1. Phonetics as a basic branch of linguistics.

2. The vocal mechanism of producing oral speech.

3. Brunces of phonetics.
4. Phonology as a branch of phonetics.
5. Phonology. The subject of phonology .
6. Theoretical and practical phonetics.
7. Segmental and suprasegmental phonetics.
8. Factors determining variations in language usage.
9. Phonetic Stylistic.
10. Methods of investigating the sound.
matter of the language.
11. Problems of phonostylistics and functional
stylistics.
12. The functional aspects of speech sounds.
13. THE PHONEME.
14. NOTATION AS A SYSTEM OF SYMBOLS
USED TO REPRESENT SPEECH SOUNDS.
15. MAIN TRENDS IN PHONEME THEORY.
16. METHODS OF PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
17.Classification of the English sounds.
18.General characteristics of the English language
sounds.
19.The articulatory analysis of English vowel and
consonants. Major distinctive features of the sounds on
the articulatory level.
20.The problem of the articulatory classification of
English sounds.
21. PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH
VOWELS.
 22. THE PROBLEM OF THE ARTICULATORY
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS.
23. PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH
CONSONANTS.
24. MODIFICATIONS OF PHONEMES IN SPEECH.
25 The English syllable.
26 word stress (9).
22 intonation (те саме що 28)
28 structure and function of intonation (6 ).
29.INTONATION PETTERNS.
30.NOTATION.
31. RHYTHM.
32. TERRITORIAL VARIETIES OF ENG.
PRONONCIATION.
33. VARIETIES OF ENGLISH.
34. STANDARD ENGLISH
35. RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION.
36. AMERICAN ENGLISH.
37. American based pronunciation. Differences
between between General American and Received
Pronunciation.
38. Intonation and prosody.
39. Methods applied in investigating the sound matter
of the language.
40. Branches of phonetics.
Те ж саме,що й 3 питання.
 1. Phonetics as a basic branch of linguistics.
Phonetics is concerned with the human noises by which
the thought is actualized or given audible shape: the nature of
these noises, their combinations, and their functions in relation
to the meaning. Phonetics studies the sound system of the
language, that is segmental phonemes, word stress, syllabic
structure and intonation. It is expression level, but we should
take into account the content level as well, because only
meaningful sound sequences produced by a human vocal
apparatus are regarded as speech. Phonetics is very important
in the study of language. No kind of linguistic study can be
made without constant consideration of the material on the
expression level. It is the basic branch of linguistics and no
language description is complete without phonetics, the
science concerned with the spoken medium of language.
Phonetics has two main division:
• the study of the sound patterns of languages of how a
spoken languages functions as a `code`
• the study of substance the carries the `code`
Human speech is the result of a highly comp icated
process. The formation of the concept takes place at a
linguistic level that is in the brain of the speaker: this stage
may be called psychological. The message is transmitted
along the nervous system to the speech organs The human
brein controls the behavior of the articulating organs which
results in producing particular speech sounds This second
stage is called pphysiological . The movements of the speech
organs disturb the air stream thus producing sound waves.
Consequently the third stage may be called physical or
acoustic.
 Further, any communication requires a listener, as well as
a speaker, So the next stages are the reaction of the sound
waves by the\-e listener's hearing physiological aparatus, the
transmittion of the spoker message through the nervous
system to the brain and the linguistic interpretation of the
information conveyed .
The organs involved in the speech mechanism are called
organs of speech. In accordance with their linguistic function
the organs of speech may be grouped as follows: the
respiratory or power mechanism is formed by the lungs, the
wind-pipe and the bronchi. The air stream expelled from the
lungs provides the source of energy which is regulated by the
power mechanism. The force of air stream influences the
intensity of speech sounds.
From the lungs the air stream passes to the larynx
contains the vocal cords. The vocal cords serve as a vibrator
set and their main functions are: (1) to produce the glottal
stop: (2) the production of voice.
The height of the voice pends on frequency of the
vibration. The frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the
piteh is. The typical speaking voice of a man is lower than that
of a woman because the vocal cerds of a woman vibrete more
frequently. We are able to vary the rate of vibration thus
producing modificction of the pitch component of intonation
and we are able to modify the size of the puff of air that
vibrates the vocal cords and alter the amplitude of vibration
that eauses changes of the loudness of the sound heard by the
listener
From the larynx the air-stream passes to supraglottal
cavities that are to the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal
cavities. The shapes of these cavities modify the note giving
the rise to particular speech sound.
 2. The vocal mechanism of producing oral speech.
Human speech is a result of a highly complicated series of
events. The formation of the concept takes place at a linguistic
level (in the brain of a speaker). This stage is called
psychological. It starts with an idea (prelude). The message
formed within the brain, the impulse goes from the back of
our mind to organs of speech (it is transmitted along the
nervous system to the speech organs). The human brain
controls the behaviour of the articulating organs which effects
in producing a particular pattern of speech sounds. The second
stage is called physiological when the movements of the
speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus producing sound
waves. We move an air around. Speech organs move.
Reception starts with the physical(or acoustic) stage. Any
communication requires a listener, as well as a speaker. The
last stages are the reception of the sound waves by the
listener’s hearing physiological apparatus (ear drums start
vibrating. While vibrating the ear drums are tuned in the same
way as the tune of the speaker’s voice if your hearing is not
defective) and the transmission of the spoken message through
the nervous system to the brain (the ear drums respond to the
pressure by reproducing the vibration. Thus the reception
begins. The listener and the speaker sing the same tune). The
linguistic interpretation of the information is conveyed.
Subconsciously we repeat for ourselves in inner speech
what we hear (together with the speaker). Two sides of one
process are very closely intervolved. It’s now proved that
when we listen to somebody, we actually reproduce what is
being said by the speaker.
II. Groups of organs.
 1) The respiratory (or power) mechanism furnishes the
flow of air which is the first requisite for the production of
speech sounds. This mechanism is formed by the lungs, the
wind pipe and the bronchi. The air-stream expelled from the
lungs provides the most usual source of energy which is
regulated by the power mechanism. Regulating the force of
the air wave the lungs produce variations in the intensity of
speech sounds. Syllabic pulses and dynamic stress are directly
related to the behaviour of the muscles which activate this
mechanism.
2) From the lungs through the wind pipe the air-stream
passes to the upper stages of the vocal tract. First of all it
passes through the larynx containing the vocal cords. The
function of the vocal cords consists in their role as a vibrator
set in motion by the air-stream sent by the lungs.
3) The opening between the vocal cords is known as the
glottis. When the glottis is tightly closed and the air is sent up
below it, the so-called glottal stop is produced (it reinforces or
even replaces [p], [t], or [k] or even when it precedes the
energetic articulation of vowel sounds). The most important
speech function of the vocal cords is their role in the
production of voice. It effects when the vocal cords are
brought together and vibrate due to the pressure of air passing
from the lungs. Compressed air forces an opening of the
glottis and the following reduced air-pressure permits the
vocal cords to come together again.
The more frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the
pitch is. (The typical speaking voice of a woman is higher
than that of a man because the vocal cords of a woman vibrate
more frequently). But we are able to vary the rate of the
vibration thus producing modifications of the pitch component
of intonation. Even more, we are able to modify the size of the
puff of air which escapes at each vibration of the vocal cords
that is we can alter the amplitude of the vibration which
causes changes of the loudness of the sound heard by the
listener. If we talk about the increasing of speech, what we
mean is increasing tenseness (pressure which is related to the
listener as increase and loudness). Loudness is a hearer’s
category, and the equivalent for the speaker would be
tenseness.
4) From the larynx the air-stream passes to supraglottal
cavities, that is to the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal
cavities. The shapes of these cavities modify the particular
speech sound.
 3. Brunces of phonetics.
Brunces of phonetics There are three branches of
phonetics cach corresponding to a different stage in the
communication:
1. The branch that studies the way in which the air is set
in motion, the movements of the speech organs and the
coordination of these movements in the production of single
sounds and trains of sounds is called articulatory phonetics.
2. 2 Acoustic phoneties studies the way in which the air
vibrates between the speaker's mouth and the listener's ear.
Until recently it has been the dominating branch and in the
nearest future it may start to play a growing part in teaching
pronunciation.
3. 3. The branch investigating the hearing processes
known as auditory phonetics. It is more interested in the
sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, than in the
physiolocical working of the ear or the nervous activity
between the ear and the brain. This branch is of great interest
for those who teach or study phonetics.
 5. Phonology. The subject of phonology.
Functional phonetics is concerned with the range and
function of sounds in specific language. It’s also called
phonology. It investigates language phenomenon from the
point of their use.
Functional phonetics also studies the linguistic function of
consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structure, word accent
and prosodic features, such as pitch, stress and tempo is called
phonology.
It’s a primary aim is to discover the principles that govern
the way that sound organized in languages to determinated
with phonemic are used and how the pattern, the phonological
structure of the language.
Phonology is subdivided into 2 brunches: segmental
(studies phonems), suprasegmental (studies intonation).
Phonology originated in 1930 among the scientists of
primary school of linguistics (N. Trebitsky).
People engaged in the studies of phonetics are known as
phoneticians. People engaged in the studies of phonology are
known as phonologists.
 6. Theoretical and practical phonetics.
There are 3 traditional branches of phonetics:
articulatory, acoustic, auditory.
There are some other divisions of phonetics: general,
special, practical and theoretical, segmental, suprasegmental,
experimental, instrumental.
1. Practical, or normative, phonetics that studies the
substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in
relation to meaning.
2. Theoretical phonetics, which is mainly concerned
with the functioning of phonetic units in language. Briefly,
theoretical linguistics studies language with a view to
constructing theory of its structure and functions and without
regard to any practical applications that the investigation of
language might have. Applied linguistics has as its concerns
the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to a
variety of practical tasks, including language teaching.
 7. Segmental and suprasegmental phonetics.
The phonetic system of language is a set of phonetic
units arranged in an orderly way to replace each other in a
given framework. Phonetics is divided into two major
components (or systems): segmental phonetics and
suprasegmental phonetics.
1. Segmental units are sounds of speech (vowels and
consonants) which form the vocalic and consonantal systems;
2. Suprasegmental, or prosodic, units are syllables,
accentual (rhythmic) units, intonation groups, utterances,
which form the subsystem of pitch, stress, rhythm, tempo,
pauses.
Suprasegmental is concerned with larger units of
connected speech: syllables, words, phrases, texts.
Segmental is concerned with individual sounds.
 8. Factors determining variations in language usage.
We don't need to speak in order to use language.
Language can be written, broadcast from tapes and CDs, and
produced by computers in limited ways. Nevertheless, speech
remains the primary way humans encode and broadcast
language. Speaking and writing are different in both origin
and practice. Our ability to use language is as old as
humankind is. It reflects the biological and cognitive
modification that has occurred during the evolution of our
species. Writing is the symbolic representation of language by
graphic signs. It is comparatively recent cultural development.
Spoken language is acquired without specific formal
instruction, whereas writing must be taught and learned
through deliberate effort. The origins of the written language
lie in the spoken language, not the other way round. .
The written form of language is usually a generally
accepted standard and is the same throughout the country. But
spoken language may vary from place to place. Such distinct
forms of language are called dialects! The varieties of the
language are conditioned by language communities ranging
from small groups to nations. Speaking about the nations we
refer to the national variants of the language. According to
A.D. Schweitzer national language is a historical category
evolving from conditions of economic and political
concentration which characterizes the formation of nation. In
the case of English there exists a great diversity in the
realization of the language and particularly in terms of
pronunciation. Though every national variant of English has
considerable differences in pronunciation, vocabulary and
grammar; they all have much in common which gives us
ground to speak of one and the same language — the English
language.
Every national variety of language falls into territorial
or regional dialects. Dialects are distinguished from each other
by differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.
When we refer to varieties in pronunciation only, we use the
term accent. So local accents may have many features of
pronunciation in common and are grouped into territorial or
area accents. For certain reasons one of the dialects becomes
the standard language of the nation and its pronunciation or
accent - the standard pronunciation.
The literary spoken form has its national pronunciation
standard. A standard may be defined as "a socially accepted
variety of language established by a codified norm of
correctness" (K. Macanalay). Standard national pronunciation
is sometimes called "an orthoepic norm''. Some phoneticians
however prefer the term "literary pronunciation".
Phonetics studies the way phonetic means are used in
this or that particular situation which exercises the
conditioning influence of a set of factors, which are referred to
as extralinguistic. The aim of phonetics is to analyze all
possible kinds of spoken utterances with the main purpose of
identifying the phonetic features, both segmental and
suprasegmental, which are restricted to certain kinds of
contexts, to explain why such features have been used and to
classify them into categories, based upon a view of their
function.
Style-forming and style-modifying factors:
-the aim or purpose of the utterance. The aim is the
strategy of the speaker.
-the form of communication (monologue or dialogue);
 -the speaker’s attitude to the situation (emotions,
thoughts, etc);
-the degree of formality ( formal – informal);
-the degree of spontaneity or of preparedness, the
speaker’s educational background played a great role.
Styles of speech according to the purpose of
communication.
Informational
academic (scientific)
publicistic (oratorical)
declamatory(artistic)
colloquial (familiar)
Using the informational style the speaker ought to be
careful not to distract the listener by what he is saying (TV-
announcers). Written representation of oral and prepared
speech.
Scientific style is used in lectures or science subjects or
when reading out loud a piece of scientific prose. The purpose
is to attract the listener’s attention to what is the most
important in the lecture.
Publicistic style is used by politicians, the purpose is to
except the influence of the listener to convince him of
something, and make him accept the speaker’s point of view.
It is used in reading poetry, prose aloud, in stage speech
to appeal to the feelings of the listener.
Conversational formulae familiar of everyday
communication are used in speech of friends within similar
groups. It can have a wide range of intonation patterns.
 9. Phonetic Stylistic.
The most powerful expressive means (EM) of any
language are phonetic. Pitch, melody, stress, sounds,
pausation, drawling, whispering, a sing-song manner of
speech are very effective EM. These EM are studied by
phonetics. Stylistics observes the nature of EM and their
capacity of becoming stylistic devices (SD). The phonetic SD
are alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, rhyme, rhythm.
Alliteration is a phonetic SD which consists in the repetition
of similar consonants in close succession to express a definite
feeling, to contribute something to the general effect of the
message. Assonance is a phonetic SD which consists in the
repetition of similar vowels in close succession with the
purpose to create a strong emotional effect. Onomatopoeia is a
phonetic SD which consists in imitating sounds produced in
nature (wind, sea, thunder), by people (sighing, laughter,
patter of feet), by animals, by things, etc. This SD expresses a
definite feeling or state of mind. Rhyme is a phonetic SD
which consists in the repetition of identical or similar sound
combinations of words. The rhymes may be arranged in
couplets (aa), in triplets (aaa), in cross rhymes (abab) and in
framing (abba). Rhythm as a phonetic SD consists in regular
periodicity of long / short, stressed / unstressed, high / low
segments of speech. It brings order into me utterance. Rhythm
intensifies the emotion (enumeration, repetition, parallel
construction, etc.).
 10. Methods of investigating the sound matter of the
language.
Methods applied in investigating the sound matter of the
language have changed greatly with the development of
technology and computer science. From the beginning of
phonetics the phonetician has relied mainly on what he could
feel of his own speech and on what he could hear both of his
own and the informant’s speech. Such methods are called
direct and consist in observing the movements and positions
of one's own or other people's organs of speech in
pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analysing
one's own kinaesthetic sensations (muscle tense) during the
articulation of speech sounds and in comparing them with the
resultant auditory impressions. Investigation by means of this
method can be effective only if the persons employing it have
been specially trained and have acquired considerable skills in
associating the qualities of the perceived sound with the nature
of the articulations producing it. Methods of investigation. 1.
The direct observation method has 3 modes of investigation:
by ear, by sight, by muscular sensation. It is rather old and
subjective, a person must be specially trained and have a
“phonetic ear”. 2. The linguistic method is based on the
extensive material which a number of special phonetics
provide for investigation/ 3. The experimental method is used
to supply any other investigation by the experimental analysis
to define the clearness and correct data of the analysed
phonetic phenomena. It is based on the usage of instruments
and apparatuses (oscillogragh, intonograph, taperecorder and
others).
 11. Problems of phonostylistics and functional
stylistics.
Function of stylistic that investigates speech on the level
of phonetics is called phonostylistics. It studies the functional
differentiation of pronunciation. It studies the way phonetic
means function in various in extra-linguistic situations. Extra-
linguistic situation determines the functional differentiation of
pronunciation. The extra-linguistic situation includes all the
factors that form and modify phonetic styles. It can be defined
by 3 components purpose, participants and setting. The
purpose directs the activity of the participants. Ex.: Any talk is
motivated by the purpose of talking, so it has the topic of
communication and happens in a particular setting and is
reproduced by participants. We never fail to guess what the
person is doing instructing us or amusing. Each of these
variations makes a speaker select a number of functional
phonetic means to make the realization of the aim more
objective. Analysing the purpose we should mention the
general activity type and the subject matter. The subject matter
may be the same. Ex.: Literature. Usual talk. But the general
activity type is different. Speaking about the participants we
should take into account following: 1. Age, 2. Sex, 3.
Emotional state. Speaking about setting it is important to take
into consideration: 1). The number of the participants involved
into communication. The speech may be public or private,
impersonal or personal, high-cultured or low-cultured. As for
the form of communication it may be a monologue or a
dialogue. The degree of formality should also be mentioned.
Speech may be formal or informal, prepared or half-prepared,
spontaneous.
 12. The functional aspects of speech sounds.
Separate segments of speech continuum have no meaning
of their own, they mean something only in combinations,
which are called words. Phonetics studies sounds as
articulatory and acoustic units, phonology investigates sounds
as units, which serve communicative purposes. Phonetics and
phonology are closely connected. The unit of phonetics is a
speech sound, the unit of phonology is a phoneme. Phonemes
can be discovered by the method of minimal pairs. This
method consists in findiing pairs of words which differ in one
phoneme. For example, if we replace /b/ by /f/ in the word ban
we produce a new word fan, ban — tan is a pair of words
distinguished in meaning by a single sound change. Two
words of this kind are termed "minimal pair". It is possible to
take this process further, we can also produce can, ran, man,
fan — it is a minimal set. The change of the vowel /æ/ in ban
provides us with another minimal set: bun, bone, Ben, burn,
boon, born. The change of the final /n/ in ban will result in a
third minimal set: bad, bat, back, badge, bang. To establish the
phonemes of the language the phonologist tries to find pairs
that show which sounds occur or do not occur in identical
positions – commutation test. The phonemes of a language
form a system of oppositions, in which any one phoneme is
usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one position
in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or sub-minimal
pair. If the substitution of one sound for another results in the
change of meaning, the commuted sounds are different
phonemes, speech sounds which are phonologically
significant.
 13. THE PHONEME
Phonemes are abstract set of sound-types on the basis of
speech. The complete set of phonemes is called the phonemic
system of a language. The number of speech sound-types or
phonemes in different languages varies, but in average it is
about 50: In Ukrainian we have 6 vowel phonemes and 20
consonant. In English 20 vowel phonemes and 24 consonant.
M.A. Sokolova defines phoneme as a minimal abstract
linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds
opposable to other phonemes of the same language to
distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words. Phoneme is
a dialectical unity of three aspects:
1. The phoneme is material, real and objective because it
really exists in the material form of definite speech sounds or
allophones. The phonemes constitutes the material from of
morphemes and perform constitutive function.
2.Abstract or generalized character of the phoneme is
reflected in its definition as a language unit. It is an
abstraction because we may abstract it from concrete
realizations for classificatory purposes.
3.Functional aspect is reflected in the definition of the
phoneme as the smallest language unit capable of
differentiating words and their grammatical forms. Sometimes
the opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning
of the whole phrases:
He was heard badly-He was hurt badly. It is cold.-It is
gold.
TYPES OF ALLOPHONES AND THE MAIN
FEATURES OF THE PHONEME Allophones (or variants) of
the phoneme are speech sounds which are realizations of one
and the same phoneme and which therefore cannot distinguish
words. Their articulatory and acoustic distinctions are
conditioned by their position and phonetic environment. The
allophones which do not undergo any distinguishable changes
in speech are called principal.
Allophones that occur under influence of the
neighboring sounds in different phonetic situations are called
subsidiary(допоміжні).
The articulatory features which form the invariant of the
phoneme are called distinctive or relevan.t The articulatory
features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called
non- distinctive, irrelevant or redundant.
To extract relevant features of the phoneme we have to
oppose it to some other phoneme in the phonetic context. Such
an opposition is called phonological. The classification of
phonological oppositions was worked out by N.S. Trubetzkoy.
It is based on the number of distinctive articulatory features
underlying the opposition.
1. If the opposition is based on a single difference in the
articulation of two speech Sounds, it is a single phonological
opposition, e.g. [p] -[t], as in [pen]-[ten];
2.If the sounds have two differences in their articulation,
the opposition is double one, e.g. (p]-[d], as in [pen]-[denl.
3. If there are three articulatory differences the opposition
is triple one, eg [p]- [д], as in [pei]-[дei]. (Pay- they)
 14. NOTATION AS A SYSTEM OF SYMBOLS
USED TO REPRESENT SPEECH SOUNDS
Grapheme denotes a letter or letter combination
representing a phoneme or a sequence of phonemes in writing.
A grapheme symbol is included into triangular brackets < >.
One to one correspondence (one grapheme corresponds
to one phoneme) is ideal, but in real writing system hardly
exists. The examples of such correspondence are called single-
valued graphemes: w-way, b- bay, l-lid.
The examples of multi-valued graphemes (one grapheme
corresponds to many phonemes) are as follows: <a> : [e] bad;
[ei] baby; [a:] basket; [o:]ball;[o] wash.
Notation is usually termed as transcription. Transcription
is a special script used to represent phonetic forms of words
accurately because spelling does not reflect it.
TYPES OF TRANSCRIPTION The system of sounds
differs according to the fact whether the phoneme itself is to
be indicated or the modifications of the allophones.
The first type -the broad or phonemic transcription
contains thé special symbols for all the phonemes of the
language. It is based on correspondence: one symbol per
phoneme.
The second type - the narrow or allophonic transcription
consists of special symbols including some information about
articulatory activity of particular allophonic features. It is
based on correspondence: each symbol per allophone.
Allophonic transcription provides a special sign for each
variant of speech phoneme.
The broad transcription is placed between slashes, but the
narrow transcription, placed between square brackets. The
broad transcription serves for practical purposes, the narrow -
for research work. DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSCRIPTION
The first attempts to create the phonetic script are known as
far as the 16-17 centuries. In 1889 Bell published his "Visible
speech" in which he gave many symbols in the forms of
different curves to represent the position of the speech organs
during the articulation sounds. Different graphic forms are
used to write speech sounds. They can be subdivided into 3
groups :
1Alphabetic-analytic transcription was invented by
Jaspersen. Each speech sound is represented by 3 symbols: a)
capital letterl;; b) small letter; c) a digit (showing the size and
form of aperture).
2. Alphabetic transcription is based on the letters of Latin
alphabet with a few of Greek letters, some diacritical marks
are used to show the vowel length (o:). They are widely used
in allophonic descriptions.
3.Alphabetic digital transcription gives a special number
of digits which means that each sound is reflected by one digit
and the number is written either above or below the letters of
the worek.
 15. MAIN TRENDS IN PHONEME THEORY
Views of the phoneme fall into four main classes
The mentalistic or physiological view regards the
phoneme as an ideal mental image or a target at which the
speaker aims. It is impossible to repeat an ideal sound because
it is under the influence of the neighboring sounds. According
to the conception allophones of the phoneme are varying
materialization of it
Functional view regards the phoneme as the minimal
sound unit by which the meanings can be differentiated
without much regard to actually pronounced speech sounds.
Palatalization in English does not differentiate the meaning.
This approach means to extract only non-distinctive features
from the phonemes. This view is shared by N. Trubetskoy, L.
Bloomfield, R. Jacobsor, and M. Halle
Abstract view regards the phonemes as essentially
independent of the acoustic and psychological properties
associated with them (speech sounds). This view is qualified
as idealistic since the scholars regard the phoneme as an
abstract conception existing in the mind but not in the reality
(in human speech)
The physical view regards the phoneme as a 'family' of
related sounds satisfying certain conditions: 1) The various
members of the 'family' must show phonetic similarity to one
another 2) No member of the 'family' may occur in the same
phonetic context as any other.
 16. METHODS OF PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
In analyzing speech we carry out a phonetic and
phonological analysis. The analysis is phonetic when we
describe the articulatory and acoustic features of sounds, and
their combinations, but when we determine the role of those
sounds in communication it is phonological. The final aim of
the phonological analysis of language is the identification of
the phonemes:
to determine which differences of sounds are phonemic
and which are non-phonemic, and finding out the patterns of
relationship into which they fall as the sound system of that
language;
to find inventory of the phonemes of this or that language.
There are two most widely used methods of phonological
analysis:
Distributional method. It means to group all the sounds
pronounced by native speakers into phonemes according to
the two laws: 1)Allophones of different phonemes occur in the
same phonetic context; 2) Allophones of the same phoneme
never occur in the same phonetic context.
It means: 1) If more or less different sounds occur in the
same phonetic context they should be allophones of different
phonemes. In this case their distribution is contrastive. 2) If
more or less similar speech sounds occur in different positions
and never occur in the same phonetic context they are
allophones of one and the same phoneme. In this case
distribution is complementary.
2. The semantic method is applied for phonological
analysis. It is based on phonemic rule that phonemes can
distinguish words and morphemes, when opposed one to
another.
 2. Vocal mechanism of producing oral speech
Human speech is the result of a highly complicated series
of events. The formation of the concept takes place at a
linguistic level, that is in the brain of the speaker; this stage
may be called psychological. The message formed within the
brain is transmitted along the nervous system to the speech
organs. The human brain controls the behaviour of the
articulating organs which effects in producing a particular
pattern of speech
sounds. This second stage may be called physiological.
The movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air stream
thus producing sound waves. Consequently the third stage
may be called physical or acoustic. Further, any
communication requires a listener, as well as a speaker. So the
last stages are:
the reception of the sound waves by the listener's hearing
physiological apparatus;
the transmission of the spoken message through the
nervous system to the brain;
the linguistic interpretation of the information conveyed.
The organs involved in this mechanism is called organs
of speech. The respiratory or power mechanism is formed by
the lungs, the windpipe and the bronchi. The air-stream
expelled from the lungs provides the most usual source of
energy which is regulated by the power mechanism.
Regulating the force of the air-wave the lungs produce
variations in the intensity of speech sounds.
From the lungs the air stream passes to the larynx
containing the vocal cords. The vocal cords have following
functions:
 Produce a voice;
Produce a Florek stops
The height of the speaking voice depends on the
frequency of the vibrations. The more frequently the vocal
cords vibrate the higher the pitch is. The typical speaking
voice of a woman is higher than that of a man because the
vocal cords of a woman vibrate more frequently. We are able
to vary the rate of the vibration thus producing modifications
of the pitch component of intonation. More than that, we are
able to modify the size of the puff of
air which escapes at each vibration of the vocal cords, that
is we can alter the amplitude of the vibration which causes
changes of the loudness of the sound heard by the listener.
From the larynx the air-stream passes to supraglottal
cavities, that is to the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal
cavities. The shapes of these cavities modify the note
produced in the larynx thus giving rise to particular speech
sounds.

3. BRANCHES OF PHONETICS
Three traditional branches of the subject are generally
recognized:
1. articulatory phonetics (артикуляторна фонетика) is
the study of the way speech
sounds are made ('articulated') by the vocal organs.
2. acoustic phonetics (акустична фонетика) studies the
physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between
the speaker’s mouth and the listener’s ear;
3. auditory phonetics (аудитивна фонетика) studies the
perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear,
auditory nerve and brain.
 General phonetics studies all the sounds producing
possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they
are used for purpose of communication.
Special phonetics studies the contemporary phonetic
system of the particular language, the system of its
pronunciation and gives a description of all the phonetic units
of the language.
Other branches of phonetics are:
Practical or normative phonetics studies the substance, the
material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning.
Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the
functioning of phonetic units in the language. Theoretical
phonetics regards phonetic phenomena synchronically.
Segmental phonetics - is concerned with individual
sounds.
Suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is the larger
units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts.
Experimental - is the subfield of phonetics which uses
controlled experiments.
Instrumental - presuppose the use of measuring devices
and instrumental techniques.
 17.Classification of the English sounds.
The Articulatory Classification of English Speech
Sounds. In all languages Speech sounds are traditionally
divided into two main types – vowels and consonants.
From the articulatory point of view the main principles of
the division are as follows: the presence or absence of
obstruction; the distribution of muscular tension; the force of
the air stream coming from the lungs.
Vowels are speech sounds based on voice which is
modified in the supralaryngeal cavities. There is no
obstruction in their articulation. The muscular tension is
spread evenly throughout the speech organs. The force of the
air stream is rather weak.
Consonants are speech sounds in the articulation of which
there is an obstruction, the removal of which causes noise –
plosive or friction. The muscular tension is concentrated at the
place of obstruction. The air stream is strong.
The articulatory boundary between vowels and
consonants is not well marked. There exist speech sounds that
occupy an intermediate position between vowels and
consonants and have common feature with both the vowels
and consonants. There are sonorants /m,n,ᵑ,j,l,w,r/. There is an
obstruction in their articulation and the muscular tension is
concentrated at the place of obstruction as in the production of
consonants. Like vowels they are largely based on voice. The
air passage their production is rather wide and the force of the
air is weak as in the case of vowels. The wide passage for the
air stream in the articulation of sonorants means that the oral
and nasal cavities are active. It results in greater audibility
(sonority or perceptibility) of the sounds a feature
characteristic of vowels.
 From the acoustic point of view vowels are complex
periodic vibrations-tones. They are combinations of the main
tone and overtones intensified by the supralaryngeal cavities.
Consonants are non-periodic vibrations – noises.
Voiceless consonants are pure noises.Voiced consonants are
actually a combination of noise and tone. And sonants are
predominantly sounds of tone with an admixture (примесь) of
noice.
Thus, the acoustic boundary between vowels and
consonants is not well marked either.
The varies qualities (timbres) of English vowels are
determined by the oral resonator – its size, volume and shape.
The resonator is modified by the most movable speech organs
the tongue and the lips. Moreover , the quality of a vowel
depends on whether the speech organs are tense or lax and
whether the force of articulation weakens or is stable.
Thus, vowels are classified:
According to the horizontal movement of the tongue;
According to the vertical movement of the tongue;
According to the position of the lips;
According to the degree of the muscular tension of the
articulatory organs;
According to the force of articulation at the end of a
vowel;
According to the stability of articulation;
According to the length of a vowel;
 18.General characteristics of the English language
sounds.
The phonetic system of a language contains two systems
(levels) segmental & suprasegmental (prosodic). Segmental
units are sounds, vowels & consonants which form the vocalic
& consonantal subsystems. Prosodic units are syllables,
accentual (rhythmical) units, and intonation groups,
utterances, which form the subsystems of pitch, stress,
rhythm, tempo, and pauses.
Segmental & prosodic units serve to form and
differentiate units of other subsystems of language, the lexical
and grammatical units. The modifications of words and their
combination into utterances (sentences) are first of all sound
phenomenaSound phenomena have different aspects: the
articulatory aspect, the acoustic, the auditory and the linguistic
aspect.
Phonetics as a Science - The study of the sound
phenomena of language, in all their aspects and varieties,
constitutes the subject of the phonetic science. Phonetics as a
branch of linguistics studies sounds in the broad sense,
comprising segmental sounds and prosodic phenomena (pitch,
stress, tempo, rhythm, pauses). Phonetics occupies itself w/
the study of the ways in which the sounds are organized into a
system of units and the variation of the units in all types and
styles of spoken language. It also studies the acoustic
properties of sounds, the physiological basis of sound
production and the sound phenomena that reveal the
individual peculiarities of the speaker.
Phonetics as a science is a branch of linguistics. Being a
science in its own right, it is at the same time closely
connected w/ other linguistic sciences-grammar, lexicology,
stylistics and history of the language, since the phonetic
system of a language, its vocabulary and grammar constitutes
one indivisible whole. It is also closely connected with
physiology, biology, physics, pedagogy psychology,
mathematics, cybernetics.
 19.The articulatory analysis of English vowel and
consonants. Major distinctive features of the sounds on
the articulatory level.
Speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
There are 24 consonants and 20 vowels in the English
language. A vowel is voiced sound in the articulation of which
the air passes through the mouth freely, but the tongue and
vocal cords are tense.A consonant is a sound produced with an
obstruction to the air stream.
Consonants are characterised by close articulation that is
by a complete, partial lockage of the air-passage by an organ
or organs. The closure is formed in such a way that the air-
stream is blocked or otherwise gives rise to audible friction.
As a result consonants are sounds which have noise as their
indispensable and most defining characteristic.In the
production of vowels there is no noise component
characteristic of consonants.
On the articulatory level the consonants change:
-in the degree of noise;
-in the manner of articulation;
-in the place of articulation.
On the articulatory level the description of vowels notes
changes:
-in the stability of articulation;
-in the tongue position;
-in the lip position;
-in the character of the vowel end.
Besides vowels differ in respect of their length.
 Figuratively, consonants are called the skeleton of the
sound system, monophthongs are its flesh and diphthongs are
its blood.
 20.The problem of the articulatory classification of
English sounds.

Traditionally British, American and Russian phoneticians

have a lot of argument about what articulatory features of
consonants should be considered essential from classificatory
point of view. According to Prof. Daniel Jones it is place of
articulation. According to Prof. Vassilyevit is type of
obstruction and the manner of production of noise. A
generalised set of classificatory principles for the articulatory
description of consonants can be as follows:
active organs of speech and place of obstruction;
type of articulatory obstruction and manner of noise
production;
work of vocal cords and force exhalation;
position of the soft palate.
 21. PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH
VOWELS.
The first who tried to describe and classify vowel sound
irrespective of the mother tongue was D. Jones.
He divided the system of 8 cordinal vowels. This system is an
international standart, the basis of the system is physiological.
Acoustically vowels are musically not noises:
The word “vowel” is a directive of voice. They differ due
to they’re temporal colouring and each vowel is characterized
by its own forma – that is conjunction of energy in certain
region of the spectagram.
Phoneticians suggest classifying vowels according to the
following principles:
1) – position of lips;
2) – position of tongue;
3) – degree of tenses and the character of the end of vowel;
4) – length;
5) – stability of articulation.
Acording to the position of the lips vowels are classified:
1) rounded 2)unrounded
[o] [o:]
[u] [u:]
According to the position of the tongue it is the back of the
tongue which conditions most of all influence the production
of different vowels: it can move forward and back; may be
raised and lowered in the mouth cavity.
Scientist Vasiliev was one of the first who classified vowels
into:
a) front; b) central; c) back; d) high; f) mid; e) low;
Russian scientist divided vowels according to the horizontal
and vertical movements of the tongue:
1) horizontal – a)front; b)central; c)back;
2) vertical – a)high; b)mid; c)low.
According to the degree of tenses traditionally long vowels are
defined as tense. The term “tense” was introduced by H.
Sweet, who stated that the tongue is tense when vowels are
articulated.
When the muscles of the lips, tongue, cheeks and the back
walls of pharynx are tense, the vowels produced can be
characterized as “tense”. When the organs are relatively
relaxed, low vowels are produced: The problem of the
differentiation can be solved only with the help of electro-
miography.
According to length Eng. Vowels are subdivided into:
1) (historically) long;
2) (historically) short.
Vowel length may depend on a number of linguistic factors:
1)position of the vowel in the word;
2) word stress;
3) the number of syllables in a word;
4) the character of syllabic structure;
5) sonority;
The stability of articulation is the principle of vowel
classification which is not singled out by British and
American phoneticians. In fact, it is the principle of the
stability of the shape, volume and the size of the mouth
resonator. According to these principles vowels are
subdivided into:
a) simple vowels (monophthongs) – pronounced with more or
less stable lip tongue and mouth walls position.
b) complex vowels (diphthongs) – are defined differently by
different authors. One definition is based on the ability of a
vowel to form a syllable. Since in the diphthongs only one
element serves as a syllabic nucleus; diphthongs are a single
sound. Another definition of a diphthong as a single sound
based on the stability of second element.

22. THE PROBLEM OF THE ARTICULATORY

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS.
Each consonant on the articulatory level may be identified by
stating two general facts about it:
1) What sort of articulatory posture it is formed by;
2) Whereabouts in the mouth (or pharynx) it is produced.
Besides these major characteristics the particular quality of a
consonant may depend on a lot of other factors, that is by what
articulatory organ (organs) on obstruction is made, how vocal
cords work, at the moment of production and other. Each
sound is known to have three aspects:
- acoustic;
- articulatory;
- auditory.
According to V.A. Vassilievprimary importance should be
given to the type of obstruction and the manner of production
of noise. On this ground he distinguished two large classes of
consonants:
a) occlusive, in the production of which a complete
obstruction is formed;
b) constructive, in the production of which and incomplete
obstruction is made.
Each of two classes is subdivided into noise cons. and
sonorants. The devision is based on the fact of prevailing
either noise or tone component in auditory characteristic of the
sound.
In their turn noise cons. are divided into:
1) – plosive cons.(stops)
2) – affricates cons.
Sonorants in their turn are divided into medial and labial.

CONSONANTS
occlusive
constructive
noise cons: Sonorants cons.
Noise cons. Sonorants:
1) affricates
1)medial;
2) plosives(stops)
2)labial.

23. PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH

CONSONANTS.
The second major class of sounds traditionally distinguished
by phoneticians in any lang. is the class of consonants.
It would be fair to mention that the distinction is based mainly
on auditory effect. Consonants are known to have voice and
noisecombined while vowels are sounds which consisting of
voice only.
From the auditory point of view the difference is due to the
work of speech organs. In case of vowels no obstruction is
made. In case of consonants various obstructions are made. So
consonants are characterized – by partial lockage of the air-
passage by an organ or organs (close articulation). The closure
is formed in such way that the air-stream is blocked or
otherwise gives rise to audible friction. As a result -
Consonants are sounds which have noise as their
indispensable and most defining characteristic.

24. MODIFICATIONS OF PHONEMES IN SPEECH

(ASSIMILATION, ACCOMODATION, ELISION,
REDUCTION, INSERTION OF SOUNDS.
Speech sounds influence each other in a black of speech. As a
result of intercourse between consonants and vowels and
within each class there, appear such processes as assimilation,
accommodation, vowel reduction, elision and insertion:
1)assimilation – the adaptive modification of consonant by a
neighboring cons., in the speech chain;
2)accommodation – denote the interchanges of “vowel + cons.
type” or “consonant + vowel”;
3)reduction – is usually weakening of vowels in unstressed
position;
4)Elision – is complete loss of sounds both vowels and
consonants;
5)Insertion of sounds –is a process of sound addition.

25 The English syllable.

Syllable formation in English is based on the
phonological opposition vowel – consonant. Vowels are
usually syllabic while consonants are not, with the exception
of [l], [m], [n], which become syllabic if they occur in an
unstressed final position preceded by a noise consonant [/litl],
[/ga:dn].
The structure of English syllables can be summarized as
follows:• Many syllables have one or more consonants
preceding the nucleus. These make up the syllable onset: me,
so, plow.• Many syllables have one or more consonants,
following the nucleus. They make up the syllable coda. They
are traditionally known as closed syllables: cat, jump.• The
combination of nucleus and coda has a special significance,
making up the rhyming property of a syllable.
The English language has developed the closed type of
syllable as the fundamental one while in Russian it is the open
type that forms the basis of syllable formation.The other
aspect of this component is syllable division. The problem of
syllable division in case of intervocalic consonants and their
clusters, like in such words as city, extra, standing and
others.Let us consider the first word ['sit.i]. There exist two
possibilities:a) the point of syllable division is after the
intervocalic consonant:
b) the point of syllable division is inside the consonant.
In some cases we may take into account the morphemic
structure of words. For example, standing consists of two
syllables; on phonetic grounds [st?n - diŋ). on grammatical
grounds [st?nd - iŋ].
Now we shall consider two functions of the syllable.
The first is constitutive function. It lies in its ability to be
a part of a word itself. The syllables form language units of
greater magnitude that is words, morphemes, and utterances. It
this respect two things should be emphasized. First, the
syllable is the unit within which the relations between
distinctive features of phonemes and their acoustic correlates
are revealed. Second, within a syllable (or syllables) prosodic
characteristics of speech are realized, which form the stress
pattern of a word and the intonation structure of an utterance.
In sum, the syllable is a specific minimal structure of both
segmental and suprasegmental features.
The other function is distinctive one. In this respect the
syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words
and word-forms. One minimal pare has been found in English
to illustrate the word distinctive function in the syllabic:
nitrate — night-rate. There analogical distinction between
word combinations can be illustrated by many more examples:
an aim - a name; an ice house - a nice house, etc. Sometimes
the difference in syllable division may be the basic ground for
differentiation in such pairs as I saw her rise.- I saw her eyes; I
saw the meat — I saw them eat.
In English the syllable is formed:1. by any vowel alone or
in combination with one or more consonants – not more than 3
preceding and not more than 4 following it, e.g. are [a:], we
[wi:], it [it], sixth [siksθ].
2. by a word final sonorants [n], [1], [m] immediately
preceded by a consonant: e.g. rhythm ['rIð Em], garden
['ga:dEn].
The English sonorants [w], [j] are never syllabic as they
are always syllable-initial.
According to the placement of vowels and consonants the
following types of syllables are distinguished:open: the V is at
the end, such a syllable is articulated with the opening of the
mouth by the end: e.g. they, wri-ter;closed: which end in C, at
the end of such a S the mouth is closed: e.g. hun-dred, hat.
 26 word stress (9). The syllable or syllables which are
uttered with more prominence than the other syllables of the
word are said to be stressed or accented. Stress in the isolated
word is termed word stress; stress in connected speech is
termed sentence stress.B.A. Bogoroditskydefined stress as an
increase of energy, accompanied by an inrease of expiratory
and articulatory activity.
 On the auditory level a stressed syllable is the part of the
word which has a special prominence. It is produced by a
greater loudness and length, modifications in the pitch and
quality. The physical correlates are: intensity, duration,
frequency formant structure. All these features can be
analyzed on the acoustic level. Word stress can be defined as
the singling out of one or more syllables in a word which is
accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of
the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the
sound, which is usually a vowel. According to the most
important feature different types, of word stress are
distinguished in different languages. 1) If special prominence
in a stressed sylable or syllables is achieved mainly through
the intensity of articulation, such type of stress is called
dynamic, or force stress. 2) If special prominence in a stressed
syllable is achieved mainly through the change of pitch, or
musical tone, such accent is called musical, or tonic. 3) If
special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved through
the changes in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in
the stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones, such type of
stress is called quantitative. 4) Qualitative type of stress is
achieved through the changes in the quality of the vowel
under stress
English word stress is traditionally defined as dynamic,
but in fact, the special prominence of the stressed syllables is
manifested in the English language not only through the
increase of intensity, but also through the changes in the
vowel quantity, consonant and vowel quality and pitch of the
voice. Now we should like to distinguish the notions of word
stress and sentence stress. They are first of all different in their
sphere of application as they are applied to different language
units: word stress is naturally applied to a word, as a linguistic
unit, sentence stress is applied to a phrase. Secondly, the
distinction of the rhythmic structure of a word and a phrase is
clearly observed in the cases when the word stress in notional
words is omitted in a phrase.So in a speech chain the phonetic
structure of a word obtains additional characteristics
connected with rhythm, melody, and tempo. Though the
sentence stress falls on the syllable marked by the word stress
it is not realized in the stressed syllable of an isolated word
but in a word within speech continuum. Since the spheres of
word stress and sentence stress fall apart their functions are
actuallydifferent. Sentence stress organizes a sentence into a
linguistic unit, helps to form its rhythmic and intonation
pattern, and performs its distinctive function on the level of a
phrase.
Stress difficulties peculiar to the accentual structure of
the English language are connected with the vowel special and
inherent prominence. In identical positions the intensity of
English vowels is different. The highest in intensity is /a:/,
then go /o:, 3:, i:, u:, æ, e, ʊ, i/. All English vowels may occur
in accented syllables, the only exception is /ə, which is never
stressed. English vowels /i, и, ə,ʊ/ tend to occur in unstressed
syllables. Syllables with the syllabic /1, m, n/ are never
stressed. Unstressed diphthongs may partially lose their glide
quality. In stressed syllables English stops have complete
closure, fricatives have full friction, and features of fortis/lenis
distinction are clearly defined.
 27, 28 structure and function of intonation (6 )
Sokolova and others write that the term prosody can
substitute the term intonation. Prosody can be applied to the
utterance, the word, the syllable, intonation only to utterance.
Thus, prosody of utterance and intonation are equivalent
notions.Prosody is concerned with three tasks: 1) with the
ways in which the utterance is broken into tone units; 2) with
the position of accent; 3) with the intonation or melody
Intonation is a complex unit of 4 components; 1) voice
pitch or speech melody, 2) sentence-stress, 3) tempo, rhythm
and pausation, and 4) timbre. Some foreign linguists, for
example, (D. Jones, reduce intonation only to variations in
pitch of the voice as it makes the core of intonation system.
Speech melody is the variations in the pitch of the voice in
connected speech. It makes the pitch component of intonation.
In the pitch component we may consider the distinct variations
in the direction of pitch (Напрям мелодики), pitch level
(Мелодійний рівень) and pitch range (Мелодійний
діапазон). Pitch direction - where pitch goes distinctly up or
down. Pitch levels may be high, medium, and low. Pitch range
is the interval between two pitch levels or two different
pitched syllables or parts of a syllable. Three pitch ranges are
generally distinguished: normal, wide, and narrow. Sentence
stress is the greater prominence given to one or more words in
a sentence as compared with the other words of the same
sentence. It makes the force component of intonation .Rhythm
is a regular recurrence of stressed syllables. Tempo of spcech
is the relative speed with which sentences and their parts are
pronounced. The tempo implies the rate of the utterance and
pausation The rate of speech can be normal, slow and fast.
Any stretch of speech can be split into smaller portions,
phonetic wholes, intonation groups by means of pauses. Pause
is a complete stop of phonation. Kinds of pauses: 1. Short
pauses which may be used to separate intonation groups
within a phrase 2. Longer pauses which normally manifest the
end of the phrase.3.Very long pauses, which are
approximately twice as long as the first type, are used to
separate phonetic wholes. Functionally, there may be
distinguished syntactic, emphatic and hesitation pauses
Syntactic pauses separate phonopassages, phrases, and
intonation groups. Emphatic pauses serve to make especially
prominent certain parts of the utterance. Hesitation pauses are
mainly used in spontaneous speech to gain some time to think
over what to say next. They may be silent or filled.The timbre
of speech is a special coloring of voice which shows the
speaker's emotions.Intonation is divided into emphatic and
unemphatic. Sentences pronounced with unemphatic
intonation are less emotional; all the words are more or less
equally stressed. Each syllable of the speech chain has a
special pitch colouring. Some of the syllables have significant
moves of tone up and down. Each syllable bears a definite
amount of loudness. Pitch movements are inseparably
connected with loudness. Together with the tempo of speech
they form an intonation patterrn which is the basic unit of
intonation
M Sokolova distinguishes the following functions of
intonation: constitutive (to form a sentence) and distinctive (to
distinguish communicative types of sentences).D. Crystal
distinguishes the following functions of intonation .Emotional
to express attitudinal meaning. Grammatical to identify
grammatical structures in speech, performing a role similar to
punctuation: question-affirmative; positive- negative.
Informational - to convey what is new and what is already
known in the meaning of the utterance. Textual function to
construct larger than an utterance stretches of discourse. In
sports commentary, changes in prosody reflect the progress of
the action .Psychological-to organize speech into units that are
easier to perceive and memorize. Indexical to serve as markers
of personal or social identity.
29.INTONATION PETTERNS
The intonation group is a stretch of speech which may
have the length of the whole phrase. But the phrase often
contains more the one intonation group. The number of
intonation groups depends on the length of the phrase and the
degree of semantic importance or emphasis given to various
parts of it. Intonation pattern consists of one or more syllables:
one nucleus and may contain other stressed or unstressed
syllables normally preceding or following the nucleus. A
pattern containing a number of syllables consists of the
following parts: the pre-head, the head, the nucleus, the tail.
The pre-head includes unstressed and half-stresses
syllables preceding the first stressed syllable.
The head includes the stressed and unstressed syllables
beginning with the first stressed syllable up to the last stressed
syllable.
The last stressed syllable is calledthe nucleus, or focal
point of an intonation pattern. The nucleus may be described
as a strongly stressed syllable which is generally the last
strongly accented syllable of an intonation pattern and which
marks a significant change of pitch direction.The unstressed
and half-stressed syllables that follow the nucleus are
calledthe tail. I`ll (pre-head)ask what to (head) do (nucleus)
about it (tail).
The nucleus and the tail form what is calledterminal tone.
The head and the pre-head form the pre-nuclear part of the
intonation pattern. The pre- nuclear part can take a variety of
pitch patterns. Variation within the pre- nucleus does not
usually affect the grammatical meaning of the utterance,
though it often conveys meanings associated with attitude or
phonetic styles. There are three common types of pre-nucleus:
a descending; an ascending and a leveltype .
The rises or falls that take place in the nucleus are
callednuclear tones. The nuclear tone is the most important
part of the intonation pattern without which the latter cannot
exist at all. On the other hand an intonation pattern may
consist of one syllable which is it nucleus. Phoneticians single
out from 4 to 12 nuclear tones. Different combinations of
pitch sections (pre-heads, heads and nuclei) may result in
more than one hundred pitch-and-stress patterns. The most
common ones:
1.The Low (Medium) Fall pitch-and-stress group; 2.The
High Fall group; 3.Rise Fall group; 4.The Low Rise group;
5.The High Rise group;6.The Fall Rise group; 7.The Rise-
Fall-Rise group;8.The Mid-level group. According to R.
Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low
Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.
Intonation patterns serve to actualize syntagms in oral
speech.Syntagmis a group of words which is semantically and
syntactically complete. In phonetics actualized syntagms are
called intonation groups.
 30.NOTATION
Inthegraphicalrepresentationonlytwocomponentsarereflect
ed: speechmelodyandsentence-stress:
A dash(- ) represents a stressedsyllablepronouncedwith a
levelpitch.
A downwardcurve ( )-a stressedsyllablepronouncedwith a
fallinpitchwithinthatsyllable.
Anupwardcurve (/)-a stressedsyllablepronouncedwith a
riseinpitchwithinthatsyllable.
A dot (.) representsanunstressedsyllable.
Two vertical strokes (//) denote a long pause at the end of
the sentence.
A single vertical stroke (\) denotes a short pause inside
the sentence.
A vertical wavy line () means a pause that is extremely
short, or even actually absent.
These signs are written on staves (between two horizontal
lines which represent limits of voice).
 31. RHYTHM
Speech rhythm is traditionally defined as recurrence of
stressed syllables at more or less equal intervals of time in a
speech continuum.
Linguists divide languages into two groups: 1.syllable-
timed (French, Spanish ); 2.stress-timed (English, German,
Russian).
In a syllable-timedlanguage the speaker gives an
approximately equal amount of time to each syllable, whether
the syllable is stressed or unstressed.
In a stress-timedlanguage the rhythm is based on a larger
unit, than syllable. Though the amount of time given on each
syllable varies considerably, the total time of uttering each
rhythmic unit is practically unchanged. The stressed syllables
of a rhythmic unit form peaks of prominence. They tend to be
pronounced at regular intervals no matter how many
unstressed syllables are located between every 2 stressed ones.
Thus the distribution of time within the rhythmic unit is
unequal. Rhythmic group is one or more words closely
connected by sense and grammar but containing only one
strongly stressed syllable and being pronounced in one breath:
(example) Thank you.
Rhythm in English is stress-timed, it is based on the
alternation of strongly and weekly stressed syllables.
Rhythm has a great importance not only for music and
poetry, but also for prose. The rhythm of prose is based on
repetition, parallel constructions. The unit of measure here is
not a syllable but a structure, a word-combination, a sequence
of phrases, sentences.
 32. TERRITORIAL VARIETIES OF ENG.
PRONONCIATION
Over 3 hundred million people now speak English as the
first language. It is national language of UK, USA, Canada,
New Zealand, Australia. English is nationally heterogeneous
language. It is the unity of related national variants and
dialects. The variates of the language are conditioned by
language communities running from small groups to nations.
Engl. Was originally spoken in England and South-
Eastern Scotland. Then it was introduced into greater part of
Scotland and Southern Island. In 17-18 centuries it was
brought to North America. Later in 18-19 centuries Engl. was
exported to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa. Engl.
become wide spread in Whales at the same time. Then in 20
century American Engl. become to spread in Canada, Latin
America, on the Bermudas and in other part of the world.
Thus nowadays 2 main types of Engl. are spoken in the
English speaking world: English and American English.
According to A.D. Schweizer: national language is a
historical category evolving from conditions of economy and
political concentration, which characterized the formation of
nation; it`s also the language of nations literature.
Every national variety of the language falls into territorial
original dialects. Dialects are distinguished from each other by
differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. When
we refer to variates in pronunciation only we use the word
«accent».
Local accent may have many features of pronunciation in
common and consequently are grouped into territorial or area
accents.
 In Britain for example : Yorkshire, Lendshire and
Cheshire accents form the group of Northern accent.
For certain geographic, economic, political and cultural
reasons one of the dialects becomes the standard language of
the nation and it`s pronounce – the received standard
pronunciation.
British dialectologists divide all the variants of Engl.into
2 groups: English based group( Engl. Welsh, Australian Engl.,
New Zealand Engl.). American based group( US Engl.,
Canadian Engl.)
 33. VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
Over 330 million people now speak English around the
world. It is national language of GB, USA, Canada. English is
nationally heterogeneous language. It is the entity of related
national variants and dialects.
The varieties of the languages are conditioned by
language communities running from small groups to nations.
English was originally spoken in England and South
Eastern Scotland. Then it was introduced into greater part of
Scotland and Southern Island.
In the 17 and 18 centuries it was brought to North
America. Later in the 18 and 19 centuries English was
exported to Australia, New Zeeland and South Africa owning
to the colonial expansion.
English became wide- spread in Wales at about the same
time. Walsh English is very similar to Southern English. Also
the influence of Walsh has played a role in it`s formation.
Then in the 20 century, American English began to spread in
Canada, Latin America, on the Bermuda’s and in the other
parts of the world.
Thus, nowadays 2 main types of English are spoken in the
Eng. Speaking world: English and American English.
According to A. D. Schweitzer national language is a
historical category evolving from a conditions of economic
and political concentration which characterizes the formation
of nation, it is also the language of nation`s literature.
Every national variety of the language falls into territorial
original dialects. Dialects are distinguished from each other by
differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.
When verifying to varieties of pronunciation only- we use
the word accent.
 Local accents may have many features of pronunciation in
common and consequently are grouped into territorial or aerial
accents. In Britain, for example, Yorkshire, Lancashire and
Cheshire accents form the group of Northern accent.
For certain geographical, economic, political and cultural
reasons one of the dialects becomes the standard language of
the nation and it`s pronunciation the received standard
pronunciation. This was the case of London dialect, who`s
accent became the received pronunciation of Britain. British
dialectologists divide all variants of English into two major
groups:
English based group:
English, Welsh Eng., Australian Eng., New Zeeland Eng.
American based group:
United States Eng. and Canadian Eng.
English English comprises two major accents: Northern
English and Southern English.
British English pronunciation standards and accent
comprises English English, Welsh English, Scottish English
and Northern Ireland English.
National standard are fixed,they can undergo changes due
to various internal and external factors. National variants of
English differ primarily in sound, stress and intonation.
It is well known that there are countries with more than
one national language, the most common case being the
existence of two national languages on the same territory.
For this, Canada will be an example where two different
languages English and French exists at the same time. This is
the case scholars speak about bilingualism in contrast to
monolingualism , typical of a country with one national
language.
 Here arises the problem of interference, that is linguistic
disturbance which results from two languages coming into
contact in a specific situation.
Dialects are studied by dialectology. It is inseparably
connected with social linguistics that deals with language
variation caused by social difference and studies the ways
language interacts with social reality.
 34. STANDARD ENGLISH
The notion of Standard Eng. Has started to be actively
discussed in academic and public discourse since the 1980`s.
At the international level the focus has been on the question of
which national standards to use in teaching English as a
foreign language.
Standard is socially accepted variety of a language
established by a codified norm of correctness. Standard
national pronunciation is sometimes called an «orthoepic
norm».
Some phoneticians prefer the term «literally
pronunciation». Standard Eng. carries most social prestige
within the country, it`s national target.
Features of Standard English:
Standard Eng. has no local base,
The linguistic features of Standard English are chiefly
matters of grammar, vocabulary and spelling.
Standard Eng. is spoken in a wide variety of accents,
including any prestige accent a country may have.
Standard Eng. is the norm of communication by
countries’ leading institutions such as government and media.
Standard Eng. is used by minority of people for
communication.
 35. RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION
In the 19 century RP was a social marker, a prestige
accent of an Englishman. Received was understood in the
sense of accepted in the best society. The speech of
aristocracy and the court phonetically was that of the London
area. Then it lost it`s local characteristics and was finally fixed
as a rolling class accent often referred to as ”Kings English”.
It was also the accent taught in public schools with the
spread of education, cultured people not belonging to upper
classes, where eager to modify their accent in the direction of
social standards.
It the first addition of «English pronouncing Dictionary»
1917 year, Daniel Jones defined the type of pronunciation,
recorded as public school pronunciation. He had buy 1926
abandonedterm ”Public school pronunciation” in favor of RP.
In the 19 century Public English has increasingly enquired
social prestige loosing some of it`s local characteristics.
Standard pronunciation of a country is not homogeneous.
Now only 8,5% of population of GB speak RP. Professor
Deamson suggest that conservative RP is used by older
generation.
[The General RP] is an pronunciation adapted by the BBC
company. [The Advanced RP] is mainly used by younger
people of upper classes. Many native speakers especially
teachers of English and Professors of colleagues, have accents
closely resembling received pronunciation but not identical to
it. British phoneticians called it ‘Near- RP Southern’.
So, types of Standard English Pronunciation are as
follows:
Conservative RP, General RP, Advanced RP, Near RP
Southern
 36. AMERICAN ENGLISH
Contemporary social linguistic in USA has been
investigated by scientists K. Pike, C. Praetor, A. Schweitzer.
The development of American English on American continent
has a comparatively short history. The English language on
the 17 century was brought to America by a first settlers. But
in the course of time American English has drifted
considerably from British English and has been modified
locally.
Scientists treat American English as an national variant of
English in the USA. The general situation in the USA may be
characterized as having several languages on it`s territory, the
balance been in favor of American English. In the US there
are main types of cultivated speech which are recognized:
The Eastern type is spoken in a New England and New
York city.
Western type or General American is also known as
Northern American or Western American and it`s spoken in
the central Atlantic states:New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin.
General American or Western type is prononciation standard
of the USA.
The Southern type is used in the south of the USA as well
as south-east part. It possesses striking distinctive feature that
is specific way of pronouncing vowels and monophasation of
some diphthongs at the expense of prolonging their neckline
and dropping the glide.
Differences between General American and received
pronunciation vowels and consonants:
No strict division into long and short vowels.
Classification of the vowels according to the stability of
articulation is the most controversial subject in General
American. Some diphthongs are treated as byphonemic
combinations.According to D. Shakhlagova we distinguish in
General American 5 diphthongs: (ЕЙ, АЙ, ОЙ, ОУ, АУ).
“R” is pronounced between a vowel and a consonant or
between vowel and a silence. So vowel become “R” – colored
to some extend. It has been estimated that 2/3 of Am.
Population pronounce “R” and 1/3 omit it.
“L” is dark in all positions so it is more velarized.(Yod)
dropping. [J] is not pronounced in combination of /// after
[TSD].
Nasalization of the vowels that is not marked in
transcription.
“T+J”, “D+J” before a weak vowel as [Y] or [E] are
assimilated into [r] or [дж].
[S] vocalization. In General American [ш]is vocalized in
final weak syllables ending with [іон]or [іа]. Comparing the
realization of lexical stress in General American and received
pronunciation Ulahbagova points out a tendency for the
primary stress to fall later of the word in General American,
then it received pronunciation. Speaking about differences in
stress, the following General trend can be established. There is
a greater use of secondary stress in General American along
with tendency to retain syllables and there is more syllable
reduction in multisyllabic words in received pronunciation.
 37. American based pronunciation. Differences
between between General American and Received
Pronunciation.
The American variant of English has been very
thoroughly described by many prominent scholars both in this
country and in the USA. We shall try to follow the conception
introduced by A.D. Shweitzer in his sociolinguistic approach
to the treatment of contemporary speech situation in America.
The formation of the American Standard underwent the
influence of minorities' languages, but its starting point was
the English language of the early 17th century. However, time
has passed, American English has drifted considerably from
English English though as yet not enough to give us ground to
speak of two different languages. Thus we speak of the
national variant of English in America. American English
shows a lesser degree of dialect than British English due to
some historical factors: the existence of Standard English
when first English settlers came to America, the high mobility
of population, internal migrations of different communities
and so on. As regards pronunciation, however, it is not at all
homogeneous. There are certain varieties of educated
American speech. In the USA three main types of cultivated
speech are recognized: the Eastern type, the Southern type and
Western or General American.
a)The Eastern type is spoken in New England, and in
New York city. It bears a remarkable resemblance to Southern
English, though there are, of course, some slight differences.
b)The Southern type is used in the South and South-East
of the USA. It possesses a striking distinctive feature - vowel
drawl, which is a specific way of pronouncing vowels,
consisting in the diphthongization and even triphthongization
of some pure vowels and monophthonogization of some
diphthongs at the expense of prolonging ("drawling") their
nuclei and dropping the glides.
c)The third type of educated American speech is General
American (GA), also known as Northern American or
Western American spoken in the central Atlantic States: New
York, New Jersey, Wisconsin and others.
Differences between General American and Received
Pronunciation vowels and consonants:
1)There is no strict division of vowels into long and short
in GA.
2)Classification of vowels according to the stability of
articulation is the most controversial subject in GA. Some
diphthongs are treated in GA as biphonemic combinations.
The inventory of GA diphthongs varies from three to twelve
phonemes. Following D.A. Shakhbagova we distinguish here
five diphthongs in GA: [ei], [ai], [oi], [au], [ou].
3)Another very important feature is the pronunciation of
[r] sound between a vowel and a consonant or between a
vowel and a silence: turn [t3:rn], bird [b3:rd], star [star]. It has
been estimated that 2/3 of American population pronounce [r]
and 1/3 omit it.
4) One more peculiar feature of pronunciation of vowels
in American English is their nasalization, when they are
preceded or followed by a nasal consonant (e.g. in such words
as take, small, name, etc.). Nasalization is often called an
American twang. It is incidental and need not be marked in
phonemic transcription.
5) GA front vowels are somewhat different from
RP. Vowels [i:], [i] are distributed differently in GA and RP.In
words like very, pity GA has [i.] rather than [1]. In word final
position it is often even diphthongized.
6)There are four mixed or central vowels in GA:
[3], [swa], [a], [a]. They differ markedly from RP vowels in
articulation and distribution.
7)The three RP vowels [»], [ae], [a:]correspond to only
two vowels in GA - [a] and [se]. This combined with the
articulatory differences between RP [»] and GA [a] and a
difference in vowel distribution in many sets of words makes
it very complicated.
Speaking about differences in stress the following general
trend can be established. There is a greater use of secondary
stress in general America a long with attendance to retain
syllables. There is more syllable reduction in multisyllabic
words in Received Pronunciation.
 38. Intonation and prosody.
Prosody of language is a term that refers collectively to
variations in pitch, loudness, tempo and rhythm. These
features are also called supra-segmental. They convey
information that the words do not consist of. On perception
level, intonation is a complex unity formed by significant
variations of pitch, loudness and tempo. Thus, prosody and
intonation relate to each other as a more general notion
(prosody) and its part (intonation).
Prosody is concerned with three matters:
1) with the ways in which an utterance is broken into tone
units
2) with the position of accent
3) with the intonation or melody
Intonation is complex unity of 4 components: 1) voice
pitch or speech melody, 2) sentence-stress, 3) rhythm, tempo,
and pausation, and 4) timbre.
Speech melody is the variations in the pitch of the voice
in connected speech. It makes the pitch component of
intonation. In the pitch component we may consider the
distinct variations in the direction of pitch, pitch level and
pitch range.
Pitch direction- where the pitch goes distinctly up or
down. There are 3 pitch levels: HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW. 
Pitch range is the interval between two pitch levels or two
different pitched syllables or parts of a syllable. The pitch
range of the whole intonation pattern is the interval between
the highest-pitched and the lowest-pitched syllables.  Pitch
ranges may be normal, wide and narrow.
 Sentence stress is the greater prominence of one or more
words among other words in the sentence. It makes the force
component of intonation.
Rhythm is a regular recurrence of stressed syllables.
Tempo of speech is the relative speed with which
sentences and their parts are pronounced. The tempo implies
the rates of the utterance and pausation.The rate of speech can
be normal, slow, fast.
Pause is a complete stop of phonation.
Kinds of pauses:
Short pauses which may be used to separate intonation
groups within a phrase.
Longer pauses which normally manifest the end of the
phrase.
Very long pauses, which approximately twice as long as
the first type, are used to separate phonetic wholes.
There are also:
Syntactic pauses separate phonopassages phrases and
intonation groups.
Emphatic pauses serve to make especially prominent
certain parts of the utterance.
Hesitation pauses are mainly used in spontaneous speech
to gain some time to think over what to say next.
The timbre of speech is a special coloring of voice which
shows the speaker’s emotions. Intonation is divided into
emphatic and unemphatic. Sentences pronounced with
unemphatic intonation are less emotional;
Functions of intonation acc to David Crystal:
-emotional – to express a wide range of attitudinal
meanings.
-grammatical – to mark grammatical contrasts.
 -information structure – to convey what is new and what
is already known in the meaning of an utterance.
-textual – to construct larger than an utterance stretches of
discourse.
-psychological – to organize l-ge into units that are more
easily perceived and memorized.
-Indexical – to serve as markers of personal identities.
 39. Methods applied in investigating the sound matter
of the language.
Methods applied in investigating the sound matter of the
language have changed greatly with the development of
technology and computer science. From the beginning of
phonetics the phonetician has relied mainly on what he could
feel of his own speech and on what he could hear both of his
own and the informant’s speech.
Such methods are called direct and consist in observing
the movements and positions of one's own or other people's
organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as
well as in analysing one's own kinaesthetic sensations (muscle
tense) during the articulation of speech sounds and in
comparing them with the resultant auditory impressions.
Investigation by means of this method can be effective only if
the persons employing it have been specially trained and have
acquired considerable skills in associating the qualities of the
perceived sound with the nature of the articulations producing
it.
Instrumental methods were introduced into phonetics in
the last century to supplement the impressions deriving from
the human senses. These methods are based upon registering
or computing machines and technical devices, such as
spectrograph, intonograph, x-ray photography and
cinematography, laryngoscope and some others. The
introduction of machines for measurements and for
instrumental analysis into phonetics has resulted in their use
for detailed study of many of the phenomena which are
present in the sound wave or in the articulatory process at any
given moment. These techniques can be very useful both for
discovering in detail how English speakers produce their
speech sounds, and for demonstrating to learners of English
their pronunciation. Computers can provide additional
pronunciation training, displaying useful information on the
screen and being a powerful visual aid for effective phonetic
practice. One more advantage of the modern experimental
study of speech is the enormous amount of varied spoken
speech data stored on computers. It facilitates the process of
looking for cross-language differences and similarities. The
data obtained from instrumental analysis supplement and
verify those obtained by means of direct observation, thus
making the research results more detailed and precise.
40. Branches of phonetics.
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