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Managing traffic congestion in a city: A study of Singapore's experiences

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 Managing traffic congestion in a city: A study of Singapore’s
experiences
Toan Trinh Dinh
Department for Transportation Engineering, #422 Block A1
ThuyLoi University, 175 TaySon, DongDa, Hanoi
Trinhdinhtoan@tlu.edu.vn

Abstract: Traffic congestion is a pervasive and serious problem confronting many large cities in
the world. Much of the effort and resources have been devoted to relieving traffic congestion, but
there have been only a few successful cases. The reasons are of many, but generally due to the
failure to accommodate or to manage travel demand, that is, to strike the balance between supply
and demand for transport.
Singapore has been quite successful in managing a sophisticated system of road traffic despite the
rapid growth of economy, population and mobilization. Constrained by a limited physical space,
Singapore has to give special attention to managing the growth of transport demand. Singapore has
been the first country in the world who introduced successfully special schemes for traffic
congestion management, notably the Area License Scheme, the Vehicle Quota System, and the
Electronic Road Pricing system.
This paper studies Singapore’s experiences in dealing with traffic congestion in a city. In the first
place, the nature of congestion is described, the underlying causes are identified and the strategies
for relieving traffic congestion under the common international context are briefly discussed. The
paper also analyzes major factors that contribute to the success of Singapore’s congestion
management, including integrated transport planning, travel demand management, and public
transport improvement. In the conclusions, Singapore’s experiences in managing traffic congestion
are summarized and proposals are made on lessons from Singapore for congestion mitigation in big
cities in Vietnam such as Hanoi and HoChiMinh cities.
Keywords: Traffic congestion, Singapore’s experiences, transport planning, traffic management.

1. Introduction

1.1 Background
Road traffic congestion is a critical concern throughout metropolitans in most countries in the
world. Congestion causes delay, unreliability, loss of efficiency and comfort, and environmental
problem over an extensive urban area. Congestion can be broadly categorized into two types:
recurring congestion – a predictable phenomenon that reoccurs at a certain time interval, normally
at peak periods, caused by high demand of traffic using the highway; and non-recurring congestion
– unpredictable traffic events caused by incidents. The term “congestion” in this paper refers to
recurring congestion, which can only solved by appropriate transport planning and efficient traffic
management.
Causes of congestion
Basically, congestion represents an imbalance between supply and demand. Given limited
physical space, the provision and expansion of infrastructures of a urban area usually cannot keep
pace with progressive increase in demand for travel. The main causes of congestion include: (i)
rapid growth of population and employment; (ii) intensive use of automobile vehicles; (iii) the
failure to provide sufficient infrastructure; and (iv) the failure to make drivers to bear full cost of
externalities they create to the society and the environment.
Congestion alleviating strategies
The strategies to deal with traffic congestion can be categorized into supply-side and demand-
side. The supply-side strategies consist of building new roads or expansion of existing roads to
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increase carrying capacity of the network, improving efficiency of public transport and non-
motorized traffic, and harnessing advanced traffic management and traffic control. The demand-
side strategies regulate demand for travel via techniques such as planning instruments, regulation,
and economic measures. Examples of economic methods include imposing high fuel taxes, vehicle
registration fees, or congestion pricing.
Methodologically, some tactics may follow market-oriented approach. They impose various
monetary prices on different types of behavior while letting individuals to choose whatever they are
willing to pay for. This is normally a desirable approach since it maximizes individual preferences
in bearing the costs they impose on the community and environment. Other tactics follow
regulatory-oriented approach. To ensure efficient operation, some behaviors are regulated while
some activities are forbidden without considering individual preferences. For example, a traffic
control system allows regular scheduled buses while prohibiting trucks from entering a designated
area. Although being two distinct approaches, practical applications rarely involve a single measure.
For example, if a road pricing scheme is market oriented in nature, the decision of where and when
to introduce the scheme as well as the toll levels involves regulatory intervention.
The Singapore’s strategy tackles with congestion problems from both supply side and demand
side, in both proactive and reactive manner. The effort to deliver a transport system that is
integrated, efficient, cost-effective and sustainable has been made in all phases, including planning,
management, and traffic control, as described in the following sections.

1.2. An Introduction to Singapore and its Land Transport System

Singapore is a small, densely populated country at the southern tip of the Asian Continent. It has
a land area of 720 sqkm, including the main island and about 60 islets within its water territory. The
Singapore’s population in the year 2017 is 5.6 million, and the population density is 7,796
inhabitants per sqkm. Singapore has experienced a high economic growth since World War 2, and
the real economic growth in the year 2017 is 2.2%. The total GDP (at current market price) is 447.3
billion S$, and the income per capita is approximately 76,860 S$ [1].
In the year 2017, there are 164 km of expressways, 662 km of arterial roads, 571 km of collector
roads, and 2,055 km of local access roads. The road density is approximately 5 km/sqkm.
Singapore has the total motorized vehicle population of 961,842, including 546,706 private cars;
23,140 taxis; 19,285 buses; 162,172 goods and other vehicles; and 141,916 motorcycles.
About 90% of Singaporean working population needs a transport means to go to work, 1/3 of
which use their private cars, and about 60% use public transport such as buses, mass rapid transit
(MRT) or light rail transit (LRT).
Key statistics on travel demand in the country include:
- Average daily passenger travel: 4,240,000 journeys.
- Average distance of travel: 9.6 km/ journey.
- Average daily traffic volume entering the city 289,000 vehicles/day.
- Number of new vehicle registered: 45,761 vehicles.
The MRT network encompasses 199.6 km of various lines, with 119 stations in operation. Except
the MRT lines that were built from the beginning, the newly constructed lines form the longest fully
automated metro network in the world [2]. The LRT serves as a complementary element to the
MRT system for short distance and inter-town transport. The system is driverless, operating at 3
minute-interval during peak hours.
Bus transport forms a significant part of public transport in Singapore. There are more than 300
scheduled bus lines served by 4,600 buses operate under regular schedules, including trunk, feeder
and express services, supplemented by “Bus Plus” scheme which provides minibus services during
peak hours, and “Special Night” buses for commuters who travel after the normal services.
The Land Transport Authority (LTA) is a statutory board under the Ministry of Communications
and was established in September 1995. It is responsible for planning, developing and managing the

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land transport system to support a quality of environment while maintaining optimal sustainable use
of transport resources to meet the public travel demand.
The key objective of LTA is to deliver a land transport network that is integrated, efficient, cost-
effective and sustainable to meet the nation's needs. To achieve the objectives, LTA developed a
long-term strategy that targets [3]:
 Integrated transport planning
 Improving public transport
 Application of advanced technologies, and
 Travel demand management.

2. Integrated Transport Planning

In Singapore, planning practice shows that there is a close integration of transport planning into
the City’s Concept Plan. All developments are early planned to improve the land use and transport
integration [4]. Physical provision of transport infrastructure is made so that the system delivers
maximum service for the population. Large complexes of developments outside the CBD, including
residential and social infrastructures are clustered proximally, within a walking distance to
encourage greater commuting via public transport. Building more homes near work places and more
work places in residential areas reduce demand for transport. The concept of Integrated Transport
Hubs (ITHs) where fully air-conditioned bus interchanges are seamlessly linked to MRT stations
and adjoining commercial developments such as shopping malls, is getting more popular. With this
integration, commuters can shop conveniently and comfortably before transferring to buses or trains
(Fig. 1). From time to time more developments are designed around transport HUBs to facilitate
convinient connections. Facilities to encourage mode transfers, such as bicycle parks, are also
properly located to minimize walking and allow convenient and comfortable transfers.

Fig. 1 An example of ITHs for convenient connection between transport modes.

Physical integration
Not only is the transport system closely integrated with land-use planning, there are convenient
physical integration between transport modes, which are well functionally defined: MRT provides
high-frequency, rapid and comfortable services for long distance heavy traffic corridors, while LRT
serves as feeders to the MRT network, and the bus system serves less heavy corridors to supplement
MRT and LRT.

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 Physical integration among various transport modes is achieved by designing facilities as a
whole to enable seamless travel. Trains, buses and taxis are well-linked to reduce unnecessary trips,
enhance convenience and comfort, maximize efficiency of the network, and reduce congestion. For
example, connection between MRT and bus interchanges, and between bus interchanges and
residential/commercial developments are made through overhead bridges, underpass, and covered
linkways (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Physical integration

Institutional integration
The integration of land use and transport in Singapore is greatly fostered by the government
policies, planning and management instruments, including a well-defined governance structure of
institutions with clear roles and responsibilities. The key urban governances who are responsible for
integration of land use and transport in Singapore include [5]:
The Housing and Development Board (HDB) is responsible for planning, design, land assembly
and construction of public housing.
The Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) prepares long term strategic plans (Concept Plans),
and detailed local area plans (Development Guide Plans) for physical development.
The Land Transport Authority (LTA) is responsible for planning, policy and regulation of all
urban transport modes, and for inclusion in development of Concept Plans. LTA constructs and
maintains road, MRT and other public transport infrastructure, in accordance with Concept Plans.
Apart from LTA, there are 3 statutory boards under the MOT: (i) Public Transport Council
(PTC), reponsible for regulated bus, ticket payment services and public transport fares; (ii) Civil
Aviation Authoriry of Singapore (CAAS), responsible for overall air transport management; and (iii)
Marintime & Port Authority (MPA), responsible for overall sea transport management. The
instituions are requested to work together in all related developments and services.
Integration of services between public transport modes
The integration of MRT and bus services started in 1989 [6] to develop an integrated system
consisting of Singapore Bus Services (SBS), Trans Island Bus Services (TIBS) and Singapore Mass
Rapid Transit (SMRT). Apart from physical integration, fare integration and information integration
were also implemented.

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 Fare integration was achieved by a common ticketing system in the form of a Transit Link fare
card developed for use on all public transport systems. To cope with an expanding rail network, a
contactless Smart Card known as the Ez-link Card was introduced since December 2002, allowing a
higher boarding rate and faster processing time.
Transit Link has facilitated information integration with annual publication of bus-MRT guides
that provide all travel details of public transport systems. The Traveler Information Services (TIS)
were implemented to provide commuters with real-time information on public transport systems at
stations and bus interchanges.

3. Improvement of Public Transport

The public transport system in Singapore undertakes nearly 60% of the total commuting trips [1].
It aims to encourage greater transit ridership to achieve 75% of the city trips by public transport in
the future. The key components of the system include MRT, LRT and buses with clear functions of
each component: MRT for heavy corridors, LRT serves as feeders to MRT, and buses serve for less
heavy corridors and provide services elsewhere, such as between residential areas. Particular
attention is given to create environmentally friendly pedestrian streets in the CBD, walkways and
cycling facilities to MRT stations and bus stops. Policy on public transport system determines that
the operation companies maintain full recovery of operating costs and depreciation, while the
capital investment in infrastructures and replacement cost of rolling stock and equipment are carried
by the government.

Fig. 3 Singapore’s MRT network

MRT is an electrical subway system that consists of four lines traveling north-south, east-west,
north-east and a line from Jurong to Choa Chu Kang (Fig. 3). The MRT service is fast, modern and
air-conditioned. It operates at regular intervals of 3 - 8 minutes from 5.30 AM to 12.30 AM daily [6].
Bus operations in Singapore are safe, reliable, fast and comfortable. Good service is a prime
government objective. The policy strives to maintain profitable bus services in major routes while
subsidizing low profitable routes and to realize economies of scale in small market. Profits from bus
services contribute towards the historical component of the replacement cost. Buses enjoy partial
exemption from road tax payments on their vehicles. Bus lanes are provided in some particularly
heavy demand routes and buses have priorities at traffic signals.
Under the Bus Service Enhancement Program (BSEP), the Government has partnered the bus
operators to significantly increase bus capacity and enhance bus service levels to benefit commuters

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to grow the bus fleet by 35% in five years, with the Government contributing 1,000 buses in the
year 2017 [1].

4. Application of Advanced Technologies

An important congestion management objective is to enhance traffic management system so as
to improve carrying capacity and to smooth traffic flow. The road network in the island is fully
signalized and highly coordinated in arterials streets to minimize delay. A Green Link Determining
(GLIDE) intelligent traffic management system coordinates traffic light system in “green waves” to
increase junctions’ capacities and to smooth traffic. There are “Junction Eye traffic monitoring”
systems for traffic surveillance and control at critical intersections.
The LTA deployed Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) to maximize road network efficiency,
to enhance the traveling condition, and to monitor traffic flow in Singapore. A variety of advanced
techniques is heavily deployed, including Advanced Traveler Information System (ATIS) and
Advanced Traffic Management System (ATMS). An important application of these systems is in the
area of incident management to deal with non-recurrent congestion. Subscribed drivers have access
to real-time traffic information via communication with information centers. Through the Internet
the information on traffic situation, estimated travel time and advice from dynamic route guidance
system are also available to assist travelers to decide the route of travel, the time of departure and
the mode of travel they are willing to ride. Video streaming images of selected expressway
locations are occasionally released to reflect traffic situation for drivers’ decision support.
The ITS infrastructure spans over 164 km of expressways. Key components of ITS system on
expressways include [6]: (i) ITS Centre which monitors traffic with ITS techniques and provides
recovery assistance to motorists under accidents. Real-time traffic advisory information is also
provided to motorists via variable message signs (VMSs); (ii) i-Transport with an interface to
integrate all ITS components, including traffic signal control, traffic monitoring, incident
management, and provision of real-time traffic advisory information; and (iii) Expressway
Monitoring and Advisory System (EMAS) which monitors traffic along expressways and alerts
motorists of traffic incidents. These infrastructural provisions contribute greatly to congestion
management on expressways.

5. Travel Demand Management

Travel demand management in Singapore involve various measures, among which two
approaches are notable: car ownership control and car usage control. A number of schemes
following these approaches were introduced successfully and gained international recognition,
noticeably the Area License Scheme (ALS), the Vehicle Quota System (VQS) and recently - the
Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system [7].
Area License Scheme ref. 1
The Area License Scheme (ALS) in Singapore is one of the most comprehensive scheme of this
kind in the world. The Scheme was enacted in June 1975 with the objective of discourage autos
from entering the congested central area during the morning peak to alleviate traffic, to improve
accessibility and mobility within the Central Business District (CBD) by requiring purchase of
supplementary license to enter the area. This area licensing scheme defined a Restricted Zone (RZ)
in the most congested part of the city with the area of 710 ha is demarcated by 34 overhead gantry
signs. Initially, these were monitored by traffic personnel from 7.30 to 9.30 AM, and then changed
to 10.15 AM, Mondays to Saturdays, excluding public holidays. Only cars which display a license
are allowed to enter this zone through one of the vehicular entry points. Scheduled public busses,
school buses, military vehicles, carpools were favored and all exempted from license requirements.
The scheme was coordinated by its complementary parking policy to provide 20,000 parking spaces
within the RZ with the fees increased with the parking time to discourage long time parking, seen as
another instrument of traffic restraint.
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 The Singapore Area License Scheme has been very successful in reducing traffic flow, therefore
in relieving traffic congestion. Traffic flow during peak hours had fallen by 40%, included a
dramatic decline of 70% in the number of cars in the CBD. Subsequently, the observed average
speed inside the RZ during morning commuting hours was from 26 to 35 km/h, compared to that
15-20 km/h prior to the application of the Scheme.
However the Scheme suffered from some marginal negative side effects. These include increased
traffic flow before and after the restricted hours. Additionally, new "escape corridors" around the
CBD encountered increasing traffic since commuters avoided the CBD and seek for alternative
routes like peripheral ring roads. Despite these effects, the popular thinking is that these are trivial
as opposed to the social and environmental benefits achieved by significant reduction in traffic
congestion.
Vehicle Quota Scheme [7]
The Vehicle Quota System (VQS) was applied in May 1990. The Government requested
establishment of annual quota of new car licenses to maintain a maximum annual growth rate of
vehicles of 3%. Anyone wishing to buy a car or motorcycle has to bid for a Certificate of
Entitlement (COE). The proportion of COEs allocated to each category of vehicles is determined by
historical records. The bidders pay for the lowest successful bid price. The COE then stays for 10
years from the date of vehicle registration. Upon the due date, the owners have to pay for the
current COE bid price for the vehicle if he wants to keep the vehicle beyond ten year period.
Certain classes of vehicles such as buses, emergency vehicles, trailers, and diplomatic vehicles are
exempted from this scheme.
The COE's have pushed the price so high that only those with highest willingness to pay can own
a car. The Scheme represents a market-intervention strategy through that the government directly
control the vehicle population in the country in order to make it in line with road capacity and
traffic conditions to avoid traffic congestion.
Electronic Road Pricing

Fig. 4 ERP system in Singapore

Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) is another Singapore's attempt on tackling traffic congestion. It
came into operation between in April 1998. ERP bases on pay-per-use principle that attempts to
reflect the true cost of travel. ERP covered all the areas which has been previously covered by ALS,
then extended to bottlenecks on other expressways and major roads which suffer severe congestion.
The system operates at 28 gantries in the previous ALS, 11 gantries at expressways, and 3 gantries
at the outer ring roads. The system is flexible since charges depend on location, vehicle type and the
time of day. The charges are set higher during busy periods and lower outside those periods. Large
vehicles which occupy more space and thus incur more traffic congestion are also charged higher
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rates. The mechanism of payment deploys a non-stop electric road pricing system (Fig. 4) and is
error-free, thus traffic congestion is due to the system’s operation is completely avoided.
In Singapore, the purpose of road pricing as an important instrument to relieve traffic congestion
is made clear to the public. Congestion pricing also represents the best instrument to internalize the
costs of externalities that motorists impose on society. To be successful, road pricing schemes
should satisfy some prerequisite conditions: First, prices should be varied according to the level of
congestion; Second, road prices should act as a pricing mechanism to reduce congestion rather than
a merely way the government taxes its citizens, and the revenues collected from road pricing should
stay in the transport sector to improve the road network or public transport; Last, there should be a
balance between affordability and congestion objectives: the charge should be sufficiently high to
induce modal shift to public transport, but it should not be too high to cause underutilization of
roads and resources.
Road pricing offers a good solution to deal with traffic congestion. Nevertheless, road pricing
cannot perfectly internalize the external environmental costs. Therefore, other economic methods
such as fuel tax, imported tax, and license fee are also necessary to set economic restraints to
regulate travel demand. Apart from that, other instruments such as integrated transport planning,
public transport improvement, and application of advanced technologies, constitute drastic
measures to deal with traffic congestion from both supply and demand sides.

6. Conclusions and Proposals

Traffic congestion is a prevailing problem in many cities in the world. In Vietnam, traffic
congestion causes economic loss of about 30,000 VND billions every year, of which the loss of
HaNoi is 13,000 VND billions [8]. Apart from economic loss, traffic congestion causes urban
operation inefficient, discontent of people, and negative impacts on environment and traffic safety.
Therefore, looking for drastic measures to deal with traffic congestion is a great concern of majority
of people.
In Vietnam so far many proposals on congestion mitigation measures have been made by experts
and citizens, including suggestions to learn experiences from the world. In particular, in the year
2017 the Hanoi People Committee organized a contest for “solutions to mitigate traffic congestion
in the City up to the year 2025, and vision to 2030”, and received feedbacks from many institutions
and individuals. However, most of the proposals focus on reactive short-term and isolated solutions
without verification, so their feasibility is not convincing. Therefore, it is imperative to carry out a
comprehensive study program for creative and effective international experiences, with lessons on
success (and failure) that are applicable for cities in Vietnam. Such a comprehensive study program
should include the following:
 Strategic long-term solutions, including transport planning, physical and institutional
integration between transport and land use planning, and public transport.
 Medium-term solutions, including travel demand management, vehicle usage and
ownership management, road toll, etc.
 Short-term measures in traffic control and operation, such as application of ITS systems
in traffic control, and ERP in toll collection.
As introduced in Section 1.2, Singapore’s experiences in managing traffic congestion are
classified into four categories, including integrated transport planning, improvement of public
transport, application of advanced technologies, and travel demand management. These approaches
encompass all long-term, medium-term, and short-term solutions. They have been successfully
applied in Singapore, and can be readily applicable to cities in developed countries with similar
level of development and attributes as Singapore, such as Tokyo, Hong Kong, and Sydney. In
applying to developing countries like Vietnam, some of them may work, others may not. Therefore,
it is important to thoroughly review the methods for transferring to cities in Vietnam, such as HaNoi
and HoChiMinh cities.

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 With respect to long-term transport planning, the physical integration between public transport
systems in Singapore could be a good idea: MRT provides high-frequency and rapid services for
heavy traffic corridors, LRT serves as feeders to the MRT network, and the bus system serves less
heavy corridors to supplement MRT and LRT, and to provide services to residential and
commercial areas. Trains, buses and taxis are well-connected to reduce unnecessary trips. Apart
from that, the integration in services among institutions, such as the use of common-fare systems to
enhance efficiency and convenience of travel may be feasibly implemented in the near future in
Hanoi and HoChiMinh cities.
With respect to medium-term traffic management: as discussed in Section 1.1, congestion
represents an imbalance between supply and demand, and the strategies to deal with traffic
congestion can be categorized into supply increase and demand management. The problems of
cities in developing countries show that, due to the constrained living area, the ability to provide
“enough” road network to suffice travel demand is extremely limited. In Hanoi, for example, the
rate of traffic growth is 10.2%/year, while the increase of road network space is only 0.25%/year
[8]. This leads to serious lack of infrastructure to meet the increasing travel demand. Therefore,
Travel demand management (TDM) has recently become a prioritized option in the transport
development policy to deal with traffic congestion in many developing countries. TDM is a strategy
to maximize the efficiency of transport system via encouraging people to reduce usage of private
means of transport, and to promote transport means that are environmentally friendly and suitable
for sustainable development, including public transport and non-motorized traffic. TDM regulates
the travel demand via changing the travel behavior and providing options to reduce the travel
demand, or to reduce the number of transport means. TDM brings about many benefits, of which
congestion mitigation is the most importance. Singapore’s experiences in TDM, in particular car
ownership and car usage control, are worth to learn.
Another point regarding traffic management: in Vietnam in recent years, there witnesses rapid
development of infrastructure development projects in big cities. In absence of legal requirements,
the issuances of liciences for such projects do not consider the impact of traffic on the surounding
road network, consequently sometimes severse traffic congestion occurred as soon as a project goes
into operation. This phenomenon gets worse and worse in space and magnitude. In many countries,
traffic impact assessment (TIA) is a legal requirement. In Vietnam this is a new concept, however,
the need to conduct TIA is getting more clear and imperative. Singapore’s experiences in execution
of TIA may be heplful.
Finally short-term measures in traffic control and operation is an important to reinforce long
term and medium term solutions. The advantages of application of ITS systems to maximize road
network efficiency, to enhance the traveling condition, and to monitor traffic flow are well
recognized. To some extent, ITS systems have been deployed in Vietnam in various applications
such as traffic signal control, incident management, traffic advisory information, and toll collection,
etc. Singapore advancement and experience in this matter may provide a good lesson.

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