Faculty of Science and Engineering School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering GEOT4002 Geotechnical Design and Modelling Lecture Notes Compiled by Professor Hamid NikrazContents Chapter 1 — Introduction Please refer to the PowerPoints Presentation in the first Lecture Part One — Retaining Structures Chapter 6 - Earth Pressures and Retaining Systems Section 6A — Earth Pressure Section 6B — Design of Rigid Retaining Walls Section 6C — Construction Details Chapter 7 — Reinforced Earth Retaining Walls Chapter 8 ~ Sheet Pile Walls Part Two — Deep Foundations Chapter 2 - Introduction — Pile Foundations, Method and Applications Chapter 3 — Pile Capacity Chapter 4 — Pile Foundations — Pile Groups Chapter 5 — Drilled Piers (or Shafts/Caissons)Part One Earth Retaining structuresCHAPTER 6 EARTH PRESSURES AND RETAINING SYSTEMSCHAPTER 6 EARTH PRESSURES AND RETAINING SYSTEMS SECTION 6A - EARTH PRESSURE ‘The vertical pressures that exist within a semi-infinite soil mass are easy to compute using the following equation: Coed 6.) However, the lateral stresses within the sol ae not as easily determined. Since the lateral ‘dimension i age, there site reason for sihifcant lateral compression to cur ‘Consequently itis reasonable to assume thatthe vertical locked in effective stresses, G, would ‘be larger than the effective lateral stresses, 6 atthe same point. The ratio of horizontal to lateral stresses is usually presented as K=S (62) where Bis the earth pressure ratio. ‘Thete are thre categories of earth pressure. These are earth pressure at rest, ative pressure, and passive pressure. For conditions where no lateral deformation occurs, Ki termed K,, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest_ For sands and ncrmally consolidated clas, K,=1-sing 63) In actualy, however, some retaining wall movement is amos inevitable resulting in either ‘tive eath pressure or passive earth pressure as explained in the following sub-sctons. Rankine Earth Pressures ‘The following discussion presents Rankine’ enetions forthe ative snd passive cil sree sates. The Rankine theery for determining lateral earkh pressures is based on several assumptions. The primary one i tha thee is no sdhesion or Iition between te wall and the ‘cil Ge, th walls smoot. Tn addition, lateral pressures computed from Rankine theory ae limited to vertical walls. The resultant presuze i assumed to act ata distance up from the base ofthe wall equal to one-third ofthe vertical distance from the ela the base ofthe al tothe, surface of the backfil (ee Fig 6.1). The dzetion ofthe resultant is parallel othe backfill SurfaceFigure 6.1 ‘The equations for computing lateral earth pressure based on Rankine theory ae as follows K, = conB i P= dtrk, 64) cos ~ oor" B= cos cos + (608 Bos" g L park, 0) cosp + loos" B=cos"9 =p oe. os f— cos" B= cos" 6 cos B 67 setive eanh pressure ont weight ofthe backfill height ofthe wal (see Fig 6.1) coefficient of active earth presse angle between backfill surface line and ahorzoatal ine (see Fig 6.1) angle of internal friction ofthe backfill soil, = passive cath pressure K, = covlicient of passive cath pressre Inthe backfil surface is level, the angle Bis zero, and Egs 6.5 and 6.7 revert to Lesing K co Trang (69) Equations 64 through 6.9 are applicable in the cae of cokesionles soils. The generalised Jateral each pressure dstibution fr soil that ave both cabeison and fection i: based on ‘Rankine theory; ashown in Fig 6.2. Figre 6.2 (a) gives the pressure distibuion for aceNe ‘Pressure, and Fig 6.2 gives that fr passive pessure. I wil be ated that te ative pressure ts only over the lower part ofthe wall see Fig 62 (a). The pressure distribution for Palla ease can be acerine by sobtting te appro prance no he oqations Indicated oa Fig Figure 6.2 (a) Active earth pressure; (b)pasive earth pressure Coulomb Barth Pressures ‘The Coulomb theory for determining lateral ear pressure, developed nearly a century before {he Rankin theory, assumes that fare occurs inte form of wedge sad tet fcton oars ‘between th wall andthe sol. The sides ofthe ede are the eat ie ofthe retaining wal anda flue plane that passes trough the toe te wall (ce Fg 63)Figue 63 ‘The resultant ative earth pressure acts on the wall ta pot where a line trough the centre of gravity ofthe wedge and paral tothe file plane infesects the wall (ee Tig 64), The Aiection ofthe resultant at the wall is lone s line that makes an angle 6 witha ine normal othe back side ofthe wal, where 6 isthe angle of wall fection (se Fig 6.) ‘The equations for computing lateral earth pressure based on Cotlomb theory areas follows: 1 queK, Waee vere) __ sintexsin(a— 6) 14 [5206+ 8)sin(0~ 6) = a sia(ee—8)sinfa Whee : ete Qe sntesinfa+ 3) 1 |226+8)sin(6—B) ‘n(e=8)sin(a+ 2) Whee P,xactve carn esnre unit weight ofthe Backil soil HE =beight ofthe retaining wall (se Fig 63) K, coefficient o active earth pressure 64) (6.10) 68) 6.11) ‘= angle berwees beck side of wall and a horizontal line (ee Fig 6.3)(9= angle of interna friction of the backfil sil 5 = angle of wal fection B=angle between backfill surface line anda horizontal in (see Fig 63) = passive earth pressure , = cosicient of passive earth pressure Figure 6.4, Procedures for locaton of pont of application of P,: (q) regular backfill (>) concentrated or ine load inside failure 23ne; (©) concentrated or line ied ouside falar zone (but inside zone ABO), Figure 65Inthe cas ofa smooth, vetcal wall with level beckfil, 8 and Bare esc zero and cis 90; and 'f these values are substted into Eqs 6.10 and 6.11, the equations revert to Eqs 6.8 and 69. respectively. The latter two equations are the Rankine equations for the conitions stated (re, Smooth, veal wall with level backfill). Table 61 gives some typical values of angles of interna friction, angles of wall friction, and unit weights of common ypes of backil soi. ‘Table 6.1. Friction angles and unit weights for backfill soil |e | Angle of Tnternal | Angle of wall] Unit Weight, 7 mbar Deepinotst_ Freon pec, [Day [Moist Day | Moist [Dy Moist Couns to medi i sind,trace fine 36°00" 27°30" | 2730" 2610" [2 | evel | Coarse to fine Sere ae 7 2 [aggieeeten [saw arse foro aean [ior [os | Gis) | Coase tae i | | 3 | sandra +" | 38-40" 30°00" 2710" 26120" | 106 | 94 (| eset pret 4 (Coane iotiae 383030002890" F295 elated at | Median ie Bi sand, some silt 2s10' | 2st10" | 21°30" | 99 2 | (298%) trace fre | | gravel = 6 Fine sand we 29°20" 2040" ] sik ‘7 | Fine sand, some | 35°00" | 30°20" 28°00" sit ‘S| Coarse silt, Fine | 34°30" 26°10" 27°50" 25'40" om 80 | sand (56) a Sil some coare 9 tofiesandtrae |= 3120 18 Petey O) ‘hea [Effects of surcharge luad upon active thrust Sometimes the backfill resting aginst a etaining walls subjected to surcharge. A surcharge, ‘hich i simply a uniform od and/or concentrated load imposed on the sol as othe ata arth pressure exered aginst the retaining wall by the bac¥ill. This added pressure mis of ‘course, be considered when designing the retaining wal, ‘The additional pressure exerted agains a retaining wall as a result ofa surcharge in the form of ‘uniform load can be computed from the fllowing equation (see Fig 66), Paik, (6.12) ‘Where P’ = additional active earth pressure asa result of uniform load surcharge(= uniform Ind (surcharge) oa backfill . H= eight ofwall cient of active eat pressure (determined from Eq 6 8) ‘Culmann’s Graphical Solution Several graphical methods to determine earth pressures are aaa, one of which the Galmanns graphical sloton. The steps n cing ot Culmaan's graphical solos for ste ea pressure (P,) may be summarized as follows: 4. Draw a retaining wall, backiil, and so on, toa convenient sede (se Fig 6.7). 2, From point A (the base of the wall) ty off line at an angle (angle of intemal ition) ‘ith a horizontal line. This is ine AC in Fig 6.7. 23. From point A, ly of line at an angle @ wih ine AC (step 2). The angle @ is equal to. ‘the angle between the back side ofthe wall and a horizontal, es indicted in Fig 61) ‘minus 5 (angle of wall ection). Tis line is AD in Fig 6:7 4. Draw some possible filure wedges, suchas ABC,, ABC,, ABC, and so on. 5. Compute the weights ofthe wedges (W,, Wa, Wy ete) 6. Using a convenient weigh scale along line AC, lay ofthe respective weighs ofthe wedges, locating point W, yw, and 80 on, 7. Through each point ww, wad so on, daw a line parllelto line AD, intersecting the ‘conesponding line AG, AC,” AC, respectively8. Drawasmooth curve (Culmann's line through the points of intersection determined in step 7 (he, the point of intersection of the line through pont w, parallel to line AD and of tae, line AC, the pont of intersection of the ine trough point, parallel to line AD and ofthe line ACS ete) 9. Draw a line thats both tangent to the Culmana ine and parallel to line AC. 10. Daw a line through the tangent point (determined in sep 9) that is perale to ine AD and Intersects lie AC. The length of hs lin epplied tothe weight scale gives the value of P, (see Fig 6.7). Aline from point through the tangent pont defines te failure plane ‘As disused ear, te pont of aplication of P, can be found by ding ine rough the ous of gravity ofthe fare wedge and paral! ote flu plane antl tints ne (see Fig. 64). The direction of Ps along a line that makes an angle 8 (Bis the ange of wall {tition} with line normal tothe back side of the wal (se Fig 69),Design considerations for retaining walls In designing retaining walls, the first step ito determine the magnitude and location ofthe Active earth presses that willbe acting upoa the wall. Those terminations ca be nae by izing any ofthe methods presented previously i his chapter. Active cath pressure i used to design free-standing retaining Walls. ‘The next step is to assume a retaining wall size. Normally the required height ofthe wall will ‘be known, snd ths a wall thickness and width ofthe base ofthe wall must be ested. The sssumed wall must then be checked for thee conditions. First, the wall must be safe against sliding herzontally. Second the wall must be safo against overtuming «Third, te wall must ‘ot introduce a contatpresire on the foundation sol beneath the base ofthe wall hat exceeds the allowable bearing pressre ofthe foundation sil. Irany of these conditions snot safes the assumed sizeof the wall must be modified, and the conditions checked again If (when) te three conditions are met, the assumed size is used for design. It however. the thtee conditions re met wit plenty to spare the size might be reduced somevti, andthe Conditions checked gain. Obviesly this is more o less a il-and-error procedure. ‘The preceding gives a rit preview of design considerations for taining walls. This topic wit be adres in greater Gotan Secon a oePyample B61 nen ‘A retaining wall a shown in Fig E6.11. Required ‘Tee total active earth pressure perry of wall andthe point of application ofthe total eath pressure by Rankine theory. yea 2008 Solution From Eqs 64 and 68 (for level backfil), = dK, 64) ssi ica “o esi" Be Tyeinga® = 0939 ert exoF020 288mPoint of aplication ofthe total earth pressure (3) = HIS = 9/3 = 3m from the base ofthe wall Beample B6. Giver ‘A retaning wall as shown inFig B62.1 Required ‘The tora active aah pressure per (m) of wall andthe location of he pressure by Rankine theory. Solution From Eys 6 and 6.3, P= dk, 64) ee re Kn COB Cp foot Bead 65)(g)ersn0%0375 = 26618 ein F< H/3= 913 3m trom the base ofthe wal (ee Fig £6.) Example B63 Given A retaining walla shown in Fig B6.3.1 Required ‘The total aetve eath pressure peromy of wall by Rankine theory Solution ‘As shown in Fig B63.1, tans = AB AB=(6i(ten $9)=0.52m, Also, a) 163) ‘y= 19.22 kin? H=609m Begaa 0810 = Leos = cs" Keo) See 0510" 60810" cos e081" 008 ($)ae2ax6007(028 = 10051 em w= (Sjorasno w= (2Jevsnosn609 «300 wm P, 608 B= 1005 cos 10" = 98.97 kNim = Py sin B= 100. sin 10° = 17.45 kNim 43+ 1745 = 47.88 KN/ 98/97 Kin ‘Total active earth pressure (F) = (EVP (BH) = 788+ OBIT = 109.98 eNImExample 66.4 Given ‘The retaining wall shown in Fig B64. Required ‘Draw the active eat pressure diagram by Rankine theory 0" €29°57 KNIn Figure F641 Soution Fram Fig 62 (@), xo (ef) 90s 10: st ( =a oer = actual 4 105.32 &NIn? ‘Thus, the pressure distibuton is shown in Fig 6.42. By direct proportion of two triangles, 1598 _9-x 10532" x 15.98x = 105.30X9~) 15.98x = 941.94 105.32Resultant = (105.3247.765) = 408.9 kNim, 15-98 Kothon® le 135 7.165/3= 239 m, oe 135 Cm) - | X27:265c O84 EN Ins | 2-SaCm, \ ) Example E65 Given ‘Same conditions asin Example B61, except thatthe ange of wall friction between backfill and wall (6) i 25° (ce Fig E65.) Required ‘The total ative earth pressure perry of wall by Coulomb theory Solution From Eqs 6.4 and 6.10, 1 PK, 6a yeK, x=——___mies) __ 610) sina 6] + [3816+ 9)i0(9-B) sie d}si(a A)Figure E65.1 1.652 NI? He9m a=90° o=30 3-25" =O devel bucky sin*(90°+30°) oped, [ata F sero -ae[~ eet =0.236 1 =237, ‘nexor029 207312 p. Example B66 Given ‘Same conditions as Example E63 except that the angle of wall ction between back ind ‘wall (6) is 20° (see Fig £6.61),Figure 56.6.1 Required ‘The total aive earth pressre pew) of wall by Couom theory Solution From Fas 64 and 6 10, Poa drK, sin*(a+ 9) selena] ie, eID ane = 4) = 180° -95° = 85° ‘y= 19.22 kim? =6m ons B=20" @-2> Cunt) (4) 6.10)sini(35°+359 sree ar] 1 (eae rans =) } | sin(85*—20")in(€5°-+10°), 10.02 kin Example £6.7 Given 1, A smooth verial wali 6m high and retains a chesionlss sol with y= 19.22 kN? and 228" 2. ‘The top ofthe soil is level with tbe top ofthe wal nd is horizontal, 3, The soil surface caries a uniformly distributed load of 47.6 kN (see Fig E6.7) ar 9% Rim > Reguirat 1 Thetotat active earth pressure onthe wall pt linear yma) of wal, 22. Thepoint of ation ofthe total active earth pressure by Rankine theory. Solution From E3s 6.4 and 6.8 for evel baci, (64(68) P,=(FJusaa,6y1036 Point of ston for P= H/3 = 63 m rom the base ofthe wall From Bq 6.12, Pr =gik, (oy P = 476,603 Point of action for P” = H/2 = 6/2 = 10 m from the base ofthe wall 124.89 + 103.10 = 228 kNim 2. Lette point of application ofthe total active earth pressure be“ m above the base ofthe wall. "1" i obtained by taking moments of fees (ie, P, and P”) athe base ofthe wall 1. Total active pressure =P, + can 20 OK. Factor of safety agains siding, 275 Base presurecaleulations Location of resultant R (= EV) ifR sets at ¥ ma from the toe EM, EM,-EM, _ 49715-13817 2 y 259.35, = 138m 2 Using the flexural formula, Oy Me Mo a Sate aM 138 w012 me E(ie2o05n) Ox. os112 kN =0 259.35 , 61.1205) = 25235, 311290.5) as stags 9. = 8645 +2075 = 107.2 kNim? 4 = 86.45 20.75 = 65:7 kN? Since = 107.2 kNn’ which s less than the allowable soil pressure of 143.69 fav? (given), the walls sae agains file ofthe foundation soiA RETAINING Wal EXAMPLE €.12 Design a retaining wall for the following requirements: o Height of stem - 5.5 metres Gi Top surface of retained material is level Soil density W = 1920 Kg/MB Gy) Angle of repose of soil = 30° @ Safe bearing capacity of soil - 0.2 MPa Ww Coefficient of friction between conerete and soil p = 0.5 (vii) Friction angle behind stem ¢ = 179 SOLUTION Assume Grade 25 concrete and Grade 400 Y bars Step 1 Estimate Wall Dimensions Stem width at base to be determined from B.M. Considerations h = 550mm Consider 1 metre width of wall wh h wh Mmax = Ka 53 = Ka 0.299 x 1920 x 9.8 x5.52 x 5500 6 x 106 Nmm 15x 156x106 = 2342105 Num Assume b = 100m. ku = 0:35 B= 085 Fe 1350 (4 «x 2358 Now 7 = 0.85 Fe = 25 MPa Ms 6321.875¢2 - 9402 9 = 08 (Flexure)M = 5057.5¢2 - 75242 M = 4305.50? x 106 254 1OE oss tmm D = 233.14 12 + 50 = 285.1mm ; (cover) Base of stem = 360mm sty, Top of stem = 200mm Base Slab = 360mm (same as stem) Total Height of Wall H = 5500 + 360 = 5860mm Width of Base : b = 0.5 10 0.6 293) to 3516 v= 3400mm_ oe Projection: Bor ay 200mm Wn J =| too psp waa] see oeaeun. osSTER2: STABILITY CHECK (Magnitude of | Dist fom D | Moment ABT Load nm Nam 235 7360 FB iF 10349 1306.7 135 x 106 279 1700 x 108 36x 3.4% 2400x988 ae ee a 84x55% 1920298 eee wa = Ignore = SE Sebainine | sra3 5 108 . Cvertuming Moment = a WE 0.299 x 1920 x 9.8 x 5860 x 5.862 . 6 OTM. x 15 = 283 x 106Nmm 188.7 x 106mm ‘Stabilizing Moment x 0.8 = 572.2 x 106 x 0.8 = 4578 x 105Nmm Design resistance effect is greater than the design action effect. So design is satisfactory. ‘STEP: ‘CHECK SOIL BEARING PRESSURE UNDER BASE Distance of point of applications of resultant from D Net moment about D Total Vertical Load 572. x 106 - 188.7 x 106 2.55 x 108 = 1504mm+ Been of Rents = 400-1504 «960m <2 » Sst about £ of base, ‘The resultant falls within the middle third of the base and Consequently we will have a trapezoidal pressure distribution under the base slab, M_Ww aaa wp ss pee Eto] ot en aga ma 255028 [6x96] 4, max = "3400 +3400 |* = 75.1 (1 +0346) x 10-3 pmax = 0.10 MPs < 0.2 MPa (allowable) eee ereeee pmin=% (1-8 = 75.1 (1 - 0.346) x 103 p.min = 0.049 MPa (See diagram) As? x 4002 08 A 00 288 ao292.5 x 108 19200 As - 3.7752 As? . 31618As + 77.7 x 105 =0 As = 2686mm? ‘X20.bars at 100 mm CIC (As = 3100mm2) Min spacing = 3dy 20 = 60mm Curtial Reinf. 2.5 metres above base, Obtain moment at this section and recalculate main stem rein Distribution Reinforceme: 0.0017 x 360 x 1000 = 612mm? R12 bars at 175mm C/C (As = 629mm?) Maxiuuin spacing 600mm or SD ‘STEP 5: DESIGN OF TOE Tgnate soll above toe slab TRE Da Fae CB apa a [eae ae me eS? pone 082 x 1200 x 1000 CJ seco + 00 18.64 x 106 Eoin tans n00 [rant | Dike set wears mar for rar as Tosa te Se Be Peston ‘Moment per metre 7 61.58 x 108 Ultimate moment M’ = 1.5 x 61.58 x 106 = 92.37 x 106 NmmEffective depth available : d = 360 - 50 - 12 = 298 mm Astisy2 Asfyd “Tax Pend 92.37 x 106 As? x 4002 OBrien Oe et 7inia 5/100 115.45 x 106 x 105 = 119200As - 3.7As As? - 31618As + 30.63 x 105 = 0 0 As = 1000mm2 X20 bars @ 300mm CIC As = 103mm? Disir. Reint: As! = 0.0017 x 360 x 1000 = 612mm? Ri bars at 175mm CIC (As = 629mm?) STEP 6 DESIGN OF Wagaitade [Dit fom B | Mom ABTS Loads due to of Load (N)| gm) Naw, Weight of Backil cW3) L isosiss | 920 1752 x 108 55% 184% 1920.98 Self We of Hee Slab tssa0t 920 143 x 108 036 x 184% 10 x2400 x 9.8, LESS: UPWARD PRESSURE: soreot [20 a2.9x106 0.069 x 1440 x 1000, asteot [307 7.9x108 brane 10. (500 Net Design Mom per metre width | Net L 8.78108Ultimate Moment M’ = 1.5 x 98.7 x 105 = 148.05 x 106 Nmm Depth Available J = 298mm M As2fay? ees Cate y 148.05 x 106 As? x 4002 08 ets 28 ry a 251511000 185 x 106 = 119200 As - 3.7432 AS = 1637mm2 '¥20 bars at 175mm C/C (As = 171mm?) Distribution Steel: AS! = 0017 x 360 x 1000 = 612mm? R12 bars at 175mm C/C As = 629mm? STEP 7 CHECK SLIDING Factored sliding force/metre of wall rd xis 21920 x 5.86098 | 1,Factored Resisting Force (Ignore toe backfill) =H.W. (08) = 05 x 255 x 105 (0.8) = 02x 05N Sliding Force > Resisting Force. Provide a sheer key, FACTORED SLIDING FORCE ~ 0.8 (,W + Passive Resistance) wh2 Passive Resistance =p 7 Beet glee 385 x 1920198 ay = 50.662 12 1.43 x 10 0.8 (1.275 x 108 + 0.507 x 105n2) 179 x 105 = 1.275 x 10542 h = 10 metres Key Depth 10 - 0.36 = 0.64 mees Key : 0.5m x 064m"Protection backfill necessary" K/20/75mm Ge Y200 /oommck Y20 9/780m Ge R29 /75mm Sl Y20 9 Seomm ceCHAPTER 6 EARTH PRESSURES AND RETAINING SYSTEMS SECTION 6C - CONSTRUCTION DETAILS EARTH EMBANKMENT Figure 6C.1_ Earth embankment stubilised with a concrete cover SHEET PILING RETAINING WALLS Figure 6C.2 Typical detail uf a shee pling retaining wal.‘SOLDIER BEAM RETAINING WALLS Figure 6C. 3 Typical detail of a soldier beam cetaining wall BASEMENT WALL - TYPICAL DETAIL peor bearing Figure 6C, 4 Typical detail ofa basement wall,BASEMENT WALL SPECIAL CONDITIONS Fras vas | Fst oor ae SSS Piss rads Figure 6C. 5 Basement wall with face brick below grace. Smeal | Exposed concrete Fished aed Figure 6C. 7 Basement wall with a recessed entrance.Sore iring premeller fue (Pn ele usenet tae Figure 6C. 10 Earth pressure transfer from basement wall to slab ground.GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS * Figure 6C. 11 Typical detail ofa gravity retaining wall CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS Figure 6C. 12 Typical detail ofa cantilever retaining wallWALLS REQUIRING SPECIAL RESTRAINTS ‘There are walls chat simply cannot develop sufficient lateral resistance through & 2 © Diameter of opening ‘The D designations used in the above erteria refer to particle dimensions obtained dung a sieve analysis peronmed inthe laboratory, Dy, fr example, ents a specifi ize of particle forwhich 15% of he sol when mesure by weit bof sealers bees Ina standard seve analysis the opening through hich the partite must pass is square. The particle, however, is not square, but will have diferent dimensions of legth, brea, sad height. The size refered toby the D designations, therefore, does no inal probability ‘epresent the largest dimension nor the smallest dimension of the particle, bu wil represent Somme dimension i between. The stallest sieve though sich the particle wil pases ‘determined by theallgnment ofthe parle with respect othe opening Inthe eke SAMPLE PROBLEM Required: First: To classify the soil proposed for we as backfill for ¢ cantilever retaining wall, and particularly, te determine wher iis pootly graded or wel graded.‘Second: to determine whether the sil propose for us in the continuous filter sytem satisies the requirement of a good filter mate. Given: The sieve analysis of each material is given in Table EL ‘The material proposed for use as backfill will be classified according to the United Soil Classiticaion System, 1, The material is fis classified as coarse grained. This is because more than SO% (ctualy 96%) ofthe dry weigh ofthe Sample is retained on a No. 0075 mam sieve. 2. The materials next classified as sand, because a grester percentage ofthe coarse fraction (actually 18% of 96%) passes a No. 4.8 seve 3. Its also noted that ss than 5% of the sample (actually 45) passes a No. 0.075 mm. Table, Pecetage of Total Weight Pssng® {Sies Sine 98 9 “aoe ars (ec Frog [100 a? | a 2 + Perconages ar based on dy weight bese values podice he ave shown ia Figure E For the condition noted in item 3 the flow chart of Figure 2 requires that he coefficients of ‘uniformity and curvature be evaluated in ordet to classify the sample as well graded or poorly _raded. The use ofthese coefficients is deseribed below. ‘The coefficient of uniformity C, and the coefficient of curvature C, ae used to determine ‘whether a particular sand or grivel should be classified as well prided or poor'y graded, The , wil generally increase with the degree o which asoil is well graded. Soils Conforming (0 {he following limitations may be classified as well graded, those not conforming a classified as poorly graded: G.>4and3>C,> 1 for gravel €>6and3>C.> 1 forsind [Figure El. Points shown circled are ploed from Table El, points shown boxed are read off ofthe curve and recorded in Table E2In order todo this work it is recessary to draw a paicle distribution curve ofthe backfill ‘material. Because later work requires similar data regarding the iter material, both curves have been shown on Pigue El ‘The patil size corresponding tothe required D values is read off ofeach curve. The subscripts ofthe D values resent the vertical point on the eure tt which the percentage of parle, by weight, Is finer The numbers thu obtained are given in Table Ed. ‘To determine the grading characterises ofthe backfil, compute: — c= at Dux Dy os 24en ana cx 0808 aa0 2axomD Table E2 Pale Sin Mime? (Fess BT Do ‘Bak oa ost | ath] P28 Pi ee “These sizes are read of ofthe curve on Figure BL For well graded sand the coefficients must satisfy the following: C,>6and3>C.>1 ‘canbe seen thatthe backfill satisfies these requirements and can inally be classified a araded sand. ‘To determine the suitability of tho Str matrial it i frst noted tha the prick dstibuton uve f this material more ores paral hat of te backll. Ts General inca of ‘wel chosen filer material, (Calculations for fter adequacy are a follows: From Formal (1) 23 a e14>4 OK oat From Formula (2): 2a Proms ox From Formula (3): 74 4 a4e25 OK 17From Formula (4 oK ‘The filter material, efor, stiles all equremens,CHAPTER 7 REINFORCED EARTH RETAINIG WALLSCHAPTER 7 REINFORCED EARTH RETAINING WALLS Introduction ‘The mechanically reinforced eat wal of the figure below wes the ripe of inrodcing reinforcing into 2 granular bacfl via rhania! meaneeoch rata ep and code, seoextle sips and sheets, or wir gids. There is ile difference in reinforcing so or reinforced concrete both materi use reinforcement cary the tensa suesses developed by the applied loads. Bond stsses resist pullout in conree and si uses friction smesses Aevloped base on he angle of son between sl nd reiforcenet ‘The principe of reinforced earths not new at stam, bamboo rods and similar altersative ‘weil have long been used to reinfored mad bricks and mad wal of peimitive booses "Noverteles. in pit ofthis ong usage French oie, H Vidal, wa able oobi a pte ‘onthe general configuration fhe Ggue below which e termed veined eat? team) (0) far ph‘We seein the figure there are three basic components involved in reinforced earth. The Earthfill - usually select granular materia with less thn 15% passing the No 200 sieve (Sam). Reinforcement ~ stips or rods of metal, sheets of geotentiles or wie gridding fastened tothe facing uit and extending into the backfill some distance. Ribbed Steel Reinforcing Strips ‘The sri are ste! flats grade 250 of section 40 x 5 mam or 60 x 5 mm, and are hot ip zalvanised to AS 1650 to give a maximum coating thickness of 85 mm, The stip ae ribbed ‘with the pater recuring approximately every 150 mm and the ribbing increases the fiction ‘response ofthe stel inthe ear a 2 + va 18 cue rt vaats / manne rr fetsones | 1 Tl 3 oy dl [ash 3 I 1 3 Wi ae /L se Lass wes — sous uae ze | ke , ROSED RENFORLG SIR 2 BOLT, 30 LONG ( GAOE 841Corrosion of the Reinforcing Strips ‘Corrosion ofa buried metals an essentially elecrochemieal process. Many electrical cells form ‘0 the metal surface with water as the electrolyte, Corrosion occurs at ie anode where the ‘current leaves the metal due to the passage of ins into solution Inthe ease of galvanised steel, zinc and iron have very different potentials and ne i always aa ‘node in relation to steel. In other words, as soon as localised defaults orcarosin ofthe zine coating occurs, exposing the steel, che surrounding ine coating is attacked. The spots of micro cell are charged atthe same time making the accurrence uniform, Moreover, the corrosion by- products cover the area of exposed iron and form, with the earth, avery wdherent protective envelope, which helpsto stabilise the zine protection. caTione svooe * ‘sree, CORROSION OF GALVANISED STEEL ‘Curren design practice allows tor a reduction inthe cross sectional are ofthe strip as detailed inthe able “Recommended Values - Total Sacrificial Thickness (ma), p187, w4 Facing Panels ‘The panels are made of precast unreinforced concrete in crusiform shape of nominal thickness 180 mm and 220 mm, and weight approximately | tonne which makes the unis relatively easy to handle by standard constrvtion plat. Essentially, the basic foundation of the facing panels in a reinforced earth structure isto provide 4 skin to protect the exposed surface of the reinforced earth miss, they ate nota primary structural clement Under construction, the staggered panel courses provide te ability to successively support ‘ants off preceding panel courses thus avoiding the need for extemal propping. The panels ft together in staggered courses wit the dowel of one panel fitting into the tube of the adjacent nel inthe preceding course. The 1500 mm module is maintained by using «spreader bar and ‘measuring back to the previously placed panel, ‘The panels are lifted from the stacks and placed inthe wall using two proprietary lifting pins ‘ast int the top surface ofthe concrete. Other castin elemens are the te points which protrude ‘rom the rear of the panels in set location. The number aed location ofthe te point are a {unction ofthe numberof reinforcing strips equied in that 2one asthe are used to connec he reinforcing tps othe facing peels Jointing materials are used between each panel on both the vertical and horizontal surfaces. In ‘the vertical joint open cell polyurethane foam of $0 mm x 50 mm section is used. ‘This is shed into the joint after the pane as been placed. On each horizontal joint 20 rum thick resin bonded cork board is placed.Construction Procedure Erection ofa reinforced earth structure is simple and quick and does not require the use of scaffolding as each panel fits inthe space formed by the panels already in place ‘The vertially and comet alignment of the wall are controlled by | Wood wedges placed at the exteior of the wall inthe step formed near the dowel ‘connection. They are removed gradually as subsequent embankment layers are placed. 2. Clamping each panel to adjacent panels while backfilling isin progress 3. Careful monitoring ofthe movement of panels during backfilling and compaction. Erection of panels and connection of reinforcing strips ‘The first row of panels are placed on an unreinforcedconcree levelling pad. To ensure thatthe ‘panels do not move during backfling, they are braced ina vertical position using temporary rops. ‘The erection of subsequent rows of panels is a fonction of the rate of placing of the backfill ‘The verticality ofthe panels is maintained by the use of wood wedges and clamps so that during compaction ofthe baciill the panels ae rotated back to the vertical position after giving the ‘Panels an intial Jean back, Ar each vertical joint, polyester foam is forced into the joint to ‘ensure thatthe fines donot escape through this joint. ‘The reinforcing strips are bolted tothe panels by means ofthe tie strips cast into the rear ofthe nels. They are bolted to the panels only after the backfill has been compacted to each level of| tie strips, Placing and Compaction of Backfill ‘Te select ack i placed and compacted in maximum lifts of 375 mam, whichis half the ‘normal distance between levels of reinforcing stip. It is necessary to ensure that heavy spreading or compaction equipment does not come i contact with the reinforcing strips not ‘come within 15 metres ofthe face ofthe wall. Compaction close to the walls achieved using hand operated vibrating plates or rollers In the majority of structures, the degree of compéction is stated in the construction specifications and compaction equivalent to 95% standard Proctor s normally specified. The ‘backfill material should not be placed st higher than optimum moisture content.Erection Outputs The rate of erection of reinforced earth structures is primarily determined by the rate at which the backflis placed and compacted. Other considerations ae the size ofthe erection crew and. ease of acess to the site, ‘An average crew consists of: |A working foreman ‘Thee labourers Aight crane operator ‘A motor grader and operator ‘Compaction equipment wih operators ‘The above crew will give an average output of: (@) 15 panels per day (approx 30m? in the case of small structures with difficult acess. (©) 35 panels per day (approx 80m2) in the case of large structures with easy acces.Basie Principles of Reinforced Earth ‘The basic principle of reinforced earth is a in Figure 11.1 where we havea wall acted on bythe Rankine/Coulomb setive earth wedge. Itis assumed, verified by full scale tests, that the earth foree developed from the ative earth wedge at any depth: is carted by reinfoccing stip tension. Strip tension is developed in the zoe outside the activ earth wedge from the fietion angle 6 between stip and soil andthe vertical earth pressure zy on the strip. Wit no lateral ‘arth pressure left tobe carried by the wall facing it can be quite thin and flexible withthe Principal functions of erosion contol and appearance. Sen Soe Pigg cua final uth ih = Fete co a ao Figure 111 ‘The following several factors enter nto the design of a reinforced earth wal: 1, Backfill soi is usually specified to be grarular; however, recent research indicates we ‘can use cohesive soli a porous geotextile i used for reinforcement to allow the excess Pore pressure from vertical pressure on the reinforcement strip to dissipate so a drained {ition angle @'can develop a friction component between the soil and stip. 2. Backiil soil should be compacted but with care taken not to get equipment to close to te facing unit soit is plled from the reinfacement. Ths ie « major consideration for cohesive backfill nd would requir atleast a narrow vertical zone of granular soil against the facing uit“Test xprimet walt tthe Rankine wedge aque sie he solwege, The p angles sprint 45-8 with throat. ‘The wall shouldbe sufficiently flexible thatthe ative earth pressure wedge forms and any setlementinhsidence doesnot ta the facing unit from the sinfoncement tis usual to only include tension inthe reinforcement outside the essumed sol wedge one as distance L of Fig 11.2. ‘The wal failure wil be either via 6.1. Tensioe in the reinforcement 62 Bearing capacity failure ofthe base soll supporting the wall log the base AB. 6.3 Sliding of de fll wall block ACBD along base AB. Sorcarges as in Figure 11.3 ar allowed onthe backfl, Tes increase the lta sre on te wall andthe verzl preset ny depth. This vei peu an be sited accoring to Lab Kemal (1986 ing te 2: Ver peste met, gy = pil slown in Figure 1.2. Iti Sige we see thatin thse Ly ever Presi fom he surcharge inate tin reitcecompeeat to somewtt fete aerial rere ow ested om te ame sucha ‘For corrosion itis common to increase theoretical strip thickness by 0.75 mm oa each face ‘Where sesthetes is critical a number of concrete facing units in a wide range of shitectraly pleasing facades are avaiable.eg ime eed bt mat nd pedal ih ie Figure 11.3Design of RE Walls Design of RE wall proceeds basicaly flows: Figure 114 1, Batimate vera an horizontal spacing of enforced oti as in Figue 11.4, Spacing ismaningles fa wire gris; shy ae fixed smi, spacing for geolexte see's ‘busno meaning. The analysis based on unit width 2. Compute the tensile load ofthe reinforcement asthe area ofthe presre diagram outbuing tote strip. For «composite diagram Figue113 this ite area ofthe ‘Pressure zone ac. For the tanger diagram for backfill he sip fre ithe zea able whic becomes the average presse qt depth Z, = Yh uy This pressure act over an aren of (x8) nd gives ata fore of The GA = 12k Ox) ‘A computational check gives sum ofthe tension force = hore componeit of on& sip spacing sas fellows: B= Pp 3. Comput the sri ngs requires to develop a fcdonal resistance F, =). ‘rom thee lngts and Ranize wedge 2008 we cin dtcine the oer sup eth Lo. The fiction kath is based on sio-srip ection off f= tnd 8 = 6 foribbed sel reinforcing sis 8 = 20° 1925 for smoot einforeing sips3 Forstipsb x Le on geotentile sheets of unit width x both sides resi in fiction. For ‘ound bar the perimeter resists fiction where in both cases the frictions the product of ‘(normal pressure on reo) computed as py = YZ; Zj = average depth from surface tor, This gives STRIP: 2(y2) wn 8 (OxLe) 2 Th (11.24) Rods: MDZ) tan 5) 2 T (11a) Sheet 2yZ) tan BL xL) <7 (1126) ‘These equations give a SF = 1 when the inequality i replaced by equality. Any SF > 1 ‘equires Le larger than given by these equation. 4. Nestomp ti a ox, Forme sip orb, Atombeares's 3p For geotextles we have a problem in thatthe fabric strength varies between manufsctuters as wells on fabric type and grade, Here we have to test (or have tested by the mill or other Source) the fabri to obtain the strength usualy in Ibfin or KNim of width. From the several choices we choose a strip so that Seip width bx suengtbunit width 2 7; This may require cycling back to step 1 or2to reset the horizontal and vertical reinforcement Spacirg, Since febric cost is celavely small compazed to other costs (etgineering time, ‘beckflec), considerable overdesign is cceptable ‘A major consideration with rods is thatthe size be about 3 times larger than tk average (Dso) Particl diameters of the granular backil so adequate friction contac is developed. Thi is less ‘rite! with wire grids since the grid bas perpendicular to the tension rods provide considerable aditicnal pallout resistance, The pullot fores and resistance are assumed to be developed as shown in Figue 11 where a tension from the wall face to the Rankine/Coulomb rupture zone defined by the angle p ‘develops toa maximum atthe wedge line. This is resisted bythe fiction developing ouside the ‘zone aoag length Le (of Figure 11.2) so we can waite from the differential equation shown on Figure 12.4n= fo ampetn ea) “This may be somewhat of ovesinlifcaton, nd bmi be plc wih he perimeter for round bus, bu sez allow a degute wall esgn. ‘Mos ofthe currently used enforced eath walls se under ptt protection; however, tis ‘mporantounerstnd the pines involved and methods of enya ot in ero make & ‘reasonable decision onthe best system frat and becase the pets on some cf the walls wilexpirsboy sad the metho) wil afro he pblie domi. Example Analyse the wal of igure shown below using sip einforcemeat. The stip willbe space at = 1 mandh= 1 mo cente on the concrete wall ficing was. We wll we intelocing ‘infoedconerete acing nts which are shaped a inode 200 me ik (and weigh ‘out | Yomse each}. A wal fotng wil be poured to provice alignment and to spread the acing wit oad somenbat since tee weigh ¢ more than the uit weight of sol. A150 mam ‘ick info cap willbe placed on op of he wall mano op alignment nd spear, Required: Acaiyse atypia sir vera section nd sel esion sips bad on f= OMe y= 173K eeu bane SOLUTION: Rom RaakinesTabes ky = 0283 ret p= anu f= Dats ‘Set up the following able fom known wal dna, i formed after obtaining and chosen ‘sip width" i 40 mm 60mm Inthis example we wil use 2-60 sips b = 120mm Tn 7x9) Ke Te2YZ) tang (bale) = 20,0 FF (ian) aonCheck: Taal, = "YH 2 173 x 10x 0288 = 4a 0K Now ouzo esa i 46514 (USE MAK) 2 t= pattem = ame = 277m 27142075) = 427 Une tw Sum toi. orsmn © 27389 BQUATING FRICTION FORCE (PULLOUT) TO STRIP TENSION Alef = 7 perdi no ae 7° RIB) aus A arise Gary + 26m astm eqgtthy = use 229s Leqetiys © um ‘he Rankine Zone Disurce Ly =H Tan (0) a RtasArter: we SF agin pullout is 292595 1 1 we foo hie to small we ean semply iauicase he vera length Lost 9.0m this will givea SF = 1.49, Suramarisng : Use strips 2/60 mm x $ mm thick x 8.0 long Check Bearing Capacity of Wall, ‘Use bearing sapacity equations by Terzaghi or Heyerhof fora | metre wide stip xB = 80m, Use 1.0 for shape, depth and inclination factors, (Check wail siding along base WiotBlock Wy = yBLH, 73x1x8x10 Friction resigance to sliding Fy = Wotan 8 ‘Where dy is of the order of for sil-o-si slip Fy = Wotan 34 = 1384 x (0.674) = 932.8 KN> Py =2448 KN ‘This constiues the necessary wall checks and completes the design. ‘The Service Lite ‘Any stuctarebuil in einforced earth mast have an adequate factor of sfety agains failure at the end ofits designe. Current design practice allows for a reduction inthe steel section on ‘each face ofthe strip so that atthe end ofthe service life under design working load, the stip will be within allowable sess kimi, ‘Recommended Vales - Total Sacrificial Thickness (mm ServieeLite | 5 years 30 years oyeas [100 year Sie SuipType | plain av | plain galv | plsin—galv | ain —_galv | Deptend S[Sos Eero psoas | Sag oan Fehwer [os | 20 10 | 49 15 | 30 20 Masine | 10 0 | 30 52 70 peel ‘TOBE DETERMINED BY SPECIAL STUDY [es Auge eee eee“a? Inrealty here is cnsideable life left up te sleeve even at the end of the design service life Conley ln sce ith | a esgn svi of 10 yeas sing sp ‘shown in tgp 10 ye, th ip wb ais lovable ste (6% fy se foloing eos of 1 mica aces ‘Ascmig his contr usb (0am) hv ond te 8 fuer 50 ea eah yd ses (40 yes ui ses) >} rato sss SEL 1055 oat Inter words, on reaching its design Ce, life, structure shoald stil have a safety factor against failure of 2. Such reditions are conservative as they €o ‘ot take into accouet the observed drop in corrosion rate with ime, A reinforced earth structure would not necessarily collapse on reaching its design life, or even after that. fa reinforcement stip ‘yielded, some movement would occur and the load would be re-distibuted giving adequate ‘waming of impending end of service. Costs RE retaining wall are generally cheaper than equivalent conventional sructures in concrete or crib block. A study of comparative costs showed savings for walls 3 metres to metres high ‘of 3% to 32% respectively. These costs allowed for imported selec fill; s0 on sites where onlot ili available, reinforced call would bow greater Savings. Bridge abutments in enforced earth are also cheaper than the comparable reinforced coneret ot spill through abutments after allowing forthe cost of additonal deck area. Where conditions are especially favourable to conventional RC abutments, ie good foundations and RR fill imported as cost premium te costs are practically the same,Raine scsve earth pressure coco K, esig Eg (1-72) ueCHAPTER 8 SHEET PILE WALLSCHAPTER 8 SHEET PILE WALLS Introduction ‘A sheet ple is tan, wide ple driven into the ground using apilehamme, A series of shut pile in «row form a shet pile wall, as shown in Figure 10.1. Most sheet piles are made of stel, but some are made of reinforced concrete, Figure 10.1. A shee pile wall. ‘The sheet pile walls may be divided into two basic categories: (escent b) anchored walls abe oslo oly coer shor se pilot end sown a Figs 102 However unl necessary opovde metal oppor aloe inte kel above he gound Ts mayb snnlied mcr slots oy itera braces ry titel tach Internal braces are horizontal or diagonal compression members that suppor the wall, 4s shown in Fig 102, Tieback anchors ae teasion members drilled into the ground ‘behind the wall, The most common type is 4 grouted anchor with ste! tendon102. Shor sheet ple walls can often cantilever, ler walls usualy equieinteral or eback anchors, Cantilever sheet pile wall Cantilever shee pile walls are usually recommended for walls of moderate height - shoot 10 mor less measured above the dredge line. The basic principles forthe ¢slmaton of net aera pression on cantever she ple Wall can be ‘explained with the aid of Figure 10:3, which shows the nature of lateral yielding of @ ‘cantlever wall pentratng a sand ayer below the dredge line. The wall ftstes soot @ point O. Because the hydrostatic pressures a ny depth from both sides ofthe wall wll ‘ance! each other, we wil consider only the effective lateral sil pressures. In Zane A, the lateral resus only the act ress om the land se. in Zone B, ecase ‘ofthe nature of yielding ofthe wall, there wil be active pressure from the land ide nd passive pressure from the waterside. ‘The condition is eversed in Zone C that i, ‘plow the point of ration, O. The net actual pressure distbotion on the wal ice that shown in Figure 10.3 (0). However, fr design purposes, Figure 10.3 (c) shows Simplified version. ay El Eat | Zp Sind Figure 103. Cantilever seet pile penetrating sand,Canilever sheet pile penetrating sand Refe to Fg 104, the step-by-step procedure for obtaining the presse diagram fora Cantever eet ple wall ecg io gral sl a folows: Figute 104. Cantilever shee pile pentatng: (a) variation of net pressure diagram: () variation of moment. 1. Calculate K, and K, 2. Calculate p, and p, pay K, 0.1) Pi Oh 47K, 102) ‘Where K, _=Rankine active pressure coefficient (45+ 62) Y it weight of sil above the water table y fective unit weight of sol = Ya~ "Note: L, and L, will be given, 3. CaealaeL, Py 0.3) LE 4. Caleulae P 1 1 1 Zh telat 5 O-PLet 5 Pls10. 2 BB. Clete 2 - thats, the cent of pressure forte aes ACDE by taking he ‘moment abot - ide austen, Pee (YL; + YL.) K, +7Ls (K, - K) (10.4) Clleuate A, Ay Asand A, oe 70k ans) se eae 106) 1K,-K,) Aaa SrIRzY EK, ~ K+ 1 SPREYK,-K+ 7, 07 7K KY tee PGep4P) ax Meter) 108 11k, K oe Solve 109 by wi and ert dete LY ALY-ALy Aly Ave 1209) Cacatae Beem tT La, -K) wo.w) Cala p, Pal (K-K)y” 0.1) oven, ye BCA fe r= Dra he pte gama shown nig 104). bain tenet dep 10.13 fpneeton a Ly. Te sc Spine peacason heresy suc S650 Nee Son devas peter ie a atr o sy on he ue cam pers cries a Beata nth case insep | = Kaun” FE Where FS = factor of safety (asually betweest 15 192)1s. 16. Determine the point of zero shea, [eel (20.13) Calculate the magnitude of the maximum moment Myu =P (Z421)- 34°22 (K, -K) (00.14) Caleta the setion modulus ofthe shet ple s- Me (10.15) ‘Wher Seton modus fhe shes pile reqitdpr ntngth ofthe lowable flexural srss of the shet pile Cantilever sheet piling penetrating clay Refer to Fig 105, step by-step procedure to obtain the pressure digratn: Figure 105. Cantilever sheet pile penetrating clay (Calculate K, = tan® (45-472) for the granalar sil (backfil}. ‘Obiainp, and p, [Eq 10.1 and 10:2). Calculate F and Z (aitance of te centre of pressure ofthe pressure diagram ‘ACDE meesured from the level ofthe dredge ne), ‘Use Eq 10.16 to obain the theoretical valu of.