INSULATION CO-ORDINATION OF POWER SYSTEM

1
Over-voltage Limitation by Spark
Gaps

General

One of the simplest end cheapest means of protecting

transmission equipment from over-voltages is the
protective spark gap. By placing a spark gap in parallel
with the equipment to be protected and selecting the
spacing between the electrodes of the gap to be
capable of withstanding the highest power frequency
voltage end to spark-over when any over-voltages
occur, then the equipment will be protected.

2
 Over-voltage Limitation by Spark Gaps

General

It is however, necessary that the insulation level of the

equipment should, under all voltage conditions, be
higher than the highest voltage level at which the spark
gap sparks-over. Ideally, the characteristics of the
spark-gaps should be such that it would withstand the
highest power frequency system voltage for an
indefinite time and spark-over for any voltage higher.

3
 Over-voltage Limitation by Spark Gaps

General

The most frequently, used spark-gap in power systems

is the rod-gap which consists simply of two steel rods
separated an appropriate distance. If a rod-gap is used
as the main surge limiting device it is called a co-
ordinating-gap; it is used to co-ordinate the highest
voltages on a system to a level lower than the insulation
characteristics of that system. A typical co-ordinating
gap mounted on the bushing of a transformer is shown
in Fig:1. The great disadvantage with this type of gap is
that its operation produces an earth fault on the system
resulting in a system outage.

4
Over-voltage Limitation by Spark Gaps

General

Fig:1 Coordinating gap on a transformer bushing.

5
 Over-voltage Limitation by Spark Gaps

General

In practice the characteristics differ substantially from

the ideal, and a certain margin has to be allowed
between the highest system voltage level and the
minimum spark-over voltage of the spark-gap. The
factors governing this margin and the characteristics of
spark-gaps will now be reviewed.

6
 Voltage-Time to Break-down
Characteristics

For the initiation of a spark discharge in a spark-gap, at

least one "free" electron must be present in a region of
high field intensity. When this occurs the electron is
accelerated by the field and will collide with neutral
atoms or molecules. If the field is sufficiently intense the
electron will gain sufficient energy to ionise the neutral
atom or molecule thereby releasing other electrons.

7
Voltage-Time to Break-down Characteristics

These electrons are now themselves accelerated and

again collision occurs releasing still more electrons.
This process is repeated in an avalanche manner until a
large number of ionised particles exist between the
electrodes, and the gap is capable of carrying current:
spark-over has occurred.

8
Voltage-Time to Break-down Characteristics

Because of the statistical time lag involved in an

electron being in the right part of the gap at the right
time and the small but finite time for the breakdown
mechanism to take place a short time elapses between
the onset of voltage across the gap and the gap
breakdown. This time lag can be further increased by
corona and space charge effects.

9
Voltage-Time to Break-down Characteristics

If the minimum voltage that a gap will spark-over at is

denoted by V∞. Fig:2 (a+b) and this is the lower limiting
voltage which would lead to breakdown after a relatively
long time under some steady d.c. or a.c. peak voltage.
then if a voltage higher than V∞ is applied to the spark-
gap a time lag will result. The dependence that the time
to spark-over has on the applied voltage is known as
the voltage-time to breakdown characteristic. Fig:2
(a+b). From this figure it can be seen that for differing
wave-shapes of applied voltage differing voltage/time
characteristics result. Usually voltage/time
characteristics are obtained using the standard 1/50
μsec voltage.
10
Voltage-Time to Break-down Characteristics

Voltage

V∞

Time, µsec
Fig: 2.a Linearly rising wavefront

11
Voltage-Time to Break-down Characteristics

Standard impulse
Fig.2b. Time to breakdown characteristics of rod-gaps
under different wave-front condition.)
12
Voltage-Time to Break-down Characteristics

A typical set of characteristics further illustrating the

voltage/time characteristics for protective road-gaps is
shown in Fig.3, which were obtained with a 1.5/40 μsec
wave.

13
Voltage-Time to Break-down Characteristics
1.8

1.6

1.4
Mega Volts Crest

1.2

1.0

0.8
125cm
100cm
0.6
75cm
0.4
50cm
0.2
25cm
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time to breakdown, µsec.

Fig:3. Voltage-time to breakdown characteristics of rod-gaps.

14
 Spark Gap Geometry
If we recall that the initiation of spark-over is caused by
an electron being available in a region of the gap having
a high field strength, then it might be expected that
certain gap configurations might have different spark--
over voltages under different polarity conditions. The
spark-over voltage of the gap is polarity dependent.
This in fact is the case and the critical spark-over
voltages for rod-plane spark-gaps and rod-rod spark-
gaps are shown in Fig 4. In Fig 4a the field around the
electrode is intense but the field at the earth plane is
much lower and the gap exhibits polarity effects. In Fig
4b the field is equally intense around both electrodes
and so the gap does not exhibit polarity effects.
15
 Spark Gap Geometry

-Polarity + Polarity
Critical Flash-over Voltage 1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4
Rod-Plane
gap
0.2

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Spacing , m.

16
 Spark Gap Geometry

+&- Polarity
1.0
Critical Flash-over Voltage

0.8

0.6

0.4
Rod-Rod
gap
0.2

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Spacing , m.

Fig:4. Variation of rod-gap breakdown voltage with gap geometry.

17
 Spark Gap Geometry

In general if the spark-gap geometry is symmetrical

about some point mid-way in the gap, then the spark-
over voltages on positive and negative polarity will be
equal. If the gap is asymmetrical then the spark-over
voltage will be polarity dependent. An illustration of how
the difference between negative and positive spark-over
voltages changes with spark-gap geometry is shown in
Fig 5.

18
 Spark Gap Geometry
Critical flashover voltage, megavolts. 2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5 d=2.5m. constant

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Length of lower rod, m. (l)

Fig.5. Variation of rod-gap breakdown voltage with earth plane distance.

19
 Spark Gap Geometry

As a device for over-voltage protection and knowing

that over-voltages can be of either polarity. it is therefore
desirable to increase the length of the ground rod until
the influence of the ground plane upon gap geometry
(and thereby polarity) is negligible. A length of 1.5 to 2
times the gap spacing is considered sufficient.

20
 Spark-gaps with Improved
Characteristics
The greater number of over-voltages that occur on a
transmission system are of a high speed transient
nature that may rise to their crest value in a few
microseconds or less. Furthermore the most usual form
of protective spark gap is the rod- gap which has the
voltage-time characteristics as shown in Figure 3. Now
it .can be seen from these characteristics that for the
first few microseconds the spark-over voltage of the
rod-gap is very high and so for high speed transients
the effectiveness of the rod-gap in limiting over-voltages
is very much reduced.
21
 Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics

One type of spark-gap that has a better voltage-time

characteristic is the sphere-gap. the voltage-time
characteristics of which are shown in Figure 6a.
However even for the sphere gap to be independent of
polarity its geometry has to be such that the field factor
which expresses the homogeneity of the field and is
given by:

22
 Spark Gap Geometry
1.6

1.4

1.2
V/V0

1.0

0.8

0.6

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time to spark-over, µsec.
Fig:6(a)

23
 Spark Gap Geometry

 max
 
 average

Where
η is the field factor
Σ max is the maximum field strength
Σ average is the average field strength

24
 Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics

has to be very close to unity. A plot of the field factor for

a sphere gap is shown in Figure. 6(b) and for η to be
close to unity then the d/r ratio must be no greater than
1. This means that at most voltage levels spheres of
large diameter would have to be used and this is
impractical.

25
Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics

100
r d
Field factor, η

10

0.1 1.0 10 100

Gap Geometry, d/r.

Fig.6(b). Breakdown characteristics of a sphere-gap.

26
 Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics

Recently work has been carried out, mainly brought

about by the need for better over-voltage protection
devices for d.c. transmission, to try and produce a
spark-gap that combines the level voltage-time
characteristics of the sphere-gap and the simplicity of
the rod-gap. The result of this work was the screened-
rod gap shown in Figure-7.

27
Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics

Fig.7. Screened rod-gap.

28
 Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics

In this two field control, electrodes are placed around

the rods to give a more uniform field distribution. The
improvement of the screened rod-gap over the usual
rod-gap and relative to the sphere-gap is shown in
Figure 8.

29
Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics
2.0

1.8
Conventional rod gap
1.6
V/Vo

1.4

Screened rod gap

1.2

1.0

Sphere gap
0.8

0.6
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time to spark-over, µsec.

Fig.8. Comparative voltage-time to breakdown

characteristics of gaps.

30
 Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics

One other spark-gap that has been used where stability

of characteristic and a level voltage-time characteristic
is required is the crossed cylinder spark-gap. In this as
its name implies, the electrodes are cylindrical and at
right angle to one another.

31
 Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics

The variation in spark-over voltage with gap geometry

has already been discussed but one further factor that
has to be considered is the proximity of the gap to
nearby objects.

Not only will nearby objects influence the field in the gap
and its spark-over voltage but the heavy current arc that
follows breakdown of the gap can cause damage to
nearby objects.

32
 Spark-gaps with Improved Characteristics

The heavy current arc is not extinguished by any action

of the spark-gap but by the system "tripping out"
(opening of circuit breakers). During the time that it
takes for the circuit breakers to open the arc can travel
and cause damage to the surfaces of insulators and
bushings. The recommended minimum clearances
between the arc and insulator are in the order of 0.75 x
gap width for the lower voltages decreasing to 0.3 x
gap width for the higher voltages. The gap disposition
should be such that the arc tends to be blown away
from the insulator.

33
 Practical Application

A typical arrangement of co-ordinating- gaps on a 132

kV/275 kV transformer is shown in Figure.9 The gaps
are reasonably symmetric about their centre line to give
breakdown voltages that are independent of the polarity
of an over-voltage. They are also well clear of the
transformer bushings and therefore any power arcs in
the co-ordinating gaps will not damage these bushings.

34
 Practical Application
Not to Scale

120cms

66cm

Fig.9. Coordinating-gaps for a 132KV transformer.

35
 Practical Application
A table of typical co-ordinating gap settings that might
be used on transmission systems is given below in
Table 1.
Co-ordinating Gap Settings Transmission &
Distribution Systems
Nominal System Voltage Co-ordinating Gap
Settings, cms
66 38
132 66

275 116-132

400 152-178

36
 Practical Application
For distribution systems one of the most extensively
used protective spark-gaps is the "duplex" rod gap.
Figure 10.

Fig.10. Duplex gap.

37
 Practical Application

Table 2.

Spark-Gap Settings for Distribution Systems

Nominal system voltage Spark-gap settings

(duplex gaps)

11 2 x 31mm

33 2 x 63mm

38
 Practical Application

This type of gap has certain limitations in that for

steeply rising wave fronts the gap voltage-time to
breakdown characteristic is poor. Typically for the 11 kV
duplex gap for steep fronted waves rising at 105
kV/μsec and 140 kV/μsec over-voltages of 42% and
56% are required respectively. For typical rates of rise
expected on 11kV systems the impulse strength of the
terminal plant would be exceeded in most cases of
direct strokes to the line.

39
 Practical Application

In recant years to overcome the difficulties encountered

with duplex gaps triggered duplex gaps have been
developed. In these gaps two auxiliary electrodes form
an auxiliary spark gap Fig.11. located near to the centre
of the main gap. This auxiliary gap is set such that
about one sixth of the voltage applied across the main
gap is applied to this gap.

40
 Practical Application

Fig:11. Triggered duplex gap.

41
 Practical Application

The auxiliary electrodes which are in close proximity run

parallel for a distance and this gives a field between
these electrodes that is reasonably uniform. This leads
to a flat time to breakdown characteristic. Consequently
the auxiliary gap breaks down very quickly when over-
voltage occur on the system. Breakdown of the auxiliary
gap produces a copious supply of electrons and
irradiation at the centre of the main gap which rapidly
triggers a breakdown of the main gap. The improved
performance of the duplex triggered gaps over
conventional duplex gaps is considerable, and is due to
its improved front of wave breakdown characteristics.

42
 Expulsion Tube

General
One of the major disadvantages of the rod-gap as an
over-voltage protection device is that once spark-over
has occurred the follow current has to be interrupted by
the system circuit breakers. To overcorne this
disadvantage expulsion tube arresters can be used and
if correctly designed will not only limit the over-voltage
but will also extinguish the follow current without tripping
the system out.

43
 Expulsion Tube
General

An expulsion-tube arrester consists essentially of a

spark-gap arranged in a fiber tube, figure (12 ). When
an over-voltage occurs spark. Over takes place
between the electrodes and the follow current arc is
constrained within the small volume of the tube. The
high temperature of the arc rapidly vapourises the
organic materials of the wall of the tube and this causes
a high gas pressure to be built up inside the tube.
pressures as high as 7000 p.s.i. have been recorded.
The high pressure and turbulence of this neutral gas
extinguishes the arc and the hot gases are blasted from
the tube.
44
 Expulsion Tube
General

Fig.12. Expulsion tube arrester.

45
 Expulsion Tube

General

It has been suggested that currents as high as 17 k

amps have been interrupted by an expulsion tube in
one half-cycle. However it has also been suggested that
due to the time taken to extinguish the current time lags
might have to be incorporated in the transmission
system protection circuits in order that the arc
extinguishing properties of the expulsion tube be made
use of rather than the circuit trip out.

46
 Voltage-Time Characteristics

The spark-over voltage of the expulsion tube Is not a

simple breakdown in air but is a surface breakdown, or
air/surface breakdown. Hence the voltage-time to
breakdown characteristics differ from those obtained
with the normal rod-gap, figure.13. In particular the
voltage time to breakdown characteristic does not
increase as rapidly as that for the rod-gap at the shorter
time intervals and thus it is more effective as an over-
voltage limiting device for high speed transient over-
voltages.

47
 Voltage-Time Characteristics

The spark-over voltage of the expulsion tube is not a

simple breakdown in air but is a surface breakdown, or
air/surface breakdown. Hence the voltage-time to
breakdown characteristics differ from those obtained
with the normal rod-gap, figure.13. In particular the
voltage time to breakdown characteristic does not
increase as rapidly as that for the rod-gap at the shorter
time intervals and thus it is more effective as an over-
voltage limiting device for high speed transient over-
voltages.

48
 Voltage-Time Characteristics

Fig.13. Voltage-time to breakdown characteristics of

an expulsion tube.
49
 Expulsion
Current Interrupting Capacity
Because of the mechanism of current interruption the
current interrupting capability of an expulsion tube has
for most tubes. a lower as well as an upper limit. The
lower limit is set by the need for a sufficient current to
cause gas evolution from the walls of the tube to build
up to such a pressure that arc extinction follows. The
upper current limit is set by the gas pressure building up
so Quickly that the expulsion tube disintegrates.

50
 Expulsion

Current Interrupting Capacity

The geometry of the expulsion tube has obviously a

major influence on the interrupting capabilities of the
tube. Results are shown in figure.14. of the variation in
voltage interrupting capability for different tube
diameters and for a constant current.

51
 Expulsion

Current Interrupting Capacity

Tube diameter, mms.

Fig.14. Expulsion tube geometry.
52
 Voltage Reseal Capability

As with all spark gaps one of the most important factors

to be considered is the influence that the rate of rise of
recovery voltage (RRRV) across the tube has on
limiting the maximum current that can be interrupted. If
the RRRV is very high then the possibility exists that
although the density of ionised gas in the tube following
current extinction is very low its electrical strength will
be low and the arc will be re-struck.

53
 Voltage Reseal Capability

It is therefore necessary when choosing an expulsion

tube to know the RRRV at the point on the system
where the tube is to be installed and ensure that the
expulsion tube can withstand it. For standardisation and
rating purposes the current interrupting capability is
related to an RRRV which is considered to take the
form:

54
 Voltage Reseal Capability

eEm 1  e  t
Cos 2 ft 
Where

e = Instantaneous value of voltage

Em = Peak value of recovery voltage across expulsion
tube
f = Frequency of oscillation
t = Time
α = Damping

55
 Voltage Reseal Capability

The waveform of this recovery voltage is shown in

figure.15 and the method for obtaining the RRRV is
shown.

56
 Voltage Reseal Capability

Fig.15. Standard for the rate of rise of recovery voltage.

57
 Application of Expulsion Tubes

Expulsion tube arresters are classified as distribution

class or transmission class. Distribution class
expulsion tubes are designed for the protection of
apparatus and, compared to the transmission class,
have generally more accurately controlled spark-over
characteristics and resistance to erosion.

A standard 33 kV distribution class expulsion tube

arrester for protecting transformers is shown in
figure.15.

58
 Application of Expulsion Tubes

Fig.16. Expulsion tube arrangement for 33kv.

59
 Application of Expulsion Tubes

Transmission class expulsion tubes are primarily meant

to reduce damage to the transmission line insulation
and typical configurations are shown in Fig.17.a &b and
b. In Fig.17.a the top phase-conductors will provide a
substantial shield for the other two phase conductors. In
Fig.17.b a much higher voltage line. say 100 - 300 KV.
clearances are such that one expulsion-tube per phase-
conductor is used.

60
 Application of Expulsion Tubes

Fig.a Fig.b
Fig.17 Arrangement of expulsion tubes on
distribution and transmission lines.
61
 Application of Expulsion Tubes

On transmission lines adequate protection can be

obtained against lightning over-voltages by spacing the
expulsion tubes et intervals along the line. If however
the transmission line is in an area of high lightning
intensity it might be preferable to install expulsion tubes
on every pole or tower.

62