4.

Actuators and Motion Control Devices

Actuation systems comprise the elements which are responsible for

transforming the output from the control system into the controlling action of
a machine or device.

1
 4.1 Electrical Actuators
4.1.1 Electromagnetic relays
A relay is an electrically operated switch which uses a relatively small current is used to
control a much larger current. A relay does this by creating a magnetic field in a coil using
that small current, to operate a switch that controls a much larger current. In this way, an
electromechanical relay uses a small current to switch a much larger current while the two
circuits are electrically isolated from each other. The schematic below illustrates the
construction of an electromagnetic relay.

Figure 1. Schematic of a relay

2
A relay has electrical, magnetic and mechanical components. The
electromechanical relay in Figure1 consists of three terminals namely the
common (COM), normally closed (NC) and the normally open (NO). The NC and
NO terminals get opened and closed, respectively when the relay is energized.
Relays can work on both AC and DC supply sources as you can saw in the CMP7
relay datasheet.
Relay Circuit Symbol and Terminology
Pole: The poles of an electrical switch is the number of different sets of
switching contacts that it has. A single pole switch can only switch one circuit,
whereas a double pole switch can switch two different and isolated circuits at
the same time. A single pole switch is often denoted by the letters SP, and a
double pole by DP. Relays can have one, two or more poles.
Throw: The number of throws on an electrical switch is the number of positions
that are available. For an electromechanical relay, there is normally only one or
two throw.
The circuit symbol of the relay in Figure 1 is shown in figure 2 (a)
3
 SPST = Single Pole Single Throw
SPDT = Single Pole Dual Throw
DPST = Dual Pole Single Throw
DPDT = Dual Pole Dual Throw

(a) (b)

Figure 2. (a) the circuit symbol of relay in figure 1. Note that in (b), the coil is represented
with a coiled wire next to a bar which represents the core (this is an alternative symbol).

4
Since a relay uses a small current to switch a much larger current while both
circuits are electrically isolated, relays are often used in control systems as that
shown in figure 3. The control signal is normally a very small signal coming
from a microcontroller for instance. In figure 3, the control signal is used to
switch on the transistor which is connected in series with the coil of relay1
(RLY1). The coil of RLY1 is connected to a small voltage of 5 V. Once relay 1
is on, power is connected to the coil of relay 2, which then connects the heater
to 230 V AC supply (a much larger current & voltage circuit).

Figure 3. AC Relay Driver Circuit.

5
Important specifications from relay datasheet
• Max. switching voltage (VSMax) is the maximum voltage that can be across the contacts
whether the relay is open or closed. Too high a voltage causes arcing which erodes
contacts. Erosion shortens the lifespan of the relay.
• Max. switching current (ISMax) is the maximum current that the relay can sustain when
being opened or closed and without suffering contact damage.
• Carry current – If the relay contacts are already closed, the relay may be able to sustain a
current higher than the maximum switching current. This is called the carry current. The
relay must not be opened while carrying the carry current. The current must be reduced
first.
• Max. Switching Power – the power rating has a big impact on the lifespan of the relay. For
the CMP7, the switching power is; 𝑉𝑠𝑀𝑎𝑥 x IsMax = 24 V x 30 A = 720 W

6
• In general, however, the power rating of a relay is lower than V x I . The
SMax SMax
higher the maximum switched voltage, lower the maximum switched current
• Operating time- is the time from when the rated voltage is applied to the coil,
until the time when normally open contacts close. This time is usually in the
order of milliseconds. The operate time includes the bouncing action of the
contacts.
• Release time – release time of the relay is the transition time from the instant
the coil is de-energized, to the instant the normally open contact open from its
closed position. It includes the time for the magnetic field to collapse and
release the lever arm.
• Due to bouncing and the magnetic field decay, it is clear that there is delay
during the closing and opening of a relay. In timing applications where such
delays are critical, the designer needs to consider the operating time and
release time.
7
Circuit of the relay and DC motor we set up during laboratory session 2

CMP7 Relay DC motor

Figure 4

DC power supply channel 1 DC power supply channel 2

8
 4.1.2 DC motors

Review of concepts
Before discussing DC motors, we discusses the laws relevant to the interaction
of charge, current, and magnetic fields. It is only included to remind you of the
laws that govern the operation of electric machines (motors and generators).
You can skip it if you wish, but I suggest you read it to enhance your
understanding.

9
(a) Lorentz Force
The lorentz force is a force exerted on a charged particle due to electric and
magnetic fields. A charged particle q in an electric field will always have a force
F exerted on it by the electric field E.
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 (1)
A charged particle q moving in a magnetic field B will also feel a force exerted
on it of
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (2)
Where 𝜃 is the agle between the particles velocity and and the magnetic field
lines. If the charged particle q is travelling in a region were both the electric and
magnetic fields are present, it will feel a force due to both fields.
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 + 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3)

10
(b) Faraday’s Law
Voltage is induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field. The
movement of the conductor in a magnetic field results in a force
which causes charge separation. The force is
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 (4)
Where 𝑣 is the velocity of the conductor.

Figure 5
The induced voltage 𝐸 is proportional to the speed of the conductor, the magnetic field density
B, and the length of the wire.
𝐸 = 𝑣Ԧ x 𝐵 ∙ 𝑙 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 (5)
v = velocity of the wire
B = magnetic flux density vector
l = length of conductor magnetic field.
11
It is easy to see that electric generators generate electricity by Faradays Law.
(c) Ampere-Biot-Savart’s Law of Electromagnetic Induced Forces

This basic law is attributed to the French physicists Andre Marie Ampere, Jean
Baptiste Biot, and Victor Savart. While Faraday predicts a voltage induced in a
conductor moving across a magnetic field, the Ampere-Biot-Savart law
establishes that a force is generated on a current-carrying conductor located in a
magnetic field. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the magnitude of
the current, the length of the conductor, and magnetic field strength;
𝑭𝑩 = 𝐼 𝑳 x 𝑩

𝐹𝐵 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 (6)

An electric motor is able to rotate due the force established in the Ampere-Biot-
Savart law. 12
(d) Lenz’s Law
Consider the slider-loop figure below where a slider is pulled to the right at
velocity vi. As the conductor is forced to move to the right, cutting magnetic
field lines, a voltage is induced in it (Faraday’s law). Since the conductors’ ends
are shorted, current can flow. And this induced current will experience a force
𝐹𝐵 due to the magnetic field (according to Ampere-Biot-Savart’s law). What
Lenz’s law states is that this force will act to oppose the movement of the
conductor in its original direction.
This, in a nutshell, is the generating and motoring modes
of operation of an electric rotating machine. This law
explains why when a generator is loaded (more current
flows in its windings cutting the magnetic field), more
force is required from the driving turbine to counteract
the induced forces and keep rotating at the same speed.
13
Figure 6
Similarly, Lenz’s law explains the increase in the supply current of a motor
as its load increases.

Figure 7

14
4.1.2 The Permanent Magnet Brushed DC Motors
The Permanent Magnet (PM) Brushed DC Motors are the most utilised motors in
mechatronics. They are inexpensive and easy to control. As a mechatronic
designer, you should be able to identify this common type of DC motor, and also
select an appropriate one to meet your design needs.

Figure 8. A PM brushed DC Motor 15

First, Lets understand what the terms in the name denote.
Permanent magnet (PM) – the conversion of electrical to mechanical energy in
any motor is due to the interaction of a magnetic field and an electric current.
PMs provide the magnetic field in this type of motor.
Brushed - refers to the method of commutation in this motor. Commutation is
the way in which the coils of the motor are energised to establish the motor’s
electric current.
DC- indicates that the motor runs off Direct Current (DC). This differentiates it
from AC motors. The motor we used in the laboratory was a DC motor, while
the motor in the Oxygen concentrator was is an AC motor (we saw that it runs
off 230V AC.)

16
 PM brushed DC motor construction and operation
The motor consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator is the stationary element where the PMs
are attached. The rotor is the rotating element and carries coils of wire (also called an armature
or winding) and a commutator. The schematic below illustrates the operating principle of a
brushed DC motor.
The PMs are two bars of magnet with opposing poles.
Between the PMs is a coil of wire called the armature. Each
end of the coil is connected to a split ring. Split rings are in
sliding contact with carbon brushes. Upon connecting the
two split ring to a DC power source (like we did during the
lab), one end of the coil becomes negative, while the other
end becomes positive. The following will happen;

(i) Current will flow from positive to negative.

Figure 9. A schematic of a DC motor
(ii) As current flows in the coil, each side of the coil will
experience a force 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 as per the Ampere-Biot-Savart
law. One side will be pushed up, while the other side is
pushed down. If we make an axis through the centre of the
coil, the coil will rotate.
17
(iii) Now that the coil is rotating in a magnetic field, it will have a voltage induced
across it (Faraday’s Law). This induced voltage is called a back electromotive
force (back emf). It is sometimes called counter emf. Since the polarity of the
counter emf opposes the DC source (or battery), it reduces the voltage across
the coil (and the current in the coil as a result) when the motor is rotating.
(iv) According to Lenz’s Law, this back emf will have a polarity that is opposite of
the DC power source voltage.
In a real motor, the commutator has many sections, and there are many coils,
each with many turns as shown in figure 10
carbon brushes

Armature
Commutator

18
Figure 10
Electrically, a PM brushed DC motor is modelled as a series circuit with
resistance, inductance and a source of emf.

Figure 11. DC motor equivalent circuit

Resistor – the resistance of the coil wire
Inductor – the coil/ armature acts as an inductor (we now know that an
inductor is just a coiled wire)
emf source – the back/ counter emf that is induced in the rotating motor as
discussed above. The higher the speed of the motor, the higher the emf
induced.
19
Characteristic Constants for a PM brushed DC Motor
Speed constant
For any given motor, the induced emf, 𝐸, is a function of its rotational speed 𝜔. The higher the
speed of the motor, the higher the emf induced. Thus
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑒 𝜔 (7)
Where 𝐾𝑒 is the speed constant or voltage constant. 𝐸 has units of [V], 𝜔 units are [𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠]
𝑉
while 𝐾𝑒 has unit of . The value of 𝐾𝑒 depends on the motor’s size, geometry etc.
𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

Torque constant
Remember that the force that causes rotation in a motor is ∝ 𝐵𝐼𝐿. In a PM motor where the
magnetic field and the length of the coil are constant, the force and hence torque 𝑇 of the
motor can only be changed by changing the current.
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼 (8)
Where 𝐾𝑇 [Nm/ A] is called the toque constant, T [Nm] is the torque and I [A] is the current in
the armature. Just like 𝐾𝑒 , the value of 𝐾𝑇 also depends on the motor’s size, geometry etc. The
relation between 𝐾𝑒 and 𝐾𝑇 is
𝐾𝑇 [𝑁𝑚/𝐴] = 9.5493𝑥10−3 x K e [V/krpm] 20
We now know that the emf reduces the current in the armature of the motor
when it rotates. From equation 8, we can therefore conclude that the maximum
torque occurs at maximum current. This maximum current occurs at zero rpm
because there is no emf at zero rpm. Therefore, a motor has its maximum torque
at standstill.
A rotating motor will always have friction acting on it (bearing friction and air
friction etc). Therefore, for a motor to rotate, it has to produce a torque Tm such
that
𝑇𝑀 = 𝑇𝐿 + 𝑇𝑓 (9)
where
𝑇𝑓 = the torque required to overcome friction , and
𝑇𝐿 = friction to drive any load connected to it.

21
Example. A motor with 𝐾𝑇 = 0.04159 Nm/A and a coil resistance of 1,76 Ω is driven with a
supply of 12 V. If the motors friction torque is 0.00847 Nm, what is the maximum torque
available for driving a load? How much current is flowing under these conditions?
Answer. We know that the maximum torque produced by a motor is.
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼
We know 𝐾𝑇 , but not 𝐼. 𝐼 is the maximum current at standstill and is given by
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 12𝑉
𝐼= = = 6.82 𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1,76 𝛺

Now we can calculate the torque produced by the motor.

𝑇 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼 = 0.04159 𝑁𝑚/A∗6.82 𝐴 = 0.284 𝑁𝑚

We also know that this torque has to drive the load and overcome friction so,
0.284 𝑁𝑚 = 𝑇𝐿 + 𝑇𝑓 ⇒ 𝑇𝐿 = 0.284 𝑁𝑚 − 𝑇𝑓
𝑇𝐿 = 0.284 𝑁𝑚 − 0.00847 𝑁𝑚 = 0.275 𝑁𝑚
This the torque available at the motor shaft, and is obtained at a current of 6.82 A.
22
Characteristic Equations for Constant voltage
The relationship between the speed and torque of a motor are important operational
parameters. To understand this relationship, lets examine a DC motor connected to a drinving
voltage V.

Figure 9. DC motor equivalent circuit

Using Kirchoff’s laws,

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐾𝑒 𝜔 (10)
Where 𝐼𝑅 is voltage drop across the resistance of the coil, and 𝐾𝑒 𝜔 is the induced emf. From
Equation 10, we see that
• The higher the speed of the motor, the lower the current in the motor (this is due to high
back emf). If the current is low, the torque produced will also be low.
• The maximum speed of the motor corresponds to zero current (and therefore zero torque).
Practically this is impossible.
• When 𝜔 = 0 (a condition called “stall”), 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, current and therefore toque will be
maximum. 23
Substituting 𝐼 in equation 8 into equation 10 gives the relation between torque
and speed.
𝑇 𝑉 𝑅
𝑉= 𝑅 + 𝐾𝑒 𝜔 ⇒ 𝜔 = − 𝑇 (11)
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑒 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑒
Equation 11 shows that for a given voltage V, torque and speed are linearly
related. Equation 11 is usually plotted as a family of lines relating T vs 𝜔.

Figure 10. A family of lines

indicating the relationship
between speed and torque for
different driving voltages. The
features of these graphs are
discussed on the next page.

24
The y-intercept of each line is the speed of the motor when the torque is zero.
This is the maximum speed the motor can attain for the given voltage. Since the
torque is zero (the motor is not loaded), this is called the no-load speed. By
setting T to zero in equation 11, we get the no load speed as;
𝑉
𝜔𝑁𝐿 = [rad/s] [12]
𝐾𝑒
𝑅
The slope of equation 11 is . This slope is called the speed regulation
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑒
constant 𝑅𝑀 .
𝑅 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑅𝑀 = [13]
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑒 𝑁𝑚

Substituting 𝜔𝑁𝐿 and 𝑅𝑀 into equation 11 gives

𝜔 = 𝜔𝑁𝐿 − 𝑅𝑀 𝑇 [rad/s] [14]

25
The x-intercept of the constant voltage lines represent the case where 𝜔 = 0 which occurs
when the motor is stalled (i.e. unable to move). A this point, the current, and torque are
maximum. This torque is called “stall torque” 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 , and the corresponding stall current is
𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 . By setting 𝜔 = 0 in equation 10, we get the equation for 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
0 = 𝜔𝑁𝐿 − 𝑅𝑀 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 [15]

𝜔𝑁𝐿
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝑅𝑀
Stall occurs when a motor is attempting to rotate a load that exceeds the torque that it can
generate. Stall torque and stall current also occur each time a motor is started from rest.

26
Example: A permanent magnet brushed DC motor will be used to spin a cooling fan installed
in a toy that would otherwise overheat and deform. The application requires a motor that can
supply at least 225 mNm of torque at 2000 rpm. Will a motor with a no-load speed of 9550
rpm and a coil resistance of 2,32 Ω, powered by a 24 V battery be adequate for this task?
Answer: We know that the torque speed relationship of a DC motor running at constant voltage
is given by
𝜔𝑁𝐿 − 𝜔 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑒 (𝜔𝑁𝐿 − 𝜔)
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑁𝐿 − 𝑅𝑀 𝑇 ⇒ 𝑇 = =
𝑅𝑀 𝑅
we are know 𝜔𝑁𝐿 and 𝜔, but we do not have 𝐾𝑇 and 𝐾𝑒 . We can calculate 𝐾𝑒 from
𝑉 24 𝑉
𝐾𝑒 = = = 2,51𝑉/𝑘𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝜔𝑁𝐿 9,55 𝑘𝑟𝑝𝑚

𝑉
𝐾𝑇 [𝑁𝑚/ A] = 9.5493𝑥10−3 x 𝐾𝑒 = 9.5493𝑥10−3 x 2,51 [𝑉/𝑘𝑟𝑝𝑚] =24.0 mNm/A
𝑘𝑟𝑝𝑚
Substituting these values into the above equation yields;

𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑒 (𝜔𝑁𝐿 − 𝜔) (24.0 mNm/A)(2.51𝑉/𝑘𝑟𝑝𝑚)(9550 𝑟𝑝𝑚 − 2000𝑟𝑝𝑚)

𝑇= =
𝑅 2,32 Ω 27
𝑇 = 196 𝑚𝑁𝑚. Since the torque required at 2000 rpm is 225 mNm, this motor
will not be able to provide enough torque for this application.

28
DC Motor Power Characteristics
Recall that 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔. From equation 9 we get T = 𝑇𝑓 + 𝑇𝐿 ,
So that 𝑃 = (𝑇𝑓 + 𝑇𝐿 )𝜔 (16)
For most motors, 𝑇𝑓 is negligible, so we drop it.

In Figure 10, we looked at the torque speed curve of

a DC motor. The motor’s torque and power are also
usually graphed for lines of constant voltage and
drawn as a family of curves, as shown in Figure 11.
The power output characteristic is parabolic, having a
1
maximum at T for a given driving voltage.
2

Figure 11. A family of lines indicating the

relationship between power and torque for different
driving voltages. 29
To understand the shape of the power-torque curve, lets start with equation
16, and substitute 𝜔 with equation 14.
𝑃 = 𝑇(𝜔𝑁𝐿 −𝑅𝑀 𝑇)
= 𝑇𝜔𝑁𝐿 − 𝑅𝑀 𝑇 2
𝑉
After substituting 𝜔𝑁𝐿 with we get an equation relating power to torque.
𝐾𝑒
𝑉𝑇
P = − 𝑅𝑀 𝑇 2 (17)
𝐾𝑒
To get the point at which maximum power occurs, we derive equation 17 and
aet the derivative to zero. We get
1 𝑉 1
T= = 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
2 𝑅𝑀 𝐾𝑒 2

30
Homework: A DC motor has
terminal resistance = 0.316 ohms and a torque constant = 30.2 mNm/A. This
motor is powered by a 12 V supply. After testing in a lab, it was determined
that the motor had an operating speed of 3, 616 rpm with a current of 1. 79
A. Calculate the power that the motor generate under these conditions. What
percentage of the maximum possible power is this power?

31
Gearheads

Figure 11. A motor fitted with a

gearhead. The gearhead is used to
decrease speed an increase torque.
Most motors have output speeds of thousands of rpm and low torque. In many applications,
however, require lower speeds and higher toque. To achieve this, motors are usually fitted
with gearheads (simply a gearbox) that reduces speed and increases torque. The relationship
between the input shaft speed and output of the gearhead is called the gear ratio.
𝜔𝑖𝑛
𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑁 =
𝜔𝑜𝑢𝑡
The gear ratio is usually expressed as N:1 (like 10:1 or 200:1 etc). This ratio is determined by
the teeth ratio of the of the gears in the gearhead. Gearheads, just like normal gearboxes, are
not 100% efficient. Their efficiency is given by;

32
 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜔𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= =
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑖𝑛
Gearhead efficiency ranges from 50% for cheap motors to 90% for low reduction ratios.
Example: A robot application requires at least 0.53 Nm at 50 rpm. The designer decides to
use a gearhead for this application, having a ratio of N = 24 and efficiency 𝜂 = 63%. If a
motor is to be used to drive the gearhead, what speed and torque will be required of the
motor?
Answer: since the gear ratio and required output speed are given, we can calculate the speed
required from the motor as
𝜔𝑖𝑛
𝑁= ⇒ 𝜔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑁𝜔𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 24 ∗ 50 𝑟𝑝𝑚 = 1200 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝜔𝑜𝑢𝑡
Since the efficiency and required output torque are specified, the torque required from the
motor can be obtained as;
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 0.53 𝑁𝑚
𝑇𝑖𝑛 = = = 0. 035 𝑁𝑚
𝜂∙𝑁 0.63 (24)
The motor will be required to produce at least 0. 035 𝑁𝑚 at 1200 rpm
33
 AC Motors
Types of AC Motors

34
Star-delta starter
You have already studied AC motors in Electric Machines and Drives. In this
section, We will only discuss a start-delta starter that is sometimes used to
start induction motors in industry.
As discussed in the previous section, the current in a motor at starting is
usually large. For large motors such as those used to run fire pumps in large
industries, this large starting current causes a disturbance in the electrical
system, and this must be avoided.
Specification Value
Type Piston type, (oil-free)
Open flow 76 LPM
Max. Continuous Pressure 2 bar (200 kPa)
Max. Continuous Vacuum 770 mbar (77 kPa)
Motor type PSC
Current at Rated Load 1.28 A
Power at Rated Load 280 W
Voltage/Frequency 230 V/50 Hz
Starting Current 3.9 A 35
From electrical machines, you learned that a motor connected in star (Y) draws 1\3
less current that a motor connected in delta (Δ) as shown. But also, a star (Y)
connected motor has 1\3 less torque compared to a delta (Δ) connected motor
(because the current is low, and in equation 8 we learned that torque depends on
current).
To reduce motor starting current, a motor can be started in in star (Y) until it reaches
operating speed, and then the connection is changed to delta (Δ) to enable the motor
to produce high torque.

Figure 12. Current in star and delta connections

36
What is a Star-delta starter?

This is a circuit used to reduce motor starting current. This circuit is a reduced
voltage starting method used to limit the starting current surge in large
induction motors when they are started. Essentially, the motor is started at
reduced voltage is star connection, and then have full supply voltage
reconnected in delta when it is up to near its operating speed.

37
Why it is used
Most induction motors are started directly online, but when very large motors are started
in direct online configuration, they cause a disturbance of voltage on the supply lines due
to large starting current surges. As indicated in the star and delta connections above, the
current in star is 1\3 of the current in delta. The torque is also reduced by a factor of three.
To circumvent supply voltage disturbance due to large starting current, large motors are
started in star and the switched to delta after they are brought up to speed.
This is achieved using the circuit in Figure 13, which physically configures the connection
of the motor in star or delta. The circuit id constructed from 3 contactors (sort of like a
relay), a timer, a circuit breaker, switches, an hour meter, and a transformer.

38
 Figure 13.

How it works
The star-delta circuit is constructed from three magnetic contactors - the main
contactor (MC), the star contactor (Y) and the delta contactor (Δ) - a timer (T)
and a thermal overload. During starting the start switch is closed, and the coil of
the main contactor is energized, and the normally open (NO) contacts 13 and 14
close. Since the contacts 55- 56 and 21-22 are closed, the coil for the Y contactor
also gets energized so that the windings of the motor are connected in Y at start-
up (the current is conducted through the MC and the Y contactor). The motor
therefore starts at a reduced voltage. 39
• After a preset time delay, the time NO contacts of the timer close and the
NC contacts of the timer open. This de-energizes the coil of the Y
contactor, while energizing the Δ contactor. The current from the MC is
now conducted through the Δ contactor thereby connecting the motor in
delta configuration so that the motor runs at full power.

• The hour meter is used to keep track of the motor/pump run time which
is important for maintenance purposes. The thermal overload relay is
installed as a safety device for the main circuit. It offers reliable
protection for motors in the event of overload or phase failure. The
power indicator lamp lights up if the main circuit (MCB) and power switch
are on. In case of overload or phase failure the overload relay activates
the trip light.

40
The actual circuit

Delay Timer Delta contactor Y Contactor

Circuit breaker Transformer

Thermal relay
Switches and Indicator lamps 41
--------------------------------------------------------------

42
4.1.3 Stepper Motor
Is a brushless, synchronous electric motor which converts a train of electric
pulses into precisely defined mechanical steps. A stepper motor divides a full
rotation into a number of discrete steps.

Construction
Like all electric motors, a stepper motor has a stator and a rotor. The rotor has no
windings, brushes or a commutator. Usually the rotors are either variable
reluctance or a permanent magnet kind. The stator is often constructed with
multipole and multiphase windings, usually of three or four phase windings
wound for a required number of poles decided by desired step angle. A stepper
motor may have any number of coils. Coils are connected in groups called
"phases". All the coils in a phase are energized together. There are three types of
stepper motors, listed here in order of increasing complexity; variable
reluctance, permanent magnet, and hybrid stepper motors .
43
Variable Reluctance Stepper motor
- Construction -
The variable reluctance stepper is the simplest of the
three types. It has a stator with poles made of a stack
of silicon steel laminations on which stator windings
are wound. Usually, it is wound with three phases
which are distributed between the pole pairs. The
rotor is also made of steel laminations with salient
poles as shown in Fig.12. The rotor carries no
Fig. 12
windings.
The rotor poles have the same width as those of the stator. The number of poles
on stator differs to that of rotor poles, which enables the motor to self-start and
rotate in either direction. The relationship between the number of rotor and stator
𝑁𝑠
poles is 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑁𝑠 ± ( 𝑞 ), where Nr = number of rotor poles, Ns =number of
poles on stator and q is the number of phases 44
- Operation of Variable Reluctance –
The operation of a variable reluctance stepper motor relies upon magnetic flux
seeking the lowest reluctance path through a magnetic circuit. Whenever a phase
is excited with DC current a magnetic field is produced like that in Fig.12. This
cause the poles of the rotor to line up with the poles of the excited phase so as to
achieve a position of minimum reluctance. At this position, the axis of the stator
magnetic field matches with the axis passing through any two magnetic poles of
the rotor. When the rotor aligns with stator poles like this, it has enough magnetic
force to hold the shaft in that position, preventing it from moving either in
clockwise or counter clockwise direction.

45
Consider the schematic (Fig.13.) of a 3-phase motor with 6 stator poles and 4
rotor teeth. When the phase A-A’ is supplied with a DC supply by closing the
switch 1, the winding become a magnet which results one tooth becoming North
and other South. So, the stator magnetic axis lies along poles A-A’ and the poles
1,3 of the rotor line up with these magnetic poles to minimize reluctance
(minimizing the length of any high reluctance air gap).
30°

If winding B-B’ is energised while A-A’

is being switched off, poles 4 and 2 of
the rotor will line up with B-B’, forcing
the rotor to turn clockwise. Again,
switching off B-B’ while energising
phase C-C’ will cause the next
clockwise step shown in Fig. 13.
Fig. 13

46
 Fig. 3
The pulse sequence that we just sent to the motor to
obtain the steps in fig 13-1, 13-2, 13-3 and 13-4 is
as shown in Fig. 13.
- Step angle -
Fig. 14
In the case above, the stepper motor has a step angle of 30°.
- Direction -
The direction of the shaft rotation depends on the sequence of pulses applied to
the stator. The pulse sequence above was A, B, C. The speed of the shaft or the
average motor speed is directly proportional to the frequency (the rate of input
pulses) of input pulses being applied at excitation windings. Therefore, if the
frequency is low, the stepper motor rotates in steps and for high frequency, it
continuously rotates like a DC motor due to inertia.

47
Variable reluctance stepper motors are applied when only a moderate level of
torque is required and a coarse step angle is adequate. A screw drive, as used in a
floppy disk drive is such an application.
- Advantages -
• The least complex, most inexpensive stepper motor.
• High torque to inertia ratio.
• High rates of acceleration due to the high torque to inertia ratio which leads to
fast dynamic response.
• Simple and low-cost machine.
- Disadvantages -
• No detent torque when de-energized motor shaft. Large step angle

48
2.1.2 Hybrid Stepper motor
The hybrid stepper has soft iron teeth added to the permanent magnet rotor for a
smaller step angle. Hybrid step motors offer the most versatility and combine
the best characteristics of variable reluctance and permanent magnet stepper
motors.
- Construction -
As we have seen during the practical, a hybrid stepper motor is constructed
with multi-toothed stator poles and a permanent magnet rotor with two toothed
caps. Our stator had 8 poles, each with 6 teeth, giving a total of 48 teeth.The
rotor is a cylindrical permanent magnet, magnetized along the axis with radial
soft iron teeth caps (Figure below). The rotor had a north (N) and a South (S)
magnetic cap, the teeth of which are offset from each other. Each rotor cap had
50 teeth. We also concluded that the motor had two phases, phase A or 1 and
phase B or 2, distributed between the 8 poles. The stator coils are wound on
alternating poles with corresponding teeth.
49
 (Figure 4)
Figure 5, the top of the permanent
magnet rotor is the S pole, the
bottom N.
The north-south teeth are offset by
1/2 of a tooth as we have seen.
50 teeth rotor
If phase 1 (φ-1) on the stator is
temporarily energized one pole
becomes N while another becomes S,
The N teeth of φ-1 align with the S
teeth of rotor.
The φ-1 stator south teeth align to
rotor north teeth. Note the
correspondence of teeth of the same
phase.
50
(Figure 5)
 - Steps -

Step 1: In (a), φ-1 is temporarily energized one pole becomes N while another
becomes S. The rotor S teeth align with the N teeth of φ-1, while the rotor N teeth
align with the S teeth of φ-1. Note that at this point, the φ-2 stator teeth are not
aligned with the rotor teeth when φ-1 is energized. In fact, the φ-2 stator teeth are
offset. This will allow for rotation if φ-1 is de-energized and φ-2 energized.

51
Step 2: To rotate the rotor clockwise, φ-1 is de-energized and φ-2 energized.
Again, one pole of φ-2 becomes N while another becomes S. The S teeth of the
rotor align with the N teeth of φ-2, while the N teeth of the rotor align with the S
teeth of φ-2.

Step 3: To keep the rotor rotating clockwise, φ-2 is de-energised and φ-1is
energised, but this time the polarity of the voltage is reversed. The top is now S
and the bottom is N. The N teeth of the rotor align with the S teeth of φ-1, while
52
the S teeth of the rotor align with the N teeth of φ-1.
- Stepper motor Specifications –
Phase - The number of independent windings on the stator. Our motor had two
phases.
Step angle- This is the angle through which the rotor rotates after the supply
voltage is switched from one phase to another. Our motor had a step angle of 1.8
degrees.
Holding torque – This is the maximum torque that can be applied to a powered
motor, without causing the rotor to rotate. Note that if one of the phases is on, the
force of attraction between the stator and the rotor “holds” the rotor in place.
Pull- in torque – This is the maximum torque against which the motor can start,
at a given pulse rate, and reach synchronism without losing a step. In other words,
is the maximum torque at which a motor can start rotating at a given frequency.
The stepper cannot start rotation with the load torque exceeding the pull-in torque.
The pull-in torque also decreases as the frequency increases and is represented by
the pull-in torque curve showing torque vs speed (frequency).
53
- Stepper motor Specifications –
Pull-out torque - The maximum torque that can be applied to the motor, running
at a given rate, without losing synchronism. In other words, it is the maximum
torque that can be delivered without losing steps. It reaches its maximum at the
lowest frequency or speed, and decreases as frequency increases. If the load on
the stepping motor during rotation increases beyond the pull-out torque, the motor
will fall out of step and accurate positioning will be impossible. Pull-out torque is
typically the most emphasized characteristic and is represented by the pull-out
torque curve or slew rate showing torque vs speed (frequency).
Pull-in rate – This is the maximum switching rate at which the a loaded motor
can start without losing a step.
Pull-out rate – This is the switching rate at which a loaded motor will remain in
synchronism.
Detent torque – Some of you tried to turn the shaft of the stepper motor in
laboratory and observed that it required some torque to turn. This torque produced
when the motor is not energized is called detent torque, which exists because of
the residual magnetism or due to the presence the permanent magnet used in
rotor of the motor. 54
Features of Stepper Motors
• A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional
to the frequency of the input pulses.
• The motor has full torque at standstill, if the windings are energized.
• Precise positioning and repeatability of movement can be achieved since a
good stepper motors have a small error and this error is non-cumulative from
one step to the next.
• Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing.
• Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life
of the motor is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.
• Operated in open-loop control, making the motor simpler and less costly to
control.
• It is possible to achieve very low synchronous rotation with a load that is
directly coupled to the shaft.
55
 Motor Drive Selection
Selecting a motor for your needs requires the designer to consider many factors and
specifications. As far as motor performance is concerned, most information can be
obtained from the torque speed curve. As a designer, the following are factors/
specifications you have to consider when selecting a motor for your mechatronic
application.

1. Starting torque and acceleration.

The torque of the motor at zero speed is called starting torque. For the system to self-
start, the motor has to produce enough torque to overcome friction and any loads
connected to it. The acceleration of the motor is also important. Acceleration is given
by
𝑇𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝛼=
𝐽
Where 𝛼[𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐] is the acceleration, T is torque and 𝐽 is the polar moment of
inertia of the motor and load. When 𝑇𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 , the system operates at a
constant speed.
56
2. Maximum speed
The point at which the torque-speed curve intersects the horizontal axis gives the
maximum speed the motor can reach. The motor cannot deliver any torque to the
load at this speed. When loaded, the motor cannot reach this maximum speed.

3. Operating duty cycle

Some applications are such that the motor only operates part of the time, and not
continuously. The duty cycle is defined as a ratio of the time the motor is on with
respect to the total elapsed time. A motor with a 50% duty cycle stays off for the
same amount of time it stays on. In continuous duty, the motor operates steadily
for long periods. Duty cycle affects the amount of heat produced by the motor as
there is a lot of heat produced when a motor starts. Intermittent duty, where start-
ups are frequent, shorten the life of the motor

57
4. Load Power Requirement
The motor has to be able to drive the load. The designer needs to know the load
and the choose a motor with adequate power based on the duty cycle.
5. Power Source
AC and DC motors run on AC and DC, respectively. The designer must
consider the source available/ needed.
6. Operating Speed profile
Whether the motor runs at constant or variable speed informs motor selection.
AC and DC shunt motors are most suitable for constant speed applications as
they can operate over a wide range of speeds. Stepper and servo motors also
offer constant speed operation, but are costly and limited in size

58
7. Position and speed control
For positioning at discrete locations and incremental motion, a stepper motor is
usually the most suitable. A stepper offers Precise positioning and
repeatability. Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing.
Moreover, a stepper motor can be operated in open-loop control, making the
motor simpler and less costly to control. However, slipping may occur if driven
at high step rates, or when the load is. An encoder may be used for feedback.
8. Transmission gearbox
Oftentimes loads require low speeds and large torques, necessitating the
need for a speed-reducing transmission. Designers can utilise motor-gearbox
assemblies as they are available as a single packages.

59
9. Torque-speed and Load line matching
It is advisable to use a motor with characteristics similar to those of the load so
that the torque of the motor can match that on the load line.
10. Reversing
If it would be necessary to reverse the direction of rotation, a reversible motor
must be selected.
11. Size and weight restrictions
The intended use may place limitations on physical size and/ mass of the motor.
Drones for example employ light-weight motors as weight plays in important
role on flight dynamics.

60
-----------------------------------------

61
 4.1.4 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators

Fluid power circuits, mainly hydraulic fluid (water and other liquids) or
compressed air/ gas are used to transmit power, multiply or produce force.
Hydraulics refers to the use of a confined liquid to transmit power while
pneumatic circuits use air. Pneumatic fluid power circuits operate at low pressure
compared to hydraulics, and therefore have a low initial cost and design
simplicity. Due to air being compressible, the holding capacity of pneumatic
systems is lower than that of a hydraulic system. Hydraulic systems offer superior
positioning accuracy, holding capacity (forces), speeds, and operating pressures.
Mechatronic systems also involves hydraulic actuators and components that are
tightly integrated with components such as electric motor drives, controlled by
highly specialized control and monitoring systems interfaced with sensors and
actuators that allow measurement.

62
 Fluid Circuit

Fig. 15. Hydraulic and Pneumatic systems

A typical fluid circuit consists of a reservoir, hydraulic pump (or compressor
for pneumatics) which increases the energy of the fluid, fluid lines that transport
the fluid around the circuit, valves that control pressure, direction and flow rate,
as well as actuators that convert fluid energy into mechanical work.
63
An example of an actuator is a single- or double-acting cylinder, which is a
common hydraulic actuator with a piston driven by a pressurized fluid.
In a double acting cylinder, pressure can be used to drive the piston in both
directions. Key attributes of this hydraulic actuator is that it can generate large
forces despite being compact and can provide precise control at low speeds. In
the figure below, ‘pump flow’ indicates the direction of flow of the pressurized
fluid coming from the pump. Switching pump pressure between the two ports
of the cylinder switches the direction of travel of the piston.

Fig. 16. 64
 Fluid Power Control Valves

The valves are classified according to their function in the fluid circuit.
Pressure control valves – used to regulate tank or system pressure
Flow control volves – used to control fluid flow i.e l/min
Directional control valves – used to control fluid flow direction
• Check valves
• Directional valves

Hydraulic and pneumatic valves are operated (opened or closed) by forces

produced by different means. The force could be applied by hand by pressing a
plunger, push button, lever, or pedal. Solenoids, springs as well as compressed air
are also used to (provide a force to) actuate valves. Symbols that represent
different methods of actuating valves are shown on the next.

65
 Valve actuation methods and symbols

Valves can be operated;

• Pneumatically
• Manually
• Mechanically
• electrically (solenoid valve)

Figure 17. Left: Solenoid operated valve. Right: valve actuation symbols 66
When the force required to actuate a valve is too large, a pilot valve is used. A
pilot valve is just a valve used to open or close another valve when the force
required is too large to be applied by hand or with a solenoid. A small capacity
pilot valve that is operated by hand or solenoid is then used to control another
valve. The pilot valve uses system pressure to control the other valve. The figure
below indicates a pilot valve, using system pressure to close the main valve.

Figure 18. A pilot-controlled check valve. 67

 Pressure control valves

Pressure Relief Valve

A pressure relief valve is used to relieve excess pressure in a pneumatic system. Its purpose is
to open automatically at a specific pressure level and to continue to remain open until the
pressure drops below the set point. These valves are used as a fail-safe measure to prevent
pneumatic component failure resulting from excess pressure due to a control valve
malfunction, temperature increase, etc.

Figure 19. A pressure relief valve and its symbol

68
 Check Valve
Check valves allow free flow of air in one direction but block flow in the
opposite direction. They are passive because they require no external input to
function. In a sense, they function like a diode in an electric circuit

Figure 20. Centre: a basic check valve. Right: a spring-assisted check valve

69
Flow Control Valves
Flow Control Valve
Flow control valves are used to control the Fixed Orifice Flow Control Valve
velocity of air through a pneumatic system.
These are often used to control the speed of a
pneumatic cylinder to meet a specific
application. Flow control valves can be either
Fixed Orifice or Adjustable depending on the
application. The adjustable version uses a needle
valve to control the flow of air. We have already Adjustable Flow Control Valve.
learned that an oxygen concentrator has flow
control to control flow rate of oxygen to patient.

Adjustable Flow Control Valve with Bypass

70
Figure 21. Different flow control valves
 Shuttle Valve
A shuttle valve allows fluid to flow through it from two different sources, one
at a time. It functions as a logical OR gate. When the flow is applied to one
input the other input is closed.

Figure 22. A shuttle valve

71
 Directional Control Valves
Understanding Directional Control Valve Symbols and Terminology
Directional air control valves are the building blocks of hydraulic and pneumatic control.
Directional control valves alter the direction of flow. The circuit symbols representing these
valves provide detailed information about the methods of actuation, the number of positions,
the flow paths and the number of ports. Here is a brief breakdown of how to read a symbol.
Components of a Pneumatic Circuit Valve Symbol
Most valve symbols have three parts below. The Actuators are the mechanisms which cause
the valve to shift from one position to another. The Position and Flow Boxes indicate how the
valve functions. Every valve has at least two positions and each position has one or more
flow paths, thus every valve symbol has at least two Flow Boxes to describe those paths.

Figure 23. 72
(a) Position and Flow Boxes
The number of ‘position and flow boxes’ that make up a valve symbol indicate the number of
valve positions. Flow direction is indicated by the arrows in each box. These arrows represent
the flow paths the valve provides when it is in each position.
The Flow Box next to the ‘active’ actuator always shows the current flow path(s) of the valve.
In the example below, when the lever is NOT being activated, the spring return actuator (right
side) is controlling the valve, and the box adjacent to the spring shows the flow path. When
the lever IS actuated, the box next to the lever shows the flow path of the valve. A valve can
only be in one position at a given time

Figure 21.
73
(b) Ports and port labelling
The number of ports is shown by the number of end points in a given box. Count only the
ports in one flow box per symbol. In Figure 22 (a), there are a total of 5 ports.
Port labels are typically shown on a single flow box per symbol. Different manufacturers
label valve ports with different letters, but the labels in fig 22 (b) right are fairly standard.
“P” represents the pressure inlet port, “A” and “B” are outlets (generally plumbed to the
‘extend’ and ‘retract’ ports on a cylinder), and “R” and “S” indicate the exhaust ports.

(a) (b) 74
Figure 24.
Example: The valve below is one of the valves on the zeolite towers of an oxygen
concentrator. Identify the valve and describe how it operates.

Figure 25
Answer: The valve in fig. 1 is a 3 port 2 position directional control valve called a solenoid
valve. The three ports are P which is the pressure supply from the air compressor, port A the
outlet to one of the zeolite towers), and lastly R, the exhaust port.
In the normal position (right) the valve is spring loaded and the outlet port is connected to the
exhaust port, allowing the zeolite tower to vent the trapped nitrogen to the atmosphere. The
compressed air pressure is shut off as indicated by the closed P port.
When energised, the energised coil pulls a plunger against the action of the spring. This
causes the internal pilot line to open so as to actuate the solenoid valve to position 2 (left). A
pilot operated valve uses system pressure to actuate the spool of the valve. This is due to the
fact that the force required to operate a valve is greater than what can be obtained from the
plunger of the valve. In this case, this valve used the air compressed by the compressor for
pilot. In position 2, Port P, (the compressed air) is connected to the zeolite tower, allowing the
75
zeolite to generate an oxygen rich gas. During this time, the exhaust port is shut off
 4.1.5 A few notes on the Solenoid

A solenoid is also an electromagnetic device (actuator) that converts the electric field
generated by a coil into a force or linear motion. When energized, the solenoid moves a
plunger linearly. Its working principle is the same as that of the relay we studied in the
laboratory and can also be switched and controlled using bipolar transistors.
- construction –
A solenoid consists of an electrical coil wound around a cylindrical tube with a ferro-
magnetic actuator or “plunger” that is free to slide IN and OUT of the coils body. Upon
energizing of the coil, a magnetic field in the coil, and the force of the magnetic field is
used to move the armature, which is typically a piece of ferromagnetic material.
There are different types of solenoids, but the most common is the linear type which
produces a linear movement. They can be push-type, where the plunger moves "out" of
the coil when energized (technically more of the plunger mass moves towards the
center of the coil), or pull-type, where the plunger moves into the coil when energized.
Push types often have springs to return the plunger to their initial position while pull
types do not. Switching the polarity of the voltage does not reverse the direction of the
motion.
76
 Figure 26. A solenoid
As solenoids are also inductive devices like the electromechanical relays, a
flywheel diode must be used across them the prevent the high emf.
Solenoids can be used to open or close valves, move and operate robotic limbs,
mechanisms etc. The one advantage of the coil is that it responds very fast.

77
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

78
 End of Chapter Self Test
1. Electromechanical Relay
The following is a wiring diagram from the bottom of a relay.

(a) Label all the terminals and indicate to which terminal the relay control
signal is connected.
(b) Draw a correctly labelled circuit symbol of the relay
(c) Explain what the operate and release time of a relay are and why they are
important in timing operations

79
2. DC motor
(a) A designer wishes to use a permanent magnet brushed motor to power a
cooling fan in an oxygen concentrator. The requirements are that the motor
be able to supply at least 0.225 Nm of torque at 2 000 rpm. Determine,
clearly showing your calculations, if a motor with a no-load speed of 9550
rpm and a coil resistance of 2.32 Ω, powered by a 24 V power supply would
be adequate.

(b) A robot application requires a drive motor that can supply at least 0.53
Nm at 50 rpm. The designer decides to use a gearhead for this application,
having a ratio of N = 24 and efficiency 𝜂 = 63%. If a motor is to be used to
drive the gearhead, what speed and torque will be required of the motor?

80
3. Variable Reluctance Motor
(a) With help of diagrams, explain the principle of operation of a variable
reluctance motor
(b) State three advantages and two disadvantages of a variable reluctance
motor
(c) Explain why a de-energized variable reluctance motor has no detent torque

81
4. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators

(a) The valve below is one of the valves on the zeolite towers of an oxygen concentrator.
Identify the valve and describe how it operates.

(b) Describe the operation of five types of pneumatic valves and draw the symbol of each.
(c) Define with aid of a drawing/schematic a solenoid, and state one of its applications
(d) Define what a double-acting cylinder is and state one of its applications

82
5. Star delta starter
The circuit in Figure 2 is used in the operation of electric motors. Describe what
it is, why it is used, and how it works

83
-------------------------------------------

84