Chapter 1 : Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants
(1) Describe the T.S. of anther.
Ans. (I) Internally it shows four chambers called microsporangia
or pollen sacs.
(2) The anther consists of two main parts, viz. , anther wall and
microsporangi.um or pollen sac.
(3) The wall of the anther can be differentiated into four layers,
viz., epidermis, endothecium, middle layers and tapetum.
( 4) The epidermis is the outermost layer of the anther wall. It is
made up of flattened cells which are protective in function.
(5) The endothecium lies internal to the epidermis. It is made
up of a single layer of cells. The cells of endothecium show fibrous
thickenings on radial walls.
( 6) Internal to the endothecium, lie 1 to 3 layers of parenchymatous
cells forming middle layers of the anther wall. The cells of middle
layers degenerate at maturity during the formation of microspores.
(7) The tapetum is the innermost nutritive layer of the wall
of the anther, consisting of a single layer of cell surrounding the
sporogenous tissue.
(2) Describe the structure of a mature anatropous ovule or a
typical angiospermic ovule.
Ans. ( I) The ovule which has a bent axis and downwardly
directed micropyle is called anatropous ovule. It is the most common
type of ovule in angiosperms.
(2) The mature anatropous ovule consists of two parts, viz., the
stalk and the body. The stalk of the ovule is called the funicle or
funiculus. The funicle attaches the ovule with the placenta.
(3) The point at which the funicle is attached to the body of the
ovule is called hilum.
( 4) Nucellus : It is made up of diploid parenchymatous cells. The
basal part of the nucellus is called chalaza. The protective coverings
of the nucellus are called integuments.
(5) Micropyle : The integuments do not completely cover the
nucellus. They leave a small opening called micropyle at the tip.
(6) Embryo sac: In a mature ovule, the nucellus shows an ovals
haped structure towards its micropylar end called embryo sac or
female gametophyte.
(3) What are different types of cross pollination based on the
biotic pollinating agents?
Ans. Cross pollination through biotic agents are entomophily,
ornithophily and chiropterophily.
( 1) Entomophily : Pollination effected through insects is called
entomophily. Insect pollinated plants are called entomophilous.
Entomophily is seen in plants like Hibiscus, Rose, Salvia, Cestrum,
J asmine, etc.
(2) Ornithophily : Pollination effected through the agency of birds
is called ornithophily. Bird pollinated plants are called ornithophilous
plants. Ornithophily is seen in plants like Callistemon, Bombax,
Butea, etc.
(3) Chiropterophily : Pollination effected through bats is called
chiropterophily. Bat pollinated plants are called chiropterophilous
plants. Chiropterophily is seen in plants like Anthocephalous
(Kadamb tree). Adansonia (Baobab tree), Kigellia (Sausage tree).
(4) Describe three devices by which cross pollination is
encouraged in Angiosperms by avoiding self-pollination?
Ans. ( 1) Unisexuality, dichogamy, prepotency, heteromorphy
and herkogamy are the outbreeding devices.
(2) Unisexuality: The plants bear either male or female flowers.
Due to unisexual nature, self-pollination is avoided. Plants are either
dioecious, e.g. Papaya or monoecious, e.g. maize.
(3) Heteromorphy : In same plants different types of flowers
are produced. In these flowers, stigmas and anthers are situated at
different levels. There is heterostyly and h eteroanthy. This prevents
self-pollination e.g. Primrose.
(4) Herkogamy: In bisexual flowers we may come across
mechanical device to prevent self-pollination. Natural physical barrier
avoids contact of pollens with stigma. E.g. Calotropis where pollinia
are situated below the stigma.
Chapter 2 : Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals
( 1) Write a brief account of accessory sex glands associated
with human male reproductive system.
Ans. Seminal Vesicles, prostate gland and Cowper's glands are
associated with human male reproductive system.
( 1 ) Seminal Vesicles :
(i) Seminal vesicles occur in pair present on the posterior
side of urinary bladder. Its secretion consists about 60%
of the total volume of the semen. The secretion is an
alkaline seminal fluid containing fructose, fibrinogen and
prostaglandins.
(ii) Fructose helps in the movement of sperms by providing
energy to them.
(iii) Semen is coagulated in bolus by fibrinogen. This helps in
faster movements of sperms in vagina after insemination.
(iv) Reverse peristalsis in vagina and uterus for faster
movement of sperms towards the egg in the female body
is aided by prostaglandins.
(2) Prostate gland :
(i) It is a single gland located under the urinary bladder. It
has about 20 to 30 separate lobes which open separately
into the urethra.
(ii) Prostatic fluid secreted by this gland is milky white and
slightly acidic. It forms 30% of the semen and is secreted
in urethra.
(iii) Its contents are citric acid, acid phosphatase and various
other enzymes.
(iv) The sperms are protected from the acidic environment of
vagina by acid phosphatase.
(3) Cowper's glands (Bulba-urethral glands) :
(i) Cowper's glands occur in pair on either side of urethra.
They are small and pea shaped.
(ii) Cowper's glands secrete an alkaline, viscous, mucous like
fluid. It helps as lubricant during copulation.
(2) Describe the structure of blastocyst or blastula :
Ans. ( 1) The outer layer of cells of the morula is called trophoblast
or trophoectoderm. This layer absorbs the nutritive fluid secreted by
uterine endometrial membrane.
(2) As more and more fluid is absorbed by trophoblast cells, the
cells become flat and a cavity called blastocyst cavity or blastocoel or
segmentation cavity is formed.
(3) This causes trophoblast cells to get separated from inner cell
mass except at one side.
Morula
Outer layer of cells
Inner mass of cells
Inner cell -------,1ti!_~~~
mass
Blastocyst
Fig. : Stages of blastulation
(4) The trophoblast cells in contact with embryonal knob are
known as cells of Rauber. As the quantity of fluid increases, the
morula enlarges rapidly and assumes the shape of a cyst. This stage
is called blastocyst.
( 5) The side of the blastocyst to which embryonal knob is attached
is known as the embryonic or animal pole and the opposite side as
abembryonic pole.
(6) The trophoblast produces extra embryonic membranes and
does not participate in the formation of embryo proper.
(7) Zona pellucida disappears allowing the blastula to increase
in size and volume. The blastocyst stage is reached in about five days
after fertilization.
(8) Blastocyst depends on mother for nutrition which it obtained
through placenta.
(3) What is parturition? Which hormones are involved in
parturition?
Ans. ( 1) Parturition is the act of expelling out the mature foetus
from the uterus of mother via the vagina.
(2) When the foetus is fully mature, it starts secreting ACTH
(Adreno Cortico Trophic Hormone) from its pituitary.
(3) ACTH stimulates adrenal glands of foetus to produce
corticosteroids.
(4) These corticosteroids diffuse from foetal blood to mother's
blood across the placenta. Corticosteroids accumulate in
mother's blood that results in decreased amount of progesterone.
Corticosteroids also increase secretion of prostaglandins.
(5) Simultaneously estrogen levels rise bringing about initiation
of contractions of uterine muscular wall.
(6) Reduced progesterone level and increased estrogen level
cause secretion of oxytocin from mother's pituitary. This causes
greater stimulation of myometrium of uterus.
(7) Prostaglandins cause increased forceful contraction of uterus
which expels the foetus out of the uterus.
(8) Hormone relaxin secreted by the placenta makes the pubic
ligaments and sacroiliac joints of the mother loosen. This causes
widening of birth canal which facilitates the normal birth of the baby.
(4) Give the name of causal organism of Syphilis and write on
its symptoms.
Ans. ( 1) Syphilis is a sexually transmitted venereal disease
caused by a Spirochaete bacterium Treponema pallidum.
(2) The site of infection is the mucous membrane in genital,
rectal and oral region.
(3) Symptoms of syphilis : {i) Primary lesion known as
chancre at the site of infection. (ii) They are seen on the external
genitalia in males and inside the vagina in females. (iii) Skin rashes
accompanied by fever, inflammedjoints and loss of hair. (iv) Paralysis
(v) Degenerative changes in the heart and brain.
Chapter 3 : Inheritance and Variation
( 1) Write the statements of three laws of inheritance given by
Mendel.
Ans. {I) Statement of Law of Dominance : When two homozygous
individuals with one or more sets of contrasting characters are
crossed, the alleles that appear in F 1 are dominant and those which
do not appear in F 1 are recessive.
(2) Statement of Law of Segregation or Law of Purity of gametes:
When F 1 hybrid formsgametes, the alleles segregate from each other
and enter in different gametes. The gametes formed are pure because
they carry only one either dominant allele or recessive allele each.
Due to this the law is also called "Law of purity of gametes".
(3) Statement of Law of Independent Assortment: When hybrid
possessing two (or more) pairs of contrasting alleles forms gametes,
these alleles in each pair segregate independently of the other pair.
(2) Explain the chromosomal theory of inheritance.
Ans. Chromosomal theory of inheritance was put forth by
Sutton and Boveri after studying parallel behaviour of genes and
chromosomes during meiotic division. This theory states following
points:
(I) Chromosomal theory identifies chromosomes as the carrier
of genetic material.
(2) All the hereditary characters are transmitted by gametes.
Nucleus of gametes, i.e. sperms and ova of the parents contain
chromosomes which transmit the heredity to offspring.
(3) Chromosomes are found in pairs in somatic or diploid cells.
( 4) During gamete formation, homologous chromosomes pair
and segregate independently at meiosis. The diploid condition is
converted into haploid condition. Thus each gamete contains only
one chromosome of a pair.
(5) During fertilization , the union of sperm and egg restores the
diploid number of chromosomes.
(3) Write a brief account of Turner's syndrome.
Ans. ( 1) Turner's syndrome is a genetic disorder caused due to
monosomy of X-chromosome.
(2) It was first described by H. H. Turner.
(3) Turner's syndrome is caused due to non-disjunction of sex
chromosomes which takes place during gamete formation.
(4) Chromosomal complement of Turner's syndrome is 44+ XO,
having a total of 45 chromosomes.
(5) Symptoms of Turner's syndrome are as follows : (i) Female
phenotype. (ii) Short stature with webbing of neck. (iii) Low posterior
hair line. (iv) Secondary sexual characters fail to develop. (v) Mental
retardation.
(4) Write a brief account of K.linefelter's syndrome.
Ans. ( 1) Klinefelter's syndrome is a genetic disorder caused due
to trisomy of X-chromosome.
(2) It was first described by Harry Klinefelter.
(3) Klinefelter's syndrome is caused due to non-disjunction of
sex chromosomes which takes place during gamete formation.
(4) Chromosomal complement of Klinefelter's syndrome is
44+XXY, having a total of 47 chromosomes.
(5) Symptoms of Klinefelter's syndrome are as follows : (i) The
Klinefelter·s syndrome individuals are tall , thin and eunuchoid.
(ii) They are sterile with poorly developed sexual characteristics.
(iii) Testes are underdeveloped and small. Spermatogenesis does not
take place. (iv) They have subnormal intelligence and show partial
mental retardation.
Chapter 4 : Molecular Basis of Inheritance
( 1) Why are Okazaki fragments formed on lagging strand
only?
Ans. (I) The lagging template is the template strand with free
5' end.
(2) The replication always starts at C-3 end of template strand
and proceeds towards C-5 end.
(3) Both the strands of the parental DNA are antiparallel and new
strands are always formed in 5' ➔ 3' direction. i.e. DNA polymerase
synthesizes new strand in only one direction i.e. 5' ➔ 3' direction.
( 4) Hence, the lagging templates becomes available for replication
only discontinuously in small patches.
(5) The new lagging strand develops discontinuously away from
the replicating fork in the form of small Okazaki fragments .
(6) Hence, Okazaki fragments formed on lagging strand only.
(2) Describe the structure of operon.
Ans. For the answer, reJer to Q. 25 of the Solved Model Question
Paper in Part 1.
(3) Explain the role of lactose in 'Lac Operon'.
Ans. ( I) A small amount of beta-galactoside permease enzyme is
present in cell even when Lac operon is switched off and it allows a
few molecules of lactose to enter into the cell.
(2) Lactose binds to repressor and inactivates it.
(3) Repressor - lactose complex cannot bind with the operator
gene, which is then turned on.
( 4) RNA polymerase transcribes all the structural genes to
produce lac m-RNA which is then translated to produce all enzymes.
(5) Thus, lactose acts as an inducer.
(6) When the inducer level falls, the operator is blocked again by
repressor and structural genes are repressed again. This is negative
feedback.
(4) What are the application of genomics?
Ans. Applications of genomics are as follows :
1) Structural and functionalgenomics is used in the improvement
of crop plant, human health and livestock.
(2) The knowledge and understanding acquired by genomics
research can be applied in medicine, biotechnology and social
sciences.
(3) It helps in the treatment of genetic disorders through gene
therapy.
(4) It helps in the development of transgenic crops having
desirable characters.
( 5) Genetic markers have applications in forensic analysis
( 6) Geno mi cs can lead to introduction of new gene in microbes to
produce enzymes, therapeutic proteins and biofuels.
Chapter 5 : Origin and Evolution of Life
( 1) What is Genetic variations? Explain the different factors
responsible for genetic variations.
Ans. Genetic variations : The change in gene and gene frequencies
is known as genetic variation. Genetic variations are caused by
following factors :
(i) Mutations : Sudden permanent heritable change is called
mutation. Mutation can occur in the gene, in the chromosome
structure and in chromosome number. Mutation that occurs within
the single gene is called point mutation or gene mutation. This leads
to the change in the phenotype of the organism, causing variations.
(ii) Genetic recombination : In sexually reproducing organisms,
during gamete formation, exchange of genetic material occurs between
non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. This is called
crossing over. It produces new genetic combinations which result
in variation. Fertilization between opposite mating gametes leads
to various recombinations resulting into the phenotypic variations.
These result in change in the frequencies of alleles.
(iii) Gene flow: Gene flow is movement of genes into or out of
a population. Gene movement may be in the form of migration of
organism, or gametes (dispersal of pollens) or segments of DNA
(transformation). Gene flow also alters gene frequency causing
evolutionary changes.
(iv) Genetic drift : Any random fluctuation (alteration) in allele
frequency, occurring in the natural population by pure chance, is
called genetic drift. For example, when the size of a population is
severely reduced due to natural disasters like earthquakes, floods,
fires, etc. elimination of particular alleles from a population becomes
possible. Smaller populations have greater chances for genetic drift.
It results in the change in the gene frequency. Genetic drift is also an
important factor for evolutionary change.
(v) Chromosomal aberrations : The structural, morphological
change in chromosome due to rearrangement of genes is called
chromosomal aberrations. Due to changes in the gene arrangement
or gene sequence variations are caused.
Chapter 6 : Plant Water Relation
Which different kinds of water are present in rhizosphere or
microenvironment of root?
Ans. (I) Plants absorb water from rhizosphere.
(2) Water present in soil is in the following forms namely :
(i) Gravitational water percolated deep in soil due to gravity.
(ii) Hygroscopic water held tightly around soil particles,
adsorbed or adhered water on fine particles.
(iii) Combined water present as hydrated oxides of silicon,
aluminium, etc.
(iv) Capillary water present in the fine spaces or capillaries
between soil particles.
Chapter 7 : Plant Growth and Mineral Nutrition
( 1) Discuss about discovery of abscissic acid.
Ans. ( I ) Abscissic acid (ABA) is a natural growth inhibiting
hormone.
(2) It was observed by Carns and Addicott that shedding of cotton
balls occur due to chemical substance abscission I and II.
( 3) From the buds of Acer, Wareing isolated substance that causes
bud dormancy and named it as dormin.
( 4) These two chemical substances were identical and now known
as abscissic acid.
(5) ABA is synthesized in leaves, fruits and seeds from mevalonic
acid.
Chapter 8 : Respiration and Circulation
( 1) Describe valves in the human heart.
Ans. Human heart has following main valves :
( 1) Tricuspid valve : Tricuspid valve is present between the right
atrium and right ventricle. It has three cusps or flaps . It prevents the
backflow of blood into right atrium.
(2) Bicuspid valve : Bicuspid valve, also called mitral valve is
present between the left atrium and left ventricle. It has two flaps.
It prevents the backflow of blood in left atrium. Both tricuspid and
bicuspid valves are attached to papillary muscles with tendinous
chords or chordate tendinae to prevent valves from turning back into
atria at the time of systole.
(3) Semilunar valve : These are present at the opening of
pulmonary artery and systemic aorta. They prevent the back flow of
blood when ventricles undergo systole.
(4) Thebesian valve: Thebesian valve is present at the opening
of coronary sinus.
(5) Eustachian valve : Eustachian valve is present at the opening
of inferior vena cava.
(2) Describe pulmonary and systemic circulation.
Ans. ( 1) In human beings, there is double circulation because
blood passes twice through the heart during one cardiac cycle.
(2) The blood follows two routes viz. pulmonary and systemic.
(3) Pulmonary circulation is circulation between heart and lungs.
Systemic circulation is the circulation between the heart and body
organs (except lungs}.
(4) During pulmonary circulation, the blood passes from the
right ventricle to the left atrium of the heart through lungs.
(5) The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the
pulmonary trunk which carries it to lungs for oxygenation. The
oxygenated blood from the lungs is brought to left atrium by two
pairs of pulmonary veins.
(6) During systemic circulation, the blood from the left ventricle
passes to the right atrium of heart through body organs.
(7) The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic
aorta which carries it to all body organs except lungs. The deoxygenated
blood from the body organs is brought to right atrium by superior
and inferior venae cavae.
Chapter 9 : Control and Coordination
(I) Describe the structure of spinal cord.
Ans. Structure of spinal cord :
( 1) Spinal cord is a 42 to 45 cm long, 2 cm thick and hollow tube,
extending from medulla oblongata to lumbar region.
(2) It lies in the neural canal of vertebral column.
(3) At the other end, it tapers down and is called con us medullaris.
The posterior most end is called filum terminale which appears as a
thread-like structure.
(4) Beyond the second lumbar vertebra, it forms a horse tail-like
structure called cauda equina. Cauda equina is a bunch of dorsal
and ventral roots of last pair of spinal nerves.
(5) There are two swellings on the spinal cord. The upper is
cervical swelling and lower is lumbar swelling. Accordingly there are
two plexuses, the cervical plexus supplying nerves to hands and the
lumbar plexus supplying nerves to legs.
( 6) 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from spinal cord.
(2) State the properties of hormones.
Ans. ( 1) Hormones are s pecifically produced in response to a
certain stimulus.
(2) Depending on nature and intensity of the stimulus, the rate of
secretion of a hormone varies from low to very high.
(3) Hormones are produced in one organ and show their effect
on distant 'target' organ. The source and the target region may be
distantly located.
( 4) Hormones are directly poured in blood circulation and always
carried through blood.
(5) Hormones are always bound to specific carrier proteins while
being transported through the blood.
( 6) Hormones have a high degree of target specificity.
(7) Every hormone acts basically by modifying some aspect of
cellular metabolism.
(8) The excessive secretions or deficiencies of hormones may
lead to serious disorders. Such disorders are called hyper - and
hypo-disorders, respectively.
(3) What is adenohypophysis? Which hormones are secreted
by the hormones of adenohypophysis?
Ans. (I) Adenohypophysis is the large anterior lobe of pituitary
gland.
(2) It is derived from embryonic ectoderm in the form ofRathke's
pouch which is a small outgrowth from the roof of embryonic
stomodaeum.
(3) It is made up of epitheloid secretory cells.
(4) It secretes following hormones :
(i) GH: [Growth Hormone/STH: Somatotropic Hormone)
(ii) TSH/fTH - [Thyroid Stimulating Hormone/ Thyrotropic
Hormone)
(iii) ACTH - [adrenocorticotropic hormone)
(iv) PRL - [prolactin)
(v) Gonadotropins -
(a) FSH [follicle stimulating hormone)
(b) LH/ICSH - [leutinizing hormone/ interstitial cells
stimulating hormone).
(4) Describe in brief an account of disorders of the thyroid.
Ans. Disorders of thyroid gland are of three types, viz.
hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism and simple goitre.
( 1) Hypothyroidism : Hypothyroidism is deficient secr etion of
thyroxine. This hyposecretion causes two types of disorders, viz.
cretinism in children and myoxedema in adults.
(i) Cretinism : Hyposecretion of thyroxine in childhood causes
cretinism. The symptoms of cretinism are retardation of physical
and mental growth.
(ii) Myxoedema: Deficiency of thyroxine in adults causes
this disorder. It is also referred to as Gull's disease. Symptoms
are thickening and puffiness of the skin and subcutaneous tissue
particularly of face and extremities. Patients with low BMR. It also
causes mental dullness, loss of memory, slow action.
(2) Hyperthyroidism : Excessive secretion of thyroxine causes
exophthalmic goitre or Grave's disease. There is s light enlargement
of thyroid gland . It increases BMR, heart rate, pulse rate and BP.
Reduction in body weight due to rapid oxidation, nervousness,
irritability. Peculiar symptom is exophthalmos, i.e. bulging of eyeb alls
with staring look and less blinking. This is caused by deposition of
fats behind the eye balls in eye sockets. There is muscular weakness
and loss of weight.
(3) Simple goitre (Iodine deficiency goitre) : Simple goitre
occurs due to deficiency of iodine in diet or drinking water. Simple
goitre causes enlargement of thyroid gland. Thyroid gland in an
attempt to get more iodine from the blood, swells due to increased
blood s upply. Prevention of goitre can be done by administering
iodized table salt. It is also called endemic goitre as it is common in
hilly areas.
Chapter 10: Human Health and Diseases
(1) What are the symptoms of malaria? How does malaria
spread?
Ans. I. Symptoms of malaria :
( 1 ) Fever accompanied by shivering.
(2) Joint pain or arthralgia.
(3) Vomiting.
( 4) Anaemia caused due to rupture of RBCs or haemolysis.
(5) Haemoglobinuria.
(6) Retinal damage.
(7) Convulsions.
(8) Cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by rigor and
then fever and sweating lasting for four to six hours. This is called a
classic symptom of malaria.
(9) Splenomegaly or enlarged spleen, severe headache, cerebral
ischemia, hepatomegaly, i.e. enlarged liver, hypoglycaemia and
haemoglobinuria with renal failure may occur in severe infections.
[Note : Students can write any two symptoms of the above.]
II. Spread / Transmission of malaria :
( 1) Malarial parasite is transmitted through the female Anopheles
mosquito and hence it is known as mosquito-borne disease. Mosquito
acts as a vector.
(2) There are four species of Plasmodium, viz. , P. vivax,
P. f alciparum, P. ova le and P. malariae which transmit malaria.
(2) Explain the mode of infection and cause of elephantiasis.
Ans. Mode of infection, i.e. transmission :
( 1) The parasite Wuchereria bancrofti is transmitted from a
patient to other normal human being by female Culex mosquito.
(2) The filarial larvae leave mosquito body and arrive on the
human skin where they penetrate the skin and enter inside.
(3) They undergo two moultings to become adults. Later they
settle in the lymphatic system. They incubate for about 8-16 months.
( 4) When they settle in lymphatic system, this infection is called
lymphatic filariasis.
(5) The worms start infecting lymphatic circulation resulting
into enlargement of lymph vessels and lymph nodes. The extremities
like legs or limbs become swollen which resembles elephant legs.
Therefore it is called elephantiasis.
(6) This condition is lymphoedema, i.e. accumulation of lymph
fluid in tissue causing swelling.
(3) Give the adverse effects of opioids, cannabinoids and
morphine on human health.
Ans.
1. Opioids:
( 1) Opioids bind to specific opioid receptors present in the
central nervous system and in gastrointestinal tract.
(2) They are depressants and slow down the body functions.
2. Cannabinoids :
( 1) Cannabinoids interact with receptors in the brain.
(2) They affect cardiovascular system of the body.
3. Morphine :
( 1 ) Morphine is an effective sedative and pain killer when used
for medicinal purpose.
(2) When abused it affects physical, physiological and
psychological functions.
Chapter 11 : Enhancement of Food Production
(1) Many microbes are used at home during preparation of
food items. Comment on such useful ones with examples.
Ans. ( 1) Many food preparations made at home involves the use
of microorganisms.
(2) The microbes Lactobacilli are used in the preparation
of dhokla from gram flour and buttermilk by the process of
fermentation.
(3) Dosa and idlis are prepared by using batter of rice and black
gram which is fermented by air borne Leuconostoc and Streptococcus
bacteria.
( 4) Large, fleshy fruiting bodies of some mushrooms and truffles
are directly used as food. It is sugar free, fat free food rich in proteins,
vitamins, minerals and amino acids. It is food with low calories.
(5) Curd is prepared by inoculating milk with Lactobacillu.s
acidophilus. Lactic acid produced during fermentation causes
coagulation and partial digestion of milk protein casein and milk
turns into curd.
( 6) Buttermilk is the acidulated liquid left after churning of butter
from curd, is called buttermilk.
(2) Enlist the advantages of biogas.
Ans. Advantages of biogas are as follows :
( 1) Biogas is a cheap, safe, non-conventional and renewable
source of energy.
(2) It can be easily generated, stored and transported.
(3) Biogas burns with a blue flame without producing smoke.
(4) Biogas is of great help in improving the sanitation of the
surrounding.
(5) Biogas is an eco-friendly gas. It does not cause pollution and
imbalance of the environment.
( 6) Leftover sludge can be used as fertilizer.
(7) It is used as domestic and industrial fuel. Biogas can be used
for domestic lighting, street lighting, cooking, small scale industries,
etc.
Chapter 12 : Biotechnology
( 1) What are the different ways in which gene therapy is used?
Ans. Gene therapy is being used as follows :
( 1) Replacement of missing or defective genes.
(2) Delivery of genes that speed the destruction of cancer cells.
(3) Supply of genes that cause cancer cells to revert back to
normal cells.
( 4) Delivery of bacterial or viral genes as a form of vaccination.
(5) Delivery of DNA to antigen expression and generation of
immune response.
(6) Supply of gene for impairing viral replication.
(7) Provide genes that promote or impede the growth of new
tissue.
(8) Deliver genes that stimulate the healing of damaged tissue.
(2) What are edible vaccines? How are they produced?
Ans. ( 1) Edible vaccine is an edible plant part engineered to
produce an immunogenic protein, which when consumed gets
recognized by immune system.
(2) Immunogenic protein of certain pathogens are active when
administered orally.
(3) The gene encoding for immunogenic protein is isolated and
inserted in a suitable vector.
(4) Recombinant vector is then transferred to plant genome.
(5) Expression of this gene in specific parts of the plant results in
the synthesis of immunogenic proteins.
(6) When animals or mainly humans consume these plant parts,
they get vaccinated against certain pathogen.
Chapter 13: Organisms and Population
( 1) What are the three main types of niches?
Ans. ( 1) Spatial or habitat niche : Spatial or habitat niche
means the physical space occupied by the organisms.
(2) Trophic niche: This kind of niche is based on the trophic
level of an organism in a food chain.
( 3) Multidimensional or hypervolume niche : In
multidimensional niche, number of abiotic and biotic environmental
factors are considered. The resulting space by the niche is called
hypervolume. Therefore it is also called hypervolume niche. It shows
the position of an organism in the environmental gradient.
(2) How is sunlight important for every ecosystem?
Ans. ( 1) Sunlight is essential for the plants for photosynthesis.
(2) It is the only source of energy for the entire ecosystem.
(3) Without sunlight the food chains will not exist.
( 4) Survival of plants is therefore dependent on sunlight.
(5) In case of animals diurnal and seasonal variations in light
intensity and duration decide the feeding, foraging and reproductive
activities.
( 6) Migrations shown by certain animals also depend on light.
(7) Almost all animals have behaviour based on photoperiod. The
proportion of sunlight on land also decides the ambient temperature.
Thus, life is dependent on light.
(3) What are the decisive factors for population density?
Ans. The density of a population in a given habitat during a given
period fluctuates due to changes in four basic processes, viz.
(i) Natality i.e. birth rate (The number of births during a given
period in the population that are added to the initial density).
(ii) Mortality i.e. death rate (The number of deaths in the
population during a given period).
(iii) Immigration i.e. number of individuals of the same species
that have come into the habitat from elsewhere during the time period
under consideration.
(iv) Emigration i.e. the number of individuals of the population
who left the habitat and gone elsewhere during the time period under
consideration.
(v) Natality and immigration increase in population density
whereas mortality and emigration decrease it.
(4) Name important defence mechanisms in plants against
herbivores.
Ans. Herbivores feed on plants and thus they are predators for
the vegetations.
Plants therefore have evolved variety of morphological and
chemical defences against herbivores, which are as follows :
( 1) Thorns seen in cactus or acacia makes the plant inedible and
thus this is the most common morphological means of defence.
(2) Many plants produce and store chemicals which are toxic and
unpalatable. They can affect the feeding herbivore. aquaculture purpose. This catfish species has proved harmful to
(3) When these chemicals/produce are consumed, there is endemic catfish varieties.
inhibition of feeding or digestion of predator. It also disrupts the (7) Since there is lack oflocal predator, this alien species survives
reproduction or even kill it. and cause harmful effect on local species.
(4) Plants like Calotropis produces highly poisonous cardiac
glycosides which can act toxic to the grazers.
(5) A wide variety of chemical substances such as nicotine,
caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc., are secondary metabolites
produced by plants which act as defences against grazers and
browsers.
Chapter 15 : Biodiversity, Conservation and Environmental Issues
(I) How does genetic diversity affect sustenance of a species?
Ans. (I) Genetic diversity develops the capability of the species
to adapt to the varying changes in the environment.
(2) The large variation of the different gene sets allows an
individual or the whole population to have the capacity to endure
environmental stress in any form.
(3) Some individuals have a better capacity to endure the
increasing pollution in the environment whereas some do not have it.
(4) Those that do not have show infertility or even death from the
same conditions.
(5) Those who are able to endure and adapt to this change survive
and live in a better way.
( 6) This is called natural selection which leads to a loss of genetic
diversity in particular habitats.
(7) Thus, genetic diversity can affect sustenance of some species.
(2) What do you understand by invasive species? How does it
affect local population?
Ans. (I) New species are introduced into any ecosystem either
accidentally or intentionally.
(2) Such introduction proves harmful for existing species.
(3) Sometimes even local species get extinct.
( 4) If such extinction happens, then this new species is called
an invasive species. E.g. Parthenium or carrot grass, Lantana and
water hyacinth (Eichhornia) are such invasive plant species.
(5) Nile perch which is a predator fish in Lake Victoria cause
harm to 200 local species of Cichlid fish.
(6) Clarias gariepinus (African catfish) was brought to India for