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4: What is fragmentation?
** MTU is the acronym for maximum transmission unit and is the largest frame
size that can be transmitted over a network. Messages longer than the MTU
must be divided into smaller frames. The network layer (Layer 3) protocol
determines the MTU from the data link layer (Layer 2) protocol and fragments the
messages into the appropriate frame size, making the frames available to the
lower layer for transmission without further fragmentation. The MTU for Ethernet
is 1518 bytes.
** In Ethernet a runt is a frame that is less than 64 bytes in length, and a giant is
a frame that is greater than 1518 bytes in length. Giants are frames that are
greater than the MTU used, which might not always be 1518 bytes.
** Cut-through switching examines just the frame header, determining the output
switch port through which the frame will be forwarded. Store-and-forward
examines the entire frame, header and data payload, for errors. If the frame is
error free, it is forwarded out its destination switch port interface. If the frame has
errors, the switch drops the frame from its buffers. This is also known as
discarding the frame to the bit bucket.
* * Layer 2 switches make their forwarding decisions based on the Layer 2 (data
link) address, such as the MAC address. Layer 3 switches make their forwarding
decisions based on the Layer 3 (network) address.
** The difference between Layer 3 switching and routing is that Layer 3 switches
have hardware to pass data traffic as fast as Layer 2 switches. However, Layer 3
switches make decisions regarding how to transmit traffic at Layer 3 in the same
way as a router. A Layer 3 switch cannot use WAN circuits or use routing
protocols; a router is still required for these functions.
OSI
Iso has designed a reference model called osi reference model(open system
interconnection).
It has 7 layers. It says Any n/w for comunication needs 7 layers
7.Application layer:
The user uses application layer to send the data The protocols@ this layer are
ftp,http,smtp(e-mail) telenet etc.
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6.Presentation layer:
Presentation layer takes the data from application layer and presentIn different
formats for securing reason. The services offered @This layer areCompression –
decompressionCoding – decodingEncryption - decryption
5. Session layer:
Establishing the session or the conectivity n/w n/w 1 & n/w 2 is doneBy the
session layer.It 1. Establishes a session2. maintains it &3. Terminates it b/w the
application
4. Transport layer:
3. Netwrok layer :
It has two Sub layersa)MAC{Media access control } b) LLC {logical link control
framing of data}Ip address is lik the pincode & MAC address is like house
number.Here layer2 switches are used.Wab protocols used at this layer are
PPP,HDLC,FP,X.25 etc.Here error checking CRC bits are added to the
packetsDLL info+ packets --> frames
1. physical layer:
2: What does it mean when a route table says that an address is variably
subnetted?
**Variably subnetted means that the router knows of more than one subnet mask
for subnets of the same major IP address.
5: What are the two bracketed numbers associated with the non-directly
connected routes in the route table?
**The first bracketed number is the administrative distance of the routing protocol
by which the route was learned. The second number is the metric of the route.
**A summary route is a single route entry that points to multiple subnets or major
IP addresses. In the context of static routes, summary routes can reduce the
number of static routes that must be configured.
**Equal-cost load sharing distributes traffic equally among multiple paths with
equal metrics. Unequal-cost load sharing distributes packets among multiple
paths with different metrics. The traffic will be distributed inversely proportional to
the cost of the routes
OSPF Q & A
*** From the perspective of an OSPF router, a neighbor is another OSPF router
that is attached to one of the first router's directly connected links.
***An OSPF adjacency is a conceptual link to a neighbor over which LSAs can
be sent.
3: What is an LSA? How does an LSA differ from an OSPF Update packet?
***The link state database is where a router stores all the OSPF LSAs it knows
of, including its own. Database synchronization is the process of ensuring that all
routers within an area have identical link state databases.
8: What is an area?
***An area is an OSPF sub-domain, within which all routers have an identical link
state database.
***Area 0 is the backbone area. All other areas must send their inter-area traffic
through the backbone.
EIGRP Q & A
*** EIGRP is a Hybrid routing protocol,it have features of both distance vector
and link state routing protocol.
*** By default, EIGRP uses no more than 50% of the link's bandwidth, based on
the bandwidth configured on the router's interface. This percentage to be
changed with the command ip bandwidth-percent eigrp.
3: How do EIGRP and IGRP differ in the way they calculate the composite
metric?
*** EIGRP and IGRP use the same formula to calculate their composite metrics,
but EIGRP scales the metric by a factor of 256.
4: In the context of EIGRP, what does the term reliable delivery mean?
Which two methods ensure reliable delivery of EIGRP packets?
*** Reliable delivery means EIGRP packets are guaranteed to be delivered, and
they are delivered in order. RTP uses a reliable multicast, in which received
packets are acknowledged, to guarantee delivery; sequence numbers are used
to ensure that they are delivered in order.
*** Sequence numbers ensure that a router is receiving the most recent route
entry.
*** The default EIGRP Hello interval is 5 seconds, except on some slow-speed
(T1 and below) interfaces, where the default is 60 seconds.
*** The EIGRP default hold time is three times the Hello interval.
9: What is the difference between the neighbor table and the topology
table?
*** The neighbor table stores information about EIGRP-speaking neighbors; the
topology table lists all known routes that have feasible successors.
*** The feasibility condition is the rule by which feasible successors are chosen
for a destination. The feasibility condition is satisfied if a neighbor's advertised
distance to a destination is lower than the receiving router's feasible distance to
the destination. In other words, a router's neighbor meets the feasibility condition
if the neighbor is metrically closer to the destination than the router. Another way
to describe this is that the neighbor is "downstream" relative to the destination
1: What are the five OSPF packet types? What is the purpose of each type?
*** The five OSPF packet types, and their purposes, are:
Hellos, which are used to discover neighbors, and to establish and maintain
adjacencies
Database Description packets, which a router uses to describe its link state
database to a neighbor during database synchronization
Link State Requests, which a router uses to request one or more LSAs from a
neighbor's link state database
2: What are LSA types 1 to 5 and LSA type 7? What is the purpose of each
type?
*** The most common LSA types and their purposes are:
Type 1 (Router LSAs) are originated by every router and describe the originating
router, the router's directly connected links and their states, and the router\xd5 s
neighbors.
Type 3 (Network Summary LSAs) are originated by Area Border Routers and
describe inter-area destinations.
Type 4 LSAs (ASBR Summary LSAs) are originated by Area Border Routers to
describe Autonomous System Boundary Routers outside the area.
# Internal Routers, whose OSPF interfaces all belong to the same area
# Area Border Routers, which have OSPF interfaces in more than one area
Intra-area paths
Inter-area paths
i)Point-to-point networks
v) Virtual links
***An area is partitioned if one or more of its routers cannot send a packet to the
area's other routers without sending the packet out of the area.
*** A virtual link is a tunnel that extends an OSPF backbone connection through
a non-backbone area.
10: What is the difference between a stub area, a totally stubby area, and a
not-so-stubby area?
***A stub area is an area into which no type 5 LSAs are flooded. A totally stubby
area is an area into which no type 3, 4, or 5 LSAs are flooded, with the exception
of type 3 LSAs to advertise a default route. Not-so-stubby areas are areas
through which external destinations are advertised into the OSPF domain, but
into which no type 5 LSAs are sent by the ABR.
11: What is the difference between OSPF network entries and OSPF router
entries?
*** OSPF network entries are entries in the route table, describing IP
destinations. OSPF router entries are entries in a separate route table that record
only routes to ABRs and ASBRs.
13: Which three fields in the LSA header distinguish different LSAs? Which
three fields in the LSA header distinguish different instances of the same
LSA?
***The three fields in the LSA header that distinguish different LSAs are the
Type, Advertising Router, and the Link State ID fields. The three fields in the LSA
header that distinguish different instances of the same LSA are the Sequence
Number, Age, and Checksum fields
*** The Route Tag field, the Subnet Mask field, and the Next Hop field are RIPv2
extensions that do not exist in RIPv1 messages. The basic format of the RIP
message remains unchanged between the two versions; version 2 merely uses
fields that are unused in version 1.
***In addition to the functions that use the new fields, RIPv2 supports
authentication and multicast updates.
4: What is the purpose of the Route Tag field in the RIPv2 message?
*** When another routing protocol uses the RIPv2 domain as a transit domain,
the protocol external to RIPv2 can use the Route Tag field to communicate
information to its peers on the other side of the RIPv2 domain.
*** The Next Hop field is used to inform other routers of a next-hop address on
the same multiaccess network that is metrically closer to the destination than the
originating router.
***RIPv2 uses the same UDP port number as RIPv1, port number 520.
***A classless routing protocol does not consider the major network address in its
route lookups, but just looks for the longest match.
*** To support VLSM, a routing protocol must be able to include the subnet mask
of each destination address in its updates.
9: Which two types of authentication are available with Cisco's RIPv2? Are
they both defined in RFC 1723?
2:What metric does RIP use? How is the metric used to indicate an
unreachable network?
* RIP sends periodic updates every 30 seconds minus a small random variable to
prevent the updates of neighboring routers from becoming synchronized.
4:How many updates must be missed before a route entry will be marked
as unreachable?
* The garbage collection timer, or flush timer, is set when a route is declared
unreachable. When the timer expires, the route is flushed from the route table.
This process allows an unreachable route to remain in the routing table long
enough for neighbors to be notified of its status
V-LAN
Answer: The VLAN number will be significant in the local switch. If trunking is
enabled, the VLAN number will be significant across the entire trunking domain.
In other words, the VLAN will be transported to every switch that has a trunk link
supporting that VLAN.
4. What switch commands configure Fast Ethernet port 4/11 for VLAN 2?
Answer: VLAN 1
Answer: A trunk link is a connection between two switches that transports traffic
from multiple VLANs. Each frame is identified with its source VLAN during its trip
across the trunk link.
Answer: 802.1Q
ISL
9. What is the difference between the two trunking methods? How many
bytes are added to trunked frames for VLAN identification in each method?
Answer: ISL uses encapsulation and adds a 26-byte header and a 4-byte trailer.
802.1Q adds a 4-byte tag field within existing frames, without encapsulation.
11. What commands are needed to configure a Catalyst switch trunk port
Gigabit 3/1 to transport only VLANs 100, 200 through 205, and 300 using
IEEE 802.1Q? (Assume that trunking is enabled and active on the port
already. Also assume that the interface gigabit 3/1 command already has
been entered.)
12. Two neighboring switch trunk ports are set to the auto mode with ISL
trunking encapsulation mode. What will the resulting trunk mode become?
Answer: Trunking will not be established. Both switches are in the passive auto
state and are waiting to be asked to start the trunking mode. The link will remain
an access link on both switches.
13. Complete the following command to configure the switch port to use
DTP to actively ask the other end to become a trunk:
switchport mode _________________
14. Which command can set the native VLAN of a trunk port to VLAN 100
after the interface has been selected?
15. What command can configure a trunk port to stop sending and
receiving DTP packets completely?
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16. What command can be used on a Catalyst switch to verify exactly what
VLANs will be transported over trunk link gigabitethernet 4/4?
17. Suppose that a switch port is configured with the following commands.
A PC with a nontrunking NIC card then is connected to that port. What, if
any, traffic will the PC successfully send and receive?
Answer: The PC expects only a single network connection, using a single VLAN.
In other words, the PC can't participate in any form of trunking. Only untagged or
unencapsulated frames will be understood. Recall that an 802.1Q trunk's native
VLAN is the only VLAN that has untagged frames. Therefore, the PC will be
capable of exchanging frames only on VLAN 10, the native VLAN.
Networking Basics
** Network standards define the rules of network communication and are like
laws that must be followed for different equipment vendors to work together.
5: What are the three data transmission modes, and how do they operate?
** Simplex mode, half-duplex mode, and full-duplex mode. Simplex mode is one-
way communication only. Half-duplex mode is two-way communication, but not at
the same time. Full-duplex mode is simultaneous two-way communication.
** WANS are found in broad geographic areas, often spanning states and
countries, and are used to connect LANs and WANs together.
9: What are the three parts of a frame? What is a function of each part?
** Header, data (or payload), trailer. The header is the beginning of the frame,
significant in that the frame's source and destination are found in the frame
header. The payload is the data part of the frame, the user's information. The
trailer identifies the end of the frame.
** A network connection has two ends: the origination and termination points.
The origination point is the source of the data—the location from which the data
is being sent.
** A network connection has two ends: the origination and termination points.
The termination point is the destination of the data—the location to which the
data is being sent.
Layer 3 Switching
Static routes
** Yes. Packets can be forwarded between the VLANs carried over the trunk.
or
What is necessary for packets to get from the FastEthernet interface to the
VLAN 5 SVI?
** It is simply replicated to each of the independent CEF engines. The FIB itself
remains intact so that each engine receives a duplicate copy.
** The MAC address (ARP reply) for a next-hop FIB entry is not yet known. The
Layer 3 engine must generate an ARP request and wait for a reply before CEF
forwarding can continue to that destination.
11. What does a multilayer switch do to the IP TTL value just before a
packet is forwarded?
** Yes. The SVI can be shut down administratively with the shutdown command,
as with any other interface. Also, if the VLAN associated with the SVI is not
defined or active, the SVI will appear to be down
** The command show ip ospf [process-id area-id] database network displays the
network link-state information.
** The command area area-id stub no-summary will create a totally stubby area.
This is a subcommand to the router ospf process-id command. It is necessary
only on the ABR, but all the other routers in the area must be configured as stub
routers.
3: What is a virtual link, and what command would you use to create it?
** A virtual link is a link that creates a tunnel through an area to the backbone
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(Area 0). This allows an area that cannot connect directly to the backbone to do
so virtually. The command to create the link is area area-id virtual-link router-id.
Note that the area-id that is supplied is that of the transit area, and the router-id is
that of the router at the other end of the link. The command needs to be
configured at both ends of the tunnel.
4: Where would you issue the command to summarize IP subnets? State the
command that is used.
5: How would you summarize external routes before injecting them into the
OSPF domain?
** A virtual link is used when an area is not directly attached to the backbone
area (Area 0). This may be due to poor design and a lack of understanding about
the operation of OSPF, or it may be due to a link failure. The most common
cause of an area separating from the backbone is link failure, which can also
cause the backbone to be segmented. The virtual link is used in these instances
to join the two backbone areas together. Segmented backbone areas might also
be the result of two companies merging.
7: Give the command for defining the cost of a default route propagated into an
area.
** The command to define the cost of a default route propagated into another
area is area area-id default-cost cost.
** It is appropriate to define a default cost for the default route when a stub area
has more than one ABR. This command allows the ABR or exit point for the area
to be determined by the network administrator. If this link or the ABR fails, the
other ABR will become the exit point for the area.
** The default cost for the default route is defined on the ABR. The ABR will then
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automatically generate and advertise the route cost along with the default route.
10: Give the command to configure a stub area and state on which router it is
configured.
** The command syntax to configure a stub area is area area-id stub. This
command is configured on the ABR connecting to the area and on all the routers
within the area. Once the configuration is completed, the Hellos are generated
with the E bit set to 0. All routers in the area will only form adjacencies with other
routers that have the E bit set.
11: What is the purpose of the area range command, and why is it configured on
the ABR?
14: Explain briefly the difference between the area range command and the
summary-address command.
** The area range command is used to summarize networks between areas and
is configured on the ABR. The summary-address command is used to
summarize networks between autonomous systems and is configured on the
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ASBR.
15: Explain the following syntax and what it will achieve: area 1 stub no-
summary.
** The command area 1 stub no-summary creates a totally stubby area. The
number after the word area indicates the area that is being defined as a totally
stubby area. This is necessary because the router might be an ABR with
connections to many areas. Once this command is issued, it prevents
summarized and external routes from being propagated by the ABR into the
area. To reach the networks and hosts outside the area, routers must use the
default route advertised by the ABR into the area.
16: Why would you configure the routing process to log adjacency changes as
opposed to turning on debug for the same trigger?
** The reason to configure the router process to log adjacency changes to syslog
as opposed to running debug is an issue of resources. It takes fewer router and
administrator resources to report on a change of state as it happens than to have
the debugger running constantly. The debug process has the highest priority and
thus everything waits for it.
17: Give some of the common reasons that neighbors fail to form an adjacency.
- Make sure that both routers are configured with the same IP mask, MTU,
Interface Hello timer, OSPF Hello interval, and OSPF dead interval.
- Make sure that both neighbors are part of the same area and area type.
** The configuration is between the ABRs, where one of the ABRs resides in
Area 0 and the other in the area that is disconnected from the backbone. Both of
the ABRs are also members of the transit area. Having created the virtual link,
both ABRs are now members of Area 0, the disconnected area, and the transit
area.
20: Explain what is placed in the parameters area-id and router-id for the
command area area-id virtual-link router-id.
** The parameter area-id is the area ID of the transit area. So if the ABR in Area
0 is creating a virtual link with the ABR in Area 3 through Area 2, the area ID
stated in the command is Area 2. The router ID is the router ID of the router with
whom the link is to be formed and a neighbor relationship and adjacency
established.