a0 b0
But, (a + b ) − a b < 0 < a b − (a + b )

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
( )
2
So again, ⇒ a1b1 ≥ a0 − b0
Case (II) When ␻21,2 is negative so that the roots are imaginary.
Here, (a0 b0) a1b1 0
( ) ( ) ( )
2
and ⎡ a0 + b0 − a1b1 ⎤ − 4 a0 b0 > 0 ⇒ a1b1 − a0 + b0 > 2 a0 b0 > a0 + b0 − a1b1
⎣ ⎦
( )
2
Thus, a1b1 > a0 − b0
From Case (I) and Case (II), we conclude that the necessary and sufficient conditions for a biquadratic func-
( ).
2
tion to be positive real is a1b1 = a0 − b0
Problem 13.16 Check the positive realness of the following functions:

s2 + s + 6 2 s 4 + 7 s3 + 11s2 + 12 s + 4
(a) F ( s ) = 2 (b) F ( s ) = 4
s + s +1 s + 5s 3 + 9 s2 + 11s + 6
Solution
s2 + s + 6
()
(a) F s =
s2 + s +1
⎛ 1 23 ⎞
The zeros of the function are obtained from the roots of the equation, s 2 + s + 6 = 0 ⇒ s = ⎜ − ± j ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 3⎞
The poles of the function are obtained from the roots of the equation, s 2 + s + 1 = 0 ⇒ s = ⎜ − ± j ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
815
We test the three conditions.

(i) The zeros and poles lie in the left half of the s-plane.
(ii) No pole is on the j␻-axis.
( ) ()
Here, EN = s 2 + 6 ; ON s = s; ED = s 2 + 1 ; OD s = s ( ) ()
∴P ( ) ≡E ( s ) E ( s ) − O
2
N D N ( s )O ( s ) = ( s
D
2
)( )
+ 6 s2 +1 − s × s
For positive realness, the condition required is that
P ( )≥0
2
( )(
⇒ ⎡⎣ s 2 + 6 s 2 + 1 − s 2 ⎤⎦
s= j
≥0 ⇒ ) 4
−6 2
+6≥0
Since all coefficients of P(␻2) are not positive, we use Sturm’s test. Putting ␻2 x,
()
P x = x − 6x + 6 2
dP0 x ( )=
∴ P1 x = () dx
(2 x − 6)
x2 − 6 x + 6 x 3
2x − 6 −
x 2 − 3x 2 2
− 3x + 6
−3 x + 9
−3
∴
( ) = ⎛ x − 3⎞ − 3
P0 x
P ( x ) ⎜⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ 2 x − 6
1
∴ P ( x) = 3
2
P0 P1 P2 No. of sign changes S S0

x 0 S0 2 2
x S 0
P(␻2) 0 for all values of ␻.
Hence, the function is not positive real function.
Note See Problem 13.10.
2 s 4 + 7 s 3 + 11s 2 + 12 s + 4
()
(b) F s =
s 4 + 5s 3 + 9 s 2 + 11s + 6
The inspection for the three conditions is carried out as follows:
() ( ) () (
(i) D s = s 4 + 5s 3 + 9 s 2 + 11s + 6 , ED s = s 4 + 9 s 2 + 6 , OD s = 5s 3 + 11s ) () ( )
s 4 + 9s 2 + 6
s
5s + 11s 4 11 2
3
s + s 5
5
816
5s 3 + 11s
34 2 25
s + 6 3 150 s
5 5s + s 34
34
34 2
s +6
224 5 1156
s s
34 34 2 1120
s
5
224
s
3 4 224
6 s
224 204
s
34
D(s) is Hurwitz. Hence the condition (1) is satisfied.
(ii) Since there is no pole on the imaginary axis, the condition (2) does not exist.
() ( ) () (
(iii) Here, D s = s 4 + 5s 3 + 9 s 2 + 11s + 6 , ED s = s 4 + 9 s 2 + 6 , OD s = 5s 3 + 11s ) () ( )
N ( s ) = ( 2 s + 7 s + 11s + 12 s + 4 ), E ( s ) = ( 2 s
4 3 2
N
4
+ 11s 2 + 4 ), O ( s ) = ( 7 s + 12 s )
N
3
∴ P ( ) = ⎡⎣ E ( s ) E ( s ) − O ( s )O ( s ) ⎤⎦
N D N D s= j
( )( ) (
= ⎡⎣ 2 s 4 + 11s 2 + 4 s 4 + 9 s 2 + 6 − 7 s 3 + 12 s 5s 3 + 11s ⎤⎦
s= j
)( )
= ⎡⎣ 2 s8 − 6 s 6 − 22 s 4 − 30 s 2 + 24 ⎤⎦
s= j
∴P ( )=2 8
+6 6
− 22 4
+ 30 2
+ 24
The condition that must be satisfied is P(␻) 0
⎡ 2 + 6 − 22 + 30 2 + 24 ⎤ ≥ 0
8 6 4
⎣ ⎦
Since all coefficients are not positive, we carryout Sturm’s test.
()
Here, P0 x = 2 x 4 + 6 x 3 − 22 x 2 + 30 x + 24
( ) = 8x
)
dP0 x
∴ P1 x = () dx
( 3
+ 18 x 2 − 44 x + 30
We find
( ).
P0 x
()
P1 x
2 x 4 + 6 x 3 − 22 x 2 + 30 x + 24
8 x 3 + 18 x 2 − 44 x + 30
2 x 4 + 4.5 x 3 − 11x 2 + 7.5 x
(0.25 x + 0.1875)
1.5 x 3 − 11x 2 + 22.5 x + 24
1.5 x 3 + 3.375 x 2 − 8.25 x + 5.625
− 14.375 x 2 + 30.75 x + 18.375
817
( ) = x + − P ( x ) = 0.25 x + 0.1875 − 14.375 x

P0 x 2
− 30.75 x − 18.375
∴
P ( x)
( 1 ) P ( x) (
2
2
) ()
P1 x
1 1
∴ P ( x ) = 14.375 x − 30.75 x − 18.375

2
2
We find
( ).
P1 x
P ( x)
2
8 x 3 + 18 x 2 − 44 x + 30]
14.375 x 2 − 30.75 x − 18.375 0.556 x + 2.44
8 x 3 − 17.11x 2 − 10.22 x
35.11x 2 − 33.78 x + 30
35.11x 2 − 75.11x − 44.83
41.33 x + 74.83
( ) = 0.556 x + 2.44 − − 41.33x − 74.83
P1 x
∴
P ( x)
( ) P ( x)
2 2
∴ P ( x ) = − 41.33 x − 74.83
3
We find
P2 x ( ).
P3 x ()
14.375 x 2 − 30.75 x − 18.375
− 41.33 x + 74.83 − 0.35 x + 0.11
14.375 x 2 − 26.19 x
− 4.56 x − 18.375
− 4.56 x + 8.25
− 26.625
( ) = − 0.35 x + 0.11 − −26.625
P2 x
∴
P ( x)
( ) P ( x)
3 3
∴ P ( x ) = −26.625
4
Hence, the Sturm’s functions are P ( x ) = 2 x + 6 x − 22 x + 30 x + 24

0
4 3 2
P ( x ) = 8 x + 18 x − 44 x + 30
1
3 2
P ( x ) = 14.375 x − 30.75 x − 18.375

2
2
P ( x ) = − 41.33 x − 74.83
3
P ( x ) = −26.625
4
P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 No. of sign changes S S0

x 0 S0 1 0
x S 0
818
Since (S S0) 0, P(␻) is positive for all values of ␻.

Hence, F(s) is a prf.
Problem 13.17 Synthesize the network which has an impedance or admittance function as given.
s2 + 2 s + 6 7s + 2 6 s 3 + 3s2 + 3s + 1 s2 + 7s + 70
()
(a) Z s = ()
(b) Y s = (c) Z s = () (d) Z s = ()
(
s s+3 ) 2s + 4 6 s 3 + 3s (
s s + 10 )
Solution
s2 + 2s + 6
()
1/2F
(a) Z s =
s s+3( )
Z (s) 1 1/3H
s2 + 2s + 6 2
By partial fraction expansion, Z s = () = +
s
(
s s+3 )
s s+3
Fig. 13.43
1
The first function is realized by a capacitor of value F and the second function
2
can be realized by a parallel combination of a resistor and inductor as shown in Fig. 13.43.
7s + 2
()
(b) Y s =
2s + 4
8 + 14 2
Here, Re ⎡⎣Y j ( )⎤⎦ = 16 +4 2
For this function to be minimum at some frequency, ␻ ␻0, we have,
d ⎡ 8 + 14 2
⎤
=0 ⇒
(16 + 4 )( 28 ) − (8 + 14 )8
2 2
=0 ⇒ =0
Y(s) 2
1/3
⎢ 2 ⎥
(16 + 4 )
3/2F
d ⎣ 16 + 4 ⎦ 2
2 0
= 0 Fig. 13.44
(
Re ⎡⎣Y j 0 ⎤⎦ =
1
2
)
We remove this constant from the function, so that the given function becomes,
7 s + 2 1 3s
() () ()
Y2 s = Y s − Y1 s =
− =
2s + 4 2 s + 2
This function can be realized by a series combination of resistor and capacitor. The entire realized network
is shown in Fig. 13.44.
6 s 3 + 3s 2 + 3s + 1 3s 2 + 1
()
(c) Z s =
6 s 3 + 3s
= 1 +
6 s 3 + 3s
3s 2 + 1
Removing this constant, we have Z1 s = Z s − 1 = () () 6 s 3 + 3s
The reciprocal of the impedance is the admittance.
6 s 3 + 3s 6 s 3 + 2 s + s
()
∴ Y1 s =
1
= = = 2s + 2
s
Z1 s() 3s 2 + 1 3s 2 + 1 3s + 1
819
The first function has a pole at s . We remove this pole by a capacitor of value 2 F. The second func-
tion can be realized as follows.
()
Y2 s =
3s + 1 2
s 1⍀ 3H
3s 2 + 1
() 1 Z (s) 1F
∴ Z2 s = = 3s + 2F
s s
which is clearly an inductor with a value of 3 H in series with a capacitor with Fig. 13.45
a value of 1 F.
The entire realized network is shown in Fig. 13.45.
s 2 + 7 s + 70
()
(d) Z s =
(
s s + 10 )
We see that Z(s) has a pole at s 0. The pole can be removed by a capacitor as 1/7F
obtained from the partial fraction expansion.
s 2 + 7 s + 70 7 1/10H
()
Z s = = +
s Z (s) 1V
(
s s + 10 )
s s + 10
1 Fig. 13.46
The first function is realized by a capacitor with a value of F and the second
7
1
function by a parallel combination of a resistor of 1 and an inductor of H.
10
Problem 13.18 State whether each of the following impedance functions of one port network is valid
or not. Give reasons.
()
(a) Z s = 3
4 s 4 + s3 − 2 s + 1
(b) Z s =
15 s 3 + 2 s2 + 3s + 2
()
( )
s + 2 s2 + 2 s + 40 s 4 + 6 s 3 + 8 s2
Solution The given two functions are not valid as impedance functions because of the following reasons:
(a) The coefficient of s is negative which is not permissible. Also, the term with s2 is missing which is also
not permissible.
(b) The term with s is missing in the denominator. Also, the lowest-degree terms in the numerator and
denominator polynomials differ by 2 which is not permissible.
Problem 13.19 Test whether the following functions are LC immittance functions.
(
k s s2 + 6 ) () s 5 + 3s 3 + 5s
()
( )(
k s2 + 4 s2 + 9 ) (
k s2 + 4 s2 + 9 )( )
()
(a) F s = (b) F s = (c) F s =
+ 2 )( s + 6)
()
(d) F s =
(s 2
+2 s + 4)( 2
) 3s 4 + 6 s2 (s 2 2
(
s s +6
2
)
Solution
()
(a) F s =
(
ks s 2 + 6 )
(s 2
+2 s +4 )( 2
)
This function is not an LC immittance function because it does not satisfy the separation property of the
poles, i.e., the poles and zeros do not alternate on the j␻-axis.
820
s 5 + 3s 3 + 5s
(b) F s =() 3s 4 + 6 s 2
This function is not an LC immittance function because the poles and zeros do not occur on the j␻-axis.
(c) F s =()
(
k s2 + 4 s2 + 9 )( )
(s 2
+ 2 )( s 2
+ 6)
Immittance function of LC network must be the ratio of odd to even or even to odd polynomials. Here,
both numerator and denominator polynomials have the same highest power; they do not differ by one.
Hence, this function is not an LC immittance function.
(d) F s =()
(
k s2 + 4 s2 + 9 )( )
(
s s +6 2
)
As all conditions are satisfied, this function is an LC immittance function.
Problem 13.20 Synthesize the first and second Foster forms of LC networks for the impedance functions:
(a) Y (s) =
(
s s2 + 4 s2 + 6)( ) (b) Z ( s ) = 10
(s 2
)(
+ 4 s2 + 16 )
(s 2
+ 3 )( s + 5 ) 2
(
s s +92
)
Solution
(a) Foster form I

( )(
Y s =() 1 s s2 + 4 s2 + 6
= 2
) ⇒ Z s = ()
( s + 3)( s + 5) = K
2 2
0
+
2 K1 s
+
2 K2 s
( ) ( )( Z s s + 3 s2 + 5 ) s ( s + 4 )( s + 6 ) s
2 2
s +4
2
s2 + 6
⎡ ( s + 3)( s + 5) ⎤ 5
2 2
where, K = ⎢ ⎥ =
⎢ ( s + 4 )( s + 6 ) ⎥
0
8 2 2
1/16 H 1/16 H
⎣ ⎦ s =0 8/5F
⎡ ( s + 3)( s + 5) ⎤ 1 2 2
2 K = Lt ⎢ ⎥=
1
⎢ s ( s + 6) ⎥ 8
s 2 →−4 2 2
⎣ ⎦ Z (s) 8F 4F
⎡ ( s + 3)( s + 5) ⎤ 1 2 2
and, 2 K = Lt ⎢ ⎥=
⎢ s ( s + 4) ⎥ 4
2
s 2 →−6 2 2 Fig. 13.47 (a) Foster form I
⎣ ⎦
1 1 5
s s
Z s = 8
() 8
+ 2 + 24 =
1
+
1
+
1
s s +2 s +4 8 s
8s +
1
4s +
1
( )
5 1 s
16
1 s
16 ( ) ( )
Foster form II
() s
Y s =
( s s2 + 4 s2 + 6 )( ) = s( s + 3)( s + 5) + s( 2 s 2 2 2
+9 ) = s + s( 2 s + 9) = s + 2 K s + 2 K s
2
1 2
( + 3)( s + 5) ( s + 3)( s + 5) ( s + 3)( s + 5) s + 3 s + 5

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
821
∴ 2 K1 s = 2Lt ⎢
⎡s ( 2 s + 9) ⎤⎥ = s 2 × ( −3) + 9 = 3 s
2
2/3H 2H
s →−3 ⎢
⎣ ( s + 5) ⎥⎦ −3 + 5 2
2 Y(s)
1/2F 1/10 F
1F
∴ 2 K 2 s = 2Lt ⎢
⎡s ( 2 s + 9) ⎤⎥ = s 2 × ( −5) + 9 = 1 s
2
Fig. 13.47 (b) Foster

s →−5 ⎢
⎣ ( s + 3) ⎥⎦ −5 + 3 2
2
form II
3 1
s s
()
∴ Y s = s + 22 + 22 = s +
s +3 s +5 2
1
1
+
1
1
s+ 2s +
3 1 s
2
1 s
10 ( ) ( )
()
(b) Z s = 10
(s 2
)(
+ 4 s 2 + 16 )
(
s s +92
)
Foster form I Z ( s ) = 10
(s 2
)(
+ 4 s 2 + 16 ) = 10 s 4
+ 20 s 2 + 64
= 10
( )
s 2 s 2 + 9 + 11s 2 + 64
(
s s +9
2
) (
s s +9
2
) (
s s2 + 9 )
11s 2 + 64 K0 2 K1 s
= 10 s + 10 = 10 s + +
(
s s +9 2
) s s2 + 9
⎡ 11s 2 + 64 ⎤ 640
where, K0 = ⎢10 2 ⎥ =
⎣ s + 9 ⎦ s =0 9
⎡ 11s 2 + 64 ⎤ −11 × 9 + 64 350

and, 2 K1 = 2Lt ⎢10 ⎥ = 10 × =
s →−9
⎣ s 2
⎦ −9 9
()
∴ Z s = 10 s +
640
9+ (350 9 )s = 10s + 1
+
1
s s +92
9 9 1
s+
( )
s
640 350 350 s
81
Foster form II
()
Z s =
1
= 10
s 2 + 4 s 2 + 16( )( ) 10 H
350/81H
9/640F
Y s () ( )
s s2 + 9
Z (s) 9/350F
s( s + 9) 2
Y (s) =
1 2K s 2K s
⇒ = + 1 2
10 ( s + 4 )( s + 16 ) s + 4 s + 16
2 2 2 2 Fig. 13.48 (a) Foster
form I
822
where, 2 K1 s = 2Lt ⎢
⎡ 1 s s2 + 9 ( ) ⎤⎥ =
5
s 120/5H 120/7H
s →−4 ⎢ 10 s + 16 ⎥ 120
2 Y(s)
⎣ ⎦ 5/480F 7/1920F
and, 2 K 2 s = 2 Lt ⎢
⎡ 1 s s2 + 9 ( ) ⎤⎥ =
7
s Fig. 13.48 (b) Foster
s →−16 ⎢ 10 s + 4 ⎥ 120
2
form II
⎣ ⎦
Y (s) =
( 5
120 ) s (7 )s
+ 120 =
1
+
1
s +42
s + 16
2
120 1 120 1
s+ s+
5 5
480
s( ) 7 7
(
1920
s )
Problem 13.21 Given the driving point impedance functions:
( s + 1)( s + 16 )
2
( ) s s +9
(a) Z s =
2
()
(b) Z s =
(
s s2 + 2 )
( ) 2
( s + 1)( s
2 2
+3 )
Synthesize the first and second foster forms for the impedance functions.
Solution
(a) Z ( s ) =
( s + 1)( s + 16 )
2 2
s( s + 9)
2
Foster Form I
Z s =
( s + 1)( s + 16 )
2
( ) s s + 9 = s s+ 17 s + 16 s ( s + 9 ) + 8 s + 16
2
=
4
= s+
8 s + 16
2
= s+
K
2 2 2 2
0
+
2 K1 s
( ) ( s + 9)
2
s( s + 9) 2
s( s + 9) s 2 2
s2 + 9
⎡ 8 s 2 + 16 ⎤ 16
where, K0 = ⎢ 2 ⎥ =
⎣ s + 9 ⎦ s =0 9
⎡ 8 s 2 + 16 ⎤ −8 × 9 + 16 56
and, 2 K1 = 2Lt ⎢ ⎥= =
s →−9
⎣ s
2
⎦ −9 9
56/81H
()
∴Z s = s+
16
9+ ( 9 )s = s +
56
1
+
1
1H 9/16F
s s2 + 9 9 9 1 Z (s)
s+ 9/56F
( )
s
16 56 56 s
81 Fig. 13.49 (a) Foster
form I
Foster form II
Z s =() 1
=
(
s 2 + 1 s 2 + 16 )( ) ⇒ Y s = ()
(
s s2 + 9 ) =
2 K1 s
+
2 K2 s
Y s () s s2 + 9 ( ) ( s + 1)( s
2 2
+ 16 ) s + 1 s 2 + 16
2
823
where,
⎡ s s2 + 9
2 K1 s = 2Lt ⎢ 2
( ) ⎤⎥ = 8 s 15/8 H 15/8H
Y(s)
s →−1 ⎢ s + 16 ⎥ 15
⎣ ⎦ 8/150F 1/10F
and,
⎡s s +9
2 K 2 s = 2 Lt ⎢ 2
( 2
) ⎤⎥ = 8 s Fig. 13.49 (b) Foster
s →−16 ⎢ s + 1 ⎥ 15 form II
⎣ ⎦
( ) ( )
8 s 8 s
Y ( s ) = 15 + 15 =
1
+
1
s +12
s + 16
2
15 1 15 1
s+ s+
8 8
150 ( )
s 8 1 s
10 ( )
()
(b) Z s =
(
s s2 + 2 )
( s + 1)( s
2 2
+3 )
First foster form of network can be obtained by partial fraction.
1 1
s( s 2 + 2 ) s s
Z (s) = 2 = 22 + 22
( s + 1)( s + 3) ( s + 1) ( s + 3))
2
2 K2 s 2 K4 s
The Z(s) is of the form Z ( s ) = +
( s + ␻ ) ( s 2 + ␻42 )
2 2
2
2 K2 s 2 K2 1 1/2H 1/6H
The function is a tank circuit of L = henry in parallel with C =
( s 2 + ␻22 ) ␻ 2
2
2 K2
farad. Z (s) 2F 2F
1 1 1
Here ␻22 = 1, 2 K 2 = ∴L= H and C= =2F . Fig. 13.50
2 2 1
2
The foster first form of network is shown in Fig. 13.50.
Problem 13.22 Obtain the first and second foster forms for the driving point impedance functions given
below.
()
(a) Z s = 2
(s 2
)(
+ 9 s2 + 16 ) (b) Z s = 2()
( s + 1)( s + 9 )
2 2
(
s s2 + 4 ) s(s + 4 )
2
Solution
()
(s
(a) Z s = 2
2
)(
+ 9 s 2 + 16 )
(
s s +4 2
)
824
Z s =2 ()
(s 2
+ 9 s 2 + 16)( )=2s 4
+ 25s 2 + 144
=2
( )
s 2 s 2 + 4 + 21s 2 + 144
(
s s +4 2
) (
s s +42
) (
s s2 + 4 )
21s + 1442
K0 2 K1 s
= 2s + 2 × = 2s + +
(
s s +4 2
) s s2 + 4
⎡ 21s 2 + 144 ⎤
where, K0 = ⎢ 2 × ⎥ = 72
⎣ s 2 + 4 ⎦ s =0
⎡ 21s 2 + 144 ⎤ −21 × 4 + 144
and, 2 K1 = 2Lt ⎢ 2 × ⎥ =2× = −30
s →−4
⎣ s 2
⎦ −4
From this, we see that the coefficient of the partial fraction for the function is negative. Also, the zeros
and poles for the function do not interlace. Hence the given function is not at all an LC driving point
function and thus is not realizable.
(b) Z (s) = 2
( s + 1)( s + 9)
2 2
s( s + 4)
2
Foster form I
Z (s) = 2
( s + 1)( s + 9) = 2 s + 10s + 9 = 2 s ( s + 4 ) + 6 s
2 2 4 2 2 2 2
+9
= 2s + 2 ×
6s2 + 9
= 2s +
K0 2 K1 s
+
s( s + 4)
2
s( s + 4) s( s + 4) 2 2
(
s s +4
2
) s s2 + 4
⎡ 6s2 + 9 ⎤ 9
where, K0 = ⎢ 2 × 2 ⎥ =
⎣ s + 4 ⎦ s =0 2 15/8H
2H 2/9F
⎡ 6s + 9 ⎤
2
−6 × 4 + 9 15
and, 2 K1 = 2Lt ⎢ 2 × ⎥=2× =
s →−4
⎣ s 2
⎦ −4 2 Z (s) 2/15F
()
9 15 s
∴ Z s = 2s + 2 + 2 2 = 2s +
1
+
1( ) Fig. 13.51 (a) Foster
form I
s s +4 2 2 1
s+
( )
s
9 15 15 s
8
Foster form II
()
Z s =
1
=2
s2 +1 s2 + 9 ( )( )
Y s () s s2 + 4 ( )
⇒ Y s = () 1 s s +4
2
(
2K s 2K s
= 2 1 + 2 2
)
(
2 s +1 s + 9 s +1 s + 9
2 2
)( )
where, 2 K1 s = 2Lt ⎢
⎡ 1 s s2 + 4 ( ) ⎤⎥ = 3 s
s →−1 ⎢ 2 s2 + 9 ⎥ 16
⎣ ⎦
825
and, 2 K 2 s = 2Lt ⎢
⎡ 1 s s2 + 4 ( ) ⎤⎥ = 5 s 16/3H 16/5H
s →−9 ⎢ 2 s2 +1 ⎥ 16 Y(s)
⎣ ⎦ 3/16F 5/144F
Y s =()
( 316)s + ( 516)s = 1
+
1 Fig. 13.51 (b) Foster
form II
s +1
2
s +9
2
16 1 16 1
s+ s+
3 3 s
16 ( ) 5 5
(144
s )
Problem 13.23 Synthesize the network in foster forms for the driving point impedance functions given.
()
(a) Z s =
(
s s2 + 10 ) (b) Z(s) = 8
( s + 1)( s + 3) 2 2
(s 2
)(
+ 4 s2 + 16 ) s ( s + 2 )( s + 4 )2 2
Solution
(a) Foster Form I
s( s 2 + 10) 2K s 2K s
Z (s) = = 2 1 + 2 2
( s + 4 )( s + 16 ) ( s + 4 ) ( s + 16 )
2 2
⎡ s s 2 + 10 ⎤ 1
∴ 2 K1 s = 2Lt ⎢ 2 ⎥= s
( ) 1/8H 1/16 H
s →−4 ⎢ s + 16 ⎥ 2
⎣ ⎦
( )
Z (s) 2F 2F
⎡ s s 2 + 10 ⎤ 1
∴ 2 K 2 s = 2 Lt ⎢ 2 ⎥= s
Fig. 13.52 Foster
s →−16 ⎢ s +4 ⎥ 2
⎣ ⎦ form I
1 1
s s
()
∴ Z s = 22 + 22 =
1
+
1
s +4 (
s + 16 2 s + 1 ) (
2s +
1 )
1 s
8
1 s
16 ( ) ( )
The foster first form of network is shown in Fig. 13.52.
Foster form II
()
Z s =
1
= 2
s s 2 + 10 ( )
Y s () (
s + 4 s 2 + 16 )( )
∴Y s = ()
(s 2
)(
+ 4 s + 16 2
)= s 4
+ 20 s 2 + 64
(
s s + 10
2
) (
s s 2 + 10 )
=
2
(
s s + 10
0 + 10 s + 64
2
) 2
= s+
10 s 2 + 64
= s+
K0 2 K1 s
+
(
s s + 102
) (
s s + 10
2
) s s 2 + 10
826
⎡ 10 s 2 + 64 ⎤ 32
∴ K0 = ⎢ 2 ⎥ = Y(s) 1 F 5/18H
5/32H
⎣ s + 10 ⎦ s =0 5 18/50 F
⎡ 10 s 2 + 64 ⎤ −100 + 64 18 Fig. 13.53 Foster form II

and, 2 K1 = 2 Lt ⎢ ⎥= =
s →−10
⎣ s2 ⎦ −10 5
()
∴Y s = s +
32
5+ (18 5 )s = s + 1
+
1
s s 2 + 10 5 5 1
s+
( )
s
32 18 18 s
50
The synthesized network is shown in Fig. 13.53.
(b) Foster form I
()
Z s =
)( ) = K + 2 K s + 2 K s
(
8 s2 +1 s2 + 3 0 1 2
+ 2 )( s + 4 ) s s + 2 s + 4
s( s 2 2 2 2
⎡ 8( s + 1)( s + 3) ⎤ 2 2
where, K = ⎢ ⎥ =3
⎢ ( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) ⎥
0 2 2
⎣ ⎦ s =0
⎡ 8( s + 1)( s + 3) ⎤ 2 2
2 K = Lt ⎢ ⎥=2
1
⎢ s ( s + 4) ⎥
s 2 →−2 2 2
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 8( s + 1)( s + 3) ⎤ 2 2
and, 2 K = Lt ⎢ ⎥=3
2
⎢ s ( s + 2) ⎥
s 2 →−4 2 2
⎣ ⎦
() 3
Z s = + 2
2s
+
3s 3
= +
1
s s + 2 s2 + 4 s 1 1 1
+
1
1
s+ s+
2 s 3 3 s
4 ( ) 1H 3/4H
1/3F
Foster form II Z (s) 1/3F
( )( )
1/2F
8 s2 +1 s2 + 3
()
Z s =
1
=
( ) ( )( )
Y s s s2 + 2 s2 + 4 Fig. 13.54 (a) Foster
form I
s ( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) 1 s ( s + 1)( s + 3) + s ( 2 s
2 2 2 2 2
+5 )
∴Y (s) = =
8( s + 1)( s + 3) 8
2 2
( s + 1)( s + 3) 2 2
16/3H 16H
Y(s) 1/8 F
1 1 s ( 2 s + 5)
2
1 2K s 2K s 3/16F 1/48F
= s+ = s+ + 1 2
8 8 ( s + 1)( s + 3) 8 s + 1 s + 3
2 2 2 2
Fig. 13.54 (b) Foster form II
827
∴ 2 K1 s = 2Lt ⎢
⎡1 s( 2 s + 5) ⎤⎥ = 1 s 2 × ( −1) + 5 = 3 s
2
s →−1 ⎢ 8
⎣ ( s + 3) ⎥⎦ 8 −1+ 3 16
2
∴ 2 K 2 s = 2Lt ⎢
⎡1 s( 2 s + 5) ⎤⎥ = 1 s 2 × ( −3) + 5 = 1 s
2
s →−3 ⎢ 8
⎣ ( s + 1) ⎥⎦ 8 −3 + 1 16
2
3 1
s s
()
1 16
∴Y s = s + 2 + 216 1
= s+
8 s + 1 s + 3 8 16
1
1
+
1
1
s+ 16 s +
3 3 s
16
1 s
48 ( ) ( )
Problem 13.24 Find the first and second Cauer forms of LC networks, including element values, for the
impedance function given.
Z(s) =
s s2 + 4 ( )
2 s2 + 1 s2 + 9 ( )( )
We arrange the polynomials in descending powers of s.
()
Z s =
(
s s2 + 4 ) =
s3 + 4s
(
2 s +1 s + 9
2
)( 2
) 2 s + 20 s 2 + 18
4
Since the order of the denominator polynomial is higher than that of the numerator polynomial, we invert the
function and then carry on with the continued fraction expansion.
2 s 4 + 20 s 2 + 18
∴Y s = () s3 + 4s
2 s 4 + 20 s 2 + 18
s3 + 4s 2s ← y
2 s 4 + 8s 2
s3 + 4s
s
12 s 2 + 18 3 3 ←z
s + s 12
2
5 12 s 2 + 18 24
s s← y
2 12 s 2 5
5
s
2 5
18 s←z
5 36
s
2
828
()
∴Y s = 2s +
s 1
1
⇒ Z s = () 1
1
+ 2s +
12 24 1 s 1
s+ +
5 5 12 24 1
s s+
36 5 5
s
36
Therefore, Cauer form I realized network is shown in Fig. 13.55 (a).
1/12 H 5/36 H
Cauer form II
We arrange the polynomials in ascending powers of s. Z (s) 2 F 24/ 5F
18 + 20 s 2 + 2 s 4
()
∴Y s =
4s + s3 Fig. 13.55 (a) Cauer
form I
18 + 20 s 2 + 2 s 4
18
4s + s 3
18 ←y
18 + s 2 4s
4
31/8F 62/15F
4s + s3
31 2 8
s + 2s 4
16 3 ←z 30/312 H
2 4s + s 31 s 4/18H
Z (s)
31
31 2 Fig. 13.55 (b) Cauer
s + 2s4 2
15 3 2 31 form II
s ←y
31 31 2 30 s
s
2
15 3
s
31 15
2s4
←z
15 3 s
62
s
31
()
∴Y s =
18
+
4s 8
1
1
⇒ Z s = () 18
1
1
+ 2 +
31s 31 1 4s 8 1
+ +
30 s 15 31s 312 1
+
62 s 30 s 15
62 s
The Cauer form II realized network is shown in Fig. 13.55 (b).
Problem 13.25 Synthesize the impedance function and obtain Cauer I realization:
()
Z s =
( )(
s s2 + 3 s2 + 5 )
(s 2
+ 2 )( s 2
+ 4)
829

We arrange the polynomials in descending powers of s.
()
Z s =
(
s s2 + 3 s2 + 5)( ) = s + 8s + 15s
5 3
(s + 2 )( s + 4) s + 6s + 8
2 2 4 2
s 5 + 8 s 3 + 15s
s4 + 6s2 + 8 s←z
s5 + 6 s 3 + 8s
s4 + 6s2 + 8
s
2 s + 7s
3
7 ←y
s4 + s2 2
2
2 s 3 + 7s
5 2 4
s + 8 3 32 s←z
2 2s + s 5
5
5 2
s +8
3 2 25
s s← y
5 5 2 6
s
2
3
s
3
85 s←z
3 40
s
5
()
∴Z s = s+
s 1
1
+ 1H 4/5H 3/40 H
2 4 1
s+
5 25 1
s+ Z (s) 1/2F 25/6F
6 3
s
40
The realized network by Cauer Form I is shown in Fig. 13.56 Fig. 13.56 Cauer form I
Problem 13.26 Find the first and second Cauer forms of LC networks for the driving point impedance
functions.
6 s3 + 2 s s 4 + 10 s2 + 9
()
(a) Z s = ()
(b) Z s =
s3 + 4 s
9s + 4 s + 1
4 2
6
Solution
6s3 + 2s
()
(a) Z s =
9s 4 + 4 s 2 + 1
6
830
Cauer form I We arrange the polynomials in descending powers of s.
6s3 + 2s
()
Z s =
9s 4 + 4 s 2 + 1
6
Since the order of the denominator polynomial is higher than that of the numerator polynomial, we invert
the function and then carry on with the continued fraction expansion.
9s 4 + 4 s 2 + 1
∴Y s = () 6s3 + 2s
6
9s 4 + 4 s 2 + 1
6s3 + 2s 6 3s← y
9 s + 3s
4 2 2
6s3 + 2s
s2 + 1 6s ← z
6 6s3 + s
s2 + 1
s 6 s← y
s2
1 s 6s ← z
6s
()
3
∴Y s = s +
2
1
1
⇒ Z s = () 3
1
1
6s + s+
1 2 1
s+ 6s +
6s 1
s+
6s
Therefore, Cauer form I realized network is shown in Fig. 13.57 (a).
6H 6H
Cauer form II We arrange the polynomials in ascending powers of s.
1 + 4 s 2 + 9s 4 Z (s) 3/2F 1F
()
∴Y s = 6
2s + 6s3
Fig. 13.57 (a) Cauer form I
1 + 4 s + 9s
2 4
6 1 7/4F 6 3/6F
2s + 6s 3
←y
1
1 + s2 12 s
6 2 Z (s) 12H 12/49H
2s + 6s3
7 2 4 Fig. 13.57 (b) Cauer form
s + 9s 4
36 ←z
2 2 s + s 7s
3
7
831
7 2
s + 9s 4
6 32 49
s ←y
7 7 2 12 s
s
2
6 3
s
6
9s 4 7 ←z
6 3 63s
s
7
()
∴Y s =
1
+
12 s 4
1
1
⇒ Z s =() 1
1
1
+ +
7 s 49 1 12 s 4 1
+ +
12 s 6 7ss 49 1
+
63s 12 s 6
63s
The Cauer form II realized network is shown in Fig. 13.57 (b).
(b) Cauer form I We arrange the polynomials in descending powers of s.
s 4 + 10 s 2 + 9
()
Z s =
s3 + 4s
s 4 + 10 s 2 + 9
s3 + 4s s←z
s4 + 4s2
s3 + 4s
s
6s + 9
2
3 6←y
s + s
3
2
5 6 s 2 + 9 12
s s←z
2 6s2 5
5
s
2 5
9 s← y
5 18
s
2
()
∴Z s = s+
s
1
1
+
6 12 1
s+
5 5
s
18
832
Therefore, the realized network in Cauer form I is shown in Fig. 13.58 (a). 1H 12/5H
Cauer form II We arrange the polynomials in ascending powers of s. Z (s) 1/6F 5/18 F
9 + 10 s + s
2 4
()
∴Z s =
4s + s3 Fig. 13.58 (a)
Cauer form I
9 + 10 s 2 + s 4
9
4s + s3
9 ←z
9 + s2 4s
4
4s + s3
31 2 4 16
s +s 16 ←y
4 4 s + s 31s
3
31
31 2 4
s +s
15 3 4 961
s ←z
31 31 2 60 s
s
4
15 3
s
15
s 4 31 ←y
15 3 31s
s
31
()
∴Z s =
9
+
4 s 16
1
1
4/9F 60/961F
+ Z (s) 31/16H 31/15 H

31s 961 1
+
60 s 15
Fig. 13.58 (b) Cauer
31s
form II
The realized network in Cauer form II is shown in Fig. 13.58 (b).
Problem 13.27 Find the first Cauer form of LC network for the driving point impedance function.
s 5 + 5s 3 + 3s
()
Z s =
s 4 + 3s2 + 1
Solution
s 5 + 5s 3 + 3s
()
Z s =
s 4 + 3s 2 + 1
833
s 5 + 5s 3 + 3s
s 4 + 3s 2 + 1 s←z
s 5 + 3s 3 + s
s 4 + 3s 2 + 1 s
2s3 + 2s ←y
s4 + s2 2
2s3 + 2s
2s2 +1 s←z
2s3 + s
2s2 +1
s 2s ← y
2s2
s
1 s←z
s
()
∴Z s = s+
s
1
1 1H 1H 1H
+
2 1
s+ Z (s)
1/2F 2F
1
2s +
s Fig. 13.59 Cauer form I
The realized network by Cauer Form I is shown in Fig. 13.59.
Problem 13.28 Obtain the Foster forms 1 and 2 realizations of the driving point impedance function.
Z(s) = 2
s s2 + 4 ( )
s + 1 s2 + 9 ( )( )
Solution
Foster form I
()
Z s =
(
s s2 + 4 )
( s + 1)( s
2 2
+9 )
s( s 2 + 4 ) 2K s 2K s
Z (s) = = 2 1 + 2 2
( s + 1)( s + 9) ( s + 1) ( s + 9)
2 2
⎡ s s2 + 4
∴ 2 K1 s = 2Lt ⎢ 2
( ) ⎤⎥ = 3 s
s →−1 ⎢ s + 9 ⎥ 8
⎣ ⎦
⎡ s s2 + 4
∴ 2 K 2 s = 2Ltt ⎢ 2
( )
⎤ 5
⎥= s
s →−9 ⎢ s + 1 ⎥ 8
⎣ ⎦
834
3 5
s s
8 8 1 1
∴ Z (s) = 2 + 2 = +
( s + 1) ( s + 9) 8 1 8 1
s+ s+
3 3 s 5
8
5
72
s ( ) ( )
The foster first form of network is shown in Fig. 13.60 (a).
Foster form II ()
Z s =
1
= 2
s s2 + 4 ( )
Y s () (
s +1 s2 + 9 )( )
∴Y (s) =
( s + 1)( s + 9) = s + 10s + 9 = s ( s + 4 ) + 6 s
2 2 4 2 2 2 2
+9
3/8H 5/72 H
s( s + 4) 2
s( s + 4) s( s + 4)
2 2
Z (s) 8/3F 8/5F
6s2 + 9K 2K s
= s+ = s+ 0 + 2 1
(
s s +4
2
s s +4 ) Fig. 13.60 (a) Foster
form I
⎡ 6s2 + 9 ⎤ 9
∴ K0 = ⎢ 2 ⎥ =
⎣ s + 4 ⎦ s =0 4
⎡ 6 s 2 + 9 ⎤ −24 + 9 15
and, 2 K1 = 2Lt ⎢ ⎥= =
s →−4
⎣ s
2
⎦ −4 4
4/15H
4 +( 4) = s+ 1 +
Y(s) 4/9H
1F
9 15s 15/16F
()
∴Y s = s +
s s +42
4 4
1
1
s+
( )
s Fig. 13.60 (b) Foster form II
9 15 15 s
16
Problem 13.29 Justify that the following function can be the driving point impedance of reactive net-
works.
Z(s) = 2
s s2 + 2 ( )
s + 1 s2 + 4 ( )( )
Give one realization of the network.
Solution For this function zeros are s = 0, ± j 2 and the poles are s = ± j1, ± j 2
The given function Z(s) has the following properties:
(i)The function is a ratio of odd to even polynomials.
(ii)The poles and zeros are simple and lie on the j␻-axis including the origin.
(iii)The poles and zeros interlace on the j␻-axis.
(iv) The highest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials differ by unity; the lowest powers
also differ by unity.
(v) There is a zero at the origin.
835
Hence, the given function is a driving point impedance of reactive networks. It is synthesized as follows.
()
Z s =
(
s s2 + 2 ) =
2 K1 s
+
2 K2 s
( s + 1)( s
2 2
+4 ) s +1 s2 + 4
2
(
⎡ s s2 + 2 ⎤ 1
∴ 2 K1 s = 2Lt ⎢ 2 ⎥= s
)
⎣ (
s →−1 ⎢ s + 4 ⎥
⎦
3 )
(
⎡ s s2 + 2 ⎤ 2
∴ 2 K 2 s = 2Lt ⎢ 2 ⎥= s
)
⎣ (
s →−4 ⎢ s + 1 ⎥
⎦
3 ) 1/3H 1/6 H
1 2
s s
()
∴ Z s = 2 + 23 =
3
s +1 s + 4
1
1
+
3
1
1
Z (s) 3F 3/2 F
3s + s+
1 s
3
2
( )
1 s
6 ( ) Fig. 13.61
form I
Foster

Problem 13.30 Test whether the following functions represent RC impedance or RL admittance functions:
( s + 1)( s + 2) ( s + 1)( s + 4 )( s + 8)
(a) F( s) = (b) F( s) =
s( s + 3) s( s + 2)( s + 6)
Solution
( s + 1)( s + 2 )
(a) F ( s ) =
s( s + 3)
The poles are at s ⫽ 0, ⫺3
Zeros are at s ⫽ ⫺1, ⫺2
Poles and zeros lie on the negative real axis, and they do not alternate.
The singularity nearest to (or at) the origin is a pole but the singularity nearest to (or at) ␴ ⫽ ⫺⬁ is also
a pole. Hence the given impedance is not an RC function.
( s + 1)( s + 4 )( s + 8)
(b) F ( s ) =
s( s + 2 )( s + 6 )
The poles are at s ⫽ 0, ⫺2, ⫺6
Zeros are at s ⫽ ⫺1, ⫺4, ⫺8
The above impedance function fulfills all the properties of an RC function and hence, the given imped-
ance function is an RC function.
Problem 13.31 Synthesize both the Foster forms of networks for the following driving point impedance
function:
( ) ( s( s)(+ 2 )
s +1 s + 4
Z s =
)
Solution For this function the poles are s ⫽ 0, ⫺2 and the zeros are s ⫽ ⫺1, ⫺4. All the poles and zeros are
real and simple and lie in the left half of the s-plane. The lowest critical frequency at s ⫽ 0 is a pole. Hence
the given function is an RC impedance function.
836
( s + 1)( s + 4 ) = s + 5s + 4 = s + 2 s + 3s + 4 = 1 + 3s + 4 = 1 + K
2 2
()
K1
Z s = 0
+
s( s + 2) s( s + 2) s( s + 2) s( s + 2) s s+2
1/2 ⍀
1/2F 1⍀
⎡ 3s + 4 ⎤ ⎡ 3s + 4 ⎤
where, K0 = ⎢ ⎥ = 2 and K1 = ⎢ ⎥ =1
⎣ s + 2 ⎦ s =0
Z (s) 1F
⎣ s ⎦ s =−2
2
∴ Z s = 1+ +()
1
s s+2
Fig. 13.62 Foster
form I
Problem 13.32 Synthesize the first and second foster forms of networks for the impedance functions:
3 ( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) 3 ( s + 2 )( s + 4 )
(a) Z ( s ) = (b) Z ( s ) =
s( s + 3) ( s + 1)( s + 3)
Solution
()
(a) Z s =
(
3 s+2 s+4 )( )
(
s s+3 )
Foster form I
The partial fraction expansion of the function is obtained as Z ( s ) = = +
8 1
+3
(
3 s+2 s+4 )( )
s s+3 s s+3 ( )
where Z(⬁) ⫽ 3. Therefore, the function must be an RC impedance function and it is realized in a series
Foster form as shown in Fig. 13.63 (a).
Foster form II 1/3 ⍀
1/8F
( )( ) ( )
3⍀
3 s+2 s+4 s s+3
()
Z s =
1
= ⇒ Y s = ()
Y s ()s s+3 ( ) (
3 s+2 s+4 )( ) Z(s) 1F
Fig. 13.63 (a)

Here, we will see that the partial fraction expansion of Y(s) will yield negative Foster form I
residues. Therefore, we expand
Y s ()
and then multiply by s.
() )
s
⇒
Y s
=
s+3 K
= 1 + 2
K (
s 3 s+2 s+4 s + 2 s +4 ( )( )
⎡ s+3
∴ K1 = ⎢
( ) ⎤⎥ =
1
( ) ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ 3 s + 4 s =−2
6
∴ K2 = ⎢
⎡ s+3 ( ) ⎤⎥ =
1
( ) ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ 3 s + 2 s =−4
6
∴
Y s ( )= 1 1
6 + 6
s s+2 s+4
837
∴Y (s) =
( 1 s
6 ) (
+ 6 =
)
1 s
1
+
1 6⍀
Y(s)
6⍀
s+2 s+4 1 1
6+ 6+ 1/24F 1/12 F
1 s
12 ( ) 1
24
s ( ) Fig. 13.63 (b) Foster
The network synthesized by Foster form II is shown in Fig. 13.63 (b). form II
( )( )
3 s+2 s+4
()
(b) Z s =
( )( )
s +1 s + 3
Here, Z(⬁) ⫽ 3. Therefore, the function must be an RC impedance function and it is realized in a series
Foster form as shown in Fig. 13.64 (a).
The partial fraction expansion of the function is obtained as
9/2 ⍀ 1/2 ⍀
Z (s) =
( )( ) = 3 + 3( 2 s + 5) = 3 + K + K
3 s+2 s+4 1 2
3⍀
( s + 1)( s + 3) ( s + 1)( s + 3) s + 1 s + 3 Z(s) 2/9 F 2/3F

⎡ 2s + 5 ⎤ 9 ⎡ 2s + 5 ⎤ 3
where, K1 = ⎢ 3 × ⎥ = and K 2 = ⎢ 3 × ⎥ = Fig. 13.64 (a) Foster
⎣ s + 3 ⎦ s =−1 2 ⎣ s + 1 ⎦ s =−3 2 form I
9 3
∴ Z (s) = 3 + 2 + 2 = 3+ 1 + 1
s +1 s + 3 2 2 2
s+ s+2
9 9 3
Foster form II
( )( )
3 s+2 s+4 ( s + 1)( s + 3) ⇒ Y ( s ) = ( s + 1)( s + 3) = K + K + K
()
Z s =
1
= ()
⇒ Y s = 0 1 2
( ) ( )( )
Y s s +1 s + 3 3( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) s 3s ( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) s s + 2 s + 4
⎡ ( s + 1)( s + 3) ⎤ 1
∴ K0 =⎢ ⎥ =
⎢⎣ 3 ( s + 2 ) ) ⎥⎦
( s + 4
s =−0
8
⎡ ( s + 1)( s + 3) ⎤ 1
∴ K1 =⎢ ⎥ =
⎢⎣ 3 s ( ) ⎥⎦
s + 4
s =−2
12
⎡ ( s + 1)( s + 3) ⎤ 1
∴ K2 =⎢ ⎥ =
⎢⎣ 3s ( s + 2 ) ⎥⎦
s =−4
8
12 ⍀ 8⍀
Y(s) 8 ⍀
∴
()
Y s 1 1 1
= 8 + 12 + 8
1/24F 1/32 F
s s s+2 s+4 Fig. 13.64 (b) Foster form II
() 1
∴Y s = +
1 s
12 ( ) ( )
1 s
1
+ 8 = +
1
+
1
8 s+2 s+4 8 1 1
12 + 8+
( 24)s
1
( 32)s
1
The network synthesized by Foster form II is shown in Fig. 13.64 (b).

838
Problem 13.33 Realize the driving point impedance Z ( s ) = (

2 s + 0.5 s + 4 )( ) in two different forms.
s s+2( )
Solution The given function has poles and zeros on the negative real axis. The poles and zeros interlace.
Also, the critical frequency nearest to or at the origin is a pole. Hence, the function is an RC impedance func-
tion. It is synthesized in Foster forms.
Foster form I
()
Z s =
(
2 s + 0.5 s + 4
=2+
)( 5s + 4 )
=2+ +
2 3
=2+ +
2 1
s s+2 ( )
s s+2 s s+2 ( )
s 1 2
s+
3 3
Foster form II
()
Z s =
1
=
(
2 s + 0.5 s + 4 )( ) ⇒ Y s = ()
(
s s+2 ) 3/2 V
2V
()
Y s s s+2 ( ) ( )(
2 s + 0.5 s + 4 ) Z (s)
1/2 F 1/3F
Y (s) ( s + 2) = K + K
⇒ = 1 2 Fig. 13.65 (a)
s 2 ( s + 0.5)( s + 4 ) s + 0.5 s + 4 Foster form I
⎡ s+2 ⎤
∴ K1 = ⎢
( ) ⎥ =
3
⎢⎣ 2 s + ( )
4 ⎥⎦ s =−0.5 14
∴ K2 = ⎢
⎡ s+2 ⎤ ( ) ⎥ =
2
⎢⎣ 2 s + (
0 .5) ⎥⎦ s =−4 7
∴
( ) = ( 314 ) + ( 2 7 )
Y s
ss + 0.5 s + 4
( ) ( )
14/3 ⍀ 7/2 ⍀
3 s 2 s Y(s)
()
∴ Y s = 14 + 7 =
s + 0.5 s + 4 14
1
1
+
7
1
1
3/ 7F 1/14F
+ +
3 3 s 2
7
1 s
14 ( ) ( ) Fig. 13.65 (b) Foster
form II
Problem 13.34 Find the first Foster form and second Cauer form after synthesizing the impedance func-
( ) ( (s + 2 )((s + 6 )
2 s +1 s + 3
tion given by, Z s =
) )
Solution
Foster form I Here, we will see that the partial fraction expansion of Z(s) will have negative residues.
Therefore, we expand
Z s ()
s
839
( ) = 2( s + 1)( s + 3) = K
Z s 0
+
K1 K
+ 2
s s ( s + 2 )( s + 6 ) s s+2 s+6
∴ K0 = ⎢
( )( )
⎡ 2 s +1 s + 3 ⎤ 1 ⎡ 2 s +1 s + 3
⎥ = ; K1 = ⎢
( )( ) ⎤⎥ =
1 (
⎡ 2 s +1 s + 3
K2 = ⎢
)( ) ⎤⎥ =
5
( )( )
⎢⎣ s + 2 s + 6 ⎥⎦ s =0 2 ⎢⎣ s s + 6 ( ) ⎥⎦ s =−2 4 (
⎢⎣ s s + 2 ) ⎥⎦ s =−6 4
∴
( ) = 12 +
Z s 5
4 + 4
1
1/4 ⍀ 5/4 ⍀
s s s+2 s+6 1/2 ⍀
()
1
1 s 5 s
∴Z s = + 4 + 4 = +
( ) ( )
1 1
+
1 Z(s )
1/8H 5/24H
2 s+2 s+6 2 1 4 1
4+ +
( )
1 s
8
5 5
24
s( ) Fig. 13.66 (a) Foster
form I
The synthesized network in Foster form I is shown in Fig. 13.66 (a).

()
Z s =
(
2 s +1 s + 3)( ) = 2 s + 8s + 6 = 6 + 8s + 2 s
2 2
( s + 2 )( s + 6 ) s + 8s + 12 12 + 8s + s
2 2
6 + 8s + 2 s 2
1
12 + 8 s + s 2
1 2 2←z
6 + 4s + s
2
12 + 8 s + s 2
3 2 3
4s + s 9 ←y
2 12 + s 2
s
2
3
4s + s2
7 2 8←z
s + s2
2 8 7
4s + s2
7
7
s + s2
5 22 49
s ←y
14 7 5s
s
2 1/2 V 8/7V 5/14 V
5 2
s Z(s ) 1/3H 5/49H
14 5
2
s ←z
5 2 14
s Fig. 13.66 (b) Cauer
14 form II
The synthesized ladder network in Cauer form II is shown in Fig. 13.66 (b).
840
Problem 13.35 Synthesize the following admittance function using Foster I and II forms:
( ) ( s( s +)(6 )
6 s+3 s+9
Z s =
)
Solution
Foster form I The partial fraction expansion of the function is obtained as
Z (s) =
(
6 s+3 s+9 )( ) = 27 + 9
+6
(
s s+6 ) s s+6
where Z(⬁) ⫽ 6. Therefore, the function must be an RC impedance function and it is 3/2 V
realized in a series Foster form as shown in Fig. 13.67 (a). 1/27F 6V
Foster form II Z (s) 1/9F
()
Z s =
1
=
6 s+3 s+9 ( )( ) ⇒ Y s = ()
(
s s+6 )
() ( ) ( )( )
Fig. 13.67 (a)
Y s s s+6 6 s+3 s+9 Foster form I
Here, we will see that the partial fraction expansion of Y(s) will yield negative resi-
dues. Therefore, we expand

Y s ()
s
⇒
Y s
=
s+6 ()
K
= 1 + 2
K ( )
s 6 s+3 s+9 s+3 s+9 ( )( )
⎡ s+6
∴ K1 = ⎢
( ) ⎤⎥ =
1
⎢⎣ 6 s + 9 ( ) ⎥⎦ s =−3
12
∴ K2 = ⎢
⎡ s+6 ( ) ⎤⎥ =
1
⎢⎣ 6 s + 3 ( ) ⎥⎦ s =−9
12
Y(s)
12 ⍀ 12 ⍀
1/36F 1/108F
∴
Y s ( ) = 112 + 112
s+3 s+9
s Fig. 13.67 (b) Foster
( ) ( )
form II
1 s 1 s
∴Y s = ()12
s+3
+ 12 =
s+9
1
1
+
1
1
12 + 12 +
( 36)s
1
( )
1
108
s
The network synthesized by Foster form II is shown in Fig. 13.67 (b).
Problem 13.36 Synthesize the function using Cauer forms: F ( s ) =

(
3 s+2 s+ 4)( )
(
s s+3 )
()
F s =
(
3 s+2 s+4 )( )
Solution
(
s s+3 )
841

3( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) 3s 2 + 18 s + 24
F (s) = =
s( s + 3) s 2 + 3s
By continued fraction expansion we get the following results.
3s 2 + 18 s + 24
s 2 + 3s 3
3s 2 + 9 s
s 2 + 3s 1
9 s + 24 s
s 2 + 3s 9
8 9 s + 24 27
s
3 9s 8
8
s
1
24 3 s
8 9
s
3
3( s + 2 )( s + 4 )
If F(s) is an impedance function, F ( s ) = Z ( s ) = then the synthesized network by Cauer form I
s( s + 3)
will be an RC ladder network as shown in Fig. 13.68 (a).
3( s + 2 )( s + 4 )
If F(s) is an admittance function, F ( s ) = Y ( s ) = then the synthesized network by Cauer
s( s + 3)
form I will be an RL ladder network as shown in Fig. 13.68 (b).
3( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) 24 + 18 s + 3s 2
F (s) = =
s( s + 3) 3s + s 2
By continued fraction expansion we get the following results.
24 + 18 s + 3s 2 8
3s + s 2
24 + 8 s s
3⍀ 27/8 ⍀
3s + s 2 Z(s) 1/9 F 1/9 F
3
10 s + 3s 2
9 2 10
3s + s
10 Fig. 13.68 (a) Cauer
1 2 10 s + 3s 1002
s
10 10 s s 1/9H 1/9H
1 2
s Y (s) 1/3 ⍀ 8/27⍀
1
3s 2 10
1 2 30
s Fig. 13.68 (b) Cauer
10
form I of RL admittance
842
( ) ( ) ( )( )
1/8F 1/100F
3 s+2 s+4
If F(s) is an impedance function, F s = Z s = then the syn-
s ( s + 3) Z(s) 10/3 ⍀
30⍀
thesized network by Cauer form II will be an RC ladder network as shown in
Fig. 13.69 (a)
Fig. 13.69 (a).
Cauer form II of RC
3 s+2 s+4 ( )( )
If F(s) is an admittance function, F s = Y s = () ()
s s+3
then the syn-
( )
impedance function
3/10 ⍀ 1/30 ⍀
thesized network by Cauer form II will be an RL ladder network as shown in
Z(s) 1/8F 1/100 H
Fig. 13.69 (b).
Fig. 13.69 (b) Cauer form
Problem 13.37 Confirm whether Y ( s ) = ( )( ) is an RC admittance
2 s +1 s + 3 II of RL admittance function
( s + 2 )( s + 6 )
function. Realize this in Foster’s form.
Solution The given function has poles and zeros on the negative real axis. The poles and zeros interlace.
Also, the critical frequency nearest to the origin is a zero. Hence, the function is an RC admittance function.
It is synthesized in Foster forms.
Here, we will see that the partial fraction expansion of Y(s) will have negative residues. Therefore, we
expand
Y s() and then multiply by s.
s
=
() (
Y s 2 s + 1 s + 3 K0 K1
=
)( )
+ + 2
K
s s s+2 s+6( )( )
s s+2 s+6
∴ K0 = ⎢
( )( )
⎡ 2 s +1 s + 3 ⎤
⎥ = ; K1
1 ⎡ 2 ( s + 1)( s + 3) ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ =
1
K2 = ⎢
( )(
⎡ 2 s +1 s + 3 ⎤
⎥
) =
5
⎢⎣ s(+ 2 s +)( )
6 ⎦⎥ s =0 2 ⎢⎣ s ( s + 6 ) ⎥⎦ s =−2
4 ⎢⎣ s s(+ 2 )
⎥⎦ s =−6 4
∴
( ) = 12 +
Y s 5
4 + 4
1
s s s+2 s+6 4⍀ 4/5 ⍀
()
1
1 s 5 s
∴Y s = + 4 + 4 = +
( ) ( )
1 1
+
1
Y(s) 2 ⍀
1/8F 5/24 F
2 s+2 s+6 2 1 4 1
4+ +
( ) ( )
Fig. 13.70 Foster form II
1 s 5 5 s
8 24
The synthesized network in Foster form II is shown in Fig. 13.70.
Problem 13.38 Justify whether the given impedance functions are LC, RC or RL:
s3 + 2 s s2 + 4 s + 3
()
(a) Z s =
s 4 + 4 s2 + 3
(b) Z s = () s2 + 6 s + 8
Solution
()
(a) Z s = 4
s3 + 2s
=
s s2 + 2 ( )
(
s + 4s2 + 3 s2 +1 s2 + 3 )( )
843
For this function the poles are s = ± j1; ± j 3 and zeros are s = 0; ± j 2 .
Since all the poles are simple and lie on the imaginary axis, the given function represents an LC imped-
ance function.
()
(b) Z s =
( )(
s2 + 4s + 3 s +1 s + 3
=
)
( )(
s2 + 6s + 8 s + 2 s + 4 )
For this function the poles are s ⫽ ⫺2; ⫺4 and zeros are s ⫽ ⫺1; ⫺3.
All the poles and zeros are simple and interlace. All the poles and zeros are located on the negative real
axis. The critical frequency nearest to the origin is a zero (s ⫽ ⫺1). Hence, the given function represents
an RL impedance function.
Problem 13.39 A function has poles and zeros as follows:

Poles: 0, ⫺4, ⫺ 6; Zeros: ⫺2, ⫺ 5
Taking the scale factor to be 1, synthesize F(s),
(i) as an impedance function in Foster’s form, and
(ii) as an admittance function in Cauer’s form.
( s + 2 )( s + 5)
Solution With scale factor of 1, the function can be written as, ()
F s =
s ( s + 4 )( s + 6 )
(i) Foster impedance form (Form I)
( s + 2 )( s + 5) = K
()
K1 K
Z s = 0
+ + 2
s ( s + 4 )( s + 6 ) s s+4 s+6
∴ K0 = ⎢
⎡ ( s + 2 )( s + 5) ⎤⎥ =
5
⎢⎣( s + 4 )( s + 6 ) ⎥⎦ s =0
12
⎡
∴ K1 = ⎢
( s + 2 )( s + 5) ⎤⎥ =
1
⎢⎣ s ( s + 6 ) ⎥⎦ 4
s =−4
∴ K2 = ⎢
⎡( s + 2 )( s + 5) ⎤⎥ =
1
⎢⎣ s ( s + 4 ) ⎥⎦ 3
s =−6
5 1 1
()
∴Z s = 12 + 4 + 3 =
1
+
1
+
1
s s + 4 s + 6 12 s 4 s + 16 3s + 188
5 ( )
The network synthesized by Foster form I is shown in Fig. 13.71 (a). 4F 3F
12/5F
(ii) Cauer admittance form
( s + 2 )( s + 5) = s + 7s + 10
Z (S) 1/16 ⍀ 1/18 ⍀
2
Y (s) =
s ( s + 4 )( s + 6 ) s + 10 s + 24s
3 2 Fig. 13.71 (a) Foster
We expand by continued fraction expansion method. function
844
s 3 + 10 s 2 + 24 s
s 2 + 7 s + 10 s← y
s 3 + 7 s 2 + 10 s
s 2 + 7 s + 10
1
3s + 14 s 2 14
2
←z
s + s 3
3
3s 2 + 14 s
7 9
s + 10 2 90 s← y
3 3s + s 7
7
7
s + 10
8 3 49
s ←z
7 7 24
s
3
8
s
8
10 7 s← y
8 70
s
7
()
∴Y s = s +
1
1
1 1/3 ⍀ 49/24 ⍀
+
3 9 1 Z(s) 1F 9/7 F 8/70F
s+
7 49 1
+
24 8 Fig. 13.71 (b) Cauer form I
s of RC admittance function
70
The network synthesized by Cauer form is shown in Fig. 13.71 (b).
Problem 13.40 An impedance function has the pole–zero diagram as shown in
Fig. 13.72. Find the impedance function if Z ( − 4 ) = and realize in Cauer forms.
3 jv
8
Solution From the pole–zero diagram, it is seen that the impedance function has ⫺3 ⫺2 ⫺1 0 ␴
zeros at: s ⫽ ⫺1, ⫺3 and poles at s ⫽ 0, ⫺2. Therefore, the function can be written Fig. 13.72
()
as, Z s = K
(
s +1 s + 3)( )
(
s s+2 )
where K is the scale factor. It is given that Z − 4 = ( ) 83 .
3
=K
( −4 + 1)( −4 + 3) ⇒ K = 1
8 −4 ( −4 + 2 )
∴ Z (s) =
( s + 1)( s + 3)
s( s + 2)
845
Cauer form I We arrange the numerator and denominator polynomials in descending powers of s.
( s + 1)( s + 3) = s + 4 s + 3
2
()
Z s =
s( s + 2) s + 2s
2
We expand by continued fraction expansion method.

s2 + 4s + 3
s2 + 2s 1← z
s2 + 2s
s2 + 2s
s
2s + 3 2 3 ←y
s + s 2
2
1 2s + 3
s 4←z
2 2s
1
s 1⍀ 4⍀
1
32 s← y
1 6 Z(s) 1/2F 1/6F
s
2
Fig. 13.73 (a) Cauer form I
The synthesized network by Cauer Form I is shown in Fig. 13.73 (a).
Cauer form II We arrange the numerator and denominator polynomials in ascending powers of s.
( s + 1)( s + 3) = 3 + 4 s + s 2
()
Z s =
s( s + 2) 2s + s 2
We expand by continued fraction expansion method.

3 + 4s + s2
3
2s + s2
3 ←z
3+ s 2 s
2
2s + s2
5 4
s+s 2
4 2 ←y
2 2s + s 5
5
5
s + s2
1 22 25
s ←z
5 5 2s
s
2
1 2 2/3 F 2/25 F
s
1
s2 5 ←y Z(s) 5⍀
1 25 5/4F
s
5
Fig. 13.73 (a) Cauer form II
The synthesized network by Cauer Form II is shown in Fig. 13.73 (b).
846
Problem 13.41 Of the three pole–zero diagrams shown, pick the diagram that represents an RL imped-
ance function and synthesize in a series Foster form.
jv jv jv
s s
24 23 22 21 24 23 22 21 4 3 2 1
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 13.74
Solution For an RL impedance function, the critical frequency nearest to (or at) the origin must be a zero.
Hence, the pole–zero diagram of Fig. 13.74 (b) represents an RL impedance function.
( )( ) s s+2 s+4
For Fig. 13.74 (b), taking scale factor to be 1, the impedance function is Z s = ()
( s + 1)( s + 3)
Z (s)
If we expand in partial fraction, there will be negative residues. Therefore, we expand .
Z ( s ) ( s + 2 )( s + 4 )
s
2s + 5 K K
= = 1+ = 1+ 1
+ 2
s ( )( ) ( )( )
s + 1 s + 3 s + 1 s + 3 s + 1 s +3
⎡ 2s + 5 ⎤ 3
∴ K1 = ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ s + 3 ⎦ s =−1 2
⎡ 2s + 5 ⎤ 1
∴ K2 = ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ s + 1 ⎦ s = −3 2
( ) = ( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) = 1 + 2 s + 5 = 1 + 3 2 + 1 2
Z s
s ( s + 1)( s + 3) ( s + 1)( s + 3) s + 1 s + 3 1/2
3/2
3 1 1H
s s
()
∴Z s = s+ 2 + 2 = s+
s +1 s + 3 2
1
1
+
1
1
Z(s) 3/2H 1/6H
+ 2+
3 3 s
2 ( )
1 s
6 ( ) Fig. 13.75 Foster series form
The synthesized network in Foster series form is shown in Fig. 13.75.

1 1
s2 + s +
Problem 13.42 Obtain Brune’s realization of the driving point impedance function: Z s = 2 2
s + s+2
2 ()
Or,
s2 + 0.5s + 0.5
An impedance function is given by Z s = () s2 + s + 2
(i) Show that Z(s) satisfies the conditions of minimum function.
(ii) Obtain the Brune’s network realization for the function.
Solution In order to check whether Z(s) is a minimum function, we follow the following steps:
847
(ii) At s 0, Z(0) 0.25 and at s , Z( ) 1. Thus, the function has finite, real and positive values at
s 0 and s .
(iii) To find the frequency for which Re[Z( j )] 0, we have,
( ) + j ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣( 2 − ) − j ⎤⎦
1 1
− 2
+ ⎡
j 1 ⎣ 1− 2
2 2
Z j ( ) =2 2 =
2− +j (2 − ) +
2 2
2 2 2
( )( ) ⎦ + j 1 {( 2 − ) − (1 − 2 )}
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎣ 1− 2 2− 2 +
2 2 2 2
=
( ) (2 − ) +
2 2
2 2− 2 + 2 2 2 2
⎡
1 ⎣ 1− 2 (
2
2− 2 )( ) + ⎤⎦ = 2 − 4 + 2
2
4 2
∴ Re ⎡⎣ Z j ( ) ⎤=
⎦ 2
( ) −6 +8
2 4 2
2− 2 + 2 2

d ⎡
d ⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ( )
Re ⎡ Z j ⎤⎦ ⎤ = 0 ⇒ =1= 0
1 1
()
2
− 1 + j 1
At = 1, Z j ( ) ( )
= Z j1 = 2 2 = j
()
0 0 2
2 −1× 1 + j 2
Thus, the real part is zero at 0 1.
Brune’s synthesis steps
(1) At 0
1
2
( )
; this is removed by a positive inductor, L1 = H .
= 1, Z j1 = j
1
2
1 1 1 2
s s + 2 s + 2 s 2 s +1 −s +1
2
( )( )
() s
2
()
∴ Z s = Z1 s + ⇒ Z1 s = Z s − = 2
2 s +s+2 2
() ()
− =
s2 + s + 2
(2) Here, Z1(s) has a pair of zeros at s j1. Thus, Y1(s) has a pair of poles at s j1.
()
Y1 s =
(
2 s2 + s + 2 ) =
2 K1 sK0
+
( s + 1)( − s + 1)
2
s +1 −s +1
2
where, K0 = ⎢
(
⎡ 2 s2 + s + 2 ) ⎤⎥ =4
⎢ s2 +1
⎣ ( ) ⎥
⎦ s =1
and, 2 K1 s = ⎢
(
⎡ 2 s2 + s + 2 ) ⎤⎥ =
(
2 s +1 ) = ⎡⎢ 2( s + 1)
2
⎤
⎥ (
⎡ 2 s2 + 2s +1
=⎢
) ⎤⎥ = −1 + 2 s + 1 = 2 s
⎢ −s +1
⎣ ( ) ⎥2
⎦ s =−1
−s +1 ⎢ 1− s2
⎣
⎥ ⎢
⎦ s2 =−1 ⎣
2 ⎥2
⎦ s =−1
Y1 s =() 2s
+
4
=
1
s +1 −s +1 s 1
2
+
1
s 1
+ − +
2 2s 4 4
848
Therefore, the realized network is shown in Fig. 13.76 (a). 1/2 H 1/2H M 1/2 H
The negative inductor along with two other inductors is 1H
Z (s) 1/2H 1/4H
realized by a pair of mutually coupled inductors, as shown Z (s)
1/4 1/4
in Fig. 13.76 (b). 2F 2F
Problem 13.43 Synthesize the following functions by
Bott-Duffin method: (a) (b)
Fig. 13.76
1 1
s + s+2
2 s2 + s +
()
(a) Z s =
2 s2 + s + 1
()
(b) Z s = 2 2 2
s + s+2
Solution
s2 + s + 2
(a) Z s =() 2s2 + s +1
We check whether Z(s) is a minimum function:
1
(ii) At s 0, Z(0) and at s , Z( ) 1. Thus, the function has finite, real and positive values at
4
s 0 and s .
(iii) To find the frequency for which Re[Z( j )] 0, we have,
( )
Z j =
2− 2
+j
⎡ 2−
=⎣
( ) + j ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣(1− 2 ) − j ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣( 2 − )(1− 2 ) +
2 2 2 2 2 ⎤
⎦+ j {(1− 2 ) − ( 2 − )}
2 2
1− 2 +j (1− 2 ) + (1− 2 ) + (1− 2 )

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
+ 2
⎡( 2 − )(1 − 2 ) + ⎤
2 2 2
⎦ = 2 −4 +2
4 2
∴ Re ⎡⎣ Z ( j ) ⎤⎦ = ⎣
(1− 2 ) + 4 − 5 +1
2 4 2
2 2

d ⎡
d ⎣ ⎣
Re ⎡ Z j ( )⎤⎦ ⎤⎦ = 0 ⇒ 0
=1
Re[Z( j1)] j1
Thus, the real part is zero at 0 1.
Bott–Duffin synthesis procedure Z j1 = ( ) 2 − 1 + j1 1 + j1

= = =
( )(
1 + j1 −1 − j1 −1 − j1 − j1 + 1
= − j1
)
1 − 2 + j1 −1 + j1 2 2
X( 0) 1 (Negative)
kX ( )
Z k = () 0
k2 +k +2 −1
or, = k = −k
2k + k + 1
2
1
849
or, k3 k2 k 1 0
or, (k2 1) (k 1) 0
Z k 1 ()
()
∴ Z k = 1, C =
1
=
1
= 1 F; L = = =1H
()
kZ k 1 × 1 k 1

s2 + s + 2
()
kZ s − sZ k ()
Z s −s () −s
s2 + s + 2 − 2s3 − s2 − s
() = 2 s +2s + 1
2
R s = = = 2
() ()
kZ k − sZ s 1 × 1 − sZ s
1− s 2
()
s + s + 2 2s + s +1− s3 − s2 − 2s
2s + s +1
= 3 2
2 − 2s3
=
2
( )(
2 1− s s + s +1 2 s2 + s +1
=
) ( )
−s + s − s +1 1− s s2 +1 ( )( s2 +1 )
() ()
⎛ 2 s2 + s +1
ZA = Z k R s =1× ⎜
( )⎞⎟ = 2( s 2
+ s +1 ) =2+ 2s
⎜⎝ s 2 + 1 ⎟⎠ s +12
s +1
2
and Z B =
( )=
Z k 1
=
s2 +1 2H
) 2( s )
1/2
R( s ) 2( s
2
2
+ +s +1 2
+ s +1
1/2F 3F 1 /2 H
s2 +1
∴ YB =
(
2 s2 + s +1
=2+ 2
)
2s Z(s )
1F 1H
s +1
2
s +1
Fig. 13.77
1 1
s2 + s +
()
(b) Z s = 2 2 2
s +s+2
From Problem 13.42, we see that Z(s) is a minimum function with 0 1.
Bott–Duffin synthesis procedure
1 1 1 1
( )
Z j1 = 2
−1+ j
2 =
− +j
2 ( )(
2 = −1 + j1 1 − j1 = −1 + j1 + j1 + 1 = j 1 )
2 − 1 + j1 1 + j1 2×2 4 2
∴X ( ) = 12
0
(positive)
850

kX ( )
()
Z k = 0
1 1
k + k+
2
1
or, 2 2 =k 2 = k
k2 +k +2 1 2
3 2
or, k k k 1 0
or, (k2 1) (k 1) 0
Z k 1
()
()
1
∴Z k = , C =
1
=
1
= 2 F; L = = 2= H
1
2 kZ k 1 × 1
2
() k 1 2

1 1
s2 + s +
()
kZ s − sZ k ()
Z s −s×
1
() 2 2−s
2 = s + s + 2 2 = 2s + s +1− s − s − 2s
2 3 2
()
2
R s = =
()
kZ k − sZ s () 1
1 × − sZ s 1
1 1 s2 + s + 2 − 2s3 − s2 − s
()
s2 + s +
2 −s 2 2 2
2 s +s+2
=
−s + s − s +1
3 2
=
1− s s +1
2
( )( =
s2 +1 )
2 − 2s3 ( )(
2 1− s s2 + s +1 2 s2 + s +1 ) ( )
1 ⎛ s2 +1 ⎞ s2 +1
() ()
ZA = Z k R s = × ⎜ ⎟=
2 ⎜⎝ 2 s 2 + s + 1 ( ) ( )
⎟⎠ 4 s 2 + s + 1
∴ YA =
(
4 s + s +1
2
) =4+ 4s
s +12
s +1
2
1
and Z B =
( )=
Z k 2 =
(s 2
+ s +1 ) = 1+ s
R( s ) s2 +1 s +12
s +12
(
2 s + +s +1
2
)
1H
1 1 /4
4F 1/4H
1F
1 /2H
Z(s) 2F
Fig. 13.78
851
Summary
1. Given a network function H(s), as the ratio of response overall network whose driving-point impedance is
transform R(s) to the excitation transform, E(s), i.e., Z(s). Decomposition is done by either of the following
R s () methods or a combination of these:
()
H s =
E s (), ‘elements of realizability theory ’ deals with
• Removal of a pole at infinity,
the study to determine whether the function can be • Removal of a pole at origin,
realized as a physical passive network. • Removal of conjugate imaginary poles, and
2. For a physically realizable system, the system must be • Removal of a constant.
causal and stable. 9. For a given positive real function F(s), the network
3. A polynomial P(s) is said to be Hurwitz if the following can be synthesized by any one of the following two
conditions are satisfied: methods:
• P(s) is real when s is real. • Foster forms, and
• The roots of P(s) have real parts which are zero or • Cauer forms.
negative, i.e., all roots of P(s) lie in the left half of the 10. The networks synthesized by partial fraction expan-
s-plane or a simple root on the imaginary axis. sion methods are called Foster type of networks.
4. A function F(s) is said to be positive real function, if it Foster form I provides a series impedance network
satisfies the following conditions: realization, Z(s) and Foster form II provides parallel
• F(s) is real for real s, i.e., F( ) is real. admittance network realization, Y(s).
• The real part of F(s) is greater than or equal to zero 11. The networks synthesized by continued fraction
when the real part of s is greater than or equal to expansion methods are called Cauer type of networks.
zero, i.e., Re [F(s)] 0 for Re[s] 0 By this technique, the synthesized network is of the
ladder type.
5. The necessary and sufficient conditions for a rational
function with real coefficients, F(s) to be positive real are Cauer form I is obtained by repeated removal of
poles at infinity (s ), which corresponds to arrang-
• F(s) must not have any pole in the right-half of the
ing the numerator and denominator of the network
s-plane
function in descending powers of ‘s’ and then to find
• F(s) may have only simple poles on the j -axis with the continued fraction expansion.
real and positive residue.
Cauer form II is obtained by repeated removal
• Re[F( j )] 0 for all of poles at the origin (s 0), which corresponds to
6. For a function P( ), if all the coefficients of P( ) are arranging the numerator and denominator of the net-
positive then P( ) is positive for all values of between work function in ascending powers of ‘s’ and then to
0 and . However, if all the coefficients of P( ) are not find the continued fraction expansion.
positive then a test, known as ‘Sturm’s Test’ is carried 12. The LC driving point immittance functions are the ratio
out to test the positive realness of the function. of even to odd or odd to even polynomials and have
7. According to Sturm’s theorem, the number of zeros of a interlacing poles and zeros on the j -axis. The function
given polynomial P(x) in the interval 0 x is equal must have either a zero or a pole at origin (s 0) and
to (S S0) where S and S0 are the number of sign infinity (s ).
changes in the set (P0, P1, …, Pn) evaluated at x 0 and 13. For LC immittance functions, Cauer Form I suggests a
dP0 x ( ) ladder network with inductors in series and capacitors
x respectively, and, P0 (x) ( )
P(x), P1 x =
dx
and in shunt; whereas, Cauer Form II suggests a ladder net-
( )=
) − P (( x)) .
Pi − 2 x P x work with capacitors in series and inductors in shunt.
subsequent functions are, ( x+ i
Pi −1 (x) 1 2
i −1
14. For RC impedance or RL admittance functions, poles
and zeros lie on the negative real axis, and they
8. To synthesize a driving point immittance function, Z(s), alternate. Here, the critical frequencies nearest to
the first step is to decompose it into a sum of simpler the origin or at the origin must be a pole; whereas,
positive real functions Z1(s), Z2(s), …, Zn(s) and then to the critical frequency nearest to infinity or at infinity
synthesize these individual Zi (s) as elements of the must be a zero.
852
15. In Cauer form I, resistors are in series arms and capaci- capacitors are in series arms and are resistors in shunt
tors are in shunt arms for RC impedance function; arms for RC admittance function.
while inductors are in series arms and resistors are in 20. A positive real function F(s) is called minimum func-
shunt arms for RL admittance function. tion, if
16. In Cauer form II, capacitors are in series arms and resis- 1. It has no poles or zeros on the imaginary axis of the
tors are in shunt arms for RC impedance function while s-plane
resistors are in series arms and inductors are in shunt 2. It has finite, real and positive values at s 0 and s
arms for RL admittance function.
3. Its real part becomes zero at least at one frequency
17. For RL impedance or RC admittance functions, poles (say, 0), i.e., Re [F( j 0 )] 0, for 0 0
and zeros lie on the negative real axis, and they alter-
The RLC immittance functions are minimum functions.
nate. Here, the critical frequency nearest to the origin
or at the origin must be a zero; whereas, the critical fre- 21. An RLC immittance function can be synthesized by
quency nearest to infinity or at infinity must be a pole. two methods:
18. In Cauer form I, inductors are in series arms and resis- • Brune’s method, and
tors are in shunt arms for RL impedance function; while • Bott Duffin method.
resistors are in series arms and capacitors are in shunt 22. Brune’s method requires the use of mutually coupled
arms for RC admittance function. inductors (or transformers) with unity coefficient of
19. In Cauer form II, resistors are in series arms and induc- coupling. But, the Bott–Duffin method requires only
tors are in shunt arms for RL impedance function; while simple inductors, resistors and capacitors.
1. Sketch (i) realizable impulse response, and (ii) non- Sometimes, a non-causal impulse response can be
realizable impulse response. made causal by shifting or delaying it appropriately.
A response will be realizable if the response is causal. For example, the impulse response of Fig. 13.79 (c) is
non-realizable; but it is made realizable by shifting it by
A system is said to be causal if the output of the system
an amount of time, T, as shown in Fig. 13.79 (d),
depends only on the input at the present time and/or
in the past, but not the future value of the input. Thus, h(t) h(t T )
a causal system is non-anticipative, i.e., output cannot
come before the input.
T0 t 0 t
On the other hand, the output of a non-causal
system depends on the future values of the input. Fig. 13.79 (c) Fig. 13.79 (d)
In a network synthesis problem, causality means Non-realizable Realizable
that a voltage cannot appear between any pair of impulse response impulse response
terminals in a network before a current is impressed
2. What are the conditions to be satisfied by a func-
or vice-versa. This means that the response of the
tion so that it represents a stable network?
network must be zero for t 0, i.e., h(t) 0 for
t 0. 1. The function should not have any pole in the right
For example, the impulse response, h(t) e atu(t) is half of the s-plane.
causal and thus, realizable; but the impulse response, 2. The poles on the imaginary axis should be simple
h(t) e a t is not causal. (not repeated).
3. The difference in the degree of the numerator and
h(t ) e atu(t ) h(t) e a|t|
u(t) denominator polynomials can at most be unity.
3. State the realizability conditions of F(s) as a driv-
0 t 0 t ing point impedance or admittance of a passive
RLC network.
Fig. 13.79 (a) Fig. 13.79 (b) Non-
()
N s
Causal and realizable causal and non-realizable
We consider a network function, F s = ()
impulse response impulse response ()
D s
853
For this function, the conditions are as listed. 6. Briefly explain positive real functions. Discuss the
1. The coefficients in the polynomials N(s) and D(s) properties of positive real function.
must be real and positive. Positive real function (prf) The driving point
2. Complex and imaginary poles must be conjugate. impedance and admittance functions (immittance
3. The real part of all poles and zeros must either be functions) which can be physically realizable by linear
negative or zero. Thus, all poles and zeros must lie on time-invariant passive RLC elements are known as posi-
the left half of the s-plane or on the imaginary axis. tive real functions (prf ). Since these functions were first
4. If the real part of any pole or zero, is zero then that studied by Otto Brune, they are also known as Brune’s
pole or zero must be simple, not repeated. This functions.
includes the origin. A function F(s) is said to be a positive real function,
5. Polynomials N(s) and D(s) must not have missing if it satisfies the following conditions:
terms between those of highest and lowest degree
1. F(s) is real for real s, i.e., F( ) is real.
6. The degree of N(s) and D(s) may differ by zero or one 2. The real part of F(s) is greater than or equal to zero
only. when the real part of s is greater than or equal to
zero, i.e., Re[F(s)] 0 for Re[s] 0
7. The lowest degree of N(s) and D(s) may differ by
one at most. • Properties of positive real functions:
4. Mention the conditions to be satisfied for a func- 1. The summation of several positive real functions is
tion F(s) (i) to be physically realizable, (ii) to be real- also a positive real function.
izable as driving point immittance, and (iii) to be 2. If F(s) and W(s) are positive real functions then F(W(s))
realizable as an LC driving point immittance. is also a positive real function (prf ).
(i) See Q 1 ⎛ 1⎞
(ii) See Q 3 3. If F(s) is prf then F ⎜ ⎟ is also prf.
⎝ s⎠
(iiI) The conditions are listed below.
(a) Driving point immittance function [ZLC(s)] or [YLC(s)] 1
4. If F(s) is prf, then is also prf.
must be the ratio of even to odd or odd to even F(s)
polynomials. ()
N s
()
5. If F s =
()
(b) Both Ei(s) and Oi(s) must be Hurwitz, and they must is prf then F (s)1 N(s) D(s) will also
D s
have only imaginary roots. Thus, the poles and
be prf.
zeros of the immittance function should be on the
() ()
F1 s F2 s
imaginary (j ) axis. 6. If F1(s) and F2(s) are prf then F3 s = () is
(c) The poles and zeros of the immittance function () ()
F1 s + F2 s
must interlace on the j -axis, i.e., the poles and also prf.
zeros should be alternating on the imaginary axis. 7. Enlist the necessary and sufficient conditions for a
(d) The highest as well as the lowest powers of the function to be positive real one.
numerator and denominator must differ by unity.
1. All poles of the function should lie on the left half
(e) There must be either a zero or pole at origin (s 0) of the s-plane; they cannot lie in the right half of the
and infinity (s ). s-plane.
5. State the conditions for a polynomial to be Hurwitz. 2. Only simple poles with positive real residues can
exist on the imaginary (j ) axis.
A polynomial P(s) is said to be Hurwitz if the following
conditions are satisfied: 3. The poles and zeros of a positive real function are
real or occur in conjugate pairs.
1. P(s) is real when s is real.
2. The roots of P(s) have real parts which are zero or 4. The highest powers of the numerator and denomi-
negative, i.e., all roots of P(s) lie in the left half of the nator polynomials can at most differ by one.
s-plane or a simple root on the imaginary axis. 5. The lowest powers of the numerator and denomina-
tor polynomials can at most differ by one.
A polynomial is known as strictly Hurwitz if it does not
have any zero in the right half of the s-plane or on the 8. Justify that the sum of two positive real functions
imaginary axis. is another positive real function.
854
Let, F1(s) and F2(s) be both prf, so that F(s) F1(s) F2(s) where, X( ) is a pure reactance.
When Re[s] 0 then Re[F1(s)] 0 and Re[F2(s)] 0 Differentiating X( ) with respect to ,
Re[F1(s)] Re[F2(s)] 0 or Re[F(s)] 0 dX ( )= K 0
+ K∞ +
2K 2 ( 2
+ 2
2
) + ⋅⋅⋅
( )
2 2
Also, when s is real, both F1(s) and F2(s) are real; then the 2
− 2
2
summation of two real numbers is also a real number.
Hence, [F1(s) F2(s)] is a prf. Since all Ki are positive, it is seen that for an LC imped-
9. Prove that if Z1(s) and Z2(s) are both positive real ance function,
dX ( )≥0
Z (s =) )
Z1 (s Z 2 (s ) must also be positive real Similarly, for an LC admittance function, it can be
)
Z1 (s + Z 2 (s ) dB ( ) ≥ 0 where, B(ω) is a pure susceptance
function. shown that
Let, Z1(s) and Z2(s) be both prf, so that Z s = ()

Z 1(s Z 2 (s) ) of the LC function.
)
Z 1(s + Z 2 (s ) X(v)
When Re[s] 0, then Re[Z1(s)] 0 and Re[Z2(s)] 0
() ()
∴ Re ⎡⎣ Z 1 s Z 2 s ⎤⎦ ≥ 0 and Re ⎡⎣ Z 1 s + Z 2 s ⎤⎦ ≥ 0 () () 0 v2 v3 v4 v
∴ Re ⎢ 1
() ()
⎡ Z s Z2 s ⎤
⎥≥0
() ()
⎢⎣ Z 1 s + Z 2 s ⎥⎦ Fig. 13.80 Plot of X( ) versus
()
∴ Re ⎡⎣ Z s ⎤⎦ ≥ 0 We see that the slope of the curve of X( ) [or, B( )] versus
is always positive. The plot is shown in Fig. 13.80.
Hence, Z(s) is also a prf.
11. Discuss the concept of separation properties of
10. Show that the slope of reactance versus frequency poles and zeros. Why is it desired?
curves of a LC network is always positive.
We consider a driving-point impedance function as
An LC impedance function Z(s) can be written as
(
K s2 + 2
)( s + )( s + )⋅⋅⋅( s
2 2 2 2 2
+ 2
)⋅⋅⋅ ()
Z s =
(
K s2 + 1
2
)( s + )( s + )⋅⋅⋅( s
2
3
2 2
5
2 2
+ i
2
)⋅⋅⋅
Z (s) = s( s )( s + )( s + )⋅⋅⋅( s )⋅⋅⋅
1 3 5 i
+ +
)( s + )( s + )⋅⋅⋅( s )⋅⋅⋅
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
s( s 2
+ 2
2 2
4
2 2
6
2 2
+ j
2 2 4 6 j
This driving point function can be synthesized into a

where, ...
1 2 3 4 5 6 physical network only if the slope of the reactance curve
Here, , 3, 5, . . ., ( i are known as internal zeros.
1
with respect to frequency is positive at all points.
, 4, 6, . . ., j are known as internal poles.
2
1 dZ
The critical frequencies at s 0 and s are known as i.e., > 0 for
jd
the external critical frequencies.
This indicates that the poles and zeros of the function
Expanding Z(s) into partial fraction, must interlace i.e., the poles and zeros must alternate
K0 2K 2 s 2K 4 s on the j -axis. This property is known as separation
Z s = () + +
s s 2 + 22 s 2 + 4 2
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ K ∞ s property and can be expressed as
0 0 1 2 3 ... 2n 2 2n 1
where, Ki are the residues of the poles. As all poles are
The existence of two poles or zeros in succession on
on the j -axis, Ki must be real and positive for
the real frequency axis of the s-plane requires that the
Z(s) to be positive real function.
slope of the reactance curve be negative over some
Let, s j ; then part of the frequency range. Besides, the sign change
K0 2K 2 j 2K 4 j of the reactance will be discontinuous while passing
( )= j
Z j + 2
− 2
+ 2
− 2
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ K ∞ j through a pole.
2 4
⎡ K ⎤ 12. Point out the difference in the philosophy between

2K 2K 4
= j ⎢− 0 + 2 2
− 2
+ 2
− 2
+ ⋅⋅⋅+ K ∞ ⎥ = jX ( ) Foster and Cauer form of synthesis of a given driv-
⎢⎣ 2 4 ⎥⎦ ing point impedance.
855
Foster forms The networks synthesized by partial number of elements for a specified network function. For
fraction expansion methods are called Foster type of this reason, Foster and Cauer forms of network are termed
networks. as canonical network (canonic means that the network
Foster form I provides series impedance network contains the minimum possible number of elements).
realization, Z(s) and Foster form II provides parallel 13. Explain minimum function and give their addi-
admittance network realization, Y(s). tional properties when they are positive real.
Cauer forms The networks synthesized by continued A driving point impedance or admittance may have a
fraction expansion methods are called Cauer type of form with no poles or zeros on the imaginary axis and
networks. By this technique, the synthesized network with a real part of Z( j␻) [or Y( j␻)] 0 at one or more
is of Ladder type. Cauer forms are of two types. frequencies. Such functions are known as minimum
Cauer I form The first Cauer form of a network positive real function or simply minimum functions.
realization is obtained by repeated removal of poles Thus, a positive real function F(s) is called minimum
at infinity (s ), which corresponds to arrange the function, if:
numerator and denominator of the network function Re[F( j v)]
in descending powers of ‘s’ and then to find the contin-
ued fraction expansion. F (0) F( )
Cauer II form The second Cauer form of network
realization is obtained by repeated removal of poles
at origin (s 0), which corresponds to arrange the v
v0
numerator and denominator of the network function
in ascending powers of ‘s’ and then to find the contin- Fig. 13.81 Minimum function
ued fraction expansion.
1. It has no poles or zeros on the imaginary axis of the
It may be mentioned here that in both the forms
s-plane.
of the networks Foster and Cauer, the number of ele-
2. It has finite, real and positive values at s 0 and s .
ments are one greater than the number of internal
3. Its real part becomes zero at least at one frequency
critical frequencies, which are the poles and zeros of
(say, ␻0), i.e., Re[F( j␻0)] 0, for ␻0 0.
the network function excluding those at s 0 and
s . Both the forms of network give the minimum The RLC immittance functions are minimum functions.
Exercises
1. Test if the following polynomials are Hurwitz polyno- 3. Check the positive realness of the following functions.
mials. s 2 + 2 s + 25
(a) s 2 + 4 s + 7 (d) s + 4 s + 2 s + s + 1
5 4 2 ()
(a) F s = 2
s + 5s + 16
[Yes]
s + 2s + 4
2
(b) s + 4 s + 5s + 2 (e) s 7 + 5s 6 + 3s 5 + 4 s 3 + 2 s 2 + s + 1 ()
3 2
(b) F s = 2 [No]
s + 5s + 9
(c) s + 3s + 6 s + 20
4 2
4. State giving appropriate reasons whether the follow-

2. Determine whether the following functions are posi- ing functions are positive real:
tive real.
( )( )
s s+2 s+ 4
() s+2 ()
(a) Z s =
( s + 1)( s + 5)
(a) F s = 2 [Yes] [Yes]
s + 3s + 2
()
(b) F s = 2
s+4
[No] ()
(b) Z s =
( s + 1)( s + 2)
2 2
[No]
s + 2s + 1 s( s + 4)
2
()
(
s s2 + 6 ) ( s + 1)( s + 2)
2 2
(c) F s = [No] (c) Z (s) = [Yes]
(s ) s( s + 4)
2
2
+2 2
856
5. State giving appropriate reasons whether the follow-
ing functions are positive real. ()
Z s =
( )(
s s2 + 4 s2 + 6 )
s + 3s + s + 1
4 3 ( s + 1)( s
2 2
+5 )
()
Z s =
s3 + s2 + s +1 13. Find the first and second Cauer forms of LC networks,
[Yes]
including element values, for the impedance functions:
6. Show that the Re[f(s)] 0 for Re [s] 0 for the function
s 4 + 6s 2 + 8
() s2 + s + 2 ()
(a) Z s =
Z s = 2
2s + s + 1
.
(
s s2 + 3 )
7. Test for positive reality the rational function 2 s 5 + 10 s 3 + 10 s
s 4 + 2 s 3 + 3s 2 + s + 1 ()
(b) Z s =
()
F s = 4 3
s + s + 3s 2 + 2 s + 1
s 4 + 4s2 + 3
8 s 3 + 10 s
8. Synthesize the network which has an impedance or
()
(c) Z s =
s 4 + 6s 2 + 5
admittance function as given. 14. Find one Foster network and one Cauer network for
5s + 3 5s 3 + 2 s 2 + 3s + 1 the driving point admittance.
()
(a) Y s = ()
(b) Z s =
2s + 4 5s 3 + 3s
()
Y s =
(
3 s+2 s+ 4 )( )
9. Test whether the following functions are LC immit- (
s s+3 )
tance functions.
( ) ( s + 5)( s + 7) in Foster’s form II.

()
ks s 2 + 6 ()
15. Synthesize Z s =
(a) F s =
(s 2
+ 2 s2 + 4 )( ) ( s + 1)( s + 6)( s + 8)
16. Synthesize the following function (i) as an impedance
s + 3s + 5s
5 3
()
(b) F s =
3s 4 + 6 s 2
function in the Foster’s form, and (ii) as an admittance
function in Cauer’s form:
()
( )( )
k s2 + 4 s2 + 9 ( s + 2)( s + 4 )
(c) F s =
( s + 2)( s + 6) ()
Z s =
2 2
( s + 1)( s + 3)
k ( s + 4 )( s + 9 )
2 2
17. Synthesize the function
(d) F(s) =
s( s + 6) 2
(
3 s+2 s+ 4 )( )
()
F s =
(e) F ( s ) =
4( s + 10 s + 9)
4 2
[(a) No, (b) No, (c) No, (d)
(
s s+3 )
s( s 2 + 4 ) (i) as an RC impedance in Foster form
Yes, (e) Yes] (ii) as an RL admittance in Cauer form
10. Synthesize first and second Foster forms of LC net- 18. Synthesize the driving point impedance function in all
works for the impedance functions: four forms:
()
(
s s2 + 4 ) ( )( )
2 s+2 s+ 4
(a) Z s = 4
( s + 1)( s + 16) ()
Z s =
2 2
( s + 1)( s + 3)
(b) Z (s) = 8
( s + 4 )( s + 25)
2 2
19. Synthesize the function using Cauer forms:
s ( s + 16 ) 2
(
4 s +1 s + 3 )( )
()
Z s =
11. Find the first Cauer form of LC networks for the driving (
s s+2 )
point impedance functions.
20. A function F(s) has
12 s 3 + 4 s
Z s = 4 ()
3s + 10 s 2 + 2
Poles: 0, 2
Zeros: 1, 3
12. Find the first and second Cauer forms of LC networks, Taking the scale factor to be 1, synthesize F(s) as an
including element values, for the impedance function: impedance function in Foster’s form.
857
21. An impedance func- 22. A function has the following poles and zeros:
tion has the pole–zero jv Poles: 2, 5; Zeros: 0, 4, 6
pattern as shown. If 0s
24 23 22 Taking the scale factor to be 1, synthesize F(s), i) as
Z( 3) 3, synthesize
an impedance function in Foster’s form, and ii) as an
the impedance in a Fig. 13.81
admittance function in Cauer form.
Foster and Cauer forms.
Questions
1. Sketch (i) realizable impulse response, and (ii) non- 16. Bring out the significance of a Hurwitz polynomial in
realizable impulse response. testing the positive realness of a function.
2. (a) What are the conditions to be satisfied by a func- 17. What do you understand by a positive real function in
tion so that it represents a stable network? the context of network synthesis? State and explain
(b) State the realizability conditions of F(s) as a driving clearly Sturm’s theorem for testing positive realness
point impedance or admittance of a passive RLC characteristic of a network function.
network. 18. Write a short note on Sturm’s test for positive real
3. Mention the conditions to be satisfied for a function functions.
F(s) (i) to be physically realizable, (ii) to be realizable as 19. State the conditions for a rational function G(s) to be
driving point immittance, and (iii) to be realizable as LC positive real.
driving point immittance. 20. Prove that if Z1(s) and Z2(s) are both positive real
4. What do you understand by Hurwitz polynomials?
Z1( s ) Z 2 ( s )
Explain clearly the importance of testing Hurwitz ()
Z s =
Z1( s ) + Z 2 ( s )
property of a polynomial in network synthesis.
5. Explain clearly what is meant by Hurwitz property of
a polynomial. Discuss briefly the significance of this must also be positive real function.
property in the context of synthesis of a passive one- 21. State the properties of LC driving point impedance func-
port network. tion. Prove the slope property and give its significance.
6. State the conditions for a polynomial to be Hurwitz. 22. Show that the slope of reactance versus frequency
7. When is a polynomial in s called Hurwitz polynomial? curves of a LC network is always positive.
8. Discuss the procedure for testing a given polynomial 23. Discuss the concept of separation properties of poles
for Hurwitz character. and zeros. Why is it desired?
9. Mention some properties of a Hurwitz polynomial. 24. Explain the properties of the network driving point
function.
10. Briefly explain positive real functions.
25. Discuss the properties of RL impedance functions.
11. Discuss the properties of a positive real function.
26. Discuss the properties of RC driving impedance func-
12. What do you understand by a positive real function? tions.
Enumerate its important properties and state the sig-
nificance of such a function in network synthesis. 27. Discuss the properties of RL impedance and RC admit-
tance functions.
13. Explain clearly what you understand by Brune’s posi-
tive realness of a network function. Enlist the necessary 28. Point out the difference in the philosophy between
and sufficient conditions for a function to be a positive Foster and Cauer form of synthesis of a given driving
real one. point impedance.
14. State and explain the conditions to be fulfilled for a 29. Discuss the need of four forms of network realization,
function to be positive real. i.e., Foster’s I and II and Cauer’s I and II.
15. State and explain the necessary and sufficient condi- 30. Explain Foster’s driving point synthesis with L, C ele-
tions for a positive real function. Justify that the sum ments.
of two positive real functions is another positive real 31. Outline the Foster theory to determine the physical
function. structure of a reactive network.
858
32. Explain minimum function and give their additional 34. What is Richard’s transformation? Explain its use in the
properties when they are positive real. Bott–Duffin’s method of one-port synthesis.
33. Explain the following terms with examples: 35. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of Brune’s
(i) Minimum phase network function one-port synthesis with the Bott–Duffin one-port syn-
thesis of RLC network.
(ii) Non-minimum phase network functions
1. The following property relates to LC impedance or (i) an impedance and 4
admittance functions: 1
(ii) an admittance and
(i) The poles and zeros are simple and lie on the j␻-axis. 4
(iii) an impedance and 4
(ii) There must be either a zero or a pole at origin and
(iv) an admittance and 4
infinity.
(iii) The highest (or lowest) powers of numerator or 6. If the driving point admittance function of a 1-port
denominator differ by unity. network is Y s =
Ks
s+
()
, it can be realized using
(iv) All of the above.
(i) series combination of R, L
2. Consider the following statements with reference to (ii) parallel combination of R, L
RC impedance function: (iii) series combination of R, C
1. All poles and zeros of the function are located on (iv) parallel combination of R, C
the positive real axis.
2. Poles and zeros are interlaced. 7. The Thevenin’s equivalent of a circuit operating at
3. The lowest critical frequency is a zero. ␻ 5 rad/s has Vo c 3.71 15.9 V and Z0 2.38
4. The lowest critical frequency is a pole. j0.667 . At this frequency, the minimal realization of
the Thevenin’s impedance will have a
The properties of RC impedance function are
(i) resistor and a capacitor and an inductor
(i) 1 and 2 (ii) 2 and 3
(ii) resistor and a capacitor
(iii) 2 and 4 (iv) 1 and 4
(iii) Nresistor and an inductor
3. An RC driving point impedance function has zeros at (iv) capacitor and an inductor
s 2 and s 5. The admissible poles for the func-
8. The driving point impedance Z(s) of a network has the
tion are
pole zero locations as shown in Fig. 13.83. If Z(0) 3
(i) s 0 and s 6 (ii) s 1 and s 3
then Z(s) is
(iii) s 0 and s 1 (iv) s 3 and s 4
Im
4. The above network contains i(t) 1
two passive elements. If the
1 denotes zero
response to a step voltage u(t ) N 3
1
Re
denotes pole
input u(t) is i(t) e 3t A, then
the network N contains
1 Fig. 13.82 Fig. 13.83
(i) an R 1 and L H in
series 3
(i)
(
3 s+3 ) (ii)
(
2 s+3 )
1 s + 2s + 3
2
s + 2s + 2
2
(ii) an R 1 and L H in parallel

3
1 (iii)
(
3 s+3 ) (iv)
(
2 s−3 )
(iii) an R 1 and C F in parallel s 2 + 2s + 3 s 2 − 2s − 3
3
1 9. The first and last critical frequencies (singularities) of a
(iv) an R 1 and C F in series
3 driving point impedance function of a passive network
5. An RC driving point immittance F(s) has zeros at having two kinds of elements are a pole and a zero
s 1 and s ␴; and poles at s 2 and s 8. respectively. The above property will be satisfied by
If F(0) 1 and F( ) 4 then the driving point immit- (i) RL network only (ii) RC network only
tance F(s) and the value of ␴ will be respectively (iii) LC network only (iv) RC as well as RL networks
859
10. A negative resistance Rneg is con- Rneg (i) 1, 2 and 3 (ii) 2 and 3
nected to a passive network N (iii) 1 and 3 (iv) 1 and 2
having driving point impedance N
15. The polynomial P(s) (s 1)(s2 1)(s 2)(s 3) is
Z1(s) as shown in Fig. 13.84. For (i) Hurwitz, but not strict Hurwitz
Z2(s) to be positive real, Z 2(s) Z1(s)
(ii) not Hurwitz
(i) Rneg ≤ Re Z1 j ( ), ∀ Fig. 13.84 (iii) strict Hurwitz
(iv) anti-Hurwitz
(ii) Rneg ≤ Z1 j ( ) ,∀ 16. A transfer function having open right-half plane zeros
is a/an
(iii) Rneg ≤ Im Z1 j ( ), ∀ (i) minimum phase function
≤ ∠Z ( j ) , ∀
(ii) non-minimum phase function
(iv) Rneg 1
(iii) unstable function
11. The driving point imped- (iv) constant phase function
ance of Fig. 13.85 is given Z(s) L C R 17. If F1(s) and F2(s) are two positive real functions (prf )
by Z s = 2 ()0.2 s
s + 0.1s + 2
. The then the function which is always positive real is
component values are
Fig. 13.85
(i) F1(s)F2(s) (ii)
()
F1 s
(i) L 5 H, R 0.5 , C 0.1 F ()
F2 s
(ii)
(iii)
L
L
0.1 H, R 0.5 , C 5 F
5 H, R 2 , C 0.1 F (iii)
() ()
F1 s F2 s
(iv) F1(s) F2(s)
(iv) L 0.1 H, R 2 , C 5 F () ()
F1 s + F2 s
12. Consider the following from the point of view of pos- 18. The first critical frequency nearest to the origin of
sible realization as driving point impedance using the complex frequency plane for an RL driving point
passive elements: impedance function will be
1 s+3 (i) a zero in the left-half plane
1. 2.
(
s s+5 ) (
s s+5
2
) (ii) a zero in the right-half plane
(iii) a pole in the left-half plane
s +32
s+5 (iv) either a pole or a zero in the left-half plane
( )
3. 4.
s2 s2 + 5 (
s s+3 ) depending on the connection
19. For a voltage transfer function H(s) realizable with a
Among these, RLC network, the following statements are made:
(i) 1, 2 and 4 are realizable 1. H(s) cannot have a pole at s 0.
(ii) 1, 2 and 3 are realizable 2. H(s) cannot have a pole at s j4
(iii) 3 and 4 are realizable 3. H(s) cannot have a pole at s
(iv) none is realizable
4. H(s) can have a pole at s 2
13. The poles and zeros of a driving point function of a net-
Of these statements,
work are simple and interlace on the negative real axis
(i) 3 and 4 are correct (ii) 2 and 4 are correct
with a pole closest to the origin. It can be realized
(iii) 1 and 2 are correct (iv) 1 and 3 are correct
(i) by an LC network
(ii) as an RC driving point impedance 20. For an RC driving point impedance function, the poles
(iii) as an RC driving point admittance and zeros
(iv) only by an RLC network (i) should alternate on real axis
(ii) should alternate only on the negative real axis
14. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?
(iii) should alternate on the imaginary axis
1. Brune’s realization ……. Realization with ideal
transformer (iv) can lie anywhere on the left half plane
2. Cauer realization ……. Ladder realization 21. The network function
3. Bott–Duffin realization ……. Realization with non-
( s + 2)
ideal transformer ()
F s =
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. ( s + 1)( s + 3)
860
represents an The LC functions among these include
(i) RC impedance (i) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (ii) 1 and 3
(ii) RL impedance (iii) 2 and 3 (iv) 1 and 2
(iii) RC impedance and an RL admittance 26. A Hurwitz polynomial has
(iv) RC admittance and an RL impedance (i) zeros only in the left half of the s-plane
22. Consider the following statements: (ii) poles only in the left half of the s-plane
I: Any function in ‘s’ which can be expressed as a ratio (iii) zeros anywhere in the s-plane
of any two arbitrary polynomials in ‘s’ can be realized (iv) poles on the j␻ axis only
as a driving-point function of a passive network 27. The pole–zero configuration of jv
II: Any function in ‘s’ which can be expressed as a ratio an impedance function is given
of any two arbitrary polynomials in ‘s’ is a positive in Fig. 13.86. The network is
real function. Fig. 13.86
(i) R-L realizable
Of these statements, (ii) R-C realizable
(i) both I and II are true (ii) I is true but II is false (iii) L-C realizable
(iii) both I and II are false (iv) I is false but II is true (iv) R-L-C realizable
23. In addition to the condition that Y(s) is real when ‘s’ is 28. A minimum-phase network is one whose transfer
real, for an admittance function Y(s) to be positive function has
real, which of the following conditions are to be sat- (i) zeros in the left-hand plane and poles in the
isfied? right-hand plane
1. Re Y(s) 0 for Re s 0 (ii) zeros and poles in the left-hand plane
2. Re Y(s) 0 for Re s 0 (iii) zeros in the right-hand plane but poles in the left-
()
3. Arg Y s ≤ Arg s for Arg s ≤
2
hand plane
(iv) arbitrary distribution of zeros and poles in the
4. Arg Y ( s ) ≥ Arg s for Arg s ≤ s-plane
2
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 29. Consider the following statements regarding a posi-
Codes: tive real function F(s):
(i) 1 and 3 are correct (ii) 1 and 4 are correct 1. F(s) is real when s is real.
(iii) 2 and 3 are correct (iv) 2 and 4 are correct 2. F(s) 0, when Re(s) 0.
3. The poles and zeros of F(s) are in the right half of
24. In the case of RC driving point functions
the s-plane.
(i) ZRC cannot have a pole at infinity
(ii) ZRC cannot have a pole at the origin Of these statements,
(iii) YRC cannot have a pole at infinity (i) 1 and 2 are correct (ii) 1 and 3 are correct
(iv) ZRC and YRC are constant or zero at infinity (iii) 2 and 3 are correct (iv) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
25. Consider the following four functions: 30. A reactance network in the first Foster form has poles
1. F1 s =
( s + 1)( s + 3)
()
2 2
2. F2 s = ()
(
s s +2
2
) at ␻ zero and ␻ infinity. The element in the box 1
in the network is
s( s + 2) ( s + 1)( s + 3)
2 2 2 L
(i) an inductor 1
3. F (s) =
( s + 1)( s + 2)
2 2
4. F (s) =
( s + 1)( s + 3)
2 2 (ii) a capacitor
(iii) a parallel LC circuit
C
s ( s + 3) ( s + 2)( s + 4 )
3 4
2 2 2
(iv) a series LC circuit Fig. 13.87
Answers
1. (iv) 7. (ii) 13. (ii) 19. (iv) 25. (iv)
2. (iii) 8. (ii) 14. (i) 20. (ii) 26. (i)
3. (ii) 9. (ii) 15. (ii) 21. (iii) 27. (ii)
4. (iv) 10. (i) 16. (ii) 22. (iii) 28. (ii)
5. (iv) 11. (iv) 17. (iii) 23. (iv) 29. (i)
6. (iii) 12. (iv) 18. (i) 24. (i) 30. (ii)
14 Operational Amplifier
and Active Filter
Introduction
Passive filters are built from passive components; resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Active filters also
use resistors and capacitors, but the inductors are replaced by active devices capable of producing power
gain. These devices can range from single transistors to integrated circuit (IC)-controlled sources such as
the operational amplifier (op-amp), and more exotic devices, such as the operational transconductance
amplifier (OTA), the generalized impedance converter (GIC), and the frequency-dependent negative
resistor (FDNR).
In this chapter, active filters with op-amp have been discussed.
14.1 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain, differential-input amplifier.
With the addition of suitable external feedback components, an op-amp can be used for a variety of applica-
tions, such as ac and dc signal amplification, active filters, oscillators, comparators, regulators, and others.
Inverting V2 V
14.1.1 Op-Amp Terminals input V0 = A (V1 V2)
An op-amp has five basic terminals: Non-inverting Output
input V1 V
(i) Two for input signals, V1 and V2, differential input terminals
(ii) One for the output signal V0 single-ended output Fig. 14.1 Operational amplifier
(iii) Two for power supply, V and V (maximum V 18 V)
Note The power supply has three terminals: positive, negative and power supply common. The common terminal
may or may not be wired to the earth ground via the third wire of line cord. However, it has become standard
practice to show power common as a ground symbol.
Use of the term ‘ground’ on the ground symbol is a convention which indicates that all voltage measurements
are with respect to ‘ground’.
862
14.1.2 Op-Amp Characteristics

Ideal characteristics
(i) An infinite voltage gain;
(ii) An infinite bandwidth;
(iii) An infinite input impedance;
(iv) Zero output impedance;
(v) Perfect balance; i.e., the output is zero when equal voltages are present at the two input terminals; and
(vi) The characteristics do not change with temperature.
Practical (actual) characteristics
(i) The gain at low frequency is finite and very high (of the order of 103 to 106). The gain is constant up to
a few hundred kHz and then decreases monotonically with the increase is frequency.
(ii) The bandwidth is finite and very high.
(iii) The input impedance lies in the range of 150 k to a few hundred M .
(iv) The output impedance of a practical op-amp lies between 0.75 to 100 .
(v) Perfect balance is not achieved with practical op-amps.
14.2 FILTER
An electric filter is a four-terminal frequency-selective network designed generally with reactive elements to
transmit freely a specified band of frequencies and block or attenuate signals of frequency outside this band.
The band of frequencies transmitted through the filler is called the pass-band.
The band of frequencies severely attenuated by the filter is called the attenuated or stop-band.
14.2.1 Classification of Filter

[I] Analog or Digital Filters
[II] Active or Passive Filters
Analog filters are designed to process analog signals while digital filters process analog signals using digital
techniques.
Passive filters consist of passive elements, i.e., R, L and C. On the other hand, active filters consist of
active components such as op-amps, and transistors, in addition to R and C.
14.3 ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE FILTERS OVER PASSIVE FILTERS

Less Cost Active filters are very much inexpensive than passive filters due to the variety of cheaper op-amps
and the absence of costly inductors.
Gain and frequency adjustment flexibility Since the op-amp is capable of providing a gain (which may
also be variable), the input signal is not attenuated as it is in a passive filter. In addition, the active filter is easier
to tune or adjust.
No loading problem Active filters provide an excellent isolation between the individual stages due to the
high input impendence (ranging from a few k to several thousand M ) and low output impedance (ranging
from less than 1 to a few hundred ). So, the active filter does not cause loading of the source or load.
Size and weight Active filters are small in size and less bulky (due to the absence of bulky ‘L’) and are
rugged.
863
Operational Amplifier and Active Filter
Non-Floating Input and Output Active filters generally have single-ended inputs and outputs which do not
‘float’ with respect to the system power supply or common. This property is different from that of the passive filters.
14.4 APPLICATION OF ACTIVE FILTERS

Application of active filters is given below. They are used
(i) in the field of communication and signal processing
(ii) in almost all sophisticated electronic systems, such as radio, television, telephone, radar, space satellites,
biomedical equipments, and so on.
14.5 TYPES OF ACTIVE FILTERS

Low-Pass Filter It is a circuit that has a constant output (or gain) from zero to a cut-off frequency, fc and
attenuation of all frequencies above fc.
Gain Gain
V0 V0 Ideal characteristics
Actual characteristics
Vi 1 Vi 1
0.707
Pass-band Stop-band
Pass-band Stop-band
0 fc Frequency
0 fc Frequency
(b)
(a)
Fig. 14.2 Low-pass filter characteristics: (a) actual (b) ideal
High-Pass Filter It is a circuit that attenuates all signals of frequency below the cut-off frequency and has
a constant output (or gain) above this frequency.
Gain
V0 Gain
Actual characteristics
Vi 1 V0 Ideal characteristics
Vi 1
0.707
Stop-band Pass-band
Stop-band Pass-band
0 fc Frequency 0 fc Frequency
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.3 High-pass filter characteristics: (a) actual (b) ideal
Band-pass filter It is a circuit that passes a band of frequen-
cies and attenuates all frequencies outside the band.
V0
Band-rejection/elimination filter or band-stop filter or Vi 1
notch filter It rejects a specified band of frequencies while 0.707
Stop-band Pass-band Stop-band
passing all other frequencies outside the band.
All-pass filter It passes all frequencies equally well, i.e., output

0 fLC fUC Frequency
and input voltages are equal in magnitude for all frequency; with
the phase–shift between the two is a function of frequency. Fig. 14.4 Band-pass filter characteristics
864
V0
Vi 1
f
0.707
Amplitude
Pass-band Stop-band Pass-band
vt
0 fLC fC fUC Frequency
Fig. 14.5 Band-reject filter characteristics Fig. 14.6 All-pass filter characteristics
This filter is also known as a phase-shift filter, time-delay filter, or simply the delay equalizer. One major
application of an all-pass filter is the simulation of a lossless transmission line. The magnitude of the output volt-
age is the same as the input voltage but the output voltage is shifted in phase with respect to the input voltage.
The highest frequency up to which the input and output amplitudes remain equal is dependent on the unity-gain
bandwidth of the op-amp. At this frequency, however, the phase-shift between the input and output is maximum.
14.6 LOW-PASS-ACTIVE FILTER

The circuit of Fig. 14.7 is a commonly used low–pass active filter. R1 Vy Rf
The filtering is done by the RC network, and the op-amp is used as a

unity-gain amplifier. The resistor Rf ( R) is included for dc offset.
R Vx V0
[At dc, the capacitive reactance is infinite and the dc resistive path to
Vi
ground for both terminals should be equal.] C
Here, all the voltages Vi, Vx, Vy, V0 are measured with respect to ground.
Fig. 14.7 First-order low-pass
Since the input impedance of the op-amp is infinite, no current will flow
active filter circuit
into the input terminals.
V0 (14.1)
Vx = × R1
R1 + R f
According to the voltage-divider rule, the voltage across the capacitor,
1
XC 1 1 j2 f C
Vx = V; XC = = = Vi
R + XC i j C j2 f C 1
R+
j2 f C
Vi
Vx = (14.2)
1 + j 2 f RC
⎛ Rf ⎞
1+
V0 R1 Vi V0 ⎜⎝ R1 ⎟⎠
Since the op-amp gain is infinite, ∴Vx = Vy ⇒ = ⇒ =
R1 + R f 1 + j 2 f RC Vi 1 + j 2 f RC
or,
V0
=
(A )
f
= AcL
Vi ⎛ ⎞
1+ j ⎜ f ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠
865
⎛ Rf ⎞
Where, AF ⎜1+ ⎟ pass–band gain of the filter
⎝ R1 ⎠
f frequency of the input signal
1
fc cut–off frequency of the filter
2 RC
AcL closed-loop gain of the filter as a function of frequency
V0 AF AF
The gain magnitude, AcL = = =
Vi ⎛
2
1+ 2
R 2C 2
⎞
1+ ⎜ f ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠
⎛ f ⎞
and phase angle (in degree), = − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = − tan −1
⎝ fc ⎠
( RC )
14.6.1 Operation of the Filter
The operation of the low-pass filter can be verified from the gain magnitude equation as follows:
1. At very low frequencies, i.e., f fc , AcL ≅ AF
AF
2. At f = fC , ACL = = 0.707 AF = −3 dB AF = 45 1.0
2
3. At f fc, ACL AF 0.707
Thus, the filter has a constant gain of AF from 0 Hz to
the cut–off frequency fc. At fc, the gain is 0707 AF and
after fC, it decreases at a constant rate with an increase in
Gain
frequency.
Figure. 14.8 shows that the actual response deviates
from the straight dashed-line approximation at the vicinity 0
of ‘fc’. fc
Frequency
At 0.1 C, ACL 1(0 dB)
Fig. 14.8 Low-pass filter characteristics
At 0.1 C, ACL 1( 20 dB)
Table 14.1 below gives the magnitude and phase angle for different values of between 0.1 c and 10 .
c
14.6.2 Filter Design

A low-pass active filter can be designed by implementing the following steps:
1. A value of the cut-off frequency c (or, fc) is chosen.
2. A value of the capacitance C is selected; usually the value is between 0.001 and 0.1 F. Mylar or tantalum
capacitors are recommended for better performance.
3. The value of the resistance R is calculated from the relation,
R in = ( 1
C
)=
2
1
fC C
,
C
866
fc cut-off frequency in hertz

c cut off frequency in radian/second
C capacitance in farad
4. Finally, the values of R1 and Rf are selected depending on the desired pass band gain by using the relation:
⎛ Rf ⎞
AF = ⎜ 1 + ⎟
⎝ R1 ⎠
Table 14.1 Magnitude and phase angle for different values

of between 0.1 c and 10 c.
AcL Phase-Angle (Degree)

0.1 c 1.0 6
0.25 c 0.97 14
0.5 c 0.89 27
c 0.707 45
2 c 0.445 63
4 c 0.25 76
10 c 0.1 84
14.6.3 Frequency Scaling

Once a filter is designed, there may be a need to change its cut-off frequency. The procedure used to convert
an original cut-off frequency fc to a new cut-off frequency fc is called ‘frequency-scaling’.
It is accomplished as follows:-
To change a cut-off frequency, multiply R or C, but not both by the ratio
⎛ Old cut − off f requency, f cold ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ New cut − off f requency, f cnew ⎠
Example 14.1 (a) Design a low-pass active filter at a cut-off frequency of 1 kHz with a pass band gain of
2. Using the frequency-scaling technique, convert this filter to a low-pass filter of cut-off frequency 1.6 kHz.
(b) Plot the frequency response of this low-pass active filter.
Solution (a) Here, fc 1 kHz, AF 2; Let, C 0.01 F. R1 = 10 k Vy Rf = 10 k
1 1
R= = = 159 k
2 f c C 2 × 103 × 0.01 × 10−6
R = 15.9 k Vx V0
⎛ R ⎞ Vi
C = 0.01␮F
AF = 2 = ⎜ 1 + f ⎟ ⇒ R f = R1 = 10 k
⎝ R1 ⎠
Fig. 14.9 (a) Circuit of
So, the complete circuit is shown in Fig. 14.9 (a). Example 14.1
867
To change the cut-off frequency from 1 kHz to 1.6 kHz, we multiply the 15.9 k resistor by
Original cut − off f requency 1
= = 0.625
New cut − off f requency 1.6
new resistor, R 15.9 0.625 9.94 k
(b) To plot the frequency response, the data are obtained from the equation,
V0 AF
=
Vin ⎛
2
⎞
1+ ⎜ f ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠
Frequency (Hz) Gain Gain (in dB) 2.0

Gain
10 2 6.02
100 1.99 5.98 1.414
200 1.96 5.85
700 1.64 4.29
1,000 1.41 3.01
3,000 0.63 3.98
7,000 0.28 10.97 0
1000
10,000 0.20 14.02 Frequency(Hz)
30,000 0.07 23.53 Fig. 14.9 (b) Filter characteristics of
Example 14.1
100,000 0.02 33.98
14.7 HIGH-PASS-ACTIVE-FILTER
The circuit is shown in Fig. 14.10. R1 Vy Rf
The filtering is done by the CR network and the op-amp is connected as a

unity-gain follower. The feedback resistor, Rf is included to minimize dc off-set. V0
C Vx
R1 Vi
Here, Vy = V0 (14.3) R
R1 + R f
Voltage across the resistor R, Fig. 14.10 First-order

high-pass active filter circuit
R R j RC
Vx = V= Vi = V (14.4)
R+ Xc i 1 1 + j RC i
R+
j C
Since op-amp gain is infinite, Vx Vy
V0 R1 j RC V ⎛ R f + R1 ⎞ ⎛ j RC ⎞ j 2 f RC
⇒ = Vi ⇒ 0 = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = AF ×
R f + R1 1 + j RC Vi ⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 + j RC ⎠ 1 + j 2 f RC
868
1.0
⎡ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎤ Gain
⎢ j⎜ f ⎟ ⎥
V0 ⎝ c⎠ ⎥
= AF ⎢
Vi ⎢ ⎛ f ⎞⎥ 0.707
⎢1+ j ⎜ f ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ c⎠ ⎦
where, AF (1 Rf /R1) Pass-band Gain of the filter,

f frequency of the input signal (Hz),
1
fc cut-off frequency of the filter (Hz).
2 RC 0
fc Frequency
The gain magnitude,
Fig. 14.11 High-pass filter characteristics
⎛ ⎞
AF ⎜ f ⎟
V0 ⎝ fc ⎠ RC
= = AF ⋅
Vi ⎛
2
1 + 2 R 2C 2
⎞
1+ ⎜ f ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠
and phase-angle (in degree), ␾ 90 tan 1 ( f / fc ) 90 tan 1 (␻RC)
14.7.1 Operation of the Filter

The operation of the high-pass filter can be verified from the gain-magnitude equation as follows:
V0
1. At very low frequencies, i.e., f < fc, AF
Vi
V0 AF
2. At f = f c , = = 0.707 AF = −3 dB, = 45
Vi 2
V0
3. At f fc , AF
Vi
14.7.2 Filter Design
A high-pass active filter can be designed by implementing the following steps:
1. A value of the cut-off frequency, ␻c (or fc) is chosen.
2. A value of the capacitance C, usually between 0.001 and 0.1 ␮F, is selected.
1 1
3. The value of the resistance R is calculated using the relation, R = =
c
C 2 f cC
4. Finally, the values of R1 and Rf are selected depending on the desired pass-band gain, using, the relation,
⎛ Rf ⎞
AF = ⎜ 1 + ⎟ .
⎝ R1 ⎠
Example 14.2 (a) Design a high–pass active filter of 1-kHz cut-off frequency with a pass-band gain of 2.
(b) Plot the frequency response of the filter.
Solution (a) Here, fc 1 kHz, AF 2
869
Let, C 0.01 F.
1 1
∴R= = = 15.9 k 10 k 10 k
2 f c C 2 × 10 × 0.01 × 10−6
3
⎛ R ⎞ 0.01␮F
AF = 2 = ⎜ 1 + f ⎟ ⇒ R f = R1 = 10 k Vi
V0
⎝ R1 ⎠
15.9 k
So, the complete circuit is shown in Fig. 14.12 (a).
(b) The data for the frequency response plot can obtained by substitut- Fig. 14.12 (a) Circuit of
ing the input frequency (f) values from 100 Hz to 100 kHz in the Example 14.2
equation.
⎛ ⎞
AF ⎜ f ⎟
V0 ⎝ f c⎠
= ,
Vi ⎛
2
⎞
1+ ⎜ f ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠
Frequency (Hz) Gain Gain (in dB)

2.0
100 0.20 −14.02
Gain
200 0.39 −8.13
400 0.74 −2.58 1.414
700 1.15 1.19
1,000 1.41 3.01
3,000 1.90 5.56
7,000 1.98 5.93
0
10,000 1.99 5.98
1000 Frequency (Hz)
30,000 2 6.02
Fig. 14.12 (b) Filter characteristics of Example 14.2
100,000 2 6.02
14.8 BAND-PASS ACTIVE FILTER

A band-pass filter has a pass-band between two cut-off frequencies fLC (lower cut-off frequency) and fUC
(upper cut-off frequency) such that fUC > fLC. Any input frequency outside this pass-band is attenuated.
14.8.1 Bandwidth (BW)

The range of frequency between fLC and fUC is called the bandwidth.
BW (FUC FLC)
The bandwidth is not exactly centered on the resonant frequency (fr).
If fUC and fLC are known, the resonant frequency can be found from f r = f LC ⋅ f UC
870
If ‘fr’ and BW are known, cut-off frequencies are found from,

⎛ 2 ⎞
⎛ BW ⎞ ⎛ BW ⎞
f LC = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ − f 2
⎟ −⎜ Resonant frequency
⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ r
⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ V0 20 dB/decade
Vi 1
fUC (fLC BW) 0.707
20dB/decade
14.8.2 Quality Factor (Q) Stop-band
Stop-band Bandwidth
It is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to band-
fr 0 fLC fUC Frequency
width, i.e., Q ‘Q’ is a measure of the selectivity.
BW Fig. 14.13 Band-pass filter characteristics
Higher the value of Q, the more selective is the filter, i.e.,
narrower is the bandwidth.
Example 14.3 A band–pass voice filter has lower and upper cut-off frequencies of 300 and 3000 Hz,
respectively. Find (a) bandwidth, (b) resonant frequency,and (c) quality factor.
Solution (a) BW (fCU fC L) (3000 300) 2700 Hz
(b) f r = f C L f C U = 300 × 3000 ≅ 950 Hz
fr 950
(c) Q = = = 0.35
BW 2700
Note ‘fr’ is below the centre frequency 300 + 3000 1650 Hz

2
Example 14.4 A band-pass filter has a resonant frequency of 950 Hz and a bandwidth of 2700 Hz. Find its
lower and upper cut-off frequencies.
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎛ BW ⎞ ⎛ BW ⎞ ⎛ 2700 ⎞ ⎛ 3700 ⎞
( ) ( )
2
Solution fCL = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ + f 2
⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜
⎜ ⎟ + 950 ⎟ −⎜ = 1650 − 13500 = 300 Hz
⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ r
⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
fcu (300 2700) 3000 Hz
14.8.3 Types of Band-Pass Filters

Wide Band-Pass Filter A wide-band filter has a bandwidth that is two or more times the resonant
frequency; i.e., Q 0.5.
It is made by cascading a low-pass and a high-pass filter circuit.
Narrow Band-Pass Filter A narrow band filter has a quality factor, Q 0.5.
It is made by using a single op-amp and multiple feedback circuits.
871
14.8.4 Wide Band-Pass Active Filter Rf R Vy Rf

R
In general, a wide-band filter (Q 0.5) is made by cascad-
R2 V x
ing a low-and a high-pass filter, provided the cut-off fre- C1
V0
quency of the low-pass section is greater than that for the Vi C2
R1
high-pass section.
High-pass section Low-pass section
Characteristics Fig. 14.14 (a) Wide band-pass active filter
(i) The cut-off frequency of a low-pass filter should be 10 circuit
or more times the cut-off frequency of the high-pass
filter.
(ii) Each section should have the same pass-band gain.
(iii) The lower cut-off frequency, fLC, will be determined only by the high-pass filter.
(iv) The higher cut-off frequency, fUC, will be determined only by the low-pass filter.
(v) Gain will be maximum at the resonant frequency, fr, and equal to the pass-band gain of either filter.
1 1 V0
Frequency Response Here, f LC = , f = Vi 1
2 R1C1 UC 2 R 2C2
0.707
Stop-band Stop-band
The voltage gain magnitude of the band-pass filter is equal Pass-band
to the product of the voltage gain magnitudes of the high-pass
and the low-pass filters.
0 fLC fUC Frequency
⎛ ⎞
AFL AFH ⎜ f Fig. 14.14 (b) Frequency response of wide
V0 ⎝ f CL ⎟⎠ band-pass active filter circuit
∴ =
Vi ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎤
2 2
⎢1 + ⎜ f
⎟ ⎥ ⋅ ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ f CL ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ f CU ⎠ ⎥⎦
Where, AFL, AFH Pass-band gain of low-pass and high-pass filter
f frequency of input signal (Hz)
fLC lower cut-off frequency (Hz)
fUC higher cut-off frequency (Hz)
At the centre frequency, f r = ( )

f LC f UC , the gain is,
V0
Vi
= K = AFL AFH
f UC
f LC + f UC
⎛f ⎞
AFL AFH ⎜ LC ⎟
V0 ⎝ f LC ⎠ AFL AFH
At f = f LC , = =
Vi ⎡ ⎛f ⎞ ⎤ ⎡⎢ ⎛ f LC ⎞ ⎤⎥ ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞2 ⎤
2 2
⎢1 + ⎜ LC
⎢⎣ ⎝
⎥ 1+
f LC ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜⎝ f UC ⎟⎠ ⎥
()
2 ⎢1 + ⎜ LC ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ f UC ⎠ ⎥
⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
V0 AFL AFH f UC
=
Vi 2 f LC 2 + f UC 2
872
⎛f ⎞
AFL AFH ⎜ UC ⎟
V0 ⎝ f LC ⎠ AFL AFH f UC
At f = f UC , = =
Vi ⎡ ⎛f 2
⎤ 2 2
f LC + f UC
2
⎞
( 2 ) ⎢1 + ⎜ UC ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ f LC ⎠ ⎥⎦
V0 AFL AFH ⎡ f UC ⎤ V A A
At f = f LC = f UC , Gain, = ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ 0 = FL FH
Vi 2 ⎢⎣ 2
f LC + f UC
2 ⎥
⎦
Vi 2
14.8.5 Narrow Band-Pass Active Filter

C1
In general, a narrow band-pass filter is made by using multiple feedback
circuits with a single op-amp. Rf
Vi R 1 2
Compared to all Other Filters, it has some Unique Features as V0
Given Below C2
Rr
(i) It has two feedback paths, hence the name multiple feedback filter.
(ii) The op-amp is used in the inverting mode.
(iii) Its centre frequency can be changed without changing the gain or Fig. 14.15 Multiple feedback
bandwidth. narrow BP active filter
Performance equations Writing KCL at (1)

(V −V ) + V −V V1 − 0 V1
1
R
i 1
1
0
+
1 Rr
( ) ( )
+ = 0 ⇒ V1 − Vi Rr + V1 − V0 sRr RC1 + V1 sRRr C2 + V1 R = 0
sC1 sC2
Vi Rr + V0 sRRr C1
⇒ V1 = (14.5)
R + Rr + sRRr C1 + C2( )
Again, writing KCL at (2),
0 − V0 0 − V1 ⎡ V R + V sRR C ⎤
+ = 0 ⇒ V0 = −V1 sR f C2 = − ⎢ i r 0 r 1
⎥ sR f C2 {by putting the value of V1
Rf 1
sC2
⎢⎣ R + Rr + sRRr C1 + C2 ⎥⎦ (
from (14.5)} )
( )
⇒ V0 ⎡⎣ R + Rr + sRRr C1 + C2 + s 2 RRr R f C1C2 ⎤⎦ = −Vi sRr R f C2
V sRr R f C2
∴ 0 =− 2
Vi (
s RRr R f C1C2 + sRRr C1 + C2 + R + Rr )
⎛ s ⎞
V0 ⎜⎝ RC ⎟⎠
So, the gain, =− 1
Vi ⎛ C + C ⎞ R + Rr
s2 + s⎜ 1 2
⎟+
⎝ R f C1C2 ⎠ RRr R f C1C2
873
The general transfer function is of the form,

⎛ ⎞
s⎜ r ⎟
V0
=−
⎝ Q ⎠
=− 2
s BW AF ( ) , where, AF gain
Vi ⎛ ⎞
s2 + s⎜ r ⎟ + r 2
s + s BW + ( ) 2
r
⎝ Q⎠
⎛ C +C ⎞ 1
So, here, BW = ⎜ 1 2
⎟× (in Hz) { 2 f}
⎝ R f C1C2 ⎠ 2
With matched capacitor, i.e., C1 C2 C
1 Q
BW = ⇒ Rf =
Rf C frC
( )
Also, BW ⋅ AF =
1
=
1
RC1 RC
| with C1 C2 C
1 Q Q
∴R= = →R=
( )
BW CAF r
CAF 2 f r CAF
1
BW = Hz
2 RCAF
R + Rr
Similarly, 2
r
= with C1 C2 C
RRr R f C 2
or, 4 2fr2 RR r R f C 2 R Rr
Q Q
or, 4 2 f r2 × × Rr R f C 2 = + Rr [putting the value of Rf]
2 f r CAF 2 f r CAF
Q
or, 2 f r QRr R f C = + Rr AF
2 frC
Q Q
or, 2 Qf r Rr × ×C = + Rr AF [putting the value of Rf]
frC 2 frC
Q
or, Rr ⎡⎣ 2Q 2 − AF ⎤⎦ =
2 frC
Q ⎛ AF ⎞
∴ Rr = = R⎜ ⎟
(
2 f r C 2Q − AF 2
) ⎝ 2Q − AF ⎠
2
Rf Q 2 frCAF
Also, = × = 2 AF
R frC Q
Rf
∴ AF = So, the gain is a maximum of 1 at fr if Rf 2R
2R
874
However, the gain must satisfy the condition AF 2Q2.

So, the narrow band-pass active filter is designed for specific values of resonant frequency fr and Q
(or, fr and BW) by using the relations:
Q Q Q Rf
R= Rf = Rr = AF = (14.6)
2 f r CAF frC 2 f r C 2Q − AF
2
( 2R )
fr
BW = =
1
Q 2 RCAF
( Hz ) =
0.1591
AF RC Z
H ( ) (14.7)
1 1 ⎛ R ⎞ 0.1125 1 ⎛ R⎞
and fr = 1+ = 1+ (14.8)
2 2 RC AF ⎜⎝ Rr ⎟⎠ RC AF ⎜⎝ Rr ⎟⎠
Note The resonant frequency can be changed to a frequency fr without changing the gain or BW, by, changing Rr to
2
⎛f ⎞
a new value Rr so that, R r′ = R r ⎜ r ⎟
⎝ fr′⎠
Example 14.5 a) Design a wide band-pass filter with fLC ⴝ 200 Hz and fUC ⴝ 1 kHz, and a pass-band
gain-4.
(b) Draw the frequency response plot of this filter.
(c) Calculate the value of Q for the filter.
Solution (a) To design the low-pass section, fc 1 kHz
1
Let, C2 = 0.01 F, R2 = = 15.9 k
2 f c C2
To design the high-pass section, fc 200 Hz
1
Let, C1 = 0.05 F, R1 = = 15.9 k
2 f c C1
Since the band-pass gain is 4, the gain of both HP and LP sec-
tions could be set equal to 2.
⎛ R ′f ⎞ ⎛ R ′′f ⎞
∴ 2 = ⎜1+ ⎟ = ⎜1+ ⎟ Gain
⎝ R ′ ⎠ ⎝ R ′′ ⎠
⇒ R ′′f = R ′ = R ′′ =10 k
(b) The frequency response will be as shown in Fig. 14.16.
(c) Resonant frequency, f r = 200 × 1000 = 447.2 Hz
fr 447.2
So, the quality factor, Q= = = 0.56 Frequency(Hz)
(
BW 1000 − 200 ) Fig. 14.16 Frequency response of Example 14.5
875
Example 14.6 (a) Design a narrow band-pass filter with resonant frequency fr ⴝ 1 kHz, Q ⴝ 3, and
AF ⴝ 10.
(b) Change the resonant frequency to 1.5 kHz, keeping AF and the bandwidth constant.
Solution (a) Let, C1 C2 0.01 F
Q 3
So, Rf = = = 95.5 k
frC × 103 × 10−8
Gain
Q 3
R= = = 4.77 k
2 f r CAF 2 × 10 × 10−8 × 10
3
Q 4.77 × 10
Rr = = = 5.97 k
(
2 f r C 2Q 2 − AF ) ( 2 × 9 − 10 )
(b) To change the resonant frequency, the resistance value will be,
⎛ 1⎞ Frequency
R ′ = 5.97 × 103 × ⎜ ⎟ = 3.98 k Fig. 14.17 Frequency response of
⎝ 1.5 ⎠
Example 14.6
The frequency response is shown in Fig. 14.17.
Example 14.7 A band-pass filter has the component values, R ⴝ 21.12 k⍀, Rf ⴝ 42.42 k⍀, Rr ⴝ 3.03 k⍀
and C1 ⴝ C2 ⴝ 0.015 ␮F. Find the resonant frequency and the bandwidth.
Solution Here, since Rf 2R, so, AF 1.
0.1125 1 ⎛ R⎞ 0.1125 21.21

∴ fr = ⎜ 1+ ⎟ = −6
1+ ≅ 1000 Hz
RC AF ⎝ Rr ⎠ 21.21 × 10 × 0.015 × 10
3
3.03
0.1591 0.1591
BW = = ≅ 500 Hz
AF RC 1 × 21.21 × 103 × 0.015 × 10− 6
14.9 BAND-REJECT (NOTCH) ACTIVE FILTER

[I] It may be obtained by the parallel connection of a high-pass section with a low-pass section. The cut-off
frequency of the high–pass section must be greater than that of the low-pass section.
The outputs of HP and LP sections are fed to an adder whose output voltage V0 will have the notch filter
characteristics.
V0
Vi 1
LP
Vi 0.707
V0
ADDER
HP
0 fLC fn fUC Frequency
Fig. 14.18 (a) Block Fig. 14.18 (b) Frequency response of
diagram of BR filter band reject filter
876
The Circuit of the BR filter is shown in Fig. 14.19. R1 Vy Rf

Obviously, the gain of the adder is set at unity; and thus,
V0
C V
⎛ V ′ V ′⎞ x
R2 R4
V0 = ⎜ 0 + 0 ⎟ R4 ⇒ R2 = R3 = R4 and ROM = R2 R3 R4
⎝ R2 R3 ⎠ Vi R V0
R3
⎡ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ R C
RL
⎢ j⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ V00 ROM
⎝ fCH ⎠ ⎥
V0 = AF H ⎢⎢ ⎢ ⎥
1
So, + A
⎛ f ⎞ ⎥ FL ⎢ ⎛ f ⎞⎥ R1 Rf
⎢1+ j ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎢1+ j⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ f C H ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎝ f C L ⎠ ⎥⎦ Fig. 14.19 Band-reject active filter circuit
using parallel connection of high-pass and
If AFL AFHA, then at the center frequency, f r = fCL fCH ,
low-pass filters
2 fCL
the Gain is, K = A ⋅ f + f
CL CH
R
[II] A band-reject filter may also be obtained by using the multiple-
feedback band-pass filter circuit with an adder. That is, the notch C1
filter is made by a circuit that subtracts the output of a band-pass Rf Rf
R C2
filter from the original signal. Vi R
⎛ s ⎞ Rr V0 1
⎜⎝ RC ⎟⎠ V0
V0′
So, =− 1
= T (s)
Vi ⎛ C + C ⎞ R + Rr Fig. 14.20 Band-reject active filter
s + s⎜
2 1 2
⎟+ circuit using multiple feedback band pass
⎝ R f C1C2 ⎠ R Rr R f C1C2 filter with an adder
V0′ V0 Vi
Now, writing KCL at (1), + + =0
R ′ R ′f R ′′
⎛ V ′ V ′⎞ ⎡ 1 T s
⇒ V0 = − R ′f ⎜ 1 + 0 ⎟ = − R ′f Vi ⎢ +
( ) ⎤⎥
⎝ R ′′ R ′ ⎠ ⎢⎣ R ′′ R ′ ⎥⎦
At notch frequency, the output is zero (ideally).
R′
()
So, T s = −
R ′′
But, at n (or fn), T(s) AF (AF gain of the BP section)
Rf
With C1 C2, Gain for BP section, AF
2R
R′ Rf
∴ AF = =
2 R R ′′
So, the design equations are all those of BP section and this one.
Example 14.8 Design a notch filter having a resonant frequency, fr ⴝ 400 Hz and Q ⴝ 10. Make the reso-
nant frequency gain, AF ⴝ 2.
Solution Here, fr 400 Hz, Q 10, AF 2
877
Let, C 0.1 F
Q 10
∴R= = = 19.89 k
2 f r CAF 2 × 400 × 0.1 × 10−6 × 2
Q 10
∴ Rf = = = 79.58 k
frC × 400 × 0.1 × 10−6
RAF 19.89 × 2 × 103
∴ Rr = = = 202
2Q 2 − AF 200 − 2
Let, R 1k (arbitrary) Rf
R′
R 500
AF
14.9.1 Applications of Notch Filters

Notch filter is used where unwanted frequencies are to be attenuated while permitting the other signal fre-
quencies to pass through.
For example, 50-Hz, 60-Hz, or 400-Hz frequencies from power lines, ripple from a full-wave rectifiers, etc.
Example 14.9 Design an active notch filter to eliminate 120 Hz hum (noise). Take the bandwidth,
BW ⴝ 12 Hz.
120
Solution Hare, fr 120 Hz, BW 12 Hz, Q = 10
12
The gain of the filter in the pass-band will be maximum of 1,
AF 1.
Let , C1 C2 0.1 F
10
R= = 132.66 k
2 × 120 × 0.1 × 10−6 × 1
Rf 2R 265.32 k
R
Rr = = 663.3 k
200 − 1
Now, let R Rf 1k (arbitrary)
R′
So, R ′′ = =1k ;
AF
Thus the filter will pass all frequencies from (0 114) Hz and 126 Hz onwards.
14.10 FILTER APPROXIMATION

In the earlier sections, we saw several examples of amplitude response curves for various filter types. These
always included an ‘ideal’curve with a rectangular shape, indicating that the boundary between the pass-band
and the stop-band was abrupt and that the roll-off slope was infinitely steep. This type of response would
be ideal because it would allow us to completely separate signals at different frequencies from one another.
878
Unfortunately, such an amplitude response curve is not physically realizable. We will have to settle for the
best approximation that will still meet our requirements for a given application. Deciding on the best approxi-
mation involves making a compromise between various properties of the filter’s transfer function, such as
filter order, ultimate roll-off rate, attenuation rate near the cut-off frequency, transient response, ripples, etc.
If we can define our filter requirements in terms of these parameters, we will be able to design an accept-
able filter using standard design methods.
14.10.1 Butterworth Filters

The first and probably best-known filter approximation is the Butterworth or maximally flat response. It exhib-
its a nearly flat pass-band with no ripple. The roll-off is smooth and monotonic, with a low-pass or high-pass
roll-off rate of 20 dB/decade (6 dB/octave) for every pole. Thus, a 5th-order Butterworth low-pass filter would
have an attenuation rate of 100 dB for every factor of ten increase in frequency beyond the cut-off frequency.
The general equation for a Butterworth filter’s amplitude response is
1
H( )= 2n
(14.9)
⎛ ⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0⎠
response |H(v)|2
where n is the order of the filter, and can be any positive whole 1
n=4 n = 10
Frequency
number (1, 2, 3, . . . ), and 0 is the 3 dB frequency of the filter. 0.8
0.6 n=1
Figure. 14.21 shows the amplitude response curves for 0.4
Butter worth low-pass filters of various orders. 0.2
0
The coefficients for the denominators of Butterworth filters 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
of various orders are shown in Table 14.2. Table 14.2 shows the Frequency v
denominators factored in terms of second-order polynomials. Fig. 14.21 Amplitude response curves for
Again, all of the coefficients correspond to a corner frequency of butterworth low-pass filter of different orders
1 radian/s
Table 14.2 Butterworth Polynomials

n a0 a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9
1 1
2 1 1.414
3 1 2.000 2.000
4 1 2.613 3.414 2.613
5 1 3.236 5.236 5.236 3.236
6 1 3.864 7.464 9.142 7.464 3.864
7 1 4.494 10.098 14.592 14.592 10.098 4.494
8 1 5.126 13.137 21.846 25.688 21.846 13.137 5.126
9 1 5.759 16.582 31.163 41.986 41.986 31.163 16.582 5.759
10 1 6.392 20.432 42.802 64.882 74.233 64.882 42.802 20.432 6.392
Denominator coefficients for polynomials of the form s n + an−1 s n−1 + an− 2 s n− 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ a1 s + a0 .
879
Butterworth Quadratic Factor

n
1 (s 1)
2
2 (s 1.4142s 1)
2
3 (s 1) (s s 1)
2
4 (s 0.7654s 1) (s2 1.8478s 1)
5 (s 1) (s2 0.6180s 1) (s2 1.6180s 1)
2 2 2
6 (s 0.5176s 1) (s 1.4142s 1) (s 1.9319)
2 2
7 (s 1) (s 0.4450s 1) (s 1.2470s 1) (s2 1.8019s 1)
2 2 2 2
8 (s 0.3902s 1) (s 1.1111s 1) (s 1.6629s 1) (s 1.9616s 1)
2 2 2 2 2
9 (s 1) (s 0.3473s 1) (s 1.0000s 1) (s 1.5321s 1) (s 1.8794s 1)
2 2 2 2 2
10 (s 0.3129 1) (s 0.9080s 1) (s 1.4142s 1) (s 1.7820s 1) (s 1.9754s 1)
14.10.2 Second-Order Low-Pass Active Filter R1 Vy Rf

V0
V0
Here,Vy = R and Vx Vy Vi R V R Vx
R1 + R f 1
C C
V ′ − Vi V ′ − V0 V ′ − Vx
Writing KCL at the node V , + + =0
R 1 R
sC Fig. 14.22 Second-order low-
or, (V Vi ) (V V0)sRC (V Vx) 0 pass active filter
or, ( 1)Vx (2 sRC )V ( sRC )V0 Vi (14.10)
Vx − V ′ Vx
Writing KCL at the node x, + =0
R 1
sC
or, (1 sRC )Vx ( 1)V (0)V0 0 (14.11)
Vx Vx − V0
Writing KCL at the node y, + =0
R1 Rf
or, (R1 Rf )Vx (0)V ( R1)V0 0 (14.12)
Solving for V0 from equations (14.10), (14.11), and (14.12), we get,
−1 ( 2 + sRC ) Vi
(1 + sRC ) −1
(R + R )
0
( )
1 f
R1 + R f 0 0 R1
V0 = = Vi
−1 ( 2 + sRC ) −ssRC ⎛ (R + Rf ) ⎞
s 2 + 3sRC − sRC ⎜ 1 +1
⎝ R1 ⎟⎠
(1 + sRC ) −1 0
(R + R )
1 f
0 − R1
880
V0 ( s ) K
or, = 2 (14.13)
Vi ( s ) ⎛ 3− K ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
s + s⎜
2
+
⎝ RC ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ RC ⎟⎠
R1 + R f
where, K= dc gain of the amplifier.
R1
Substituting s j , the transfer function is H( j )=

( )=
V0 j K
V ( j ) 1 + j ( 3 − K ) RC
i
− R 2C 2 2
The magnitude of the transfer function is
( )=
H j
2
K
; where, c
=
1
RC
⎡ ⎛ ⎞2 ⎤ 2⎛ ⎞
2
⎢1 − ⎥ + ⎡3 − K ⎤ ⎜
⎢ ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎝ c⎠
⎟
⎣ ⎦
In the above equation, when → 0, H( j ) K. Thus, the low frequency gain of the filter is K and when
→ , H( j ) 0, i.e., high frequency gain is zero.
From the table of the Butterworth Filter, the transfer function for second order (n 2) filter is
2
K K
T (s) = = c
(14.14)
⎛ s ⎞
2
⎛ s ⎞ s 2 + 1.414 c s + c
2
⎜ ⎟ + 1 .414 ⎜ ⎟ + 1
⎝ c⎠ ⎝ c⎠
where, c is the cut-off frequency. Comparing equations (14.13) and
(14.14), we get, Gain
1 1
c
= or, f c =
RC 2 RC
and, K (3 1.414) 1.586
The frequency response of a second-order low-pass active filter is shown
in Fig. 14.23. It is noted that the filter has a very sharp roll-off response.
Frequency
Filter Design Fig. 14.23 Frequency response
1. Choose a value of the cut-off frequency, c (or fc). of second-order low-pass filter
2. Select a convenient value for the capacitors C, between 100 pF and 0.1
F.
1
3. Calculate the value of the resistors R from the relation R =
2 f cC
4. For minimization of dc offset, the feedback resistor is calculated from the relation, Rf K (2R) 3.172 R.
R1 + R f
5. Calculate the value of the resistor R1 for the value of the gain K 1.586 from the relation, K = ,
R1
Rf
i.e., R1 = .
0.586
881
Example 14.10 Design a second-order low-pass filter with a gain of 11 and cut-off frequency of
20 kHz.
Solutioin Let us arbitrarily select C 200 pF.
1 1
For a cut-off frequency of 20 kHz, we need R = = = 39.789 k
2 f c C 2 20 × 10 200 × 10−12
3
If we select a standard resistor of 39 k for R, then the cut-off frequency is about 20.4 kHz.
The dc gain for this filter cannot be anything other than K where K 1.586.
Thus, for a dc gain of 1.586, K 1 Rf R1 1.586.
This in turn implies that Rf 0.586 R1.
Imposing the dc bias-current balance condition, we obtain 0.586 R1 1.586 (2R) 123.708 k
Consequently, R1 211.11 k and Rf 123.708 k .
Let us select a standard value of 130 k for Rf. Then R1 should be about 221.8 k .
We need another amplifying stage to obtain the needed gain of 11. The gain of this stage should be
11/K 6.936. We have chosen to use a non-inverting
amplifier for this stage. The output amplifier resistors 1.8 k 220 k 130 k 100 k 560 k 33 k
are calculated as
V0(s)
⎛ R ⎞ Vin(s)
39k 39k
6.936 = ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ and for RA 100 k , 82 k
⎝ RA ⎠ 200pF 200pF
R2 593.6 k
Thus, the final circuit for the second-order low-pass Fig. 14.24 Circuit of Example 14.10
active filter becomes as shown in Fig. 14. 24.
14.10.3 Second-Order High-Pass Active Filter R1 Vy Rf

V0
V0 Vi C V C V
Here, Vy = R and Vx Vy x
R1 + R f 1
R
R
Writing KCL at node V ,
V ′ − Vi V ′ − V0 V ′ − Vx Fig. 14.25 Second-order high-
+ + =0 (14.15) pass active filter
1 R 1
sC sC
Writing KCL at node x,
Vx − V ′ Vx
+ =0 (14.16)
1 R
sC
Writing KCL at node y,
Vx Vx − V0 (14.17)
+ =0
R1 Rf
Solving for V0 from equations (14.15), (14.16), and (14.17), we get,
882
V0 ( s ) Ks 2
or, = 2
(14.18)
Vi ( s ) ⎛ 3− K ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
s + s⎜
2
+
⎝ RC ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ RC ⎟⎠
R1 + R f
where, K= dc gain of the amplifier.
R1
Note The transfer function of the high-pass filter can also be obtained from the transfer function of the low-pass
⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
filter by the transformation: ⎜ ⎟ →⎜ c ⎟ .
⎝ c⎠ LP
⎝ s ⎠ HP
Substituting s j , the transfer function is
H( j )=
( )=−
V0 j KR C 2 2 2
V(j )
i
1 + j ( 3 − K ) RC − R 2C 2 2
2
⎛ ⎞
K⎜ ⎟
⎝ c⎠
The magnitude of the transfer function is H j ( )= 2
; where, c
=
1
RC
⎡ ⎛ ⎞2 ⎤ 2⎛ ⎞
2
⎢1 − ⎥ + ⎡3 − K ⎤
⎢ ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c⎠
⎣ ⎦
In the above equation, when → 0, H( j ) 0. Thus, the low frequency gain of the filter is zero. When
→ , H( j ) K, i.e., high frequency gain is K.
Here, again, comparing with Butterworth transfer function, we get

1 1 Gain
c
= or, f c =
RC 2 RC
and, K (3 1.414) 1.586
The frequency response of a second-order-low-pass active filter is shown Frequency
in Fig 14.26. It is noted that the filter has a very sharp roll-off response.
Fig. 14.26 Gain vs. frequency
The design procedure for high-pass will be same as low-pass. plot of second-order high-pass
The frequency response will be a maximally flat one, i.e., having a very filter
sharp roll-off response.
Example 14.11 A second-order high-pass filter is given 100 k 58.7 k 220 k 220 k
in Fig. 14.27. Determine its cut-off frequency and high fre-
quency gain. Sketch its gain vs. frequency response. 1nF 1nF V0(s)
Vin(s) 100 k
Solution In the second-order filter on the left side of 39 k 39 k
⎛ 58.7 ⎞
Fig. 14.27, the gain K ⎜ 1 + = 1.587.
⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ Fig. 14.27 Circuit of Example 14.11
883
Since it is very close to 1.586, we can assume that the filter is maximally flat and its transfer function is as
given for Butterworth filters. From the given values of R and C, the cut-off frequency is
1 1
= = = 25, 641 rad/s
c
RC 39 × 10 × 1 × 10−9
3
25, 641
The cut-off frequency in Hz, fc = = 4081 Hz
2
⎛ 220 ⎞
The gain of the non-inverting amplifier, A ⎜ 1 + = 2
⎝ 220 ⎟⎠
Hence, the overall gain of the high-pass filter is AH 1.587 2 3.174 or approximately 10 dB.
The gain vs. frequency will be as shown in Fig. 14.26.
14.10.4 Second Order Band-Pass Active Filter

It can be built by the cascade connection of a second- R1 Rf
R1 Rf
order high-pass and a second-order low-pass filter.
V0
1 RL RL
Lower cut-off frequency, = Vi CH CH
1
RH CH CL CL
RH
RH
1
Upper cut-off frequency, 2
=
RLCL
Fig. 14.28 Second-order band-pass active filter circuit
⎡ R ′f ⎤ ⎡ R″⎤
⎢ ⎥
Voltage gains, K H = ⎢1 + ⎥ and L ⎢1 + R ′′ ⎥
=
f
K
⎢⎣ R ′ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦
For maximally flat response (or, Butterworth) filter, KH KL 1.586.
R ′f R f ″
∴ = = 0.586
R ′ R ′′
The overall transfer function is the product of the transfer function of the high-pass and low-pass filters.
⎛ s⎞
KH ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ KL
∴ H (s) = 2
× 2
⎛ s⎞ ⎛ s⎞ ⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞
( )
1+ ⎜ ⎟ + 3 − KH ⎜ ⎟ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ + 3 − KL ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
( )
Substituting the values of KH and KL, magnitude of the gain is
2
⎛ ⎞
2.5154 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠
H j( )= 4 4
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟ 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
Note In the pass-band, the gain is 2.5154.

884
The frequency response is more flat near the cut-off frequencies as shown in Fig. 14.29.
Gain
v1 v2 Frequency
Fig. 14.29 Frequency response of second order
band-pass filter
14.10.5 Second-Order Band-Reject Active Filter

It can be built by the summation of a second-order high-pass and a second-order low-pass filter.
1
The cut-off frequency of LPF, 1 = and the cut-off R Rf
RLCL
1 CH CH
frequency of HPF, 2 = R1 R2
RH CH RH R H
The magnitude of the overall transfer function is the sum of
Vi R Rf
the transfer function of the high-pass and low-pass filters, R V0
RL RL
R
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ K ⎛ ⎞ ⎥ CL CL
H ⎜ ⎟
1 ⎡ R ⎤⎢ ⎝ 2⎠ KL ⎥
( )
H j = ⎢1 + 2 ⎥ ⎢
2 ⎣ R1 ⎦ ⎢
+ ⎥
Fig. 14.30 Second-order band-reject
active filter circuit
⎞ ⎥
4 4
⎛ ⎞ ⎛
⎢ 1+ 1+ ⎜ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎦
⎛ R′ ⎞ ⎛ R″ ⎞ Gain
where, K H = ⎜ 1 + f ⎟ and, K L = ⎜ 1 +
f
⎟ and for Butterworth
⎝ R′ ⎠ ⎜
⎝ R ′′ ⎟⎠
filters, KH KL 1.586.
Frequency
The roll-off frequency response will be very smooth as shown in
Fig. 14.31 Frequency response of
Fig. 14.31. second order band-reject filter
14.11 ALL-PASS ACTIVE FILTER

This filter passes all frequency component of the input signal without attenuation and provides some phase
shifts between the input and output signals.
The circuit of an all-pass active filter with lagging output is shown in Fig. 14.32.
For the circuit, by KCL at the node x,
Vx − Vi Vx − V0 V +V
+ = 0 ⇒ Vx = i 0 (14.19)
R1 R1 2
885
By KCL at the node y, Rf = R1
Vy − Vi Vy Vi R1
+ = 0 ⇒ Vy =
R 1 1 + j RC (14.20) R
y
j C Vi x V0
Also, from op-amp property, C
⎛ V +V ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
)( )
Vi
Vx = V y ⇒ ⎜ i 0 ⎟ = ⎜ (
⎟ ⇒ Vi + V0 1 + j RC = 2Vi
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 + j RC ⎠
Fig. 14.32 All-pass active
filter circuit with lagging
output
( ) ( ) (
⇒ V0 1 + j RC = Vi ⎡⎣1 − 2 + j RC ⎤⎦ = Vi 1 − j RC )
V0 1 − j RC
∴ =
Vi 1 + j RC
Thus, the amplitude of the gain, V0 Vi

f
V0
= 1 i.e., Vout = Vin
Amplitude
throughout the entire frequency range
Vi
vt
Also, the phase shift between the input and the output voltages is
2tan 1 ( RC), i.e., phase-shift is a function of frequency Fig. 14.33 Characteristics of all-
By interchanging the positions of R and C in the circuit, the output pass filter
can be made leading the input.
Summary
1. An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain, 5. Active filters have several advantages over passive
differential-input amplifier. filters, like less cost, less size and weight, gain and
2. An op-amp has five terminals, two differential input frequency adjustment flexibility, no loading prob-
terminals, one single-ended output terminal and two lems, etc.
power supply terminals. 6. According to the gain-frequency characteristics, filters
3. An electric filter is a four-terminal frequency-selective are classified as
network designed generally with reactive elements to • Low-pass filter that passes signal up to a certain fre-
transmit freely a specified band of frequencies and block quency, called cut-off frequency (fc) and attenuates
or attenuate signals of frequency outside this band. signals beyond the cut-off frequency.
4. Filters can be classified as follows. • High-pass filter that attenuates a signal up to a cer-
1. Analog or digital Filters tain frequency, called cut-off frequency (fc) and
passes signals beyond the cut-off frequency.
2. Active or passive Filters
• Band-pass filter that passes signals of a band of fre-
Analog filters are designed to process analog signals quencies and attenuates signals outside the band.
while digital filters process analog signals using digital There are two cut-off frequencies for a band-pass
techniques. filter, called upper cut-off frequency (fUC) and lower
Passive filters consist of passive elements, i.e., R, L cut-off frequency (fLC).
and C. On the other hand, active filters consist of active • Band-reject filter that rejects or attenuates signals of
components such as op-amps, transistors, in addition to certain band of frequencies and passes signals of all
R and C. other frequencies.
886
• All-pass filter that passes signals of all frequencies; it 10. For a band-pass filter with upper cut-off frequency (fUC)
is generally used as phase-shifter to produce phase and lower cut-off frequency (fLC), the bandwidth is BW
angle between the input and output signals. (fUC fLC). A band-pass filter with quality factor, Q
0.5 is called a wide band-pass filter and a band-pass
7. For a low-pass or high-pass filter, the cut-off frequency
filter with quality factor, Q 0.5 is called a narrow
1
is given as, fC = , where R and C are the filtering band-pass filter.
2 RC
elements. 11. A wide-band filter (Q 0.5) is made by cascading a
8. For a low-pass active filter, the gain-frequency charac- low-and a high-pass filter, provided the cut-off fre-
teristic is given as quency of the low-pass section is greater than that for
the high-pass section.
V0 AF
= 12. A narrow band-pass filter is made by using a multiple
Vi ⎛ f ⎞
1+ j ⎜ feedback circuit with a single op-amp.
⎝ fC ⎟⎠
13. A band reject active filter is obtained by the parallel
where, AF is the pass-band gain of the filter and connection of a high-pass section with a low-pass sec-
1 is the cut-off frequency of the tion. The cut-off frequency of the high-pass section
fC = must be greater than that of the low-pass section. A
2 RC
filter. band-reject filter may also be obtained by using the
V0 AF multiple-feedback band-pass filter circuit with an
The gain magnitude is = = adder.
Vi ⎛
2
⎞
1+ ⎜ f ⎟ 14. Filter approximation is done to meet the best possible
⎝ fc ⎠
combination of various properties of the filter trans-
AF
and phase angle (in degree), fer function, such as filter order, ultimate roll-off rate,
2
1+ R 2C 2 attenuation rate near the cut-off frequency, transient
response, ripples, etc.
⎛f⎞
= − tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ = − tan−1
⎝ fc ⎠
( RC ) The first and best-known filter approximation is the
Butterworth or maximally flat response. The roll-off is
9. For a high-pass active filter, the gain-frequency charac- smooth and monotonic, with a low-pass or high-pass
teristic is given as roll-off rate of 20 dB/decade for every pole. The general
⎛ ⎞
AF ⎜ f ⎟ equation for a Butterworth filter’s amplitude response
V0 ⎝ fc ⎠
= 1
Vi 2 is H( ) = where n is the order of the filter,
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2n
1+ ⎜ f ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠ 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0⎠
where, AF is the pass-band gain of the filter and and can be any positive whole number (1, 2, 3, . . . ), and
1 0 is the cut-off frequency of the filter.
fC = is the cut-off frequency of the
2 RC 15. The magnitude of the transfer function of a second-
filter. order Butterworth active filter is given as, |H( j )=
⎛ ⎞
AF ⎜ f ⎟ K
, for low-pass filter
V0 ⎝ f c⎠ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
2
The gain magnitude is = = 2
2⎛ ⎞
2
Vi 2 ⎢1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + ⎡3 − K ⎤ ⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞ ⎢ ⎝ c⎠ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎝ c⎠
1+ ⎜ f ⎟ ⎣ ⎦
⎝ fc ⎠ 2
⎛ ⎞
AF RC K⎜
and phase angle (in degree), ⎟
⎝ c⎠
1+ 2
R 2C 2 ( )=
H j
2
, for high-pass
⎡ ⎛ filter
⎞ ⎤
2 2
2⎛ ⎞
⎛f⎞ ⎢1− ⎜
= 90 − tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 90 − tan−1 ( )
RC . ⎢ ⎝ ⎟ ⎥⎥ + ⎡⎣3 − K ⎤⎦ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠ c⎠ ⎝ c⎠
⎣ ⎦
887
where, K 1.586 is the dc gain of the amplifier and 1
where, = is the lower cut-off frequency, and
1 1
RH C H
c
= is the cut-off frequency of the filter.
RC 1
16. The magnitude of the transfer function of a second- 2
= is the upper cut-off frequency.
RLC L
order Butterworth active band-pass filter is given as
2 17. A second-order band-reject active filter can be built
⎛ ⎞ by the summation of a second-order high-pass and a
2.5154 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠
( )
H j =
4 4
,
second-order low-pass filters.
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟ 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
1. What is an operational-amplifier? State the charac- (v) Perfect balance; i.e., the output is zero when equal
teristics of an op-amp. voltages are present at the two input terminals; and
An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain, (vi) The characteristics do not change with temperature.
differential-input amplifier.
Practical (actual) characteristics
With the addition of suitable external feedback
components, an op-amp can be used for a variety of (i) The gain at low-frequency is finite and very high
application, such as ac and dc signal amplification, (of the order of 103 to 106). The gain is constant up
active filters, oscillators, comparators, regulators, and to a few hundred kHz and then decreases mono-
others. tonically with the increase is frequency.
(ii) The bandwidth is finite and very high.
V2 V
Inverting V0 = A(V1 V2) (iii) The input impedance lies in the range of 150 k to
input Output a few hundred M .
Non-inverting (iv) The output impedance of a practical op-amp lies
input V1 V
between 0.75 to 100 .
Fig. 14.34 Operational amplifier (v) Perfect balance is not achieved with practical
op-samps.
An op-amp has five basic terminals:
(i) Two for input signals, V1 and V2 , differential input 2. Discuss the advantages of an active filter over a
terminals passive filter.
(ii) One for output signal, V0 single-ended output (1) Less cost Active filters are very much inexpensive
(iii) Two for power supply, V and V (maximum than passive filters due to the variety of cheaper
V 18 V) op-amp and the absence of costly inductors.
The power supply has three terminals: positive, nega- (2) Gain and frequency adjustment flexibility Since
tive and power supply common. The common termi- the op-amp is capable of providing a gain (which
nal may or may not be wired to earth ground via the may also be variable), the input signal is not attenu-
third wire of line cord. However, it has become stan- ated as it is in a passive filter. In addition, the active
dard practice to show power common as a ground filter is easier to tune or adjust.
symbol.
(3) No loading problem Active filters provide an
Op-Amp characteristics excellent isolation between the individual stages
Ideal characteristics due to the high input impendence (ranging from a
(i) An infinite voltage gain; few k to a several thousand M ) and low output
(ii) An infinite bandwidth; impedance (ranging from less than 1 to a few
(iii) An infinite input impedance; hundred ). So, the active filter does not cause
(iv) Zero output impedance; loading of the source or load.
888
(4) Size and weight Active filters are small in size and V0
less bulky (due to the absence of bulky inductors) Here, V y = R and V x = V y
R + Rf 1
and are rugged.
Writing KCL at node V
(5) Non-floating input and output Active filters gen-
erally have single-ended inputs and outputs which V ′ −V i V ′ −V 0 V ′ −V x
do not ‘float’ with respect to the system power + + =0
R2 1 R1
supply or common. This property is different from s C2
that of the passive filters.
3. All pass filters pass all the frequencies; still it is ( ) (
or, V ′ −V i R1 + V ′ −V 0 sR1R 2C 2 + V ′ −V x R 2 = 0 ) ( )
termed as ‘filter’. Why?
An all-pass filter passes all frequencies equally well, i.e., ( ) (
or, − R 2 V x + R1 + R 2 + sR1R 2C 2 V ′ + )
output and input voltages are equal in magnitude for
all frequency; but the output voltage is shifted in phase ( − sR R C )V
1 2 2 0
= V i R1 (1)
with respect to the input voltage, with the phase-shift Writing KCL at the node x,
between the two being a function of frequency.
V x −V ′ V x
f + =0
R1 1
Amplitude
sC 1
vt ( )
or, 1+ sR1C 1 V x + −1 V ′ + 0 V 0 = 0 ( ) () (2)
Writing KCL at the node y,

Fig. 14.35
V x V x −V 0
+ =
This filter is also known as a phase-shift filter, time- R Rf
delay filter, or simply the delay equalizer. One
major application of an all-pass filter is the simulation ( )
or, R + R f V x + 0 V ′ + − R V 0 = 0 () ( ) (3)
of a lossless transmission line. The magnitude of the
Solving for V0 from equations (1), (2), and (3), we get
output voltage is the same as the input voltage but the
output voltage is shifted in phase with respect to the
input voltage.
− R2 (R + R 1 2
+ sR1R 2C 2 ) R1V i
The highest frequency up to which the input and

(1+ sR1C 1 ) −1 0
output amplitudes remain equal is dependent on V0 =

(R + R ) f
0 0
the unity-gain bandwidth of the op-amp. At this fre- − R2 (R + R
1 2
+ sR1R 2C 2 ) − sR1R 2C 2
quency, however, the phase-shift between the input
and out put is the maximum.
(1+ sR C ) 1 1
−1 0
4 For the second-order low-pass active filter shown

(R + R ) f
0 −R
in Fig. 14.36, show that the cut-off frequency is or,

1
given as, c =
R1R 2C 1C 2
.
V 0 =V i
( R + R )R f 1
s R 2 2
1
R C C R + s ⎡⎣ RR C ( R + R ) − R R C R
2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 f
⎤ + RR1
⎦
R Vy Rf
or,
V0
⎡ ⎛ Rf ⎞ ⎤
Vi R2 V R1 Vx ⎢ ⎜ 1+ R ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ ⎠⎥
C2 C1 ⎢ R1R 2C 1C 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
V0 ⎣ ⎦
= (4)
Fig. 14.36 Second-order low- Vi ⎡ C R
s2 +s ⎢ 1 1 2
+ R − R C R
2 2 f (
⎤
⎥+
1 )
pass active filter ⎢⎣ R1R 2C 1C 2 ⎥⎦ R1R 2C 1C 2
889
From the table of the Butterworth filter, the transfer Comparing Eq. (4) and Eq. (5), we get
function for second order (n 2) filter is,
⎛ R + Rf ⎞ ⎛ Rf ⎞
dc gain of the amplifier, K = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ 1+ R ⎟ , and
K 2 ⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
)
T (s = 2
K
=
s 2 + 1.4
414
c
s+ 2
(5)
⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞ c c 1
⎜ ⎟ + 1.414 ⎜ ⎟ + 1 Cut-off frequency of the filter, c
=
⎝ c⎠ ⎝ c⎠ R1R 2C 1C 2
Exercises
1. Design a second-order low-pass active filter having a 3. Design a second-order high-pass Butterworth filter
cut-off frequency of 5 kHz. with a cut-off frequency of 200 Hz.
[C 0.003 F; R 1 K ; R1 10 k ; R2 5.86 k ] [C 0.053 F; R 1.5 k ; R1 10 k ; R2 5.86 k ]
2. Design a second-order band-pass active filter that has 4. Design a second-order band-pass active filter with a
a centre frequency of 1 kHz and a bandwidth of 100 Hz. centre frequency gain A0 50. Given: f0 160 Hz and
Take the centre frequency gain to be 2. Q 10.
[C1 C2 0.02 F; R1 40 k ; R3 160 k ; [assuming C1 C2 0.1 F; R1 2 k ; R3 200 k ;
R2 400 ] R2 667 ]
Questions
1. (a) What is an operational-amplifier? State the charac- 3. (a) Define the following terms with reference to a
teristics of an op-amp. band-pass active filter:
(b) What is a filter? Classify them. i. Bandwidth
(c) Discuss the advantages of an active filter over a ii. Cut-off frequency
passive filter. iii. Quality factor
2. (a) Briefly discuss the operating principle of an active (b) What are the different types of band-pass filters?
low-pass filter and derive its gain-frequency char- Give the salient features and performance equa-
acteristics. Explain the design procedure of a low- tions for the following filters:
pass active filter. (i) Wide band-pass active filter
(b) Briefly discuss the operating principle of an active (ii) Narrow band-pass active filter
high-pass filter and derive its gain-frequency char- 4. Define notch frequency. Explain the operational char-
acteristics. Explain the design procedure of a high- acteristics of an active notch filter. Where are these fil-
pass active filter. ters used?
1. The two input terminals of an op-amp are labeled as 2. The current into the input terminals is zero.
(i) high and low 3. The current from the output terminals is zero.
(ii) positive and negative 4. The input resistance is zero.
(iii) inverting and non-inverting 5. The output resistance is zero.
(iv) differential and non-differential Of these statements, those which are not true are
(i) 1 and 5
2. Consider the following statements for an ideal op-amp.
(ii) 3 and 4
1. The differential voltage across the input terminals (iii) 2 and 4
is zero. (iv) 3 and 4
890
3. In a series resonant circuit, to obtain a low-pass char- 10. In the magnitude plot of a high-pass filter, at what fre-
acteristic, across which element should the output quency does the peak of the magnitude characteristic
voltage be taken? occur?
(i) Resistor (i) At resonant frequency
(ii) Inductor (ii) Below resonant frequency
(iii) Capacitor (iii) Above resonant frequency
(iv) At any frequency.
4. In a series resonant circuit, to obtain a high-pass char-
acteristic, across which element should the output 11. In the magnitude plot of a band-pass filter, at what
voltage be taken? frequency does the peak of the magnitude character-
(i) Resistor istic occur?
(ii) Inductor (i) At resonant frequency
(iii) Capacitor (ii) Below resonant frequency
(iii) Above resonant frequency
5. In a series resonant circuit, to obtain a band-pass char- (iv) At any frequency
acteristic, across which element should the output
voltage be taken? 12. If a filter is de-normalized to a higher frequency, which
of the following occurs?
(i) Resistor
(i) Inductors increase in value while capacitors
(ii) Inductor
decrease.
(iii) Capacitor
(ii) Inductors decrease in value while capacitors
6. A high-pass filter circuit is basically increase.
(i) a differentiating circuit with low time constant (iii) Inductors and capacitors increase in value.
(ii) a differentiating circuit with large time constant (iv) Inductors and capacitors decrease in value.
(iii) an integrating circuit with low time constant
(iv) an integrating circuit with large time constant 13. The transfer function 2
V s
= 2
()
10 s
is for an
7. The transfer function of an electrical low-pass RC active
V1 s ()
s + 10 s + 100
network is (i) low -pass filter

RCs 1 (ii) band-pass filter
(i) (ii)
1+ RCs 1+ RCs (iii) high-pass filter
(iv) all pass filter
RC s
(iii) (iv)
1+ RCs s2
1+ RCs 14. The transfer function T s = () s + as + b
2
belongs to an
8. For a high-pass RC circuit, when subjected to a unit active
step input voltage, the voltage across the capacitor (i) low-pass filter
will be (ii) high-pass filter
−t −t
(i) e RC
(ii) e RC (iii) band-pass filter
(iv) band-reject filter
t
(iii) e RC
(iv) 1
15. The voltage-ratio transfer function of an active filter is
9. In the magnitude plot of a low-pass filter, at what fre-
quency does the peak of the magnitude characteristic
( )=
V2 s s2 +
V (s) s
given by . The circuit in question is a
occur? 1
2
+ s+
(i) At resonant frequency (i) low-pass filter
(ii) Below resonant frequency (ii) high-pass filter
(iii) Above resonant frequency (iii) band-pass filter
(iv) At any frequency (iv) band-reject filter.
891
16. The transfer function of a second order LP filter shown RA / 2
in Fig. 14.37 is
R C Vin C V0
R
R
C Fig. 14.39
The gain vs frequency characteristic of the output (v0)

Fig. 14.37 will be
1 (a)
(i)
Gain
R 2C 2 s 2 + 3RCs + 1
RCs
(ii)
R 2C 2 s 2 + 3RCs + 1 0 ␻
R 2C 2 s 2 + 1
(iii) (b)
R C s + 3RCs + 1
2 2 2
Gain
R 2C 2 s 2
(iv)
R C s + 3RCs + 1
2 2 2
0 ␻
17. An ideal filter should have
(i) zero attenuation in the pass band (c)
(ii) infinite attenuation in the pass band
Gain
(iii) zero attenuation in the attenuation band

(iv) none of these
18. An RLC series circuit can act as a 0 ␻
(i) band-pass filter (d)
(ii) band-stop filter
Gain
(iii) low-pass filter

(iv) both (a) and (b).
0 ␻
19. If R1 R2 RA and R3 R4 RB, , the circuit acts as a/an
R2 21. In active filter circuits, inductances are avoided mainly
because they
R1 C (i) are always associated with some resistance
(ii) are bulky and unstable for miniaturization
Vi
(iii) are non-linear in nature
V0
(iv) saturate quickly
R3 22. The magnitude response of a normalized Butterworth
R4
low-pass filter is
Fig. 14.38 (i) linear starting with values of unity at zero fre-
quency and 0.707 at the cut-off frequency
(i) all-pass filter
(ii) non-linear all through but with values of unity at
(ii) band-pass filter zero frequency and 0.707 at the cut-off frequency
(iii) high-pass filter (iii) linear up to the cut-off frequency and non-linear
(iv) low-pass filter thereafter
20. The output of the filter in Q 19 is given to the circuit (iv) non-linear up to the cut-off frequency and linear
shown in Fig. 14.39. thereafter
892
Answers
1. (iii) 6. (i) 11. (i) 16. (i) 21. (ii)

2. (ii) 7. (ii) 12. (iv) 17. (i) 22. (ii)
3. (iii) 8. (i) 13. (iii) 18. (i)
4. (ii) 9. (ii) 14. (ii) 19. (iii)
5. (i) 10. (iii) 15. (iii) 20. (iv)
15 Introduction To Software
SPICE
Introduction
Any electrical network can be analyzed by the different methods of analysis. However, with the increase of
complexity of the network, computation becomes laborious and time-consuming. Therefore, we require the
help of a digital computer to save labour and time for computation. There are many software packages
available for circuit analysis. SPICE is one of the best and most commonly used software for circuit analysis.
Spice (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is a software package developed in 1970
at the University of California at Berkeley for simulating electronic circuits. It is used as a tool for analysis
design and testing of integrated circuits as well as a wide range of other electronic and electrical circuits.
15.1 TYPES OF SPICE

The commercially supported versions of SPICE can be divided into two types
(I) Mainframe versions, and
(II) PC-based versions.
Mainframe versions
HSPICE (Meta – Software) For IC design with special device models
RAD – SPICE (Meta – Software) Simulates circuits subject to ionizing radiation.
IG – SPICE (A B Associates) and I – SPICE (NCSS Time Sharing) Designed for interactive circuit simula-
tion with graphic output
Generally, mainframe versions are intended to be used by sophisticated IC designers who require large
amounts of computer power to simulate complex circuits.
PC Versions
1. All – Spice (Acotech)
2. IS – Spice (Intusoft)
894
3. Z – SPICE (Z – Tech)
4. D – SPICE (Daisy system)
5. PSPICE (Microsim Corporation of Laguna Hill California)
PSpice is a commercial derivative of the SPICE – 2 circuit simulator programs that were developed at the
University of California at Bereley. Since its development was based on US public funds, SPICE – 2 belongs to
the public domain program. SPICE 2’s robustness and power made it an industry standard.
PSpice uses SPICE 2’s major algorithms and conforms to its input syntax.
Generally, PC – based versions allow circuit simulation to be performed on a low – cost computer system.
15.2 EXECUTION OF SPICE (HOW SPICE WORKS)

Both DOS and Windows can be employed to run PSpice on a PC.
The circuit description is entered in the computer in the form of a series of statements in a text file prepared
by any ASCII text editor. This file having the extension. CIR is called the source file.
This file stores the statements that show the circuit elements under test, and also the types of analysis and
the desired printouts. The circuit description can also be entered graphically by constructing the circuit on the
computer monitor with the Schematic Capture program from MicroSim.
This source file is read by the program and subsequently SPICE analyzes the circuit. The type of analysis
is given in the source file as the analysis statement. In the absence of an analysis statement, the dc analysis of
the circuit under test will be carried out by PSpice.
15.3 TYPES OF ANALYSIS

The SPICE program is a large general-purpose simulation program for the analysis of a wide range of circuits
with linear and non-linear elements. It allows version-types of analysis. Each analysis is invoked by including
its command statement.
DC Analysis
This type of analysis is used for circuits with time invariant sources (e.g., steady-state dc sources). In this type
of analysis, SPICE finds the dc (quiescent) operating point of circuits.
• For circuits that contain only resistors and sources, such a determination represents the solution for all
the network variables voltage and current.
• For circuits that contain inductors, capacitors and non-linear semiconductor devices, this analysis provides
a determination of the static operating point and also permits the construction of linear small-signal models
for the non-linear elements.
Commands
.DC dc sweep of an input voltage/current source, a model parameter, or temperature over a range of
values
.OP Prints dc operating point to obtain all node voltages and determines the linearized model para-
meters of non-linear devices
.TF Provides the transfer function from an input variable to an output variable and produces the resis-
tances seen by the two sources; thus, it can generate the Thevenin’s equivalent of a resistive circuit
.SENS Provides the small-signal sensitivity of output voltages or currents with respect to every circuit and
device parameters
895
Introduction to Software SPICE
Transient Analysis
This type of analysis is used for circuits with time-variant sources (e.g., ac sources and switched dc sources).
In this type of analysis, SPICE determines the time-domain values of the voltage and currents in a circuit that
contains linear and non-linear elements.
The input functions and the range of time over which the analysis is to be made, are specified by the user. Plots
and tables are used to provide the output.
Commands
.TRAN Produces time responses such as natural response to initial conditions in a source-free circuit and
responses to step, pulse, exponents or other time-varying sources.
.FOUR Produces dc and Fourier components of the transient analysis results.
AC Analysis
This type of analysis is used for small-signal analysis of circuits with sources of variable frequencies. In this
type of analysis, SPICE finds sinusoidal steady-state solution for the variables of a circuit.
If the circuit is comprised of resistors, inductors capacitors and sources, this analysis finds the phasor volt-
ages and currents for the circuit over a range of linear or logarithmically spaced frequency increments.
For circuits that also contain semiconductor devices, the models determined in the dc analysis are used to
generate the values of the phasors.
Commands
.AC Sweeps the frequency of all ac sources in the circuit through a desired range or sets it at a desired value
.PRINT AC
& Prints (or plots) the magnitude and
phase of the steady state output
.PLOT AC
15.4 MODEL STATEMENTS

15.4.1 Input Statements
Each line in the input file is a statement. The information required by SPICE in order to analyze a given
circuit are given here.
Title Statement This statement provides identification for the circuit being analyzed. This statement is
reproduced by SPICE as a heading (or label) on each section of the output file.
Therefore, it is mandatory to allocate the first line to the title line, even if it is left blank.
Comment Statement These statements are used as desired to annotate the information contained in the
input data. They must have an asterisk in their first column. Blank statements may also be interspersed among
the various groups of input statements to improve general readability.
Element /Data statements These statements identify the various circuit elements, such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors, sources, and so on.
Control statements These statements
• specify the type of analysis that is required
• give details about time and/or frequency range
896
• give the type of output required

• control the various options available in the program
In the absence of any additional commands, SPICE automatically computes the dc steady state for the
following variables.
• Node voltages with respect to ground node
• Currents entering each voltage source
• Power dissipated in the circuit
Format of SPICE input file
Title Statement
Circuit Description
Power Supplies / Signal Sources
Element Descriptions
Model Statements
Analysis Requests
Output Requests
.END
End Statement The .END statement is required at the end of the source file. Any statement following
the .END statement will be considered as a separate source file.
15.4.2 Element Statements
The connection information for all circuit elements is given by specifying the numbers of the nodes to which
the element is connected.
The nodes of the circuit to be analyzed must each be given a unique positive inte-
ger identifying the node number; the numbers need not be sequential. The ground IElement
(reference) node must be identified as Node o. N1 N2
Element
For a two-terminal element, the order in which the nodes are specified deter-
mines the reference polarities for the voltage and current variables associated with VElement
the element. Fig. 15.1
For example, if the nodes are specified as N1, N2, then the ve reference polarity
of the voltage is at N1 and the –ve is at N2. The current positive reference direction follows the usual associated
reference direction convention, i.e., from N1 to N2.
The element statements for the most commonly used elements recognized by SPICE are defined as follows:
Models for passive elements
Resistor The general form of the statement is
RNAME N1 N2 VALUE
Where, RNAME is the name of the resistor;
N1 and N2 are the nodes to which the resister is connected
VALUE is the resistance in ohm. R1 = 3 k
Ex For the resistor shown in Fig. 15.2, the statement is 1 2
R1 1 2 3k
name < name > <value> Fig. 15.2
897
Capacitor The general form of the statement is

CNAME N1 N2 VALUE < IC INCOND>
(Optional)
Where, CNAME represents the name of the capacitor
N1 and N2 are the ve and –ve nodes of the capacitor terminals
VALUE is the capacitance value in farad
IC INCOND represents the initial voltage across the capacitor. In the absence of any specification,
the initial condition is taken to be zero. C6 = 5 pF
Ex For the capacitor shown in Fig. 15.3, the statement is 0 6
C6 6 0 5 pF IC 2 V
V(0 ) = 2V
< name > < nodes > < value > [< initial condition >]
Fig. 15.3
Inductor The general form of the statement is
L1 = 30 ␮H
LNAME N1 N2 VALUE <IC INCOND> 4 5
Where, LNAME represents the name of the inductor
N1 and N2 are the ve and ve nodes of the inductor terminals I(0 ) = 2 mA
VALUE is the inductor value in henry Fig. 15.4

IC INCOND represents the initial current through inductor flowing from node N1 to node N2.
For the inductor shown in Fig. 15.4, the statement is,
L1 4 5 30 H IC 2 mA
< name > < nodes > < value > [< initial condition >]
Coupled Coils (Mutual Inductance) The mutual inductance between two magnetically coupled coils or
non-ideal transformers are represented in SPICE by the following general form,
KNAME L1NAME L2NAME VALUE
where, KNAME represents the name of the coefficient of coupling
L1NAME and L2NAME represent the names of the inductances that are coupled
VALUE is the value of the coefficient of coupling K (0 K 1)
The dots of the self-inductances are represented by the positive nodes of the self-inductances.
1.5
Ex For the mutual inductance shown in Fig. 15.5, the coupling coefficient, K12 0.61
2×3
So, the netlist contains the following: 1 4
L1 1 2 2
L2 3 4 3 L1 = 2 H L2 = 3 H
K12 L1 L2 0.61
Models for Active Elements 2 3
M = 1.5 H
Independent voltage source The general form of the statement is,
Fig. 15.5
VNAME N1 N2 TYPE VALUE
Where, VNAME gives the name of the voltage source
N1 and N2 are respectively the ve and ve node of the source
898
TYPE determines the type of analysis in which that particular source is to be used—the ‘TYPE’ for
dc and ac analysis will be dc and ac respectively
For transient analysis ‘TYPE’ gives the time-domain specification of the output of the sources. Several time-
domain specifications are mentioned later.
VALUE is the voltage in volt.
For a dc source, it will have a constant value.
For an ac source, it will have the form: <magnitude> <phase in degree> VS = 30V
Ex For the voltage sources shown in Fig. 15.6, the statements are 1 2
VS 2 1 DC 30V VS(t ) = 14cos(vt 45 )
VS 4 3 AC 14 45
< names > < nodes > < type > < value > 3 4
Independent current source The general form of the statement is Fig. 15.6
INAME N1 N2 TYPE VALUE Im = 2 A

where, all represent the same as in voltage source; the current direction is from N1 to N2.
3 4
Ex For the current sources shown in Fig. 15.7, the statements are IS = 2.3cos(vt 105 )
IM 3 4 DC 2A
IS 5 6 AC 2.3 105 5 6
< names > < nodes > < type > < value > Fig. 15.7
Voltage – controlled voltage source (VCVS) The general form of the statement (assuring linearly depen-
dent source), is
ENAME N N NC NC VALUE
Where, ENAME represents the name of VCVS
N1 and N2 represent the ve and – ve output nodes 5
2
NC and NC – the ve and –ve node at which the controlling voltage is defined V0 7V0
VALUE gives the gain of the VCVS
Ex For the VCVS shown in Fig. 15.8, the statement is
3 4
E1 5 0 2 0 7 K1 V12
E2 4 3 1 2 k1
Fig. 15.8
< name > < nodes > < control > < gain >
Voltage-controlled current source (VCIS) The general form of the statement is
3 7
GNAME N N NC NC VALUE
V0 0.01V0
where all defined in the same way as in VCVS.
Ex For the VCIS shown in Fig. 15.9, the statements are
5 6
G1 0 7 3 0 0.01
K1 V21
G2 5 6 2 1 K1
< name > < nodes > < control > < gain > Fig. 15.9
Current-controlled voltage source (ICVS or, CCVS) The general form of the statement is
HNAME N N NC NC VALUE
899
where, CONTROL is the name of the element where the controlling current is defined.
VALUE is the gain of the CCVS.
1 2
R1 = 0.01 I0 9.3 I0
Ex For the CCVS shown in Fig. 15.10, the statements are
R1 1 0 0.01 4
H1 2 0 R1 9.3
< name > < nodes > < control > < gain > i
3 4 R =5
n
Rn 7 2 5
K1i 7
H2 4 3 Rn K1
< name > < nodes > < control > < gain > Fig. 15.10
Frequently, a zero-valued independent voltage source is inserted in the circuit at a point where it is desired to
define a controlling current. This source is the dummy voltage source (Vdmy). 6
i1
Ex For the dependent source of Fig. 15.11, the statements are 1 2 7
Vdmy 5 7 DC 0 Vdmy = 0
H1 2 1 Vdmy 7 7i1 5
< name > < name > < name > < name > Fig. 15.11 Fig. 15.12
Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS or, ICIS) The general form of the statement is
FNAME N N CONTROL VALUE
where, CONTROL the name of the element in which the controlling current is defined;
VALUE the gain of the CCCS
Here, also a dummy voltage source (Vdmy) is inserted in the circuit at the point where the controlling current is
defined. The value of the voltage is zero; if the value is not given, by default it is taken as zero for all types of
analysis, ac, dc and transient.
9 4
Ex: For the CCVS shown in Fig. 15.13, the statements are Vdmy 9 0 Vdmy 5i1
F1 0 4 Vdmy 5 i1
0
< name > < name > < name > < name >
Fig. 15.13
15.4.3 Control and Output Statements
These statements control the type of analysis, the quantity and form of the output, and the various options avail-
able with SPICE.
Note A dc analysis is automatically performed by SPICE; thus no control statement need be included if only a dc
analysis is desired.
.DC statement It sweeps the value of an independent dc source. The syntax is,
.DC < name > < initial value > < final values > < step size >
R1 = 1k
1 2
Ex Use .DC command to sweep Vs from 1 to 6 in steps of 1V.
Answer: The statement is VS = 1V R2 = 2 k
.DC Vs 1 6 1
< name > <initial> <final> <step size> Fig. 15.14
900
.TF Statement It produces the small-signal transfer function from an input variable to an output variable.
The syntax is
.TF <output variable> <input variable>
Ex Use .TF command to find V2/V1. R1 = 1k

1 2
Answer: The statements are VS = 12 V R2 = 2 k
Vs 1 0 DC 12
R1 1 2 1K
Fig. 15.15
R2 2 0 2K
.TF V(2) Vs
.OP statement It prints the dc operating point of all independent sources.
.AC statement This statement provides a small-signal ac analysis of the circuit. The syntax is
.AC <sweep type> <number of points> <starting frequency> <ending frequency>
The sweep type may be of three forms:
LIN Linear sweep; uses linearly spaced frequency increments
.AC LIN NP FSTART FSTOP
where, NP is number of points in the analysis.
DEC Sweep by decade, uses logarithmically spaced frequency increments (Bode Plot)
.AC DEC ND FSTART FSTOP
where, ND is the number of points per octave.
Note FSTART cannot be zero.
Ex (1) Perform ac analysis of a circuit at frequency increments of 0.05 rad/s over the range 0 to 2 rad/s using
a voltage source V1 connected to nodes 1–0 to provide the excitation.
The statements are,
V1 1 0 AC *(plus the element statements)*
.AC LIN 41 0.001 0.318
(2) Perform ac analysis over a range of 103 to 105 Hz with 20 points per decade using a voltage source con-
nected to nodes 1–0.
The statements are,
V1 1 0 AC *(plus the element statements)*
.AC DEC 20 1E3 1E5
.TRAN statement This statement provides a transient analysis of circuit. The syntax is
.TRAN TSTEP TSTOP [TSTART TMAX] [UIC]
where, TSTEP The desired increment between the linearly spaced values of time at which the circuit is to
be analyzed.
TSTOP The final value of time at which the circuit is to be analyzed
901
TSTART This optional argument provides for starting at times other than t = 0.
TMAX This optional argument provides a user-specified internal-program computational time step.
Normally, the step size is set to the smaller of TSTEP or (TSTOP-TSTART)/50. If this argument
is specified, a value must be entered for TSTART; the default value of TMAX is TSTOP/50.
UIC This optional argument is required if the initial conditions specified on the inductor and capacitor
element cards are to be used in the analysis. The letters UIC are entered directly on the statement.
Note The .TRAN statement requires .PRINT, .PLOT, or .PROBE statements to get the results of the transient analysis.
Ex Use .TRAN statement to make transient analysis of the circuit, for 0 t 1.4 ms.
R 1 0 50
L 1 0 10m IC =0.5 C = 1␮F L = 10 mH
C 1 0 1U IC = 1 R = 50
.TRAN 2.0E-6 1.4E-3 UIC v(0) = 1V i(0) = 0.5 A
.PROBE
Fig. 15.16
.END
.PRINT Statement This statement requests a tabular output listing of the values of the variables to the
circuit being analyzed up to right variables that may be specified.
The syntax is,
.PRINT <type of analysis> <output variables>
<type> is dc, ac or Transient analysis.
• For dc analysis, and transient analysis, each output variable must be written in the following forms:
V(N1) Specifies the voltage at the node N1.
V(N1,N2) Specifies the voltage between nodes N1 and N2 with N1 taken as ve reference.
I(Ename) Specifies the current through the element identified as Ename
Ex .PRINT DC V(2), V(2,3), V(R1), I(VIN), I(L1)
.PRINT TRAN V(1), V(3,5), V(R1), V(I1), I(C1)
• For ac analysis, the magnitude and phase of the steady–state output are printed as follows:
.PRINT AC <magnitudes> <phases>
The magnitudes and phases of voltages are Vm (variable) and Vp (variable);
The magnitudes and phases of currents are Im (variable) and Ip (Variable)
Ex .PRINT AC Vm(1) Vp(1) Vm(2,3) Im(Vs) Ip(Vs)
Similarly, VR, IR For real part of the voltage V and the current I
VI, II For imaginary part of the voltage V and the current I
VDB, IDB For the magnitudes in dB
VM, IM For magnitudes of V and I
VP, IP For phases of V and I
.PLOT Statement This statement requests a screen or printer-generated plot of the variables of the circuit
being analyzed .The syntax is the same as .PRINT.
.PLOT <type> <[output variables]>
902
Another form is
.PLOT <type> <output variables> <(lower limit value, upper limit value )>
i.e, .PLOT <type> 0V1 (PLO1 PHI1) 0V2 (PLO2 PHI2)...
Ex .PLOT DC V(2), V(3,5), I(R1), I(Vs)

.PLOT DC V(2) V(3,5) (0,1OV) I(R1) (0,50MA) I(VS) (-50MA,50MA)
.PLOT AC V(1M) (0,1V) Vm(2,4) (0,10MV) Ip(Vs)
.PROBE Statement This statement provides a high-quality plot. The simulation results are procured by this
command and the procured data are stored in a data file, PROBE.DAT, which can be plotted in post-analysis by
evoking the PROBE program.
The syntax is
.PROBE [<output variables>]
Ex .PROBE
.PROBE V(5) V(4,3) I(R2) I(VIN)
In the first form, where no output variable is specified, the .PROBE command writes all the node voltages
and all the element currents in the PROBE.DAT file.
In the second form, where the output variables are specified, PSPICE writes only the specified output vari-
ables to the PROBE.DAT file.
Once the results of simulations are procured by the .PROBE command, the results are available for graphical
displays, by selecting the type of analysis and the coordinates of the output variables.
Modelling devices with varying parameters

.MODEL Statement This statement specifies a model that specifies a set of parameters for an element. In
other words, the parameters of a passive element can be varied by this statement.
The syntax is
.MODEL < name > <type> [(<parameter> = <value>)]
where , < name > is the name assigned to the element
<type> for passive linear elements it is
RES for resistor
IND for inductor
CAP for capacitor
Other elements are as
D Diode
NPN NPN BJT
NMOS N-channel MOSFET, etc.
.STEP Statement We can sweep the parameter of the model through a desired range at desired steps by this
statement.
The syntax is,
.STEP LIN < name > <initial value> <final value> <step size>
903
Example 15.1 Define a resistor called ‘heater’ with the resistance parameter varying from 20 to 40 in
5 steps generating 20, 25, 30, 35 and 41 .
Solution The statements are
.MODEL HEATER RES (R=20)
.STEP LIN RES HEATER(R) 20 40 5
Note Using .MODEL we create the resistor called Heater (R) and sweep its value by .STEP in the following source file.
15.5 DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

The following are the various steps in performing dc analysis of a circuit
(1) Modelling of elements (R, L, C, and so on)
(2) Modelling of independent dc sources (voltage and current sources)
(3) Modelling of dependent dc sources (VCVS, VCCS, CCVS and CCCS)
(4) dc output variables (voltage output and current output)
(5) dc output commands (.PRINT, .PLOT, .PROBE statements).
All have been discussed in detailed earlier.
15.6 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

The followings are the various steps in performing transient analysis of a circuit:
(1) Modelling of elements (R, L, C)
*(2) Modelling of transient sources
(3) Transient output variables (voltage output and current output)
(4) Transient analysis (.TRAN- statement)
*It has not been discussed earlier; all others have been.
15.6.1 Modelling of Transient Sources

There are several time-domain waveforms that may be used to define the output of independent voltage and
current sources in transient analysis. The most commonly used ones follow.
Piecewise Linear Source A point in a waveform can be denoted by (Ti, Vi ) or, (Ti, Ii ), and every pair of
values of (Ti, Vi ) or (Ti, Ii ) specifies the sources value at time Ti. The values at times between intermediate points
are determined by SPICE by using linear interpolation.
The symbol of a piecewise linear source is PWL. For this waveform,
the ‘type’ parameter in element statements for independent voltage or cur- V(t )
rent sources has the form, 6
3
PWL (T1 V1 T2 V2 ... TN VN) 2
Ex: The model statement for this typical waveform shown in 0 5 10 15 40 45 60 65

Fig. 15.17, is t(ms)
V N1 N2 PWL (0 0 5 3 10US 3V 15US Fig. 15.17 Piecewise linear
6V 40US 6V 45US 2V 60US 2V 65US 0) waveform
904
Pulse source The ‘type’ parameter in the element statements for V(t )
independent voltage and current source of pulse wave (which goes from V2
V 0 to V 1 and back) has the form PW
V1
PULSE (V1 V2 TD TR TF PW PER)
0 t
<initial <pulsed <delay <rise <fall <duration> <period> TD TR TF TD
PER
value> value> time> time> time> Fig. 15.18 Pulse Waveform
Example 15.2 Write the data statement for a pulse waveform which switches 10 times in one second between
1 V and 2 V, with a rise and fall time of 2 ms. The pulse stays at 2 V for 11 ms. The first pulse starts at t 5 ms.
Solution Here, V1 1 V, V2 2 V, TD 5 ms, TR TF 2 ms, PW 11 ms, per 100 ms
(it switches 10 times in 1 second)
So, the data statement is
Vs N1 N2 PULSE (1 2 5m 2m 2m 11m 100m)
Exponential Source The source starts at a constant initial value V1. At t TRD (rise time delay), it changes
exponentially from V 0 to a final value V 2 with a rise-time-constant TRC. At t TFD (fall time delay), it returns
exponentially to V 1 with a fill-time-constant TFC.
So, the ‘type’ parameter in the element statements for independent voltage or current sources has the form
EXP (V1 V2 TRD TR TFD TFC)
<initial <final <rise time <rise time <fall time <fall time
value> value> delay> constant> delay> constant>
2.0 V
Ex The data-statement for this waveform is
Vs N1 N2 EXP(1 2 5 m 5m 20 m 2 m) 1.5 V
Sinusoidal Source The symbol of a sinusoidal source is SIN 1.0 V

and the ‘type’ parameter in the element statements for independent 0.5 V
voltage and current source has the form
SIN (PO PA FREQ TD ALPHA THETA) 0V
0 s 5 ms 10 ms 15 ms 2 ms 25 ms 30 ms
where, PO dc offset value for the sinusoid Time
V(1)
PA peak amplitude (taken from the dc offset value)
Fig. 15.19
frequency in Hz
FREQ
15V
TD delay time before the start of the sinusoid
10V
ALPHA damping factor, it is the inverse of time-constant
5V
THETA phase delay in degree 0V
The mathematical description of the function defined by this function is 5V
0s 0.5s 1.0s 1.5s 2.0s 2.5s 3.0s
f (t ) PO PAe ALPHA(t TD) sin [{2 FEREQ(t TD)} V(1) Time
THETA]u (t TD)
Fig. 15.20
Example 15.3 Write the data statement for the voltage source Vin . 1
Vin= 10sin(2p 5000t)
Solution Here, PO O V; PA 10 V; FREQ 5000 Hz; TD 0; ALPHA 0;
THETA 0
So, the data statement is,
VIN 1 0 SIN (VO VA FREQ)
i.e, VIN 1 0 SIN (O 10V 5 KHz ) Fig. 15.21
905
15.7 AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

The following are the various steps in performing ac analysis (i.e., to find steady-state frequency response)
of a circuit
(1) Modelling of elements (R, L, C )
(2) Modelling of independent ac sources (voltage and current sources)
(3) Modelling of dependent ac sources (VCVS, VCCS, CCVS, CCCS)
(4) AC output variables (voltage output and current output)
(5) AC analysis (AC statement)
(6) AC output commands (.PRINT, .PLOT, .PROBE statements)
All have been discussed earlier.
15.8 FOURIER ANALYSIS AND HARMONIC DECOMPOSITION USING SPICE

A periodic waveform can be expressed in a Fourier Series as,
∞
v (t ) = C0 + ∑ Cn sin( n t + n
)
n=1
where, 2 f
f the frequency (Hz)
C0 DC component
Cn nth Harmonic component
Fourier analysis can be selected in the transient set-up window. SPICE uses the results of transient analysis
to perform Fourier analysis. The syntax is
.FOUR FREQ N V1 V2 V3 VN
or, .FOUR FREQ N I1 I2 I3 IN
where, FREQ The fundamental frequency to be used in the Fourier analysis (centre frequency) normally
you want to set this equal to your source frequency
V1, V2, V3, ... (or, I1, I2, I3, ...) the output variable for which the Fourier series is required.
N is the number of harmonics (optional, default is 9)
The last portion in the transient output data (one period of the fundamental) is used for the analysis. Take
care to have the fundamental frequency match your source frequency so that the harmonic analysis is per-
formed over a full period.
The result of the Fourier analysis is attached as a table at the end of the output file. (If the schematic file
is called mycircuit.sch, PSPICE will produce mycircuit.out as its output file). No other commands
such as, .PRINT, .PLOT, .PROBE, etc., are required. The total harmonic distortion is also printed as a part of the
Fourier analysis table.
15.9 HARMONIC RECOMPOSITION

By summation of the Fourier components with the values of the coefficients and the phases obtained by SPICE,
a harmonic recomposition can be done.
When the phases of all harmonics are zero, the summation can be done by the simulation of a number
of current sources in parallel with a 1- resistor. Otherwise, a different computer programming is
needed.
906
15.10 DC SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

The sensitivity of output variables with respect to every circuit and device parameters is calculated by the .SENS
statement. The general form is
.SENS <(one or more output) variables>
Sensitivity analysis is used to identify the critical components in the design. These critical components
should be specified with tighter tolerances, and are the best candidates for optimization. Likewise, the least criti-
cal components can be identified, which make good candidates for cost reduction if their preciseness does not
critically affect design performance or yield.
In this analysis, the inductors are assumed to be short-circuited and the capacitor to be open-circuited. If the
output variable is a current, then that must be through a voltage source.
Solved Problems
Problem 15.1 Use PSPICE to find the dc steady-state voltage across the 5-μF capacitor.
Solution We first label the nodes by numbers 0, 1, 2 and the elements by the symbols 3k
R1, R2, C and Vs.
We then create in ASCII the source file as given below. 9V 6 k 5 F
DC Analysis, Fig.15.23
VS 1 0 DC 9V Fig. 15.22
R1 1 2 3K
R2 0 2 6K 1 R1 2
C 0 2 5UF
.DC VS 9 9 1 VS R2 C
.PRINT DC V(2)
.END 0
The results are written in the output file as shown. Fig. 15.23
DC TRANSFER CURVES
VS V(2)
9.0000 6.0000
Problem 15.2 Write the netlist for the circuit shown below and run PSPICE on it for dc analysis.
4V
Solution We first number the nodes and name the elements as shown below.
The netlist in the source file is
*DC Analysis *
3k 1k
R1 0 1 500 500 3 mA 1.5k
R2 1 2 3K
R3 2 3 1K Fig. 15.24
R4 0 3 1.5K VS
VS 3 1 DC 4V
IS 0 2 DC 3mA
1 2 3
.END
R2 R3
The results are written in the output file as shown below R1 IS
R4
NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE
(1) 0.1250 (2) 5.3750 (3) 4.1250 Fig. 15.25
907
VOLTAGE SOURCE CURRENTS
NAME CURRENT
VS 1.500E – 03
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 6.00E 03 WATT
Note No output command is requested for dc analysis. It is done by default.
100i
i 1k
Problem 15.3 Write the netlist for the circuit of Fig. 15.26 and run it on
PSPICE for dc analysis.
12 V 2k 500
Solution The nodes are numbered and the elements are named as shown
Fig. 15.27. Then the netlist is Fig. 15.26
*DC Analysis with Dependent Source
VS 1 0 DC 12 Vdmy 100i(Vdmy)
R1 1 2 1K 1 R1 2 3 4
R2 0 3 2K
VS i
R3 0 4 500 R2 R3
Vdmy 2 3 0
0
F1 4 3 Vdmy 100
Fig. 15.27
.END
The results in the output file are
NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE
(1) 12.0000 (2) 11.9410 (3) 4.1250 (4) –2.9557v
NAME CURRENTS
VS – 5.911E – 05
Vdmy 5.911E – 05
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 7.09E – 04 WATT
Problem 15.4 Use PSPICE to find V(3, 4) in the circuit shown below.
Solution The source file is,
*DC Analysis 1 R 3 = 74 2 R4 = 16.4
3
VS 2 0 DC 105 R 2 = 12
R1 0 1 36 R 1 = 36 R 5 = 103.2
R2 0 1 12 VS =105 V
4
R3 1 2 74 R 6 = 28.7
R4 2 3 16.4 Fig. 15.28
R5 3 4 103.2
R6 4 0 28.7
DC VS 105 105 1
·PRINT DC V(1) V(3,4)
·END
908
The output file contains the following:

DC TRANSFER CURVES
VS V (1) V (3,4)
1.050E + 02 1.139E + 01 7.307E +01
Therefore, V (3, 4) = 73.07 Volt
Problem 15.5 Write the source file for the circuit shown below and find I in R4.
Solution The source file is 1 R3 = 4 2
*DC Analysis I
IS = 20 A
VS 2 0 DC 200V R 2 = 47
IS 0 3 DC 20A R 1 = 27 VS = 200V R 4 = 23
R1 0 1 27
R2 1 2 47
R3 1 3 4
Fig. 15.29
R4 3 0 23
.DC VS 200 200 1
.PRINT DC I(R4)
.END
The output file contains the following results
*DC TRANSFER CURVE
VS I(R4)
2.000E 02 1.123E 01
Therefore, the current I(R4) 11.23 A flows from the node 3 to the node 0.
Problem 15.6 Find the three loop currents in the circuit of Fig.15.30 using PSPICE and compare your
solution with the analytical approach.
I1 1 R 3 = 10 3 R 5 = 2
Solution The source file is 4
DC Analysis R2 = 5
V1 2 0 DC 25 R1 = 2 2 R4 = 4 V2 = 50
V2 0 4 DC 50 V1 = 25V
R1 0 1 2
R2 1 2 5 Fig. 15.30
R3 1 3 10
1 R 3 =10 3 R5 = 2 4
R4 3 0 4
R5 3 4 2 R2 = 5
I2 I3
.DC V1 25 25 1 I1 2
R1 = 2 R4 = 4 V2 = 50V
.PRINT DC I(R1) I(R3) I(R5)
The output file includes the following: V1 = 25V
DC TRANSFER CURVES Fig. 15.31
V1 I(R1) I(R3) I(R5)
2.500E+01 -1.306E+00 3.172E+00 1.045E+01
The analytical solution requires the solution of the three mesh equations
7I1 5I2 0.I 3 25
5I1 19I2 4I3 25
0.I1 4I2 6I3 50
909
−25 −5 0
25 19 − 4
50 − 4 6 700
I1 = =− = −1.306 A
7 −5 0 536
−5 19 − 4
0 −4 6
7 −25 0
−5 25 −4
0 50 6 1700
I1 = = = 3.1
172 A
7 −5 0 536
−5 19 −4
0 −4 6
7 −5 −25
−5 19 25
0 −4 50 5600
I1 = = =1
10.45 A
7 −5 0 536
−5 19 −4
0 −4 6
Problem 15.7 Use PSPICE to find the value of Vs such that the voltage source does not supply any
power.
VS
Solution We sweep the Vs from 1 V to 10 V in 10 steps of 1 V and print
the value of the current flowing through Vs. R2=3k 2
1 3
The source file is R3=1k
R1 = 500 R4 = 1.5 k
*DC Sweep IS=3mA
R1 0 1 500
R2 1 2 3k Fig. 15.32
R3 2 3 1k
R4 0 3 1.5k
VS 0 1 DC 4V
IS 0 2 DC 3mA
.DC VS 1 10 1
.PRINT DC I(VS)
.END
The results in the output file is,
DC TRANSFER CVRVES
VS I (VS)
1.000E+00 7.500E-04
2.000E+00 2.188E-12
3.000E+00 7.500E-12
910
4.000E+00 -1.500E-03
5.000E+00 -2.250E-03
6.000E+00 -3.000E-03
7.000E+00 -3.750E-03
8.000E+00 -4.500E-03
9.000E+00 -5.250E-03
1.000E+01 -6.000E-03
Therefore, the current in Vs is zero for Vs 2 V.
Problem 15.8 Find the value of Vs in the circuit such that the power dissipated in the 1-k resistor is
zero. Sweep Vs from 1 V to 6 V in steps of 1 V.
1 R1 = 1k 2
Solution The source file is
*DC Sweep VS = 1V IS = 1m A
VS 1 0 DC 1V
R2 = 2 k
IS 0 2 DC 1MA
R1 1 2 1K
R2 0 2 2K Fig. 15.33
·DC VS 1 6 1
·PRINT DC 1(VS) V(1,2) V(2)
·END
The results in the output file are
DC TRANSFER CURVES
VS 1(VS) V (1,2) V(2)
1.000E+00 3.333E – 04 –3.333E – 01 1.333E+00
2.000E+00 –1.333E – 12 1.333E – 09 2.000E+00
3.000E+00 –3.333E – 04 3.333E – 01 2.667E+00
4.000E+00 –6.667E – 04 6.667E – 01 3.333E+00
5.000E+00 –1.000E – 03 1.000E – 01 4.000E+00
6.000E+00 –1.333E – 03 1.333E – 00 4.667E+00
Therefore, the answer is, Vs = 2 V
Problem 15.9 Perform a dc analysis on the circuit and find its Thevenin equivalent as seen from the
terminal AB.
1R 1 = 10 2 A
Solution We use .TF statement and create the following netlist:
*Thevenin Equivalent Circuit VS = 3 V IS = 1 A V2
VS 1 0 DC 3
IS 0 2 DC 1 B
R1 1 2 10 Fig. 15.34
·TF V(2) IS
·END
The output file will contain the following results
NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE
(1) 3.0000 (2) 13.000
911
NAME CURRENT
VS 1.000E + 00
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION –3.00E + 00 WAIT
SMALL–SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
V(2)/IS = 1.000E + 01
INPUT RESISTANCE AT IS = 1.000E + 01
OUTPUT RESISTANCE AT V(2) = 1.000E + 01
The Thevenin equivalent is VTh V2 13 V
RTh 10
Problem 15.10 Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit seen at terminal AB.
R1 =1k 2 R3 =1k 3
*Thevenin Equivalent Circuit 1 A
VS 1 0 DC 12 R4 = 200
E1 4 0 2 0 10 VS = 12 V V2 R2 = 2k 4
R1 1 2 1K 10V2
R2 2 0 2K B
R3 2 3 1K Fig. 15.35
R4 3 4 200
.TF V(3) VS
.END
The output file contains the following results:
(1) 12.0000 (2) -2.0000 (3) -17.000 (4) -20.0000
NAME CURRENT
VS -1.400E – 02
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 1.68E-01 WATT
SMALL-SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
INPUT RESISTANCE AT VS = 8.571E+02
OUTPUT RESITANCE AT V(3) = -6.944E+01
Therefore, VTh 1.417 12 = 17 V and RTh 69.44
Problem 15.11 In the series RCL circuit, find the magnitude and phase of the current I for f varying from
40 to 60 KHz in 200 steps.
*AC Analysis
R = 32 2 L = 2mH3
VS 1 0 AC 1 0 1
R 1 2 32
L 2 3 2m VS = cosvt C = 5 nF
C 3 0 5n
.AC LIN 200 40K 60K
.PRINT AC IM(VS) IP(VS) Fig. 15.36
912
.PLOT AC IM(VS) IP (VS)
.PROBE IM(VS) IP(VS)
.END
Here, we use .AC statement to sweep the frequency and obtain by any of the commands .PRINT, .PLOT, or
.PROBE. The results will be as the graph shows in Fig. 15.37.
The output file will contain
*AC ANALYSIS
FREQ IM (VS) IP (VS)
4.000E+04
4.010E+04
4.020E+04
----
6.000E +04
The graph of the frequency response is plotted by .PROBE as shown in Fig. 15.37 and 15.38.
40 m A
30 m A
20 m A
10 m A
0A
38 KHz 40 KHz 42 KHz 44 KHz 46 KHz 48 KHz 50 KHz 52 KHz 54 KHz 56 KHz 58 KHz 60 KHz
I(C1) Frequency
Fig. 15.37
100 d
50 d
0d
50 d
100 d
38 KHz 40 KHz 42 KHz 44 KHz 46 KHz 48 KHz 50 KHz 52 KHz 54 KHz 56 KHz 58 KHz 60 KHz
P(I(C1)) Frequency
Fig. 15.38
913
Problem 15.12 Perform an ac analysis on the circuit of Fig. 15.39 and find the complex magnitude of V2
for the frequency of the source varying from 100 Hz to 10 kHz in 10 steps.
Solution We add to the netlist an AC statement to sweep f and obtain V(2) by any of the commands .PRINT,
.PLOT, or .PROBE. 1k 2
1
The source file is
*AC Analysis VS 2k V2 1mF
VS 1 0 AC 10 0
10⬔0
R1 1 2 1K
R2 2 0 2K
Fig. 15.39
C 2 0 1UF
.AC LIN 10 100 10k
.PRINT AC VM (2) VP (2)
.PLOT AC VM (2) VP (2)
.PROBE VM (2) VP (2)
.END
The output will be as shown below.
0d
50 d
SEL>>
100 d
P(V(2))
10 V
5V
0V
0.1 KHz 1.0 KHz 2.0 KHz 3.0 KHz 4.0 KHz 5.0 KHz 6.0KHz 7.0 KHz 8.0KHz 9.0 KHz 10.0 KHz
V(2)
Frequency
Fig. 15.40
Problem 15.13 Use .PROBE to plot V in the circuit for the frequency of the source varying from 1 to 3 kHz
in 10 steps, and, also R from 500 to 1k in steps of 100 .
1
Solution Using the .MODEL statement, we create the resistor RLeak and
sweep its value by .STEP in the following source file. I = 1 mA C L R
ac
1 ␮F 10 mH
*Parallel Resonance with Variable R
I 0 1 AC 1m 0 Fig. 15.41
R 1 0 RLEAK 1
L 1 0 10m
C 1 0 1U
914
.MODEL RLEAK RES(R=1)
.STEP LIN RES RLEAK(R) 500 1K 100
.AC LIN 100 1K 3K .PROBE
.END
1.0 V
0.5 V
0V
1.0 KHz 1.2 KHz 1.4 KHz 1.6 KHz 1.8 KHz 2.0 KHz 2.2 KHz 2.4 KHz 2.6 KHz 2.8 KHz 3.0 KHz
V(1) Frequency
Fig. 15.42
Problem 15.14 Use .TRAN and .PROBE to plot the voltage across the parallel RLC combination of
Fig. 15.43 for R 50 and 150 for 0 < t < 14 ms. The initial conditions are I(0) 0.5 A and V(0) 0.
Solution The source file is,
*Source-free Parallel RLC Circuit with Variable R I(0)
R 1 0 LOSS 1
L = 10 m H R
L 0 1 10M IC=0.5 C = 1 ␮F V(0)
C 1 0 1U IC=0
.MODEL LOSS RES(R=6)
.STEP RES LOSS(R) 50 150 100 Fig. 15.43
.TRAN 2.0E-6 1.4E-03 UIC
.PROBE
.END
40 V
20 V
0V
20 V
0 s 0.2 ms 0.4 ms 0.6 ms 0.8 ms 1.0 ms 1.2 ms 1.4 ms
V(1) Time
Fig. 15.44
915
Problem 15.15 Write the netlist for the circuit shown below and run
PSPICE on it for dc analysis. 2 mA
6k (Is )
Solution The source file is 1 (Ra ) 2 3
* Example_15 EXMPL15.CIR
4k
Vs 1 0 DC 20.0V ; note the node placements 1k
20 V
Ra 1 2 5.0k (Rb ) (Rc )
(VS )
Rb 2 0 4.0k
Rc 3 0 1.0k 0
Is 3 2 DC 2.0mA ; note the node placements Fig. 15.45
.END
The output file EXMPL15.OUT is shown below. This has been edited to remove extra lines.
( 1) 20.0000 ( 2) 13.3330 ( 3) -2.0000
NAME CURRENT
Vs -1.333E-03 <== Current entering node 1 of Vs
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 2.67E-02 WATTS
JOB CONCLUDED
TOTAL JOB TIME .26
Problem 15.16 Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across terminals 1 and 2.
Ex
Solution In this example, we want the Thévenin equivalent circuit 3 vx
2 1
from nodes 1 to 0. The 1 M resistor is placed in the circuit because
PSPICE requires at least two connections to each node. This resistor is VC
large enough so that it will not have an effect on the calculations. Note the 0V
use of voltage source Vc which has the purpose of monitoring the control VS 3
100V iX
current, ix, used for the current-controlled dependent current source Fx. R1 R 10
R3
The input lines in the *.CIR file are shown below. 5 1MEG
4
5 4
* Thevenin Example No. 16 vx
R5 R2
Vs 2 5 DC 100V 1 5
Vc 2 3 DC 0V; controls Fx
6
Fx 6 7 Vc 4.0; gain = 4 7 R4 0
Fx 48
* n+ n- NC+ NC gain 4Ix
Ex 2 1 5 4 3.0; gain = 3
R1 3 4 5.0 Fig. 15.46
R2 4 7 5.0
R3 5 4 4.0
R4 7 0 4.8
R5 5 6 1.0
R10 1 0 1MEG; satisfies PSpice
* out_var input_source
.TF V(1,0) Vs
.END
916
Portions of the output file produced by this case will now be listed.
Thevenin Example No. 16
**** CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
Vs 2 5 DC 100V
Vc 2 3 DC 0V; controls Fx
Fx 6 7 Vc 4.0; gain = 4.0
Ex 2 1 5 4 3.0; gain = 3.0
R1 3 4 5.0
R2 4 7 5.0
R3 5 4 4.0
R4 7 0 4.8
R5 5 6 1.0
Rab 1 0 1MEG
.TF V(1,0) Vs
Thevenin Example No. 16
**** SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C
(1) 180.0000 (2) 60.0010 (3) 60.0010 (4) 80.0010
(5) 160.0000 (6) 176.0000 (7) 864.0E-06
NAME CURRENT
Vs -4.000E+00
Vc 4.000E+00
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 4.00E+02 WATTS
**** SMALL-SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
V(1,0)/Vs = 1.800E+00 <== Transfer function
INPUT RESISTANCE AT Vs = 2.500E+01
OUTPUT RESISTANCE AT V(1,0) = 5.000E+00 <== Thévenin resistance
JOB CONCLUDED
TOTAL JOB TIME .01 1
LP RP
Problem 15.17 Find the transient response of a parallel RLC circuit 20 A CP
8 mH 1 0V 10 mF
using PSPICE.
Solution The complete listing for the “RLCNAT17.CIR” file is as follows: 0
* Natural Response of a parallel RLC circuit Fig. 15.47
Rp 0 1 1.0
Lp 1 0 8mH IC=20A 4v
0v
Cp 1 0 10mF IC=0V 4v
.TRAN 500us 100ms 0s 500us UIC 8v
.PROBE 12 v
0 s 20 s 40 s 60 s 80 s 100 s
.END V(1) Time
The output curve will be as shown in Fig. 15.48. Fig. 15.48
917
Problem 15.18 Find the node voltages when a pulse input is given to the circuit shown in Fig. 15.49.
RS
Solution * Transient response of a low-pass 1 10k 2
filter 10 V VS(t)
* V1 V2 Td Tr Tf Tw Per. CS
VS
Vs 1 0 PULSE(0V 10V 0s 100ms 100ms 900ms 2s) 100 mF
Rs 1 2 10k t,sec
Cs 2 0 100uF IC=0V 0V
0 0 0.1 1.0 1.1 2.0
.TRAN 5ms 3s 0s 5ms UIC
Fig. 15.49
.PROBE
.END 10 V
Discussion V1 is set to zero for this case and the pulse is at the
5V
10-volt level (V2) for Tw = 900 ms. Note that the simulation time
(3 s) is greater than the period (2 s). The vertical traces shown below
0V
represent the pulse from the voltage source while the wavy trace in 0s 0.5s 1.0 s 1.5s 2.0 s 2.5 s 3.0 s
v(1) v(2)
the horizontal direction represents the response voltage across the Time
capacitor. Fig. 15.50
Problem 15.19 Write the SPICE input file to find the Fourier Series of V1 and V2.
Solution The netlist will be as shown below:
* Schematics Netlist *
V1 1 0 PULSE(-1 1 0 0.001 0.001 0.5 1)
R1 1 2 1 V1(t )
1 R1 = 1 2
C1 2 0 0.1592
.TRAN 0.01 1 1
.FOUR 1 V(1) V1 C1 = 0.1592F V2
0 1 t (seconds)
.FOUR 1 V(2) 1
.END
Fig. 15.51
The result in the output file will be as shown below
**** FOURIER ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C
*****************************************************************************
FOURIER COMPONENTS OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE V(1)
DC COMPONENT = -9.900990E-03
HARMONIC FREQUENCY FOURIER NORMALIZED PHASE NORMALIZED
NO (HZ) COMPONENT COMPONENT (DEG) PHASE (DEG)
1 1.000E+00 1.273E+00 1.000E+00 -8.911E-01 0.000E+00
2 2.000E+00 1.981E-02 1.556E-02 -9.178E+01 -9.000E+01
3 3.000E+00 4.246E-01 3.334E-01 -2.673E+00 1.821E-14
4 4.000E+00 1.984E-02 1.558E-02 -9.356E+01 -9.000E+01
5 5.000E+00 2.549E-01 2.002E-01 -4.455E+00 1.421E-14
6 6.000E+00 1.989E-02 1.562E-02 -9.535E+01 -9.000E+01
7 7.000E+00 1.823E-01 1.431E-01 -6.238E+00 -7.550E-14
8 8.000E+00 1.996E-02 1.567E-02 -9.713E+01 -9.000E+01
9 9.000E+00 1.419E-01 1.115E-01 -8.020E+00 -1.174E-12
TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION = 4.302880E+01 PERCENT
918
JOB CONCLUDED
TOTAL JOB TIME .03
FOURIER COMPONENTS OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE V(2)
DC COMPONENT = -1.185834E-02
HARMONIC FREQUENCY FOURIER NORMALIZED PHASE NORMALIZED
NO (HZ) COMPONENT COMPONENT (DEG) PHASE (DEG)
1 1.000E+00 9.017E-01 1.000E+00 -4.664E+01 0.000E+00
2 2.000E+00 1.062E-02 1.177E-02 -1.485E+02 -5.521E+01
3 3.000E+00 1.355E-01 1.503E-01 -7.650E+01 6.341E+01
4 4.000E+00 5.783E-03 6.414E-03 -1.557E+02 3.089E+01
5 5.000E+00 5.118E-02 5.676E-02 -8.675E+01 1.464E+02
6 6.000E+00 3.957E-03 4.389E-03 -1.551E+02 1.248E+02
7 7.000E+00 2.694E-02 2.988E-02 -9.280E+01 2.337E+02
8 8.000E+00 3.033E-03 3.364E-03 -1.521E+02 2.210E+02
9 9.000E+00 1.683E-02 1.866E-02 -9.712E+01 3.226E+02
TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION = 1.650869E+01 PERCENT
JOB CONCLUDED
TOTAL JOB TIME .02
The theoretical results of the Fourier series are
v1(t ) 1.273 sin 2␲t 0.4244 sin 6␲t 0.2546 sin 10␲t 0.1819 sin 14␲t 0.1415 sin 18␲t · · · and,
v2(t ) 0.9002 sin(2␲t 45 ) 0.1342 sin(6␲t 71.56 ) 0.0499 sin(10␲t 78.69 )
0.0257 sin(14␲t 81.87 ) 0.0156 sin(18␲t 83.66 ) · · ·
Note There are some inaccuracies in the SPICE results due to the method used in determining the Fourier series.
Problem 15.20 Write the source file for the circuit of Fig. 15.52 using commands .DC, .PLOT and .PROBE
to find the I–V characteristic equation for I varying from 0 to 2 A at the terminals AB.
Solution First, we connect a dc current source Iext at terminals AB, sweep its value from 0 to 2A using the
.DC command, and plot V versus I. Since the circuit is linear, two points are necessary and sufficient. However,
for clarity of the plot, ten steps are included in the source file as follows.
* Terminal Characteristic
3 R3=3 4 R4 = 2 A
IEXT 0 5 DC 0
IS 0 4 DC 0.6A 5
VS 3 2 DC 5V VS = 5 V Iext
R1 0 1 1 IS = 0.6 A
0
R2 1 2 2
2 R2 = 2 1 R1 = 1 B
R3 3 4 3
R4 4 5 2 Fig. 15.52
.DC IEXT 0 -2 0.2
.PLOT DC V(5)
.PROBE
.END
919

10 V
5V
0V
5V
10 V
2.0 A 1.8 A 1.6 A 1.4 A 1.2 A 1.0 A 0.8 A 0.6 A 0.4 A 0.2 A 0.0 A
V (5) I ext
Fig. 15.53
The I–V equation is V 8I 8.6
Problem 15.21 Find the voltage across a 1- F capacitor with zero initial charge, 1 R = 1k 2
which is connected to a voltage source through a 1 k resistor as shown in Fig. 15.54
The voltage source is described by Vc
Vs
Vs 15.819 V for 0 t 1ms C = 1mF
10 V for t 1ms Fig. 15.54
Solution We use exponential waveform to represent Vs. The source file is
*Dead-beat Pulse Response of RC Circuit
VS 1 0 EXP(10 15.189 0 1.0E-6 1.0E-3 1.0E-6)
R 1 2 1K
C 2 0 1UF
.TRAN 1.0E-6 5.0E-3 UIC
.PROBE
.END
The graph of the capacitor voltage is shown below.
16 V
12 V
8V
4V
0V
0s 0.5 ms 1.0 ms 1.5 ms 2.0 ms 2.5 ms 3.0 ms 3.5 ms 4.0 ms 4.5 ms 5.0 ms
V(1) V(2) Time
Fig. 15.55
920
Problem 15.22 In the circuit, choose the height of the initial pulse such that the voltage across the
capacitor reaches 10 V in 0.5 ms. Verify your results by plotting Vc for 0 t 2 ms. VS
Solution The pulse amplitude is computed from A

10 V
−1
A(1 − e 2
) = 10 ⇒ A 25.415 V 0 0.5 ms t
We describe the voltage source using PULSE syntax. The source file is, Fig. 15.56
* Pulse Response of RC
VS 1 0 PULSE(10 25.415 1.0E-6 1.0E-6 0.5 m 3 m)
R 1 2 1K
C 2 0 1U
.TRAN 1.0E-6 2.0E-3 UIC
.PROBE
.END
30 V
20 V
10 V
0V
0s 0.2 ms 0.4 ms 0.6 ms 0.8 ms 1.0 ms 1.2 ms 1.4 ms 1.6 ms 1.8 ms 2.0 ms
V(1) V(2) Time
Fig. 15.57
Problem 15.23 Find the sensitivity of the voltage across the capacitor.
Solution The netlist will be R1 1k L 10 mH
2 3
*DC Sensitivity Analysis 1
V1 1 0 DC 5V R4 2k
V1 5V
R1 1 2 1K R 2 2k C 100μF
R2 2 4 2K
0 R3 5k 4
R3 4 0 5K
R4 3 4 10 K Fig. 15.58
L 2 3 10 m
C 3 4 100 U
.SENS V(3)
.END
**** SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C
921
*****************************************************************************
( 1) 5.0000 ( 2) 4.3478 ( 3) 4.3478
NODE VOLTAGE
( 4) 3.2609
NAME CURRENT
V1 -6.522E-04
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 3.26E-03 WATTS
**** DC SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C
*********************************************************************
DC SENSITIVITIES OF OUTPUT V(3)
ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT NORMALIZED
NAME VALUE SENSITIVITY SENSITIVITY
(VOLTS/UNIT) (VOLTS/PERCENT)
R1 1.000E+03 –5.671E-04 –5.671E-03
R2 2.000E+03 5.907E-05 1.181E-03
R3 5.000E+03 8.507E-05 4.253E-03
R4 1.000E+04 2.363E-06 2.363E-04
V1 5.000E+00 8.696E-01 4.348E-02
JOB CONCLUDED
TOTAL JOB TIME .02
From the results it can be seen that the voltage across the capacitor is most sensitive to resistance R1. An
increase in R1 will decrease the voltage V(3).
Summary
1. SPICE stands for Simulation Program with Integrated 8. Syntax for representing independent current source:
Circuit Emphasis. It is a software package developed INAME N1 N2 TYPE VALUE
in 1970 at the University of California at Berkeley for 9. Syntax for representing voltage-controlled voltage
simulating electronic circuits. source (VCVS):
2. Three types of analysis, dc analysis, ac analysis and ENAME N+ N– NC+ NC– VALUE
transient analysis can be performed using PSPICE.
10. Syntax for representing voltage-controlled current
3. Syntax for representing resistor: source (VCIS):
RNAME N1 N2 VALUE GNAME N+ N– NC+ NC– VALUE
4. Syntax for representing capacitor: 11. Syntax for representing current-controlled voltage
CNAME N1 N2 VALUE < IC = INCOND> source (ICVS or, CCVS):
5. Syntax for representing inductor: HNAME N+ N– NC+ NC– VALUE
LNAME N1 N2 VALUE < IC = INCOND> 12. Syntax for representing current-controlled current
6. Syntax for representing mutual inductor: source (ICCS or, CCCS):
KNAME L1NAME L2NAME VALUE FNAME N+ N– CONTROL VALUE
13. Syntax for DC analysis:
7. Syntax for representing independent voltage source:
.DC < name > <initial value> <final
VNAME N1 N2 TYPE VALUE
values> <step size>
922
14. Syntax for AC analysis: 17. Statement for a screen or printer-generated plot of the
.AC <sweep type> <number of points> variables of the circuit being analyzed:
<starting frequency> <ending fre- .PLOT <type> <[output variables]>
quency> 18. Statement for a high-quality plot:
15. Syntax for transient analysis: .PROBE [<output variables>]
.TRAN TSTEP TSTOP [TSTART TMAX]
19. Parameters of a passive element can be varied by the
[UIC]
statement:
16. Statement for tabular output listing of the values of
.MODEL < name > <type> [(<parameter>=
the variables to the circuit being analyzed:
<value>)]
.PRINT <type of analysis> <output
variables> 20. Syntax for representing a pulse source:
PULSE (V1 V2 TD TR TF PW PER)
<initial <pulsed <delay <rise <fall <duration> <period>
value> value> time> time> time>
21. Syntax for representing an exponential source:
EXP (V1 V2 TRD TRC TFD TFC)
<initial <final <rise time <rise time <fall time <fall time
value> value> constant> constant> delay> constant>
22. Syntax for representing a sinusoidal source:
SIN (PO PA FREQ TD ALPHA THETA)
Questions
1. (a) What is SPICE? Mention its different versions. What 3. (a) What are the different types of analysis that can be
is PSPICE? performed by SPICE?
(b) How does a SPICE input file work? (b) Write the general form of the SPICE statements for
2. (a) State the general format of a SPICE input file and the following operations:
explain the different input statements. (i) DC analysis
(b) Write the SPICE model statements for the follow- (ii) AC analysis
ing passive elements: (iii) Transient analysis
(iv) Printing
(i) Resistor (ii) Capacitor
( v) Plotting
(iii) Inductor (iv) Coupled coils (mutual inductance)
4. Write the functions and general form of the following
(c) Write the general form of the SPICE model state- statements:
ments for the following active elements:
(i) .TF statements
(i) Independent voltage source;
(ii) Independent current source; (ii) .OP statements
(iii) VCVS (iii) .PROBE statements
(iv) VCIS (iv) .MODEL statements
(v) ICVS or CCVS (v) .STEP statements
(vi) CCCS or ICIS (vi) .FOUR statements
16 Indefinite Admittance
Matrix (IAM)
16.1 DEFINITION OF INDEFINITE ADMITTANCE MATRIX (IAM)

Let a network have ‘n’ terminals numbered 1 to n. Let the voltage of terminal ‘k’, with reference to the external
node, be Vk and the current entering the terminal ‘k’ be Ik.
n
Therefore, Ik ∑y V
i =1
ki i
, k 1 , 2 ,…., n. 1
2
⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ y11 y12 −− y1n ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤ 3
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ n
⎢ I 2 ⎥ ⎢ y21 y22 − − y2 n ⎥ ⎢ V2 ⎥
or, in matrix form, ⎢ − ⎥ = ⎢− − − − − − − − ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ − − ⎥⎥
Reference GND
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ Node
⎢⎣ I n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ yn1 yn 2 − − ynn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Vn ⎥⎦ Fig. 16.1
or, [I ] [YI] [V ]
The matrix ‘YI’ is called the indefinite admittance matrix (IAM) of the network.
Note The word indefinite indicates that the reference node is outside the network.
The y parameters are defined by
I冷
yij
Vj 冷Vk 0, k 1, 2, …., n, k j
When all nodes of a network are accessible, IAM can be determined by more inspection, as,
yii sum of all the admittances connected to the node i
yij negative of the admittance connected between the nodes i and j
If a network is reciprocal then yi j yj i.
Example 16.1 Find the IAM for the four-node network shown in Fig. 16.2.
Solution Writing KCL
V1 − V4
I1 = = V1 − V4 1 V1 0 V2 0 V3 ( 1) V4
1
924
I1 I2
V2 − V4 4
I2 = = 2V2 − 2V4 0 V1 2 V2 0 V3 ( 2) V4 1 1/2 2
1 1
2
2
V −V 1 1 I3 3
I 3 = 3 4 = V3 − V4 0 V1 0 V2 (½) V3 ( ½) V4
2 2 2 Fig. 16.2
V4 − V1 V4 − V2 V4 − V3
I4 = + + ( 1) V1 ( 2) V2 ( 1/2) V3 (7/2) V4
1 1 2
2
⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 0 −1 ⎤ ⎡V ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 2 0
⎥ 1
−2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎢V2 ⎥
So, in matrix form, ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 0 0 1 − 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢V ⎥
⎢ I3 ⎥ ⎢ 2 2 ⎢ 3⎥
⎢ I ⎥ ⎢ −1 −22 − 1 7 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎣V4 ⎥⎦
⎣ 4 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎦
⎡1 0 0 −1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 2 0 −2 ⎥
So, the IAM is YI = ⎢ 0 0 1 − 1 ⎥⎥
⎢ 2 2
⎢ 7 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ −1 −2 − 1 2 2 ⎦
16.2 PROPERTIES OF IAM

(i) The sum of the elements in any column is zero.
(ii) The sum of elements in any row is zero.
(iii) If two terminals of a network are coalesced then the entries of the row and the column corresponding
to the new terminal are obtained by summing the entries of the row and the column, corresponding to
the two terminals being coalesced.
(iv) If a terminal of a network is suppressed (say, Kth terminal) then the IAM of the resulting network can be
obtained by pivotal condensation of the original IAM with ykk as the pivot, i.e. , the elements of the new
IAM will be
⎛ yik yk j ⎞
⎜ yi j −
Yij ⎟
⎝ ykk ⎠
(v) If one of the terminals of the network is made common to all ports then the short – circuit admittance
matrix can be obtained by removing the row and column corresponding to the common terminal.
(vi) All first co-factors of the matrix are equal. Hence IAM is often called the equicofactor matrix.
Explanation of the properties
(i) Let Vi 1 and all other voltages be zero.
n n
∑ I k = ∑ yki
k =1 k =1
The sum on LHS is the total current input to the network or the current at the reference node and hence,
must be zero.
925
Indefinite Admittance Matrix (IAM)
n
∑I
k =1
k
=0 ; for any i
i.e., sum of elements in any row is zero.

(ii) Let, a non-zero constant V be added to all the terminal voltages. This does not change the currents of
the network as the potential difference between the various terminal pairs is not changed.
n
I k = ∑ yki (Vi + V ) ; k 1, 2, …, n (1)
i =1
Also, from the definition of IAM,

n n
∑I =∑y
k =1
k
k =1
ki
Vi ; k 1, 2, …, n (2)
n
So, from (1) and (2), ∑y
k =1
ki
V = 0 , for all k
n
As V is an arbitrary constant, we have ∑y
k =1
ki
= 0 , for all k
i.e., sum of the elements in any row is zero.

(iii) Let k and l be the two terminals being coalesced and let m be the new terminal.
So, Ik yk l Vl yk k Vk yk l Vl
Il yl l Vl yl kVk yl lVl
Vm Vk Vl, Im (Ik Il )
and Im ( ykl yl l) Vl ( yk k yl k yk l yll)Vm
and thus, the property immediately follows.
Example 16.2 Find the IAM for the network shown in Fig. 16.3. Also, find the IAM I1 I2
if the terminals 2 and 3 are coalesced.
1 1 1/2 2
Solution For this network 2
With V1 = 1, V2 V3 0 I3
3
I 5 Fig. 16.3
y11 = 1 = I1 =
V1 7
I2 4 I3 1
y21 = = I2 = − y31 = = I =−
V1 7 V1 3 7
With V2 = 1, V1 V3 0 I1 1/2 I2 I1 I2
1/2
1 2 1 2
I1 4
y12 = = I =− 1 V1 1
1V
2
V2 1 7 I3 2
I3
I2 6 I3 2
y22 = = I2 = y32 = = I3 = −
V2 7 V2 7 Fig. 16.3 (a) Fig. 16.3 (b)
926
With V3 1, V1 V2 0 I1 I2
1/2
1 2
I 1 1
y13 = 1 = I1 = − 2
V3 7
1V
I 2 I 3
y23 = 2 = I 2 = − y33 = 3 = I 3 =
V3 7 V3 7
Fig. 16.3 (c)
Thus, the IAM is
⎡ 5 −4 −1 ⎤
⎢ 7 7 7⎥
⎢ 6 ⎥
⎡⎣YI ⎤⎦ = ⎢ − 4 −2 ⎥
7 7 7
⎢ ⎥
⎢− 1 − 2 3 ⎥
⎣ 7 7 7 ⎦
If terminals 2 and 3 are coalesced then the IAM of the resulting network with the new terminal 2 is
⎡ 5 −5 ⎤
⎡⎣YI ' ⎤⎦ = ⎢⎢ 7 7⎥
5 5 ⎥
⎢⎣ − 7 7 ⎥⎦
(iv) Suppression of a terminal implies that the current input at that terminal is zero.
n n
Now, I k = ∑ ykiVi = ∑ ykiVi + ykkVk ; k 1, 2, …, n
i =1 i =1
i≠k
If the kth terminal is suppressed then Ik 0

n y
Hence, V = −
k ∑ ki
i =1 ykk
Vi
i≠k
The new IAM is obtained by substituting for Vk in the current equation, considering current at the it h terminal,
n n n yk j n ⎛ y y ⎞
I i = ∑ yi jV j + yikV k = ∑ yi jV j − yik ∑ Vj i.e., I i = ∑ ⎜ yij − ik kj ⎟ V j and hence the property.
j =1 j =1 j =1 ykk j =1 ⎝ ykk ⎠
j ≠k j ≠k j ≠k j ≠k
Example 16.3 In Example 16.1, the IAM with four nodes for the network were obtained. If the terminal 4
is suppressed then find the new IAM using pivotal condensation.
Solution From Example 16.1, IAM,
⎡1 0 0 −1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 2 0 −2 ⎥
YI = ⎢ 0 0 1 − 1 ⎥⎥
⎢ 2 2
⎢ 7 ⎥⎥
1
⎢⎣ −1 −2 − 2 2 ⎦
yi 4 y4 j
If the terminal 4 is suppressed, by pivotal condensation yij′ = yij −
7
2
927
( −1)( −1) 5 ( −1)( −2 )

y11′ = 1 − = y12′ = 0 − = − 4 = y21
′
7 7 7 7
2 2
y13′ = 0 −
( 2)=− 1
( −1) − 1
= y31
′ ′ =2−
y22
( −2 )( −2 ) 6
=
7 7 7 7
2 2
( −2 )( − 1 )
′ = 0−
y23 2 = − 2 = y′
′ = −
y33
1
1 − 2 − 2
1
( )( )
=3
7 7 32
2 7 7
2 2
So, the new IAM with three nodes is,
⎡ 5 −4 −1 ⎤
⎢ 7 7 7⎥
⎢ 6 ⎥
[YI ] = ⎢ − 4 −2 ⎥ This is same as obtained in Example 16.2.
7 7 7
⎢ ⎥
⎢− 1 − 2 3 ⎥
⎣ 7 7 7 ⎦
(v) If the terminal 3 of Example 16.2 is chosen as the reference, the short-circuit admittance matrix, rewriting
the two ports (terminal pairs 1–3 and 2–3 constitute two ports), is obtained by deleting the row 3 and the
column 3.
⎡ 5 −4 ⎤
[YI ] = ⎢⎢ 7 7⎥
4 6 ⎥
⎢⎣ − 7 7 ⎥⎦
16.3 APPLICATIONS OF IAM

16.3.1 To Find the Network Functions
The network function can be determined from the IAM of a network as follows:
ij
(i) The tramper impedance Z mn is defined as the voltage across the terminals i and j, i being positive, when a
unit current source is applied at the terminals m and n,—being the terminal of entry of the current
Vi j Yi mn
= = sgn( m − n)sgn(i − j )
ij j
Z mn
I mn Yi i
where, Yi mn
j
= ( −1)i + j + m+ n × determinant obtained by deleting the rows corresponding to nodes m and n,
and the columns corresponding to nodes i and j from the IAM of the network.
Yi i co-factor of the IAM with respect to (i, i)th entry; and
sgn (x)
1; if x 0
1; if x 0
(ii) Similarly, the input impedance at the terminals m–n is given by
Vmn Ymnmn
mn
Z mn = = {sgn(m n) sgn(m n) positive always}
I mn Ynn
928
(iii) Similarly, the voltage transfer function is

Vi j Z mnij
Yi mn
G= = mn = sgn( m − n) ⋅ sgn(i − j ) mn
j
Vmn Z mn Ymn
(iv) Current transfer function is
ij
Ii j Z mn Ymnmn
= = mn
= sgn( m − n) ⋅ sgn(i − j )
I mn Z mn Yminj
Example 16.4 For the two-port network shown in Fig. 16.5, find the input impedance at 1–1’ and the
V
voltage transfer ratio 2 .
V1 1
1 2
Solution The IAM of the network, 1 1
⎡ 3 −1 −1 0 −1⎤ V1 1 1
1 V2
1
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −1 3 0 −1 −1⎥
YI = ⎢ −1 0 3 −1 −1⎥ 1
1
2
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 −1 −1 3 −1⎥ Fig. 16.5
⎢ −1 −1 −1 −1 4 ⎥⎦
⎣
V12 Y 12
Input impedances at 1–1 , Z in = Z1212 = = sgn(1 − 2 )sgn(1 − 2 ) 122
I12 Y2
3 −1 −1
1+ 2 +1+ 2
Now, Y = ( −1)
12
12
−1 3 −1 = 24
−1 −1 4
3 −1 0 −1
−1 3 −1 −1
Y22 = ( −1)2+ 2 = 45
0 −1 3 −1
−1 −1 −1 4
24 8
Z in = =
45 15
Voltage-transfer ratio,
V2 V34 Z1234 Y 12
= = 12 = sgn(1 − 2 )sgn( 3 − 4 ) 3412
V1 V12 Z12 Y12
1 0 −1
1+ 2 + 3+ 4
Y = ( −1)
12
34
0 −1 −1 = 6
−1 −1 4
V2 6 1
= =
V1 24 4
929
16.3.2 To Analyze the Active Network with Op-amp’s
1 x 1
m 2 2
m
1 1
1 1
Fig. 16.6 (a) Fig. 16.6 (b)
For an ideal op-amp, the input impedance is infinite and the output impedance is zero. So, an op-amp cannot
be directly described by an IAM.
In Fig. 16.6 (a), we have added two resistors, one of −1 and the other of 1 , in series with the output of
the op-amp. As far as the terminal conditions are concerned, the network is equivalent to Fig. 16.6 (b), but the
addition of these resistors enables us to write the IAM of the op-amp.
The admittance matrix of the network [Fig. 16.6 (a)] considering 1 and 1 as the input and x and 1 as the
output is
1 x
1 ⎛0 0 ⎞
x ⎜⎝ − 1⎟⎠
Hence, the IAM of the same is

1 x 1′
1⎛ 0 0 0 ⎞
x⎜ −1 1 − ⎟
⎜ ⎟
1′ ⎜⎝ − 1 − 1⎟⎠
Now, looking at the network of Fig. 16.6 (a), the overall IAM is
1 x 1′ 2
1⎡ 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
Y1 x ⎢ 0 1− −1⎥
1′ ⎢ − 1 −1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣ 0 −1 0 1⎦
From this equation, it can be seen that the terminal x can be suppressed as the (x, x)th entry is 0. Of course, the
terminal x does not physically exist and cannot be used for external connection.
Example 16.5 For the network shown in Fig. 16.7, find V2/ V1 using IAM approach.
1
1 4 2
m=2
3
V1 1 V2
Fig. 16.7
930
Solution IAM of the passive network (i.e., network obtained by removing the op-amp) is
1 2 3 4 5
⎡ 2s 2s ⎤
1⎢ 0 − 0 0⎥
⎢ 3 3 ⎥
2⎢ 0 1 −1 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎛ 7s ⎞ ⎥
2s s
YI = 3 ⎢ − −1 ⎜ + 1⎟ − 0⎥
⎢ 3 ⎝ 6 ⎠ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎛s ⎞
4⎢ 0 −1⎥⎥
s
⎢ 0 − ⎜⎝ 2 + 1⎟⎠
2
⎢ ⎥
5 ⎢⎣ 0 0 0 −1 1 ⎥⎦
IAM of the op-amp,

4 x 5 2
4⎡ 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
x 0 1− −1⎥
Y2 = ⎢ ; =2
5 ⎢− 1 −1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
2⎣ 0 −1 0 1⎦
The overall IAM obtained by adding the corresponding elements of the matrices is
1 2 3 4 5 x
1 ⎡ 2s 0 − 2s 0 0 0⎤
⎢ 3 3 ⎥
2⎢ 0 2 −1 0 0 −1⎥
⎢ ⎥
Y = 3⎢
⎢− 2s
3
−1 (7s 6 +1) −s
2
0 0⎥
⎥
⎢
4⎢ 0
⎢
0 −s
2 ( 1+ s
2 ) −1
⎥
0⎥
⎥
5⎢ 0 0 0 −3 2 1⎥
⎢ ⎥
x⎣ 0 −1 0 2 −1 0⎦
V2 V25 Z1525 Y 15
So, = = 15 = sgn( 2 − 5) ⋅ sgn(1 − 5) 2515
V1 V15 Z15 Y15
0 −1 0 −1
Y2515 = ( −1)1+5+ 2+5

− 2s
3 (7s 6 +1) −s
2
0
=−
2s2
0 −s
2 (
1+ s
2 ) 0 3
0 0 2 0
931
−2 −1 0 −1
Y = ( −1)
15 1+ 5+1+ 5
−1 (7s 6 +1) −s
2
0 ⎛ s 2 + 2 s + 3⎞
= −⎜
15
0 −s
2 (
1+ s
2 ) 0 ⎝ 3 ⎟
⎠
−1 0 2 0
So, the voltage transfer ratio is
2
V2 − 2s 2s2
= 3 = 2
V1 ⎛ s + 2 s + 3⎞ s + 2 s + 3
2
−⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 3
Note This is the transfer function of a high-pass filter.
Exercises
1. Find the Indefinite Admittance Matrix (IAM) for the 2 4 4
network shown in Fig. 16.8. 2
(b) 1
1 1/2
(a) I1 1 2 I2
V1 V2 6
2
3
3 Fig. 16.9
I3 3. Determine the IAM for the network shown in Fig. 16.10.
2 4 1/3
(b) 1 2
V2
(a) 3
1/4 4 1/4 2
6
3
1/5
Fig. 16.8 3
2. If the fourth node is accessible, find the IAM. 1F

1 4 1/2
(b) 1 1 4 1 2
(a) I1 1 2 I2
V1 V2
2 1F
3
3
Fig. 16.10
4. For the network shown, obtain IAM. All values are in
I3 ohms.
932
4 2 2 4 1
a c [ i) 8 1
1 2 (b) , ii) ]
1 1 15 4
6 6 V1 1 1 V2
1 1
1 2
b d
Fig. 16.11 1
Fig. 16.11
5. For the network shown in Fig. 16.11, determine
(i) input impedance at terminals a–b. 6. For the network shown in Fig. 16.12, find V2/V1 using the
V2 2s 2
(ii) voltage transfer ratio V2/V1 IAM approach. [ = 2 ]
V1 s + 2 s + 3
5 1 1
(a) 2 [ i) , ii) ]
9 5
a c 1 2/3 4 2
m=2
2 2 3
V1 2 V2
V1 1 V2
1/2
b d
2 Fig. 16.12
17 Symmetrical
Components
Introduction
For a balanced three-phase system, the solution is made on a single-phase basis. When the system is
unbalanced, the voltages, currents and the phase impedances are, in general, unequal. Such a system can
be resolved by a symmetrical per phase technique known as the method of symmetrical component.
This method was proposed by Fortescue in 1918 and is often called the three-component method.
The Fortescue theorem states that an unbalanced set of n phasors may be resolved into (n − 1)
balanced n-phase systems of different phase sequences and one zero phase sequence system (whether
representing voltages or currents).
17.1 ADVANTAGES OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT METHOD

1. For balanced three-phase networks, the equivalent circuits obtained for the symmetrical components,
called sequence networks, are separated into three uncoupled networks.
2. Furthermore, for unbalanced three-phase systems, the three sequence networks are connected only
at the points of unbalance. As a result, sequence networks for many cases of unbalanced three-phase
systems are relatively easy to analyze.
3. The symmetrical component method is basically a modeling technique that permits systematic analy-
sis and design of three-phase systems. Decoupling a detailed three-phase network into three simpler
sequence networks reveals complicated phenomena in more simplistic terms. Sequence network results
can then be superimposed to obtain three-phase results. The application of symmetrical components to
unsymmetrical fault studies is indispensable.
17.2 a OPERATOR
The operator a is an operator which when operates upon a phasor, rotates it by 120 without
changing the magnitude of the phasor upon which it operates. So it has a magnitude of unity and an
angle of 120 .
934
( ) (
a = 1∠120 = 1e j120 = 1 cos120 + j sin120 = − 0.5 + j 0.866 )
a2 = 1∠240 = 1e = 1( cos 240 + j sin 240 ) = ( − 0.5 − j 0.866 )
j 240
a3 = 1∠0 = 1e = 1( cos 0 + j sin 0 ) = 1

j0
a 4 = a ⋅ a 3 = a; a 5 = a 2 ⋅ a 3 = a 2 and so on
( ) ( ) (
∴ 1 + a + a 2 = 1 + −5 + j 0.866 + −5 − j 0.866 = 0 )
17.3 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS OF AN UNBALANCED THREE-PHASE SYSTEM
According to Fortescue’s theorem, three unbalanced phasors of a three-phase system can be resolved into the
following three component sets of balanced phasors which possess certain symmetry.
1. A set of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120 in phase and having the
same phase sequence as the original unbalanced phasors—this set of balanced phasors is called positive
phase sequence components.
2. A set of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120 in phase and having the
phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors—this set of balanced phasors is called negative
phase sequence component.
3. A set of three phasors equal in magnitude with zero phase displacement from each other—this set is
called zero phase sequence components. The components of this set are all identical.
These three sets of balanced phasors are called the symmetrical components of the original unbalanced phasors.
We consider a, b, c to be the three phasors which are unbalanced. Then we can represent these unbalanced
phasors by its three balanced symmetrical phasors.
Vc
Va V
Vb 0 a 0 Vc 2
Vc 0
Reference Reference Vc1 Va1
Reference
Reference
Vb Vb1 Va 2 Vb 2
(a) Unbalanced (b) Zero sequence (c) Positive (d) Negative

phasors phasors sequence phasors sequence phasors
Fig. 17.1 Unbalanced phasors resolved into three balanced phasors
Now, for our convenience, we will use subscripts 1, 2, 0 for positive, negative and zero sequence components. So,
we can write the voltage phasors as
(Va0, Vb0, Vc0) as zero sequence voltages
(Va1, Vb1, Vc1) as positive sequence voltages
(Va2, Vb2, Vc2) as negative sequence voltages
Since each of the original unbalanced phasors is the sum of its components, we may write
Va Va1 Va2 Va0 (17.1)
Vb Vb1 Vb2 Vb0 (17.2)
Vc Vc1 Vc2 Vc0 (17.3)
935
Symmetrical Components
17.4 COMPONENT SYNTHESIS (EVALUATION OF THE COMPONENTS)

The determination of original phasors in terms of the sequence components is called component synthesis.
The calculations of symmetrical component phasors are always made in terms of phase ‘a’ as the symmetrical
phase. Now we will use operator the‘a’ to express each component of Vb and Vc in terms of the components of
Va. So, we may write the following relations.
For positive sequence: Vb1 a2Va1; Vc1 aVa1
For negative sequence: Vb2 aVa2; Vc2 a2Va2
For zero sequence: Va0 Vb0 Vc0 as they are all identical
Now, substituting these values in equations (17.1), (17.2) and (17.3), we will get Va, Vb and Vc in terms of
phase a as
Va Va1 Va2 Va0 (17.4)
2
Vb a Va1 a Va2 Va0 (17.5)
Vc aVa1 a2Va2 Va0 (17.6)
So, we can represent these equations into a matrix form as
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 1⎤ ⎡Va1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb ⎥ = ⎢ a a 1⎥ ⎢Va 2 ⎥ (17.7)
⎢V ⎥ ⎢ a a2 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Va 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ c⎦ ⎣
17.5 COMPONENT ANALYSIS

The determination of sequence components in terms of original phasors is called component analysis.
We can find out easily by taking the matrix inverse from Eq. (17.7) as
−1
⎡Va1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 1⎤ ⎡Va ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Va 2 ⎥ = ⎢ a a 1⎥ ⎢Vb ⎥
⎢V ⎥ ⎢ a a2 1⎥⎦ ⎢V ⎥
⎣ a0 ⎦ ⎣ ⎣ c⎦
⎡Va1 ⎤ ⎡1 a a 2 ⎤ ⎡Va ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢Va 2 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥ ⎢Vb ⎥ (17.8)
⎢V ⎥ 3
⎣ a0 ⎦
⎢1 1
⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vc ⎥⎦
1
Therefore, Va1 = ⎡⎣Va + aVb + a 2Vc ⎤⎦ (17.9)
3
1
Va 2 = ⎡⎣Va + a 2Vb + aVc ⎤⎦ (17.10)
3
1
Va 0 = ⎡⎣Va + Vb + Vc ⎤⎦ (17.11)
3
17.6 GRAPHICAL METHOD OF DETERMINING SEQUENCE COMPONENTS

For graphical method, we consider the three unbalanced voltage phasors as shown in Fig. 17.2.
Equations (17.9) to (17.11) are used to determine the sequence components.
936
Vc 3Va0
Vc
aVb aVc
Va Va a 2Vb
Va a 2Vc
Vb Vb 3Va1 3Va 2 Va
(a) Unbalanced (b) Zero sequence (c) Positive sequence (d) Negative sequence
voltage voltage voltage voltage
Fig. 17.2 Graphical method of determining sequence components Vc 0
Vc 2 Vc = Vc 1 Vc 2 Vc 0
Also from Eq. (17.1) to (17.3), we see that the three phase system Va 1
voltages can be obtained graphically as shown in Fig. 17.3. It is Vc1 Va 0
observed that the resultant system voltages are the same as consid- Va = Va 1 Va 2 Va 0
ered in Fig. 17.1 Reference
17.7 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS OF CURRENT
PHASORS Vb 1 Vb = Vb 1 Vb 2 Vb 0
Vb 2
The method of symmetrical components is applicable to any unbal- Vb 0
anced set of n-phase quantities. We have found the symmetrical Fig. 17.3 Graphical method of
components of unbalanced voltages. Identical relations can be writ- determining system voltages from
ten for unbalanced current phasors. Thus, for a system of unbal- sequence components
anced three-phase current the following equations can be written.
I a = I a1 + I a 2 + I a 0 (17.12)
I b = a 2 I a1 + aI a 2 + I a 0 (17.13)
I c = aI a1 + a 2 I a 2 + I a 0 (17.14)
and
1
I a1 = ⎡⎣ I a + aI b + a 2 I c ⎤⎦ (17.15)
3
1
I a 2 = ⎡⎣ I a + a 2 I b + aI c ⎤⎦ (17.16)
3
1
I a 0 = ⎡⎣ I a + I b + I c ⎤⎦ (17.17)
3
17.8 ABSENCE OF ZERO SEQUENCE COMPONENTS OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

We have the sequence voltages and currents for an unbalanced system given in equations (17.9) to (17.11)
and equations (17.15) to (17.17). From these equations, it is seen that there will be no zero sequence voltage
or current if the phasor sum Va Vb Vc 0 or Ia Ib Ic 0, respectively.
17.8.1 Zero Sequence Components of Current
We consider the zero sequence components of current for the following three types of loads:
For 4-Wire Star-Connected Loads In this case, as the neutral wire is present, the zero sequence current
may be present. The neutral wire will carry only the zero sequence current which is the summation of the zero
sequence currents in the three line wire.
937
For 3-Wire Star-Connected Loads In this case, due to the absence of neutral wire, zero sequence cur-
rent cannot flow. The absence of zero sequence components can also be explained by considering that the
phasor sum of the line currents in a three-phase 3-wire system is zero.
For 3-Wire Delta-Connected Loads In this case, due to the absence of the neutral wire, the zero
sequence components do not exist in the line currents. However, zero sequence components may be present
in the phase currents. In this case, the zero sequence components of the phase currents are all in phase and
flow as a circulating current in the closed mesh.
17.8.2 Zero Sequence Components of Voltage

Since the phasor sum of the line-to-line voltages in a three-phase system is always zero, zero sequence
components of the line-to-line voltages in a three-phase system are zero regardless of the degree of
unbalancing. However, zero sequence components may be present in the phase voltages of a star-con-
nected circuit.
We consider the zero sequence components of voltage for the following three types of loads:
For 4-Wire Star-Connected Loads In this case, zero sequence components may be present in the
phase voltages. All the zero sequence components of the phase voltages will be in phase. As the line
voltages are the phasor difference of the phase voltages, no zero sequence components exist in the line
voltages.
For 3-Wire Star-Connected Loads In this case, if the star points of the generator and load are joined
together by the neutral wire, only the zero sequence components may exist between the load and generator
star points. However, there will be no zero sequence components of the phase voltages.
For 3-Wire Delta-Connected Loads In this case, phase voltages may have zero sequence components even
though no zero sequence components exist in the line-to-line voltages. However, under balanced condition, no
zero sequence components exist in the phase voltages.
17.9 THREE-PHASE POWER IN TERMS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

The total power consumed in a three-phase circuit can be determined using the symmetrical components,
provided the voltages and currents of the circuit are known. This is obtained as follows.
Let, Va, Vb, Vc be the phase voltages and Ia, Ib, Ic be the line currents
We assume a star-connected circuit.
Total complex power,
* T *
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ I a ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
S = Va I a* + Vb I b* + Vc I c * = ⎡⎣Va Vb Vc ⎤⎦ ⎢ I b ⎥ = ⎢Vb ⎥ ⎢ I b ⎥
⎢ I ⎥ ⎢V ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥
⎣ c⎦ ⎣ c⎦ ⎣ c⎦
Now from Eq. (17.7),
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡Va 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥ ⎢Va1 ⎥
⎢V ⎥ ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ c⎦ ⎣
938
T T T
⎡Va ⎤ ⎧ ⎡1 1 ⎤ ⎡Va 0 ⎤ ⎫ ⎡Va 0 ⎤
T
1 ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎪⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∴ ⎢Vb ⎥ = ⎨ ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥ ⎢Va1 ⎥ ⎬ = ⎢Va1 ⎥ ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥ = ⎡⎣Va 0 Va1 Va 2 ⎤⎦ ⎢1 a 2 a⎥
⎢V ⎥ ⎪ ⎢1 a a ⎦ ⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪ ⎢⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦
2 ⎥⎢ ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ c ⎦ ⎩⎣ ⎭ ⎣ ⎣
(Since the transpose of the product of two matrices is equal to product of the transposes of the matrices in
reverse order.)
T * *
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ Ia ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ Ia ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
∴ S = ⎢Vb ⎥ ⎢ I b ⎥ = ⎡⎣Va 0 Va1 Va 2 ⎤⎦ ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥ ⎢ Ib ⎥
⎢V ⎥ ⎢I ⎥ ⎢1 a 2 ⎥⎢
a ⎦ ⎣ I c ⎥⎦
⎣ c⎦ ⎣ c⎦ ⎣
* *
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ I a0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
= ⎡⎣Va 0 Va1 ⎤
Va 2 ⎦ ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥ ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥ ⎢ I a1 ⎥
⎢1 a
⎣ a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦
(substituting the phase currents by their corresponding symmetrical components)

*
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ I a0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
∴ S = ⎡⎣Va 0 Va1 Va 2 ⎤⎦ ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥ ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥ ⎢ I a1 ⎥ (since a and a2 are conjugate)
⎢1 a
⎣ a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦
* *
⎡ 3 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ I a0 ⎤ ⎡ I a0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∴ S = ⎡⎣Va 0 Va1 Va 2 ⎤⎦ ⎢0 3 0 ⎥ ⎢ I a1 ⎥ = 3 ⎡⎣Va 0 Va1 Va 2 ⎤⎦ ⎢ I a1 ⎥
⎢0 0 3⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ ⎢I ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ a2 ⎦ ⎣ a2 ⎦
∴ S = 3 ⎡⎣Va 0 I a 0* + Va1 I a1* + Va 2 I a 2* ⎤⎦ (17.18)
This is the expression of three-phase power in terms of symmetrical components. From this expression, the fol-
lowing observations are made:
(i) Three-phase power is equal to the algebraic sum of the powers of three symmetrical components.
(ii) The expression of power does not contain any cross terms, such as Va0 Ia1, Va1 Ia2, because the three
sequence networks do not have any mutual coupling.
(iii) The factor 3 arises because of a total of 9 components, 3 for each phase.
17.10 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS

The ratio of the positive, negative and zero sequence voltages to the respective positive, negative and zero
sequence currents are known as positive sequence impedance, Z1, negative sequence impedance, Z2, and zero
sequence impedance, Z0.
Unbalanced three-phase circuits can be analyzed using the symmetrical components of unbalanced currents
and voltages. Current of any one sequence may be considered to flow in an independent network consisting
only one particular sequence impedance. This single-phase equivalent circuit with voltage current and imped-
ance of one particular sequence is known as sequence network.
939
17.11 SOLUTION OF 3-PHASE UNBALANCED LOADS SUPPLIED

FROM UNBALANCED SUPPLY
In case of unbalanced delta-connected loads, as the phasor sum of the phase
voltages and line currents is always zero, these circuits can be analyzed by a
Ia
direct method as discussed in Ch. 10. Za
n
However, in case of unbalanced star-connected loads, although the phasor
I Zc Zb
sum of line voltages and line (or phase) currents is zero, the phasor sum of c b
Ic
the phase voltages is not zero. Such circuits can be analyzed by using the b
symmetrical-components method as explained below. Fig. 17.4 Three-phase
Let, Vab, Vbc, Vca be the line voltages unbalanced star-connected load
Van, Vbn, Vcn be the phase voltages
Za, Zb, Zc be the load impedances
From the given line voltages, we can determine the positive and negative sequence components of these
voltages Vab1 and Vab2 using equations (17.9) and (17.10). The zero sequence component Va0 is always zero.
Let, Van1 and Van2 be the positive and negative sequence components of Van
Vbn1 and Vbn2 be the positive and negative sequence components of Vbn, and
Ia1 and Ia2 and Ia 0 be the sequence components of Ia.
(
Vab1 = Van1 − Vbn1 = Van1 − Van1∠ − 120 = Van1 − Van1 − 0.55 − j 0.866 )
( )
= 1.5 + j 0.866 Van1 = 3Van1∠30 (17.19)
Similarly,
Vab 2 = 3Van 2 ∠ − 30 (17.20)
Van = I a Z a , Vbn = I b Z b , and Vcn = I c Z c

Here, since there is no neutral wire, Ia0 = 0.
∴Van1 =
1
3
( ) ( 1
Van + aVbn + a 2Vcn = I a Z a + aI b Z b + a 2 I c Z c
3
)
1⎡
( ) ( ) ( )
= ⎣ Z a I a1 + I a 2 + aZ b a 2 I a1 + aI a 2 + a 2 Z c aI a1 + a 2 I a 2 ⎤⎦
3
1
( )1
(
= I a1 Z a + Z b + Z c + I a 2 Z a + a 2 Z b + aZ c
3 3
)
∴Van1 = I a1 Z 0 + I a 2 Z a 2 (17.21)
∴Van 2 =
1
(
3 an
) ( 1
V + a 2Vbn + aVcn = I a Z a + a 2 I b Z b + aI c Z c
3
)
1⎡
( ) ( ) ( )
= ⎣ Z a I a1 + I a 2 + a 2 Z b a 2 I a1 + aI a 2 + aZ c aI a1 + a 2 I a 2 ⎤⎦
3
1
( ) (
= I a1 Z a + aZ b + a 2 Z c + I a 2 Z a + Z b + Z c
3
)
∴Van1 = I a1 Z a1 + I a 2 Z 0 (17.22)
940
∴V0 =
1
3
( ) (
1 1
) ( ) (
Van + Vbn + Vcn = I a Z a + I b Z b + I c Z c = ⎡⎣ Z a I a1 + I a 2 + Z b a 2 I a1 + aI a 2 + Z c aI a1 + a 2 I a 2 ⎤⎦
3 3
) ( )
1
3
( 1
) (
= I a1 Z a + a Z b + aZ c + I a 2 Z a + aZ b + a Z c
2
3
2
)
∴V0 = I a1 Z a 2 + I a 2 Z a1 (17.23)
Also,
(
Vbn1 = I b1 Z 0 + I b 2 Z b 2 = a 2 I a1 Z 0 + I a 2 Z a 2 = a 2Van1 )
( )
Vcn1 = I c1 Z 0 + I c 2 Z c 2 = a I a1 Z 0 + I a 2 Z a 2 = aVan1
Vbn 2 = I b 2 Z 0 + I b1 Z b1 = a ( I Z + I Z ) = aV
a2 0 a1 a1 an1
Vcn 2 = I c 2 Z 0 + I c1 Z c1 = a (I Z + I Z )= a V
2
a2 0 a1 a1
2
an1
Now, the load voltages can be determined from the relation between the line and phase voltages as obtained
below.
( ) ( ) (
Vab = Van − Vbn = V0 + Van1 + Van 2 − V0 + Vbn1 + Vbn 2 = Van1 1 − a 2 + Van 2 1 − a ) ( ) ( )
( ) (
= Van1 ⎡⎣1 − − 0.5 − j 0.866 ⎤⎦ + Van 2 ⎡⎣1 − − 0.5 + j 0.866 ⎤⎦ )
( ) (
= Van1 1.5 + j 0.866 + Van 2 1.5 − j 0.866 = ) 3⎡
V
2 ⎢⎣ an1
( )
3 + j + Van 2 ( 3 − j ⎤⎥
⎦) (17.24)
Similarly,
( ) ( ) ( )
Vbc = Vbn − Vcn = V0 + Vbn1 + Vbn 2 − V0 + Vcn1 + Vcn 2 = Van1 a 2 − a + Van 2 a 2 − a ( ) ( )
( )
= Van1 − j 3 + Van 2 j 3 ( ) ⎛ V ⎞
⇒ Van 2 = ⎜Van1 − j bc ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
(17.25)
Hence, from equations (17.24) and (17.25),
1⎡ 1 ⎤
Van1 = ⎢Vab + Vbc 1 + j 3 ⎥
3⎣ 2 ⎦
( ) (17.26)
1⎡ 1
Van 2 = ⎢Vab + Vbc 1 − j 3 ⎥
3⎣ 2
⎤
⎦
( ) (17.27)
When Van1 and Van2 are known, the currents Ia1 and Ia2 can be calculated by solving the equations (17.21) and
(17.22) as,
⎛ V Z −V Z ⎞
I a1 = ⎜ an1 2 0 an 2 a 2 ⎟ (17.28)
⎝ Z 0 − Z a1 Z a 2 ⎠
⎛ V Z −V Z ⎞
I a 2 = ⎜ an 2 2 0 an1 a1 ⎟ (17.29)
⎝ Z 0 − Z a1 Z a 2 ⎠
The phase voltages may be calculated by calculating the products Ia Za, Ib Zb and Ic Zc.
941
17.12 SOLUTION OF 3-PHASE UNBALANCED LOADS SUPPLIED FROM

BALANCED SUPPLY
When a three-phase unbalanced load is fed from an balanced three-phase supply, the phase currents can be
obtained from the symmetrical components of the supply voltage.
Let, Vab, Vbc, Vca be the line voltages
Van, Vbn, Vcn be the phase voltages
Za, Zb, Zc be the load impedances
⎛ 1 3⎞
For balanced supply, Vbc = Vab ∠ − 120 = Vab ⎜ − − j ⎟ (17.30)
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
From Eq. (17.27),

⎤ 1⎡ 1 ⎛ 1 3⎞ ⎤
1⎡
3⎣
1
2
(⎦ 3 ⎢⎣
)
Van 2 = ⎢Vab + Vbc 1 − j 3 ⎥ = ⎢Vab + Vab ⎜ − − j ⎟ 1 − j 3 ⎥ = 0
2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
( ) (17.31)
From Eq. (17.25) and (17.30),

Vbc Vab ⎛ 1 3 ⎞ Vab ⎛ 3 1⎞ V
Van1 = j =j ⎜− − j ⎟ = ⎜ − j ⎟ = ab ∠ − 30 (17.32)
3 3⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 3⎝ 2 2⎠ 3
Thus, for unbalanced star-connected loads supplied from a balanced system, the load voltages consist of only
the positive and zero sequence components, and the negative sequence component is always zero.
Hence from equations (17.28) and (17.29),
Van1 Z 0 Z a + Zb + Z c
I a1 = = Van1 (17.33)
Z 0 − Z a1 Z a 2
2
Z a Zb + Zb Z c + Z c Z a
Van1 Z a1 Z a + aZ b + a 2 Z c
Ia2 = − = −Van1 (17.34)
Z 0 2 − Z a1 Z a 2 Z a Zb + Zb Z c + Z c Z a
Solved Problems
Problem 17.1 The currents in a 3-phase system are IR ⴝ 12 ⴙ j6; IY ⴝ 12 ⴚ j12 and IB ⴝ ⴚ15 ⴙ j10. Find
the symbolic expression for the three symmetrical components.
Solution I R = 12 + j 6 = 13.416 ∠26.56 A

IY = 12 − j12 = 16.97∠ − 45 A
I B = −15 + j10 = 18.03∠146.31 A
We assume phase sequence RYB,
Positive sequence components,
1 1
I R1 = ⎡⎣ I R + aIY + a 2 I B ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣12 + j 6 + 1∠120 × 16.97∠ − 45 + 1∠240 × 18.03∠146.31 ⎤⎦
3 3
942
1
3
1
( )
= ⎡⎣12 + j 6 + 4.39 + j16.39 + 16.16 + j 7.99 ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ 32.55 + j 30.38 ⎤⎦ = 10.85 + j10.13 = 14.84 ∠43 A
3
∴ IY 1 = a 2 I R1 = 14.84 ∠43 × 1∠240 = 14.84 ∠283 = ( 3.34 − j14.46 ) A
∴ I B1 = aI R1 = 14.84 ∠43 × 1∠120 = 14.84 ∠163 = ( −14.19 + j 4.34 ) A

Negative sequence components,
1 1
I R 2 = ⎡⎣ I R + a 2 IY + aI B ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣12 + j 6 + 1∠240 × 16.97∠ − 45 + 1∠120 × 18.03∠146.31 ⎤⎦
3 3
1 1
= ⎡⎣12 + j 6 − 16.39 − j 4.39 − 1.16 − j17.99 ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ −5.55 − j16.38 ⎤⎦
3 3
( )
= −1.85 − j 5.46 = 5.76 ∠ − 108.7 A
(
∴ IY 2 = aI R 2 = 5.76 ∠ − 108.7 × 1∠120 = 14.84 ∠11.28 = 5.65 + j1.13 A )
∴ I B 2 = a 2 I R 2 = 5.76 ∠ − 108.7 × 1∠240 = 5.76 ∠131.3 = ( −3.8 + j 4.33) A
Zero sequence components,
1
3
1
( )
I R 0 = IY 0 = I B 0 = ⎡⎣ I R + IY + I B ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣12 + j 6 + 12 − j12 − 15 + j10 ⎤⎦ = 3 + j1.33 = 3.28∠23.96 A
3
Problem 17.2 Determine the positive, negative and zero phase sequence components of the following
set of three-phase unbalanced voltage phasors:
VA = 10 ∠30ⴗ ; VB = 30 ∠ − 60ⴗ and VC = 15∠145ⴗ
Solution VA = 10∠30 ; VB = 30∠ − 60 and VC = 15∠145

Positive sequence components,
1 1
V1 = ⎡⎣VA + aVB + a 2VC ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣10∠30 + 1∠120 × 30∠ − 60 + 1∠240 × 15∠145 ⎤⎦
3 3
1 1
= ⎡⎣8.66 + j 5 + 15 + j 25.98 + 13.59 + j 6.34 ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ 37.3 + j 37.3⎤⎦= 12.44 + j12.44 = 17.59∠45 V
3 3
Negative sequence components,
1 1
V2 = ⎡⎣VA + a 2VB + aVC ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣10∠30 + 1∠240 × 30∠ − 60 + 1∠120 × 15∠145 ⎤⎦
3 3
1 1
= ⎡⎣8.66 + j 5 − 30 + j 0 − 1.31 − j14.94 ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ −22.65 − j 9.94 ⎤⎦ = −7.55 − j 3.31 = 8.24 ∠ − 156.3 V
3 3
Zero sequence components,
1 1
V0 = ⎡⎣VA + VB + VC ⎤⎦ = ⎣⎡10∠30 + 30∠ − 60 + 15∠145 ⎤⎦
3 3
1 1
= ⎡⎣8.66 + j 5 + 15 − j 25.98 − 12.29 + j8.6 ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣11.37 − j12.38 ⎤⎦ = 3.79 − j 4.126 = 5.6 ∠ − 47.4 V
3 3
943
Problem 17.3 A single-phase load of 100 kVA is connected across lines bc of a 3-phase supply of 3.3 kV.
Determine symmetrical components of line current.
Ia = 0
a
Solution The system is shown in Fig. 17.5. Ib
b
Here, the line current Ia 0. Ic
c
100 × 103
Ib = = 30.3 A I c = − I b = −30.3 A Load, 100 kVA
3.3 × 103
Fig. 17.5
∴ positive sequence component,
I a1 =
1
3
( ) ( 1
) 1
( 1
)
I a + aI b + a 2 I c = 0 + aI b − a 2 I b = I b a − a 2 = I b × 2 ×
3 3 3 2
3 30.3
=
3
= 17.5 A
∴ negative sequence component,

⎛ 3⎞
Ia2 =
1
3
( ) (1
)1
( 1
)
I a + a 2 I b + aI c = 0 + a 2 I b − aI b = I b a 2 − a = I b × 2 × ⎜ − ⎟ = −
3 3 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠
30.3
3
= −17.5 A
∴ zero sequence component, I a 0 =

1
( 1
) (
I + I + I = 0 + Ib − Ib = 0
3 a b c 3
)
Problem 17.4 Determine the magnitude of the symmetrical components (Ia0 , Iaⴙ, Iaⴚ) of the currents in
a three-phase (RYB) three-wire system, when a short circuit occurs between R and Y phase wire, the fault
current being 100 A.
Solution We assume phase sequence RYB.
Since R and Y phases are short circuited, I R + IY = 0 ⇒ I R = − IY = faultcurrent = 100 A and I B = 0
∴ zero sequence component, I a 0 =

1
3
( 1
I R + IY + I B = 0 + 0 = 0
3
) ( )
1
3
( 1
∴ positive sequence component, I a+ = I R + aIY + a 2 I B = I R + aIY + 0
3
) ( )
1
= I R 1− a =
3
(
100
3 ⎣
) ( )
⎡1 − 0.5 + j 0.866 ⎤ = 57.73∠ − 30 A
⎦
1
3
( 1
) (
∴ negative sequence component, I a− = I R + a 2 IY + aI B = I R − a 2 I R + 0
3
)
1
= I R 1− a2 =
3
(
100
3 ⎣
) (
⎡1 − − 0.5 − j 0.866 ⎤ = 57.73∠30 A
⎦ )
Problem 17.5 A three-phase, star-connected load is connected across a 3-phase, balanced supply
system. Develop equations of the symmetrical components of the line and phase voltages.
Solution We consider a three phase star-connected systems with phase sequence RYB.
The line voltages can be written as
VRY = VR − VY VYB = VY − VB VBR = VB − VR
Since the supply system is balanced, ∴VRY + VYB + VBR = 0

944
Let, VRN1, VRN2 be the positive and negative sequence of the phase voltage VR
Taking VRY as reference, positive sequence line voltage,
1
( 1
) (
VRY 1 = VRY + aVYB + a 2VBR = ⎡⎣ VR − VY + a VY − VB + a 2 VB − VR ⎤⎦
3 3
) ( ) ( )
1⎡
( ) ( 1
)
= ⎣ VR + aVY + a 2VB − a 2VR + VY + aVB ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ VR + aVY + a 2VB − a 2 VR + aVY + a 2VB ⎤⎦
3 3
( ) ( )
⎛ V + aVY + a VB
2
⎞
(
= 1− a2 ⎜ R
⎝
) 3
(
⎟ = 1 − a VRN 1 = 3VRN 1∠30
⎠
2
)
Negative sequence line voltage,
1
( 1
) (
VRY 2 = VRY + a 2VYB + aVBR = ⎡⎣ VR − VY + a 2 VY − VB + a VB − VR ⎤⎦
3 3
) ( ) ( )
1⎡
( ) ( 1
)
= ⎣ VR + a 2VY + aVB − aVR + VY + a 2VB ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ VR + a 2VY + aVB − a VR + a 2VY + aVB ⎤⎦
3 3
( ) ( )
⎛ VR + a 2VY + aVB ⎞
(
= 1− a ⎜ ) (
⎟ = 1 − a VRN 2 = 3VRN 2 ∠ − 30 )
⎝ 3 ⎠
Similarly, taking VYB as the reference, we get, VYB1 = 3VRN 1∠ − 90 and VYB 2 = 3VRN 2 ∠90
Problem 17.6 The current flowing through the ‘a’ terminal of a delta-connected load is 100 A. Assuming
the line c as open, calculate the currents in all the lines and their symmetrical components.
Solution Here, Ic 0; Ia Ib 100 A
∴ positive sequence component,
1
( 1
)
I a1 = I a + aI b + a 2 I c = ⎡⎣100 + 1∠120 × −100 + 0 ⎤⎦
3 3
( )
1
= × 100 1 − a =
3
100
3 ⎣
( )
⎡1 − 0.5 + j 0.866 ⎤ = 57.73∠ − 30 A
⎦ ( )
(
∴ I b1 = a 2 I a1 = 57.73∠ − 30 + 240 = 57.73∠210 A )
(
∴ I c1 = aI a1 = 57.73∠ − 30 + 120 = 57.73∠90 A )
∴ negative sequence component,
1
( 1
)
I a 2 = I a + a 2 I b + aI c = ⎡⎣100 + 1∠240 × −100 + 0 ⎤⎦
3 3
( )
1
= × 100 1 − a =
3
2
(100
3 ⎣
)
× ⎡1 − − 0.5 − j 0.866 ⎤⎦ = 57.73∠30 ( )
(
∴ I b 2 = aI a 2 = 57.73∠ 30 + 120 = 57.73∠150 A )
(
∴ I c 2 = a I a 2 = 57.73∠ 30 + 240 = 57.73∠270 = 57.73∠ − 90 A
2
)
∴ zero sequence component,
I a0 =
1
( 1
) (
I + I + I = 100 − 100 + 0 = I b 0 = I c 0 = 0
3 a b c 3
)
945
Problem 17.7 A star-connected load consists of three equal resistors, each of 1 ⍀. When the load is con-
nected to an unbalanced 3-phase supply, the voltages are 200 V, 346 V and 400 V. Find the magnitude of
current in any phase.
Solution Here, the line voltages form a closed right-angled triangle.
Vab = Va − Vb = 200∠0 Vca = Vc − Va = 346 ∠ − 90 Vbc = Vb − Vc = 400∠120
1⎡
3⎣
1
2
(
⎤ 1⎡
⎦ 3⎣
1
2
) ⎤
⎦
(
∴Van1 = ⎢Vab + Vbc 1 + j 3 ⎥ = ⎢ 200 + × − j 3466 × 1 + j 3 ⎥ = 166.7 − j 57.7 ) ( ) ( )
1⎡
3⎣
1
2
(
⎤ 1⎡
⎦ 3⎣
1
2
) ⎤
⎦
(
∴Van 2 = ⎢Vab + Vbc 1 − j 3 ⎥ = ⎢ 200 + × − j 346 × 1 − j 3 ⎥ = − 33.3 − j 57.7 ) ( ) ( )
Now,
(
Z a1 = Z a + aZ b + a 2 Z c = Z a 1 + a + a 2 = 0 ) {⬗ Z a
= Zb = Z c = 1 }
( + a) = 0 ( )
1 1
Z a 2 = Z a + a 2 Z b + aZ c = Z a 1 + a 2 Z0 = Z a + Zb + Z c = × 3 = 1
3 3
∴ the currents are given as,
Va1 166.7 − j 57.7 Va 2 −33.3 − j 57.7
I a1 =
Z0
=
1
(
= 166.7 − j 57.7 ) Ia2 =
Z0
=
1
= −33.3 − j 57.7 ( )
Also, Ia0 0
Hence, the current in phase a is
( ) ( ) (
I a = I 0 + I a1 + I a 2 = 0 + 166.7 − j 57.7 + −33.3 − j 57.7 = 133.4 − j115.4 = 176.4 ∠ − 40.7 A )
Problem 17.8 A three-phase, star-connected load with impedances 20⬔30ⴗ, 5 ⬔ 90ⴗand 25⬔60ⴗ ohm
is connected across a 3-phase, 3-wire 400-V balanced supply system. Find the line currents.
Solution Here, since the supply is balanced, ∴Vab1 = 400 V; Vab 2 = 0 = Vab 0
The load impedances are,
(
Z a = 20∠30 = 17.32 + j10 ) Z b = 5∠ − 90 = − j 5 Z c = 25∠60 = 12.5 + j 21.65( )
( )
∴ aZ b = 5∠30 = 4.33 + j 2.5 ; a 2 Z b = 5∠150 = − 4.33 + j 2.5 ( )
∴ aZ c = 25∠180 = −25; a Z c = 25∠300 = 12.5 − j 21.65
2
( )
The sequence impedances are,
Z0 =
1
(
3 a
1
) (
Z + Z b + Z c = 29.82 + j 26.65 = 9.94 + j8.88
3
) ( )
1
( 1
) (
Z a1 = Z a + aZ b + a 2 Z c = 34.15 − j 9.15 = 11.38 − j 3.05
3 3
) ( )
1
( 1
) (
Z a 2 = Z a + a 2 Z b + aZ c = −12.01 − j12.55 = − 4 − j 4.17
3 3
) ( )
946
(
∴ Z 0 2 − Z a1 Z a 2 = ) 13 ( Z Z a b
+ Zb Z c + Z c Z a = ) 13 (100∠ − 60 + 125∠ − 30 + 500∠90 )
1
3
= (
50 − j86.6 + 108.25 − j 62.5
5 + j 500 = 52.75 + j116.97 ) ( )
V
Also, Van1 = ab ∠ − 30 =
400
∠ − 30 = 200 − j115.47 ( )
3 3
Hence, the sequence components of the line currents are,
I a1 = Van1 2 0
Z
=
(
200 − j115.47 9.94 + j8.88 )(
= 23.99∠ − 53.96 = 14.11 − j19.4
) ( )
Z 0 − Z a1 Z a 2 52.75 + j116.97
Van1 Z a1 ( 200 − j115.47)(11.38 − j 3.05) = 21.2∠ − 110.7

Ia2 = −
Z 0 − Z a1 Z a 2
2
=
52.75 + j116.97
(
= − 7.49 − j19.8 )
Hence, the line currents are,
( ) (
I a = I a1 + I a 2 = 14.11 − j19.4 + −7.49 − j19.8 = 6.6
62 − j 39.2 A ) (
) ( )
(
I b = a I a1 + aI a 2
2
) = 23.99∠186.04 + 21.2∠9.3 = ( −2.94 + j0.93) A
Ic = ( aI a1
+ a2 Ia2 ) = 23.99∠66.04 + 21.2∠129.3 = ( −3.68 + j 38.3) A
Note Check that (Ia Ib Ic ) 0
Problem 17.9 An unsymmetrical 3-phase 3-wire system has VAB 220 ⴙ j0 V, VBC ⴝ ⴚ 120 ⴚ j172 V and
VCA ⴝⴚ 100 ⴙ j172 V. It supplies 3 star-connected impedances of 17⬔30ⴗ, 5⬔ⴚ90ⴗ and 22⬔60ⴗ ohms. Find
the line currents.
Solution Here, Vab 220 V; Vbc ( 120 j172) V; Vca ( 100 j172) V
The load impedances are
Z a = 17∠30 = 14.72 + j8.5 ) Z = 5∠ − 90 = − j 5 Z = 22∠60 = (11 + j19.05)
( b c
∴ aZ b = 5∠30 = ( 4.33 + j 2.5); a Z = 5∠150 = ( − 4.33 + j 2.5) 2

b
∴ aZ c = 22 ∠180 = −22; a Z = 22 ∠300 = (11 − j19.05) 2

c
The sequence impedances are

1
3
Z0 =
1
(
Z a + Z b + Z c = 25.72 + j 22.56 = 8.57 + j 7.52
3
) ( ) ( )
1 1
(
Z a1 = Z a + aZ b + a 2 Z c = 30.05 − j8.05 = 10.02 − j 2.68
3 3
) ( ) ( )
1
3
2 1
(
Z a 2 = Z a + a Z b + aZ c = −11.61 + j11 = − 3.87 + j 3.67
3
) ( ) ( )
( 2 1
3
) ( 1
∴ Z 0 − Z a1 Z a 2 = Z a Z b + Z b Z c + Z c Z a = 85∠ − 60 + 110∠ − 30 + 374 ∠90
3
) ( )
1
(
= 42.5 − j 73.61 + 95.26 − j 55 + j 374 = 45.92 + j81.8
3
) ( )
947
Also,
1⎡
3⎣
1 ⎤ 1
( )
Van1 = ⎢Vab + Vbc 1 + j 3 ⎥ = ⎡⎢ 220 + − 60 − j86 1 + j 3 ⎤⎥ = 102.98 − j 63.3
2 ⎦ 3⎣ ⎦
( )( ) ( )
1⎡
3⎣
1 ⎤ 1
( )
Van 2 = ⎢Vab + Vbc 1 − j 3 ⎥ = ⎡⎢ 220 + − 60 − j86 1 − j 3 ⎤⎥ = 3.68 + j 5.97
2 ⎦ 3⎣ ⎦
( )( ) ( )
Hence, the sequence components of the line currents are
I a1 =
(102.98 − j 63.3)(8.57 + j 7.52 ) − ( 3.68 + j 5.97)( −3.87 + j 3.67)
Van1 Z 0 − Van 2 Z a 2
=
Z −Z Z 0
2
a1 a2 ( 45.92 + j81.8)
= 15.08∠ − 51 = ( 9.49 − j11.7 )
Ia2 =
V Z −V Z
an 2
=
( 3.68 + j 5.97)(8.557 + j 7.52 ) − (102.98 − j 63.3)(10.02 − j 2.68)
0 an1 a1
Z −Z Z 0
2
a1 a2 ( 45.92 + j81.8)
= 14.11∠71 = ( 4.59 + j13.34 )
Hence, the line currents are
( ) (
I a = I a1 + I a 2 = 9.49 − j11.7 + 4.59 + j13.34 = 14.0 ) (
) (
08 + j1.64 = 14.2 ∠6.7 A )
(
I b = a I a1 + aI a 2
2
) = 15.08∠189 + 14.11∠191 = ( −28.75 − j5.05) = 29.2∠ − 170 A
Ic = ( aI a1
+ a2 Ia2 ) = 15.08∠69 + 14.11∠311 = (14.66 + j 3.45) = 15.2∠13 A
Note Check that (Ia Ib Ic ) 0
Summary
1. An unbalanced system can be resolved by a symmetri- as positive sequence component (having the same
cal per-phase technique known as the method of sym- phase sequence as the original unbalanced phasors),
metrical component. negative sequence component (having the phase
2. The operator a is an operator which when operates sequence opposite to that of the original phasors) and
upon a phasor rotates it by 120 without changing zero sequence component (having zero phase dis-
the magnitude of the phasor upon which it operates. placement from each others).
So it has a magnitude of unity and an angle of 120 . 4. The original unbalanced phasor is the sum of its compo-
a 1⬔120 1e j120 1(cos1202 jsin120 ) nents, so that the voltages and currents can be written as
( 0.5 j0.806) Va = Va1 + Va 2 + Va 0 I a = I a1 + I a 2 + I a 0
a 2 = 1∠240 = 1e j 240 = 1( cos 240 + j sin240 ) Vb = Vb1 + Vb 2 + Vb 0 and I b = I b1 + I b 2 + I b 0
(
= − 0.5 − j 0.866 ) Vc = Vc1 + Vc 2 + Vc 0 Ic = Ic 1 + Ic 2 + Ic 0
a = 1∠0 = 1e
3 j0
= 1( cos 0 + j sin0 ) = 1 5. The determination of original phasors in terms of the
a 4 = a ⋅a 3 = a ; a 5 = a 2 ⋅a 3 = a 2 , and so on sequence components is called component synthesis.
It is given as
( ) (
∴ 1+ a + a 2 = 1+ − 5 + j 0.866 + − 5 − j 0.866 = 0 ) ( ) ⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 1⎤ ⎡ Va1 ⎤ ⎡ Ia ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 1⎤ ⎡ Ia1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
3. According to Fortescue’s theorem, three unbalanced ⎢Vb ⎥ = ⎢ a a 1⎥ ⎢Va 2 ⎥ and ⎢ Ib ⎥ = ⎢ a 2 a 1⎥ ⎢ Ia 2 ⎥
phasors of a three-phase system can be resolved into ⎢V ⎥ ⎢ a a 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Va 0 ⎥⎦
2 ⎢I ⎥ ⎢ a a 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Ia 0 ⎥⎦
2
three component sets of balanced phasors, known ⎣ c⎦ ⎣ ⎣ c⎦ ⎣

948
6. The determination of sequence components in terms phase voltage is zero. The positive and negative
of original phasors is called component analysis. It is sequence components are given as,
given as
⎡ Va1 ⎤ ⎡1 a a ⎤ ⎡Va ⎤
2 ⎡ I a1 ⎤ ⎡1 a a ⎤ ⎡ Ia ⎤
2
1⎡
3⎣
1
2
⎤
Van1 = ⎢Vab + Vbc 1+ j 3 ⎥
⎦
( )
⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢Va 2 ⎥ = ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢Vb ⎥ and ⎢ Ia 2 ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2
2
a ⎥ ⎢ Ib ⎥
⎢V ⎥ 3 ⎢1 1
⎣ a0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vc ⎥⎦ ⎢ I ⎥ 3 ⎢1 1
⎣ a0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Ic ⎥⎦ and
1⎡ 1 ⎤
Van 2 = ⎢Vab + Vbc 1− j 3 ⎥
3⎣ 2 ⎦
( )
7. The zero sequence component of currents is absent and the positive and negative sequence components
for a 3-phase, 3-wire star-connected system. However, of the line current are
it may be present in a 4-wire star-connected system or
in a delta-connected system. ⎛ V Z −V Z ⎞ ⎛ V Z −V Z ⎞
Ia1 = ⎜ an1 2 0 an 2 a 2 ⎟ and Ia 2 = ⎜ an 2 2 0 an1 a1 ⎟
8. Since the phasor sum of the line-to-line voltages in a ⎝ Z 0 − Z a1 Z a 2 ⎠ ⎝ Z 0 − Z a1 Z a 2 ⎠
three-phase system is always zero, the zero sequence
components of the line-to-line voltages in a three- 12. For unbalanced star-connected loads supplied from a
phase system are zero, regardless of the degree of balanced system, the load voltages consists of only the
unbalancing. However, zero sequence components positive and zero sequence components, and the neg-
may be present in the phase voltages of a star- ative sequence component is always zero. The positive
connected circuit. sequence component of the voltage is
9. The three-phase power in terms of the symmetrical
Vab
components is given as Van1 = ∠ − 30
3
S = 3 ⎡⎣Va 0 Ia 0 * +Va1Ia1 * +Va 2 Ia 2 * ⎤⎦
and the positive and negative sequence components
10. The ratio of the positive, negative and zero sequence
of the line current are
voltages to the respective positive, negative and zero
sequence currents are known as positive sequence Van1 Z 0 Za + Zb + Zc
impedance, Z1, negative sequence impedance, Z2, and I a1 = = Van1
Z 0 2 − Z a1 Z a 2 Za Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Za
zero sequence impedance, Z0.
Van1 Z a1 Z a + aZ b + a 2 Z c
11. In case of an unbalanced load supplied from an unbal- Ia 2 = − = −Van1
anced supply, the zero sequence component of the Z 0 − Z a1 Z a 2
2
Za Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Za
Exercises
1. The currents in a 3-phase system are IR 12 j24; components of the corresponding positive, negative
IY 16 j2 and IB 4 j6. The phase sequence is and zero-sequence components, and draw the phasors.
RYB. Find the symbolic expression for the three sym-
⎡V1R = 4.8∠18.4 , V1Y = 4.9∠ − 101.6 , V1B = 4.9∠138.4 ; ⎤
metrical components. ⎢ ⎥
⎢V2 R = 2.15∠ − 86.2 , V2Y = 2.15∠33.8 , V2 B = 2.15∠ − 206.2 ;⎥
( ) ( ) (
⎡ IR 0 = 8 + j 5.33 , IR1 = 0.845 + j15.1 , IR 2 = 3.155 + j 3.56 ⎤
⎣ ⎦ ) ⎢V = 1∠143.1
⎣ 0
⎥
⎦
2. Determine the positive, negative and zero phase 4. A short circuit to earth occurs near the terminals of
sequence components of the following set of three- phase a of a three-phase star-connected alternator,
phase unbalanced voltage phasors: with the neutral point earthed. The current to earth is
1 kA. If the alternator is not supplying any normal cur-
Va = 10∠30 ; Vb = 30∠ − 60 ; Vc = 15∠145 rent, calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence
components of currents of all phases.
( ) ( ) (
⎡V1 = 12.42 + j12.42 ; V2 = −7.55 − j 3.32 ; V0 = 3.79 − j 4.13 ⎤
⎣ ⎦ ) ⎡ I0 = 333.3∠0 ; ⎤
⎢ ⎥
3. In an unbalanced three-phase system VR 4.0⬔0 , ⎢ Ia1 = Ia 2 = 333.3∠0 ; Ib1 = Ib 2 = 333.3∠120 ;⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ Ic1 = 333.3∠120 ; Ic 2 = 333.3∠240
0
VY 3.0⬔ 90 , VB 8.0⬔143.1 . Find all the voltage ⎦
949
5. A 400 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply R 6. A three-phase motor has Z1 2.4 j 2.4 ohms and
is connected with a delta- Z2 0.5 j1.0 ohms. It is fed by a three-phase system
318 ␮F 100
connected load as shown in voltage Vab Vca 365 V and Vab 312 V. There is no
Fig. 17.6 The phase sequence neutral connection. Find the line currents.
Y
is RYB. B 318 mH [76.11 A; 47.07 A; 58.05 A]
Calculate the line currents. 7. A symmetrical 3-phase, 3-wire, 440 V system supplies
Fig. 17.6
⎡⎣ IR = 7.73∠15 A; an unbalanced star-connected load of impedances,
ZR 5⬔30 , ZY 10⬔45 and ZB 10⬔60 .
IY = 7.73∠165 A;
Calculate the symmetrical components of the current
IR = 4 ∠ − 90 A ⎤⎦ in the line R. Take phase sequence RYB.
[31.56⬔ 75.8 A; 4.22⬔ 39 A]
Questions
1. Explain the theory of symmetrical components. 5. Define a-operator.
2. What do you understand by symmetrical components of 6. Explain why the line current of a 3-phase 3-wire circuit
an unbalanced current flowing in a 3-phase network? has no zero sequence component.
3. Explain the symmetrical component theory. Derive the 7. Show that in a delta-connected system, the zero
phase currents in terms of the sequence currents and sequence voltage is absent in the line voltages.
vice-versa.
8. Develop an expression for the three-phase power in
4. Explain how an unsymmetrical system of 3-phase cur-
terms of symmetrical components.
rents can be resolved into three symmetrical compo-
nent systems.
1. The operator a is equal to (iii) only 2
(i) 1⬔ 120 (ii) 1⬔120 (iv) only 4
(iii) 1⬔ 240 (iv) 1⬔90 4. In a three-phase system,
2. The vectors which have the same magnitude and (i) the zero sequence component of the line voltage
phase are called is always zero
(i) positive sequence components (ii) the zero sequence component of the line currents
(ii) negative sequence components is always zero
(iii) zero sequence components (iii) the zero sequence component of the line voltages
(iv) none of the above may be sometimes zero.
3. Consider the following statements: (iv) the zero sequence component of the line currents
In a three-phase system, the zero sequence compo- cannot be zero
nent of line current 5. For unbalanced star-connected loads supplied from a
1. is always zero balanced system, the load voltages consist of
2. is zero only if it is a three-wire system
(i) all sequence components
3. can be zero even if it is a four-wire system
(ii) only the positive and negative sequence
4. is never zero
components
Of these, the correct statements are
(iii) only the positive sequence component
(i) only 1
(iv) only the positive and zero sequence components
(ii) both 2 and 3
950
6. The correct relations between the positive sequence 7. The correct relations between the positive and
component voltage with the phase voltages is negative sequence components of the phase
voltages is
1
(i) Va1 = ⎡Va + aVb + a 2Vc ⎤
3⎣ ⎦
(i) Vb1 = Va1
1
(ii) Va1 = ⎡Va + a 2Vb + aVc ⎤
3⎣ ⎦ (ii) Vb1 = aVa1
1
(iii) Va1 = ⎡⎣Va + Vb + Vc ⎤⎦ (iii) Vb1 = a 2Va1
3
(iv) Va1 = a 2Vb1
(iv) Va1 = Va + aVb + a Vc
2
Answers
1. (ii) 2. (iii) 3. (ii) 4. (i) 5. (iv)

6. (i) 7. (iii)
Appendix A: Mathematical
Formulas
Quadratic Formula e jx + e − jx
cos x =
The roots of the quadratic equation 2
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 e jx − e − jx
sin x =
2j
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
are x1,2 = sin x 1
2a tan x = cos ecx =
cos x sin x
Summation of the roots is x1 + x2 = −( ) b
a sec x =
1
cot x =
1
=
cos x
cos x ta n x sin x
c
Product of the roots is x1 x2 = sin 2 x + cos2 x = 1 sec 2 x − tan 2 x = 1
a
cos ec x − cot x = 1
2 2
Power Series Formulas

( )
sin x ± y = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y
x2 x3 x4
e x = 1+ x + + + + ⋅⋅⋅ cos( x ± y ) = cos x cos y⫿ sin x sin y
2! 3! 4!
tan x ± tan y
(1 + x )
n
= 1 + nx +
(
n n −1 )x 2
tan ( x ± y ) =
1⫿tan x tan y
2!
( )(
n n −1 n − 2 )x sin x cos y =
( )
sin x − y + sin x + y ( )
+ 3
+ ⋅⋅⋅ 2
3!
≈11 + nx x << 1 sin x sin y =
( )
cos x − y − cos x + y ( )
2
1
1− x
= 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ x < 1
cos x cos y =
( )
cos x − y + cos x + y ( )
2
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ⋅⋅⋅
3! 5! 7!
(
cos 2 x = cos2 x − sin 2 x )
x 2
x4 x6 = ( 2 cos 2
x − 1) = (1 − 2 sin x ) 2
cos x = 1 − + − + ⋅⋅⋅
2! 4! 6! sin 2 x = 2 sin x cos x
x 3 2 x 5 17 x 7 2
cos 3 x = 4 cos3 x − 3cos x
tan x = x + + + + ⋅⋅⋅ x 2 < ␲
3 15 315 4
sin 3 x = 3sin x − 4 sin 3 x
x 3 2 x 5 17 x 7 2
ta nh x = x − + − + ⋅⋅⋅ x 2 < ␲ Hyperbolic Functions
3 15 315 4
e x + e− x e x − e− x
Some Useful Constants cos x = sinh x =
2 2
␲ ≈ 3.1415926535 sinh x 1
e ≈ 2.7182818284 tanh x = cot h x =
cosh x tanh x
1 1 1
≈ 0.3678794411 cos ec h x = sec hx =
e sinh x cosh x
Trigonometric Formulas ( )
sinh x ± y = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
e ± jx = cos x ± j sin x
( )
cosh x ± y = cos h x cos h y ± sinh x sinh y
952
Calculus Formulas
Integrations
d
dx
(sin ax ) = a cos ax
dx
∫ x = ln x + C ∫ e dx = a e
ax 1 ax
+C
d
dx
(cos ax ) = − a sin ax
∫ ln xdx = x ln x − x + C
d
dx
( tan ax ) = cosa ax
2
1
∫ sin ax = − a cos x + C d
dx
(sin −1
)
ax =
a
1 − a2 x 2
1
∫ cos ax = a sin ax + C d
(
cos−1 ax = ) −a
dx 1 − a2 x 2
e ax
∫e
ax
sin bxdx =
a2 + b2
(
a sin bx − b cos bx + C ) d
(
tan −1 ax = )
a
dx 1 + a2 x 2
ax
e
(
∫ e cos bxdx = a2 + b2 a cos bx + b sin bx + C
ax
) If u and v are functions of x then
dx 1 x
d
dx
( ) dv
uv = u + v
dx
du
dx
∫a + x2 a
2
= tan −1 + C
a du dv
v −u
d ⎛ u⎞
)
dx dx
xdx 1
(
∫ a2 + x 2 = 2 ln a + x + C
2 2
dx ⎜⎝ v ⎟⎠
=
v2
If u and v are functions of x then L’ Hospital’s Rule

∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu (integration by parts)
()
f x 0
If the ratio results in an indeterministic form such as
Differentiations ()
g x 0
∞ f x () f′ x ()
d n
( )
x = nx n−1
d
ln x =
1
( ) or then Lim = Lim ()
where f ′ x =
d
()
⎡f x ⎤
dx dx x ∞ x→0 g x ()x→0 g ′ x () dx ⎣ ⎦
( )
log e
d
(
log x = ) d ax
e = ae ax ()
and g ′ x =
d
()
⎡g x ⎤
dx x dx dx ⎣ ⎦
Appendix B: Matrix
Fundamental
Definition of a Matrix A matrix is simply a rectangular array of 3 −1 −1
3 −1 −1 −1 −1 3
numbers; the numbers being either real or complex. For example,
⌬ = −1 3 −1 = 3 ×
−1 3
− −1 ×
−1 3
+ −1 ( )
−1 −1
( )
⎡ a11 a12 . . a1m ⎤ −1 −1 3
⎢ ⎥
⎢ a21 a22 . . a2 m ⎥ = 24 − 4 − 4 = 16
A= ⎢ . . . . . ⎥
⎥
⎢ Transpose of a Matrix A matrix which is formed by
⎢ . . . . . ⎥ interchanging all the rows of a given matrix into columns and vice-
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ an1 an 2 . . anm ⎥⎦ versa is known as the transpose of the given matrix. The transpose
of matrix A is written AT.
This matrix A has n number of rows and m number of columns.
This matrix is called an n ⫻ m matrix. The following represents a matrix and its transpose:
⎡ a11 a12 . . a1m ⎤ ⎡ a11 a21 . . an1 ⎤
Square Matrix A matrix in which the number of rows and ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
columns are equal is known as a square matrix. ⎢ 21
a a22
. . a2m ⎥ ⎢ a12 a22 . . an 2 ⎥
A= ⎢ . . . . . ⎥
⎥ A =⎢ .
T
. . . . ⎥
⎥
For example, for the matrix A given above, if n ⫽ m then the ⎢ ⎢
matrix is said to be square. ⎢ . . . . . ⎥ ⎢ . . . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Diagonal Matrix A matrix in which all the elements except the ⎢⎣ an1 an 2 . . anm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ a1m a2 m . . anm ⎥⎦
principal diagonal are all zero is known as a diagonal matrix. For
⎡ 1 2 3⎤
example, a diagonal matrix can be written as ⎢ ⎥
For example, the transpose of the matrix A = ⎢ 4 5 6 ⎥ is
⎡ a11 0 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎢7 8 9⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢0 a22 0 0 0 ⎥ given as
A= ⎢ 0 0 . 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎡1 4 7 ⎤
⎢
⎢0 0 . 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 AT = ⎢ 2 5 8 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 anm ⎥⎦ ⎢ 3 6 9⎥
⎣ ⎦
Identity or Unit Matrix A diagonal matrix in which all Co-factor and Co-factor Matrix The co-factor Aij of element
diagonal elements are 1 is known as an identity matrix. aij of a matrix A is defined as
( )
i+ j
Determinants of a Matrix The determinant value of a matrix Aij = −1 where, Mij is the minor of an n ⫻ n matrix which
M ij
A is given as is obtained by taking the determinant value of an
a11 a12 . . a1m ( ) ( )
n − 1 × n − 1 matrix formed after deleting the i th
a21 a22 . . a2 m row and j th column of the n ⫻ n matrix.
⎡1 2 3⎤
⌬= . . . . . ⎢ ⎥
For example, for the matrix A = ⎢0 4 5 ⎥ the co-factor of
. . . . .
⎢1 0 6 ⎥
an1 an 2 . . anm ⎣ ⎦
each element is
⎡ 3 −1 −1⎤ 4 5 0 5 0 4
⎢ ⎥ A11 = = 24 A12 = − =5 A13 = = −4
For example, the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ −1 3 −1⎥ is 0 6 1 6 1 0
⎢ −1 −1 3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ 2 3 1 3 1 2
given as A21 = − = −12 A22 = =3 A23 = − =2
0 6 1 6 1 0
954
2 3 1 3 1 2 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices Two matrices can

A31 = = −2 A32 = − = −5 A33 = =4 be added or subtracted only if they are of the same order, i.e., the
4 5 0 5 0 4
number of rows and columns in both the matrices are equal.
Hence, the co-factor matrix is given as The summation or difference of two m ⫻ n matrices is also an
⎡ 24 5 −4 ⎤ m ⫻ n matrix whose each element is the summation or difference
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −12 3 2 ⎥
of the corresponding element of the two matrices.
⎢ −2 −5 4 ⎥ For example, for the two matrices,
⎣ ⎦
⎡2 4 6 ⎤ ⎡1 4 7 ⎤
Adjoint Matrix The matrix formed by taking the transpose ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢1 3 7 ⎥ and B = ⎢ 5 9 3⎥
of the co-factor matrix of a given original matrix is known as an
⎢4 8 2 ⎥ ⎢6 1 5 ⎥
adjoint matrix. The adjoint of matrix A is often written as adj A. ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
For example, for matrix A and for the co-factor matrix written the addition and subtraction results are
above, the adjoint matrix is
⎡ 2 4 6 ⎤ ⎡ 1 4 7 ⎤ ⎡ 3 8 13 ⎤
⎡ 24 −12 −2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ A + B = ⎢ 1 3 7 ⎥ + ⎢ 5 9 3⎥ = ⎢ 6 12 10 ⎥
adj A = ⎢ 5 3 −5 ⎥
⎢ 4 8 2 ⎥ ⎢6 1 5 ⎥ ⎢10 9 7 ⎥
⎢ −4 2 4 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎣
Inverse of a Matrix The inverse of a square matrix A is a ⎡ 2 4 6 ⎤ ⎡ 1 4 7 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 −1⎤

matrix A−1 such that ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A − B = ⎢ 1 3 7 ⎥ − ⎢ 5 9 3⎥ = ⎢ −4 −6 4 ⎥
AA−1 = I ⎢ 4 8 2 ⎥ ⎢6 1 5 ⎥ ⎢ −2 7 −3⎥
where I is the identity matrix. ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
The inverse of a matrix is calculated as
( ) Multiplication or Product of Matrices The product of
T
Ad joint of A ad j A co-factor matrix of A
A−1 = = = two matrices A and B is only possible if the number of columns
det A ⌬ ⌬ of the matrix A is equal to the number of rows of the matrix B. If
⎡1 2 3⎤ the order of the matrix A is n ⫻ m and the order of the matrix B
For example, for the matrix A = ⎢⎢0 ⎥
4 5 ⎥ , the adjoint matrix
is m ⫻ p then the product of A and B will be a matrix of the
order n ⫻ p.
⎢1 0 6 ⎥⎦
⎣
has been obtained as The product of the matrices can be written as
⎡ 24 −12 −2 ⎤ m
⎢ ⎥ P = AB = ∑ ai j bk j (i ⫽ 1, 2, …, n; j ⫽ 1, 2, …, p)
adj A = ⎢ 5 3 −5 ⎥ k =1
⎢ −4 2 4 ⎥⎦ ⎡2 4 6 ⎤
⎣
For example, for the two matrices A = ⎢⎢ 1 3 7 ⎥⎥ and
The determinant value is ⎢4 8 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1 2 3 ⎡1 4 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
( ) ( ) ( )
⌬ = 0 4 5 = 1 24 − 0 − 2 × −5 + 3 −4 = 22 B = ⎢ 5 9 3⎥ , the product is given as
⎢6 1 5 ⎥
1 0 6 ⎣ ⎦
Hence the inverse of the matrix is ⎡2 4 ⎤
⎡ 12 −6 −1 ⎤ ⎡1 3 5⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎡ 24 −12 −2 ⎤ ⎢ 11 11 11 ⎥ P = AB = ⎢ ⎥ × ⎢1 3⎥
1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 2 4 6 ⎦ ⎢6 8 ⎥
A−1 = ⎢ 5 3 −5 ⎥ = ⎢ 5 3 −5 ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
22 22 22 22
⎢ −4 2 4⎦⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1 × 2 + 3 × 1 + 5 × 6 1 × 4 + 3 × 3 + 5 × 8 ⎤ ⎡ 35 53 ⎤
⎣ ⎢− 2 1 2 ⎥ =⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 11 11 11 ⎦ ⎣ 2 × 2 + 4 × 1 + 6 × 6 2 × 4 + 4 × 3 + 6 × 8 ⎦ ⎣ 48 68 ⎦
Appendix C: Matlab
INTRODUCTION • Current Directory Browser

• Workspace Browser
MATLAB is a computer program for people doing numerical • Array Editor
computation, especially linear algebra (matrices). It began • Editor/Debugger
as a ‘MATrix LABoratory’ program, intended to provide • Profiler
interactive access to the libraries Linpack and Eispack. It
has since grown well beyond these libraries, to become a
powerful tool for visualization, programming, research,
engineering, and communication.
Some advantages of MATLAB include cutting-edge
algorithms, enormous data-handling abilities, and powerful
programming tools. MATLAB is not designed for symbolic
computation, but it makes up for this weakness by allowing
the user to directly link to Maple. The interface is mostly text-
based, which may be disconcerting for some users.
MATLAB is packaged as a core program with several
‘toolboxes’, sold separately.
HOW MATLAB WORKS

MATLAB works by executing the mathematical statements we
enter in the command window. By default, any output is immedi- Fig. C.1 MATLAB desktop
ately printed to the window.
We are also allowed to assign a name to an expression for our To exit MATLAB, type quit at the MATLAB command window or
convenience. Keep in mind that the name we assign is only a name, choose File → Exit MATLAB.
and it does not represent a mathematical variable. Every name must
have a value at all times. If we try to read the value of an unassigned The Command Window The Command window is where we
name, we will get an error. can interact with MATLAB directly. This window allows a user to
enter simple commands.
How to Start and Exit MATLAB
The Toolbar Systems that support graphics have a toolbar at the
To start MATLAB top of the screen, like this:
• On windows, to start MATLAB, choose Start Menu →
Programs → MATLAB.
• On Unix, to start Matlab, type matlab at the operating
system prompt. The buttons have the following functions:
After starting MATLAB, the MATLAB desktop opens as shown
in Fig. C.1 containing the desktop tools: New File, Open File
• Command Window
• Command History
• Start and Launch Pad Cut, Copy, and Paste
• Help Browser
956
elementary mathematical functions can be obtained by typing the
Undo last action following in the command window:
help <space> elfun
Workspace Browser—use this to graphically edit vari- Some of those functions useful for circuit analysis problems are
ables given below:
Path browser—use this to edit the paths that MATLAB Table C.2 Some Important MATLAB Functions
will look in for functions Function Meaning or value
pi 3.14159265…
Simulink Library Browser (not covered in this tutorial)
i or j Imaginary unit, −1
abs (X) Absolute value of a complex number X
Open help window
phase (X) Phase angle of a complex number X
imag (X) Imaginary part of a complex number X
Arithmetic Operations using MATLAB
real (X) Real part of a complex number X
The list of basic arithmetic operations in MATLAB include six
operations: conj (X) Complex conjugate of X
Table C.1 Arithmetic Operations sqrt (X) Square root of a number X
using MATLAB exp (X) Exponential of a number X, i.e. ex
Symbol Operation log(X) Natural logarithm of X
Addition log10(X) Logarithm of X to base 10
Subtraction Inf Infinity
* Multiplication NaN Not a number
/ Left Division
How to Control Output Before we go any deeper into
\ Right Division matrices, it would be wise to mention formatting issues.
^ Exponentiation • To control line-spacing, use format compact.
Note: The meaning of left and right division is • To see all 15 digits that were used in calculation, use format
that: x/y means x y whereas, x\y means y x. long.
• To see just 5 digits, use format short.
For example, we can perform the six operations with two num- • To suppress output completely, use a semicolon at the end of
bers a 2 and b 3 as follows: the command.
>> a 3; b 2; To see other options, type help format.
>> a b Note that MATLAB always uses ‘double’ precision (about 15 digits)
ans 5 in its calculations. These commands merely adjust the display.
>> a b
ans 1
MATLAB Help System If you know the name of a MATLAB
>> a * b
function you need help with, type
ans 6
>> a/b help <space> function-name
ans 1.5000 to see the helpful information contained in the function definition
>> a\b
itself. If you don’t know the name of the function you need, try to look
ans 0.6667
for the keyword. However, the search is very slow, and often deluges
>> a^b
ans 8 the user with a great many unhelpful items. In addition, a search for a
concept, such as ‘matrix’ will almost never return what you need.
MATLAB Functions MATLAB provides a large number You can get the same helpful information by choosing Help →
of standard elementary mathematical functions. The list of the Help Window, or typing helpwin.
957
Appendix C: Matlab
Working with Matrices in MATLAB MATLAB is a software The Colon Operator The colon, :, is one of the most important
package that makes it easier for us to enter matrices and vectors, and MATLAB operators. A vector with unity spacing can be generated
manipulate them. The interface follows a language that is designed using the colon operator as
to look a lot like the notation use in linear algebra. In the following >> 0:10
tutorial, we will discuss some of the basics of working with vectors. ans 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A vector is defined as a matrix with one row or one column. It A vector with non-unit and defined spacing can be generated as
>> 0:2:10
can be generated by placing a sequence of numbers within square
ans 0 2 4 6 8 10
braces as explained.
>> a [2 4 6 3 5 4] Plotting in MATLAB
a 2 4 6 3 5 4 Two-dimensional plot can be obtained by the simple commands,
This creates a row vector which has the label “a”. Note that plot (xdata, ydata)
MATLAB printed out a copy of the vector after you hit the Enter where xdata and ydata are the vectors of the same size contain-
key. If you do not want to print out the result put a semicolon at the ing the data to be plotted.
end of the line: For example, if X 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and Y 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, the plot can
>> a [2 4 6 3 5 4]; be obtained as follows.
>> >> X [0 1 2 3 4];
>> Y [0 1 4 9 16];
If you want to create a column vector, you need to take the trans- >> plot(X,Y)
pose of a row vector. The transpose is defined using an apostrophe.
>> a [2 4 6 3 5 4]'
a
2
4
6
3
5
4
In a similar way, we can generate a matrix of any order as follows.
>> A [2 4 6; 3 5 4; 1 7 9]
A
2 4 6
3 5 4
1 7 9
Matrix Operations Once you are able to create and manipulate

a matrix, you can perform many standard operations, such as finding
the inverse, determinant, etc. The arithmetic operations can also be Fig. C.2 A MATLAB plot
performed over a number of matrices.
The plot can be edited by changing the colour, line type, inserting
The different operations on matrices are given in Table C.3. title, labeling in the x-axis and y-axis, etc. For example, for the above
example,
Table C.3 Matrix Operations >> X [0 1 2 3 4];
>> Y [0 1 4 9 16];
Command Operation >> plot(X,Y,’r’)
A’ Finds transpose of the matrix A >> xlabel(‘Time’)
>> ylabel(‘Amplitude’)
det (A) Finds the determinant value of the >> title(‘A Parabolic Function’)
matrix A will show a plot in red with the axis labels and title.
inv (A) Finds inverse of the matrix A Programming with MATLAB
eig (A) Finds eigen values of the matrix A MATLAB can be used for creating programs of our need. MATLAB
diag (A) statements can be prepared with any editor, and stored in a file for
Finds the diagonal elements of the matrix A later use.
958
Files that contain a computer code are called the m-files. There are make sure that our file is saved in the directory that is in MATLAB’s
two kinds of m-files—the script files and the function files. Script files search path. When the file has been saved, we return to the command
do not take the input arguments or return the output arguments. The window and enter the name of the file without the .m extension. The
function files may take input arguments or return output arguments. results will be shown.
To make the m-file, follow the path:
File → New → M-File Solving Equations
One of the main uses of matrices is in representing systems of
linear equations. If A is a matrix containing the coefficients of a
system of linear equations, X is a column vector containing the
unknowns, B is the column vector of right-hand sides, the constant
terms, then the matrix equation
AX = B represents the system of equations,
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ⋅⋅⋅ + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ⋅⋅⋅ + a2 n xn = b1
⯗
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ⋅⋅⋅ + ann xn = bn
The unknown variable x can be solved in two ways:

Fig. C.3 A MATLAB plot
by the right division operator: X = A \ B
The MATLAB Editor/Debugger screen will be opened. Here,
Or
we can type our code, can make changes, etc. After completing the
coding, the file must be saved with an extension .m. We have to by matrix inversion: X = inv ( A)* B
Solved Problems
Problem 1.1 For the circuit shown below, determine the volt- >> V = inv(A)*B
age ‘v’ using nodal analysis. V
60
8 2 60
Hence, V1 60 V; v 60 V
100 V 12 v 6 10 A
Problem 1.2 For the circuit shown in Fig. C.5, write the KVL
equations and find the loop currents.
Fig. C.4
2 j2 3 j5
Solution Let the node voltages be V1 and V2. Here, V2 v
V1 − 100 V1 V1 − V2
By KCL, + + = 0 ⇒ 17V1 − 12 v = 300 (i) 10⬔0 V I1 j2 I2 1
8 12 2
V2 − V1 V2
and + − 10 = 0 ⇒ − 3V1 + 4 v = 60 (ii) Fig. C.5
2 6
Equations (i) and (ii) can be written in matrix form as Solution KVL Equations can be written as
⎡17 −12 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ 300 ⎤ ( )
2 I1 − j 2 I1 + j 2 × I1 − I 2 = 10∠0 = 10
⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ AV = B
⎢
⎣ −3 4 ⎦ ⎣ v ⎦ ⎣ 60 ⎦ ( ) ( )
and j 2 × I 2 − I1 + 4 − j 5 I 2 = 0
Now we use MATLAB to find the voltages as follows. (

∴ 2 I1 − j 2 I 2 = 10 and − j 2 I1 + 4 − j 3 I 2 = 0 )
>> A [17 12; 3 4] In matrix form, the equations can be written as,
A
⎡ 2 − j 2 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡10 ⎤
17 12 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ AI = B
3 4 ( )
⎢⎣ − j 2 4 − j 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
>> B [300 60]’
B Now we use MATLAB to find the currents as follows.
300 >> A [2 j*2; j*2 (4 j*3)]
60 A
959
Appendix C: Matlab
2.0000 0 2.0000i 3.7268
0 2.0000i 4.0000 3.0000i >> angle(I(1))*180/pi
>> B [10 0]’ ans
B 10.3048
10 >> abs(I(2))
0 ans
>> I inv(A)*B 1.4907
I >> angle(I(2))*180/pi
3.6667 0.6667i ans
0.6667 1.3333i 116.5651
>> abs(I(1))
ans Hence, I1 = 3.7268∠ − 10.3048 ; I 2 = 1.4907∠116.5651
961
Index
Index
Active power 496 Break frequency 705

Active system 9 Bridge-T network 350
Additivity 8 Brunes functions 759
Admittance 495 Brunes method 793
All-pass filter 863 Butterworth filters 878
Alternation symmetry 420
Canonical network 771
Amplitude spectrum frequency spectrum 418
Capacitance 32
Amplitude spectrum 426
Capacitor 33
Apparent power 497
Cascade connection 342
Attenuation constant 358
Cauer forms 770
Average value 477
Causal system 9
Back emf 543 Causality 756
Band-pass filter 863, 869 Characteristic impedance iterative 358
Band-reject filter 876 Circuit magnification factor 639
Band-rejection 863 Circuit 25
Band-stop filter 863 Coefficient of coupling 549
Bandwidth 636, 642 Compensation Theorem 175
BIBO 756 Complex frequency 232
Bilateral 27 Complex locus plot 700
Blondels Theorem 599 Complex numbers 478
Bode plot 703 Complex power 497
BottDuffin cycle 799 Condensers 33
BottDuffin method 797 Conductance 495
Bound charge 24 Conductors 24
Branch 26 Continuous-time 2
962
Index
Convolution integral 271 Foster forms 770

Convolution theorem 272 Fourier series 414
Corner frequency 705 Fourier transform 425
Co-tree 106 Four-terminal network 327
Coupling 544 Fractional detuning 640
Critical coefficient of coupling 556, 559 Fractional frequency deviation 640
Critically damped condition 260 Free charge 24
Current resonance 645 Frequencies of forced oscillations 690
Cut-set 112 Frequency response plots 699
Cut-set matrix 113, Frequency response 699
Damping ratio 259, 266 Frequency 475
Delta connection 597 Frequency-scaling 866
Differential resistance 29 Gate function 5, 240
Differentiator 269 Generalized Ohms law 41
Differentiator 270 Gibbs phenomenon 423
Dirac Delta function 5, 241 Graph 103
Dirichlets conditions 414
Gyration resistance 351
Discrete-time 2
Gyrator 351
Distributed system 9
Domain of convergence 237 Half-power frequencies 636
Dot convention 546 Half-wave symmetry 420
Double-tuned coupled circuit 557 Heaviside unit function 5, 239
Drift velocity 25 High-pass filter 863
Driving Point Function 344, 687 High-pass-active-filter 867
Duality 50 Homogeneity 8
Dynamic resistance 647, 651 Hurwitz polynomial 757
Dynamic system 9 Hybrid parameters 333
Electric charge 23 Ideal transformer 553
Electric current 24 Image attenuation constant 357
Electrical resistance 28 Image impedances 354
Electromotive force (emf) 25 Image phase constant 357
Elements of realizability theory 755 Image transfer parameter 355
Equicofactor matrix 924 Immittance function 344
Equilibrium equations 115 Immittance 495
Even symmetry 420 Impedance matching 554
External critical frequencies 773 Impedance 358, 494
Filter 862 Impulse function 241
Final value theorem 235 Impulse 6
Floating neutral 608 Incidence matrix 107
Form factor 478 Indefinite admittance matrix 923
963
Index
Inductance 35 Narrow band-pass filter 870, 872

Inductor 36 Natural frequencies of free oscillations 690
Initial value theorem 235 Natural response 250, 690
Instantaneous or static or memoryless system 9 Negative impedance converter 354
Instantaneous power 496 Negative phase sequence components 934
Instantaneous value 477 Negative sequence impedance 938
Insulators 24 Neper frequency 232
Integrator 269, 271 Network synthesis 767
Integro-differential equation 248 Networks 25, 349
Neutral point 595
Internal poles 773
Nodal analysis 46
Internal resistance 169
Node 26
Internal zeros 773
Nortons theorem 161
Inverse hybrid parameters 334
Notch filter 863, 876
Inverse transmission parameters 332
Notch frequency 876
Invertible system 10
Isolation transformer 554 OCNF 690
Odd signals 3
Kirchhoffs current law 42
Odd symmetry 420
Kirchhoffs voltage law 42 Ohms law 41
Ladder-network 349 One-wattmeter method 602
Lag 476 Op-amp 861
Laplace transform 232 Open-circuit impedance parameters 328
Lattice network 350 Operational amplifier 861
Lead 476 Overdamped condition 260
Line spectra 418 PaleyWiener criterion 756
Linear transformer 551 Parallel resonance 641
Links 106 Parsevals theorem 432
Loop or mesh analysis 48 Pass-band 862
Loop 26 Passive system 9
Lowpass active filter 864 Path 105
Low-Pass filter 863 Peak Factor 478
Lumped-parameter system 9 Peak or maximum crest value 477
Periodic signals 2
Make-up current 647, 651
Phase constant 358
Marginally stable system 691, 692
Phase difference 476
Maximum power transfer theorem 166
Phase sequence 594
Mesh 26
Phase shift 475
Millmans theorem 172 Phase 592
Minimum functions 793 Phase-shift 592
Mutual inductance 37, 544 Phase-spectrum 418, 426
964
Index
Phasor diagram 484 Self-inductance 35, 543

Phasor 480 Semiconductors 24
Poles of the network function 688 Separation property 773
Poles 244 Sequence network 938
Polezero diagram 689 Sequence 2
Polyphase system 591 Series resonance 634
Port 327, 686 Short-circuit admittance parameters 329
Positive phase sequence components 934 Signal 1
Positive real functions 759 Simultaneous differential equation 248
Positive sequence impedance 938 Single-tuned coupled circuit 555
Potential difference 25 Sinusoid 4, 474
Potential 25 Source transformation 43
Power factor 497 SPICE 893
Power triangle 498 Stability 756
Principle of duality 50 Stable system 10, 691, 692
Propagation constant 358 Star connection 595
Pspice 894 Star point 595
Quality factor 637, 643 Static electricity 24
Quarterwave symmetry 421 Step function 239
Step-down transformer 554
Radian frequency 232
Step-up transformer 554
Ramp function 5, 240
Stop-band 862
Reactance 495
Strong Dirichlet conditions 415
Reactive power 497
Sturms test 765
Reciprocity theorem 159
Sturms theorem 765
Reflected impedance 552
Substitution theorem 156
Region of convergence 237
Rejector circuit 647, 651 Supermesh 49
Residues 245 Supernode 47
Resistance 495 Superposition theorem 157
Resistivity 29 Susceptance 495
Resistor 29 Symmetrical components 934
Resonance 634 Symmetrical network. 358
Resonant frequency 642 Synthesis 767
Richards transformation theorem 797 System 1
rms value 477 Tellegenstheorem 171
Sample spacing 2 Thevenins theorem 160
Samples 2 Three-phase circuits 591
SCNF 691 Three-phase 593
Selectivity 637 Three-wattmeter method 599
965
Index
Tie-set matrix 110 Unbalanced load 605

Tie-set 110 Undamped natural frequency 261
Time period 474 Underdamped condition 260
Time-constant 252, 256 Unit doublet function 241
Time-invariant systems 7 Unit step function 5
T-network 348 Universal resonance curve 653
Topology 103 Unstable system 692
Transfer function 272, 344, 687
Voltage resonance 639
Transient response 250, 690
Vut-set matrix 113
Transmission parameters (ABCD-
parameters) 330 Waveform 474
Truncation error 422 Waveshape 474
Tuned coupled circuit 555 Weak dirichlet conditions 415
Tuned tank circuit 651 Wide band-pass filter 870
Tuned transformer 555 Wide-band filter 871
Twigs 106 Zero phase sequence components 934
Twin-T network 351 Zero sequence impedance 938
Two-port network 327, 686 Zeros of the network function 688
Two-wattmeter method 600 Zeros 244

Network Analysis and Synthesis

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Network Analysis and Synthesis

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About the Authors

S P Ghosh obtained his BE (Hons) in Electrical Engineering from National Insti-

A K Chakraborty received his BEE (Hons) from Jadavpur University, MTech

Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

Copyright © 2010 by, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

ISBN (13): 978-0-07-014478-1

Managing Director : Ajay Shukla

Senior General Manager : Marketing: Michael J Cruz

Controller—Production: Rajender P Ghansela

7 Fourier Series and Fourier Transform 413–472

(conductively Equivalent Circuit of a Magnetically Coupled Circuit) 552

Brief Introduction to the Subject

Urmila Kar NSEC (Netaji Subhash Engineering College)

sponding phasor is written as, v (t ) = V cos ( t+ ). 2

ief an hich acts et of shor )=( )−( )

d to-t a t- 15. The variation of magnitude and phase of a network

he-po s a guide answer q

ns. they relate?

Fig. 7.63 (a) Fig. 7.63 (b)

help the te xamina

t 6. A wave has a constant value Im during the interval −

I1 40 40 I2 24. A two-port network has

topic elp the nd of

At t Q) with ifferent lear co

(i) Norton’s theorem (ii) Thevenin’s theorem 10.

1.1 CONCEPTS OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Input signals Output signals

Fig. 1.1 Block-diagram representation of a system

1.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SIGNALS

1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals x(t )

1.2.3 Odd and Even Signals

A signal f (t) is said to be even if

1.2.4 Some Standard Signals f (t)

where is the phase of the sinusoid.

− cos t = cos( t ± 180 ) f (t ) Ke

Another function, called gate function, can be obtained from step

r(t) Kr(t) r(t − T )

Consider a gate function as shown in Fig. 1.11. f (t )

1.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SYSTEMS

1.3.1 Continuous- and Discrete-Time Systems

1.3.2 Time-Invariant (Fixed) and Time-Varying Systems

Solution For continuous-time system

1.3.3 Linear and Non-Linear Systems

1.3.4 Lumped and Distributed Systems

1.3.5 Instantaneous (Static or Memoryless) and Dynamic Systems

1.3.6 Active and Passive Systems

1.3.7 Causal and Non-Causal Systems

1.3.8 Stable and Unstable Systems

1.3.9 Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems

1.4 INTERCONNECTION OF SYSTEMS

Combination of Both Cascade and Parallel Interconnections

Input System 4 Output

Input System 1 Output

(b) If g[n] n, then y[n] x[n]{n n − 1} (2n − 1) x[n]

Solution (a) y(t) x(t) cos(t 1)

Therefore, the system is an invertible system.

Solution (a) y(t) ex(t)

= Vm sin t u t + Vm sin () (t − ) u(t − ) K

and is undefined at t 0. 2/a

(b) Gate function (t) 0 for t 0 and ∫

1. A discrete-time system is modeled by (c) y(t) x2(t) (d) y mx c

1. (ii) 5. (iv) 9. (i) 13. (ii) 17. (i)

2.1 SOME BASIC TERMINOLOGIES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS