Exam 2 Study Guide (7842)

Remember, each student answers 2 or 3 questions each and eventually, with everyone’s input,
the study guide gets filled out. You fill out answers in RED. I will put my comments in GREEN.

Multiple Choice/TF Portion

• All forms of molecular carbohydrate (mono/di/poly) and their respective names

Monosaccharides contains 1 molecule (glucose, fructose, galactose, and ribose). Disaccharides

contains 2 molecules (lactose, maltose, and sucrose). Oligosaccharides contain 3 to 10
monosaccharides. Most polysaccharides consist of hundreds to thousands of glucose molecules
(starch, glycogen, most fibers)

• Where are the two MAIN places glucose is stored and what form is that called?

Glycogen (starch) is the storage form of glucose. It stored in liver and muscles

• What is gluconeogenesis? When the body makes its own glucose from the breakdown of
protein and glycerol as a result of a diet that does not provide enough carbohydrates.
o What sources? From your body’s protein. Using the amino acids from protein
this way can cause serious damage to the heart, liver, and kidneys.
o Also glycerol.
• Insulin
o Where is it made, what does it do...?

Insulin is secreted by beta cells of the pancreas. It stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to
glucose. It’s necessary when blood glucose is low (signals for glucagon be released). Insulin
deposes of glucose into the cell.
Insulin opens the GLUT 4 protein channel so glucose can enter the cell. Glucagon signals for
liver glycogen to be broken down.

• What cell uses ONLY glucose for fuel?

Red blood cells.

• Glycemic index

Glycemic Index is a food’s potential to raise blood glucose. Foods with a high glycemic index
cause sudden surge in blood glucose, triggering a large increase in insulin, which may nbe
followed by a dramatic fall in blood glucose.

• What is diabetes? The inability to...? Chronic disease in which the body can no longer
regulate glucose within normal limits. The inability to produce enough insulin or the
body does not respond appropriately to insulin.
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• Know the names of the non-nutritive sweeteners

Saccharin; Acesulfame-K; Aspartame; Sucralose; Neotame, Stevia, and Advantame.

• Sources of fiber Soluble fibers found in citrus fruits, berries, oats, beans. Insoluble fiber
found in whole grains, seeds, legumes, fruits, and vegetables.
• What are ketones and ketoacidosis? Ketones are formed when stored fat is broken
down during fasting, low carb intake, or vigorous exercise. By-product of fat catabolism.
Excess ketones increase blood acidity causing ketoacidosis (drop in pH).
• Preferred source of fuel for the brain? Glucose
• Why is milk difficult for humans to process? The sugar lactose can be hard for our bodies
to process. Our small intestines do not make enough lactase enzyme to digest the
lactose.
• What is diverticulosis and how is it caused? Inflammation or infection in the pouches of
the intestine wall. Happens when feces or partially digested food blocks the diverticula
opening.
• It can be caused by a lack of fiber.
• Why is white flour worse for you than whole wheat flour? It has been bleached and
refined What’s missing that’s good for you? It is a Food with lower glycemic index/load

The nutrients and fiber are lost during processing.

• Know the breakdown of the population who are

o overweight
o obese
• What is the most common type of diabetes?

The most common type of diabetes is type 2.

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• Classifying different lipids

o Where the different classified lipids are found
• Lipid composition
• How different triglycerides are differentiated
• Hydrogenation definition

Hydrogenation is a process in which a liquid unsaturated fat is turned into a solid fat by adding
hydrogen. During this manufactured partially hydrogenated processing, a type of fat called
trans-fat is made.

• Trans fats are associated with elevated...

• How are trans fats formed?
 • How do you identify trans fats on an ingredients list?
• Can fats REDUCE a persons risk for heart disease? Which ones?

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• Shapes and structure of fatty acids

• Where does most fat digestion occur?
• Name of the lipoprotein that transports fats into the bloodstream

chylomicrons

• What kind of tissue stores fat?

Adipose tissue

• How are the vitamins A, D, K, etc. related to fat?

They are stored in fat.

• What do visible and invisible fats look like?

• How does obesity and cardiovascular disease relate to each other? (one causes the
other how?)
o Which lipid can help offset this?
• What can a high fat diet do to the microbiome?

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• How are amino acids distinguished from each other?

• Which groups carries nitrogen?
• All the components that go into building an amino acid...
• How many amino acids are there?

There are 20 amino acids.

o Essential and non-essential
Nine essential amino acids and eleven non-essential amino acid.

• Know what protein bonds are called peptide bonds

• What does DNA dictate?
• Name of organelle where protein synthesis takes place
• What happens during transcription?
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• Protein shape determines what? Protein organization determines function: primary,

secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structure (chapter 6, slide 24)
• The change in shape of a protein is called?
Denaturation

• Know the hormones involved in protein digestion

• Which enzymes breakdown proteins?
• How does protein help with fluid balance?*
• Protein turnover - what is it?
• What do your gene's do?
• All 4 nucleotide bases

Adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine

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Chapter 7 - Metabolism

• What is ATP and how does production of ATP relate to food?

o What happens to ATP when energy is released?
o Where does the most ATP production happen?
• What are the three metabolic pathways?
• What does a cofactor do?
• What are the byproducts of the Krebs Cycle?

NADH and CO2

• What are the byproducts of glycolysis?

2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules

• What is the breakdown (catabolism) of fat called?

• Know the stored form of carbohydrates.
• Know the two hormones that dispose of glucose and break down glycogen.
• Which B-vitamins were discussed that are essential in energy metabolism?
• What does it mean if something is oxidized?
Something is oxidized when it gives up an electron to oxygen.

• Where does glycolysis take place? Occurs in the cytosol of the cell
• Which specific metabolic pathway produces the most ATP?

Electron transport chain (makes 129 ATP).

• Know the primary anabolic and catabolic hormones

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Fill In The Blanks Portion

• Carbohydrates:
 o Which carbohydrate can help prevent diseases? Fiber
o Fortification and enrichment of foods Enriched foods are foods in which
nutrients have been added back in after they were removed during processing.
Fortified foods have nutrients that did not initially exist in the food added in.
o Which hormone breaks down glycogen to glucose? Glucagon
o What is the main purpose of eating carbs? To make what...? Fuel = glucose is
metabolized for energy or stored as glycogen What is this energy called?
o How much stored ATP do humans have stored at any given time?
o When ATP begins being used up, what is the next metabolic process ramps up to
keep providing more ATP?
Glycolysis

o Know about the different types of diabetic conditions.

o Type 1 is a problem of what that destroys what? Auto immune disease in which
the body does not produce enough insulin. Beta cells of pancreas are attacked.
o Type 2 is a problem of what that prevents what from happening? Obesity/poor
lifestyle choices create changes resulting in insulin insensitivity/resistance,
impaired fasting glucose, or metabolic syndrome
▪ Know which of the GLUT receptors are not responsive to insulin in type 2.
Glut 4 channels do not open
o Know that too much sugar over a long period of time causes disease.

• Lipids
o What are the three types of lipids covered in class? Triglycerides, Phospholipids,
Sterols
o Know how triglycerides are classified. Classified by the type of fatty acid
attached to the glycerol backbone
▪ Three of them... Can vary by carbon chain length, saturation level, shape
o The three functions of fatty acid shape
o Three types of lipids triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols,
o Know about omega 3's, omega 6's and omega 3's subcategories. Linoleic acid =
Omega 6, found in vegetable and nut oils. Alpha-linolenic acid = Omega 3, found
in fish and fish oil, vegetables, soy, flaxseeds, walnuts. Omega 3 = EPA and DHA
o Where is cholesterol formed in the body? liver
o Cholesterol is a precursor for the manufacturing of...
o Know about EPA & DHA (what, where from, why important)
o The three places triglycerides can be stored (but name 2). Liver or fat cells
o Know that perilipin surrounds adipocytes, that tough coat that's hard to break
down.
 o What happens to fatty acid usage as exercise duration increases? Fat usage
during exercise increases as duration increases
o Know the reasons for hydrogenation of fats
▪ two of them
o Know why hydrogenation is bad for humans
The body cannot make cell membranes from trans fats, and they raise LDL cholesterol.
Increased risk for cardiovascular disease

o Know why there is such a complex process to absorb and process lipids in the
body.
Lipids are insoluble in water so they need to be processed in the lymph system.

• Protein
o Know what DNA and RNA stand for and how to spell them
DNA stand for deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA stand for ribonucleic acid.

o What kind of bonds are used to make proteins?

Peptide bonds
o What are the two sources in which the body obtains proteins?
o Know what 'low quality' proteins are lacking.
o Know what the RDA is for protein for the general populace and what is the upper
limit for athletes who train heavy.
o Know the 4 ways in which protein organizes itself in the body.

• Metabolism
o Metabolism definition Metabolism is the sum of all chemical and physical
processes by which the body breaks down and builds up molecules
o Scientific name for fat burning and sugar burning and what do these metabolic
pathways make?
▪ What is the end produce of fat metabolization?
o Know the definition of metabolic enzymes Enzymes that mediate chemical
reactions
o Know what enzyme oxidizes alcohol and where this happens.
o Glucose is used by the brain for fuel. Know what happens during times of
starvation.