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Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western

Anatolia: A case study from Ephesus and Miletus

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DOI: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015

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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in

Western Anatolia: A case study from Ephesus and Miletus
Sylvie Yona Waksman a,⁎, Jacques Burlot a, Beate Böhlendorf-Arslan b, Joanita Vroom c
a
CNRS, UMR 5138 "Archéométrie et Archéologie", Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée, 7 rue Raulin, 69365 Lyon cedex 7, France
b
Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie, Ernst Ludwig Platz 2, 55116 Mainz, Germany
c
Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9514, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The beginning of the Turkish period in Western Anatolia initiates new ceramic types, related to the “Islamic”
Received 7 May 2015 world, in the local pottery repertoire. To study this evolution from Byzantine to Turkish times, our paper focuses
Received in revised form 14 July 2015 on one of these types, moulded wares, and on two sites, Miletus and Ephesus. At both sites, evidence of local
Accepted 12 November 2015
production was found, which enabled us to define or re-define the corresponding chemical reference groups
Available online xxxx
using WD-XRF. The identification of the origin of the finds, or their attribution to as yet unlocated workshops
Keywords:
whose diffusion may be approached, provide solid grounds for discussing the introduction of moulded wares
Turkish period in Western Anatolia. SEM analyses give some preliminary insight into the emergence and development of new
Western Turkey ceramic techniques in the region, whose “end-products” are represented by the well-known Iznik Ware. This
Pottery paper constitutes a first step in research carried out in the framework of the POMEDOR project (People, Pottery
Moulded wares and Food in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean).
Chemical analysis © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Provenance
Technology

1. Introduction (Vroom, 2005; Böhlendorf-Arslan, 2008). Although moulded wares

Although long neglected, the Byzantine and Turkish archaeological
contexts which precede the Ottoman period in Western Anatolia
gradually tend to be both better documented, and better studied for
their pottery (Spieser, 1996; Böhlendorf-Arslan, 2004; Vroom, 2005;
Mania, 2006; Pfeiffer-Taş, 2010, 2011; Gök Gürhan, 2011; Doğer,
2013; Mercangöz, 2013; Ladstätter, 2015; Vroom, 2015; Vroom and
Fındık, 2015). In parallel, the development of archaeometric research
has provided tools for more comprehensive approaches to production
and diffusion of Western Anatolian ceramics in these periods (Scott
and Kamilli, 1981; Waksman, 1995; Demirci et al., 1996; Okyar, 2010;
Okyar et al., 2011; Kırmızı, 2012; Budak Ünaler, 2013; Özçatal et al.,
2014), especially in recent years thanks to the specialized chemical da-
tabase developed in Lyon (Waksman and François, 2004–2005; Sauer
and Waksman, 2005; Waksman and Wartburg von, 2006; Waksman,
2015).
This paper focuses on a specific type of ceramics, moulded wares,
which appear in Western Anatolia during the early Turkish period,
and on two sites, Ephesus and Miletus (Fig. 1), where moulded wares
found together with moulds provide evidence for local production
were already manufactured during the Hellenistic and Roman periods
(Hochuli-Gysel, 1977), they appear in Western Turkey again much
later, together with other types of pottery, such as turquoise glazed
wares, which can be related to products from the Islamic world. They
are dated there to the 14th c. AD, which closely follows the arrival of
Turkish rulers and populations. The latter may have brought their
pottery traditions and techniques, together with their dining habits
and diet, taste and symbolic uses (Böhlendorf-Arslan, 2002; Dalaman,
2015; Vroom, 2015). Such issues are investigated in the larger frame-
work of the POMEDOR project.1
In this paper, we focus on the introduction of moulded wares in the
local pottery repertoire in Ephesus and Miletus, raising issues of
provenance and technology, and attempting to contextualize this intro-
duction. Provenances were investigated by chemical analysis using WD-
XRF (CNRS UMR 5138), building on previous archaeometric research on
Ephesus (Sauer and Waksman, 2005; Waksman, 2014, 2015) and taking
the opportunity to update previous views. Technical traditions were
studied under the SEM (CTμ, Lyon), with special interest in paste/slip/
glaze associations.

1
⁎ Corresponding author. POMEDOR project “Population, Pottery and Food in the Medieval Eastern Mediterra-
E-mail address: yona.waksman@mom.fr (S.Y. Waksman). nean”, http://www.pomedor.mom.fr.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
2352-409X/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Waksman, S.Y., et al., Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western Anatolia: A case study
from Ephesus and Miletus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
2 S.Y. Waksman et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Fig. 1. Location of the sites mentioned in the text.
2. Archaeological sites, contexts and sampling
2.1. Sites and contexts
2.1.1. Recent ceramic research on Medieval Ephesus
Ephesus is continuously inhabited from Hellenistic to Ottoman
times. In its last occupation phases the centre of habitation extended
from the ancient city (situated near the harbour) towards the Ayasoluk
Hill. In fact, the Beylik and Ottoman influence on the city and the
conquest of its lands in 1304 initiated a new period and added land-
marks to the urban landscape that last to today.
The excavation of Ephesus by the Austrian Archaeological Institute
has been ongoing since 1893, but interest in the late Byzantine to
Ottoman periods has only lately been shown at the initiative of
Ladstätter, the current director of the excavations. The current study,
executed by Vroom and her team from Leiden University, focuses on
finds from four sites in particular: the Artemis Temple (also known as
“Artemision”), the Isa Bey Hamam, an anonymous Türbe and the so-
called Tribune (e.g. Vroom, 2015). Recent excavations produced a con-
siderable amount of material from these last three sites, which makes
a longue durée research focus possible.
The excavation of an anonymous Türbe, a funerary monument south
to the Artemis Temple, took place from 2009 to 2012 (Ladstätter, 2015).
This Türbe dates from the early 15th century, and was erected cutting
through several previous structures: a graveyard, a Byzantine wall of
two phases and a pottery kiln (Parrer, 2015). The ceramic finds mostly
range in date from Middle Byzantine to more recent times (circa
10th–early 20th centuries), with a few earlier exceptions. The typo-
chronology as well as the provenance of the Türbe ceramic finds have
been discussed, based on a simple functional ordering in glazed wares,
unglazed wares and some potter's tools (Vroom and Fındık, 2015;
Waksman, 2015). The results eventually shed light on the production
processes and trade relations of Medieval and Ottoman Ephesus (or
“Ayasoluk”) in general, and on the dating of the anonymous monument
in particular.
Some hundred metres westwards from this Türbe lays the Tribune
site. Here excavation from 2009 to 2011 revealed an additional motiva-
tion of continuous habitation based on the abundance and wealth of the
Tribune's material record dating from Byzantine to Beylık and Ottoman
Please cite this article as: Waksman, S.Y., et al., Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western Anatolia: A case study
from Ephesus and Miletus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
times. During that period the site seemed to have been used as some
sort of residence or living quarters. Numerous fragments of tableware,
glass vessels and metal objects were found in large quantities, often of
high quality unrivalled for that era. Among the finds are fragments of
blue-green Celadon bowls and plates from China, Islamic fritware with
vegetal motives in blue paint, moulded jugs covered with a micaceous
coating or a glaze, monochrome and polychrome Sgraffito Wares, un-
glazed amphorae and cooking pots. Most of the moulded fragments
sampled for this article originate from Sondage 2, a large excavation
trench situated along the western part of the monument. They can be
generally dated in the 13th–14th c. and sometimes more specifically
in the 2nd half of the 14th c.
The documentation of the material from the Türbe and the Isa Bey
Hamam is nearly finished and awaits publication, while the study of
the Tribune material is still ongoing. Besides basic analyses of the pot-
tery, glass and small finds from the three sites to date the stratigraphy,
the project aims to analyse and revalue the current knowledge of
ceramic assemblages. This will include spatial analyses of the finds
within the rooms (architectural units) of the sites displaying the func-
tion of the separate spaces through time. Finally, the study so far has
shown new pottery types, new regional production sites and new pat-
terns of trading networks (Vroom, 2015).
2.1.2. Early Turkish Miletus
After the conquest of Miletus by the Turkish dynasty of Menteşeoǧluları
in 1261, life in the city continued without any interruption. Thereafter an
increased construction activity began. The castle was renovated; now it
served to secure the two ports that were also used for long distance trade
with Venice. In that period a Venetian consulate, trading houses and a
new church was constructed (Müller-Wiener, 1967, 288-90; Zachariadou,
1983).
In the 14th century a pottery workshop was operating in the
remains of the so-called Bishop’ Palace north of the Michael's church
(Müller-Wiener et al., 1979, 170). More pottery workshops were prob-
ably located on the road west of the ancient bouleuterion (Sarre, 1935,
70; Wulzinger et al., 1935, 57). With the construction of visitor paths
that lead from the Byzantine theatre castle hill to the Michael's Church
and the ancient city centre, several older excavation rubble mounds
were removed. The rubble may have been created during excavation
of the workshop area. From these many tripods, misfired pottery and
other ceramic finds originated (Böhlendorf-Arslan, 2008, 375: “STR”,
“WO” or “W”). Other ceramic finds are from surface cleaning of the the-
atre castle (Böhlendorf-Arslan, 2008: “TK” or “TO”) or found during the
renovation work in the theatre (Böhlendorf-Arslan, 2008: “T”). The
excavations at the temple of Athena in the south of the city and the
Michael's Church also provide Byzantine and early Ottoman material
in the upper layers, which are not fully published yet (Böhlendorf-
Arslan, 2008: “AT” or “MK”).
Although these finds do not come from stratified contexts, they were
of particular interest for our study as they include evidence of pottery
production associated to pottery of the early Turkish period.
2.2. Sampling
The sampling considered here2 includes three categories of ceramics
and clay objects, selected among a larger repertoire studied in the
framework of the POMEDOR project:
2
Samples from Miletus in Böhlendorf-Arslan, 2008: BZY979 (Kat. 6, Abb. 4); BZY980
(Kat. 54, Abb. 14.54), BZY984 (Kat. 7, Abb. 5.7), BZY985 (Kat. 10, Abb. 5.10), BZY986
(Kat. 8, Abb. 5.8), BZY989 (Kat. 9, Abb. 5.9), BZY995 (Kat. 14, Abb. 6.14). Samples from
Ephesus in Sauer and Waksman, 2005: BYZ439 (EPH-ART 17), BYZ440 (EPH-ART 18),
BYZ441 (EPH-ART 19), BYZ442 (EPH-ART 20); in Waksman, 2015: BZY332, BZY333 (Fig.
2), BZY373 (Figs. 1 and 3); in Vroom and Fındık, 2015: BZY332 (cat. 212), BZY373 (cat.
144); in Vroom, 2005: BZY966 (No. 32, Pl. 4, 11).
 S.Y. Waksman et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
– samples taken as references for local production: kiln furniture,
especially tripod stilts used as spacers between glazed wares in pot-
tery kilns (samples BZY971-976 from Miletus; from Ephesus:
BZY964-965, 967 [Artemision], BZY332-333 [Türbe], BZY901-902,
958 [Tribune]); biscuit-fired wares, i.e. unfinished wares discarded
between the first and second firings, before the application of the
glaze (BZN 55-56, BZY980-982 from Miletus; BZY903, 905 from Eph-
esus [Tribune]); overfired wasters (BZY979 from Miletus, stuck to a
tripod stilt) (Fig. 2);
– moulded wares: the latter are usually jugs covered with a shiny,
micaceous coating (BZY991-996 from Miletus; from Ephesus
BYZ439-442 [Artemision], BZY935-943 [Tribune]). A few examples
are glazed (BZY997 from Miletus; from Ephesus BZY373 [Türbe],
BZY931-934, 956 [Tribune]) (Figs. 3–4);
– moulds (BZY984-990 from Miletus; from Ephesus BZY950 [Tribune],
BZY966 [Artemision]), some of which bear the same motives as the
moulded wares considered (Figs. 3–4).
– All samples were analysed by WD-XRF for provenance issues, a sub-
sampling corresponding to the glazed moulded wares were further
investigated for their technology through SEM analysis of slips and
glazes.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Chemical analysis of ceramic bodies
WD-XRF analyses were carried out in Lyon (CNRS UMR 5138) using
a Bruker SRS 3400 spectrometer, then a Bruker S8 Tiger from 2014
onward. Samples are cut out with a diamond-coated saw, in a way
which alters neither the form nor the decoration of the sherd. Glaze
and slip, when present, and an external layer, whose chemical composi-
tion is more liable to be altered by the burial environment, are removed.
After heating at 950 °C (removal of water, volatile elements, organics),
cooling and grinding, 800 mg of ceramic powder is mixed with
3200 mg of flux (lithium metaborate and tetraborate). The mix is heated
to liquid state in a gold and platinum crucible, then cast into a bead.
Analyses are carried out on these homogeneous beads, of fixed
Fig. 2. Examples of samples taken as local references in Miletus and Ephesus: tripod stilts (BZY901-902, from Ephesus); overfired waster stuck to a tripod stilt (BZY979, from Miletus);
unfinished, biscuit-fired wares (BZY980, 982, BZN 55–56, from Miletus).
Please cite this article as: Waksman, S.Y., et al., Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western Anatolia: A case study
from Ephesus and Miletus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
3
geometry, which correspond to a mean chemical composition represen-
tative of the initial material. Twenty-four elements are quantified, after
calibration of the set-up using 40 geological standards (CRPG, USGS,
NIST, British Chemical Standards, etc.). The calibration is regularly
checked using 3 in-house pottery standards.
3.2. Cluster analysis
Out of the 24 elements quantified, 17 are taken as active variables in
multivariate statistical treatments used to classify samples into groups
of similar chemical composition. These include major and minor
elements in ceramics (MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, K2O, CaO, TiO2, MnO, Fe2O3)
and trace elements having various geochemical behaviour (V, Cr, Ni,
Zn, Rb, Sr, Zr, Ba, Ce). Classifications are carried out by hierarchical clus-
ter analysis, applied to standardized data, using euclidian distance and
average linkage (e.g. Picon, 1984). Interpretation however requires
further examination of the initial individual chemical compositions, tak-
ing into account various geochemical, technological and analytical
factors (Waksman, forthcoming).
3.3. SEM analysis
Samples were embedded in a polyester resin, cut in a cross section in
order to expose all the layers (ceramic body, slip and glaze), polished
with a 0.25 μm diamond paste and then coated with a layer of carbon.
Prior to coating with carbon, the cross-sections were observed under a
binocular microscope with magnifications in the range 10× to 115×.
Slips and glazes analyses were carried out with a SEM (FEI Quanta
FEG 250) at the “Centre Technologique des Microstructures” (CTμ) in
Lyon. The study of the microstructures was mainly performed using
backscattered electron images (BSE images) which allow differentiating
the various phases according to their atomic number. Elemental compo-
sitions were determined by energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry
(EDS) using a silicon drift detector 30 mm2 SAMx. All measurements
were operated at 15 kV during 60 s. Standardless quantification was
performed using a PAP correction method of the intensities. IDFix soft-
ware was used for data acquisition and evaluation, and the reliability
of the results was tested by measuring glass and geological reference
standards (Corning Brill B, C and D, DR-N). Concentrations are given
4 S.Y. Waksman et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Fig. 3. Moulded wares and moulds belonging to chemical group “Miletus local”.
as average of three to five measurements on different zones selected
within the regions of interest, avoiding the altered ones and the slip or
body interfaces.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Provenance issues
The identification of Ephesus and Miletus local products was based
on the classification of the samples according to the chemical composi-
tion of their body. It distinguishes three main chemical groups, some
samples being either unclassified or marginal to one of the groups
(Fig. 5, Table 1).
A first group corresponds to moderately calcareous pastes showing
strong ultrabasic features (high magnesium, chromium, nickel)
(Table 1). It has fairly variable concentrations in these elements, as
is often observed in such geochemical contexts (Waksman,
forthcoming), as well as in several others such as potassium and iron.
But local references samples within the group (Fig. 5, red circles) clearly
identify this group as local to Miletus, and indicate that the range of
chemical concentrations observed is within the intra-group variations.
This group only gathers samples found in Miletus, including all the
moulds (Fig. 3).
However, most of the moulded wares found in Miletus are part of
another group (Fig. 4, middle), which includes samples from both
Ephesus and Miletus and corresponds to Ephesus group b/2 (or b, or
2) as defined previously (Sauer and Waksman, 2005; Waksman,
2015). Although it also has, to a lesser extent, some ultrabasic
features, this group clearly differs chemically from the previous one
(lower calcium, chromium, higher potassium and aluminium contents,
etc., Table 1). The third main group corresponds to our previous Ephesus
group c/4, also a group of low calcareous pastes distinguished by their
high iron and fairly high aluminium contents (Table 1).
Local references from Ephesus (Fig. 5, red triangles) are present in
group c/4 only, which also includes the two moulds found there
(Fig. 4, top). Ephesus group b/2 includes neither local reference samples
stricto sensu, nor moulds, and gathers samples from the two sites.
During earlier stages of research, the association of moulded wares
and moulds in the contexts of reoccupation of the Artemision in Ephe-
sus had been considered as strong enough evidence for their local
Please cite this article as: Waksman, S.Y., et al., Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western Anatolia: A case study
from Ephesus and Miletus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
production (Vroom, 2005; Sauer and Waksman, 2005) and had lead
us to consider both Ephesus groups b/2 and c/4 as local. The present
study gives the opportunity to revise these early views, taking into
account the fact that both moulds and moulded wares may have circu-
lated, a feature well known for the Hellenistic and Roman periods (e.g.
Picon and Lasfargues, 1974; Rotroff and Oliver, 2004) but still little
acknowledged for the Medieval one. The present research questions
the local status of Ephesus group b/2, although petrographic and
heavy minerals analyses, carried out by Sauer, suggest that it originates
from Ephesus or its surroundings (Sauer and Waksman, 2005, 54). It
may thus correspond to another production of the region, although
not necessarily located in Ephesus.
A few other samples not included in these three main groups (Fig. 4,
bottom) may be related to wares previously studied in Ephesus. It is the
case of moulded wares showing a dark red fabric, more typical of
cooking wares (BZY935-937). Two of them (BZY935-936) are close
chemically to late Roman cooking wares and Medieval common
wares, considered local to Ephesus as they constitute one of the main
fabric there at various periods3 (Sauer and Waksman, 2005: group D;
Waksman, 2014). Another marginal sample, a piece of dark green
glazed moulded ware (BZY933), is also close to a previously analysed
tripod stilt from Ephesus (Sauer and Waksman, 2005: BYZ449, not
shown in Fig. 5), except for its higher contents in ultrabasic components
(Mg, Cr, Ni). Other glazed examples are spread among the three main
groups (3 related to Ephesus b/2 group, 2 to Ephesus c/4 and 1 in Mile-
tus group).
Archaeometric research on Western Anatolian sites such as Ephesus
and Miletus had previously mainly focused on the Greco-Roman pe-
riods (e.g. Jones, 1986; Hughes et al., 1998; Zabehlicky-Scheffenegger
et al., 1996; Schneider, 2000; Akurgal et al., 2002; Schneider and Japp,
2009; Mommsen and Japp, 2009). The later periods have the advantage
of abundant and – in most cases – unambiguous local reference materi-
al, which gives the opportunity to define chemical reference groups. The
diachronic use of reference groups is however not straightforward, as
we already pointed out in the case of Ephesus and Pergamum, partly
due to the geological and geochemical variability of Western Anatolia
(Waksman, 2005, 2014). Clay procurement may be multiple at a given
3
We would like to thank L. Peloschek (OAI, Vienna) for confirming this point.
 S.Y. Waksman et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

Fig. 4. Moulded wares and moulds belonging to chemical groups “Ephesos c/4” (local) (top); “Ephesus b/2” (regional?) (middle); other samples (down).

Fig. 5. Classification according to chemical analysis of samples from Miletus and Ephesus. Samples are identified by their laboratory number, symbols indicate find spots and types, and
point out reference samples for local production. The main chemical groups are underlined.

Please cite this article as: Waksman, S.Y., et al., Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western Anatolia: A case study
from Ephesus and Miletus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
6 S.Y. Waksman et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 1
Chemical compositions of samples from Miletus and Ephesus, ranked as in the dendrogram shown in Fig. 5, together with comparative data.

Lab nb. Desc. CaO Fe2O3 TiO2 K2O SiO2 Al2O3 MgO MnO (Na2O) (P2O5) Zr Sr Rb Zn Cr Ni (La) Ba V Ce

Miletus, local group

BZY984 mo 11.17 7.19 0.682 2.84 54.15 14.82 6.73 0.1022 1.83 0.24 196 273 118 81 392 440 36 480 101 83
BZY986 mo 11.32 7.22 0.687 2.71 53.80 14.77 6.93 0.1051 1.94 0.25 196 268 115 86 382 443 52 454 103 88
BZY973 lrt 12.15 6.80 0.681 2.13 54.98 14.38 6.17 0.0979 2.00 0.24 183 276 109 78 378 403 39 464 105 82
BZY975 lrt 10.59 7.12 0.695 2.13 54.45 15.06 6.65 0.1001 2.27 0.27 182 243 *96 89 398 438 31 495 111 89
BZY985 mo 13.00 7.19 0.681 1.94 52.93 14.84 6.78 0.0940 2.08 0.22 181 315 118 84 361 427 35 476 103 83
BZY971 lrt 13.53 7.20 0.667 1.87 52.17 14.84 6.90 0.1119 2.01 0.37 172 324 113 88 359 447 45 465 107 78
BZY989 mo 11.40 7.30 0.693 1.92 53.04 15.03 7.02 0.0952 2.71 0.30 183 283 *60 85 374 429 35 468 117 86
BZY976 lrt 9.94 6.86 0.711 2.65 56.93 14.58 5.90 0.0920 1.82 0.27 199 248 120 88 408 388 34 511 102 82
BZY979 lro 10.30 6.99 0.705 2.63 56.01 14.64 6.30 0.0987 1.78 0.28 198 253 121 85 403 405 39 490 103 85
BZY974 lrt 9.57 6.96 0.673 2.94 57.01 14.68 5.98 0.0949 1.52 0.24 175 264 114 87 371 404 36 565 105 73
BZY981 lrb 9.73 7.41 0.679 2.96 55.86 15.16 6.04 0.1031 1.54 0.28 173 272 129 91 351 418 36 524 105 79
BZN 56 lrb 9.35 6.57 0.673 2.99 58.52 14.45 5.12 0.0930 1.54 0.43 210 288 121 93 351 351 37 538 100 82
BZY980 lrb 10.37 6.74 0.714 3.12 57.23 14.40 5.09 0.0866 1.63 0.35 198 294 117 91 395 358 40 576 108 79
BZN 55 lrb 9.13 7.41 0.739 3.07 56.55 15.46 5.46 0.1009 1.47 0.35 204 284 128 98 388 396 42 586 108 81
BZY997 gmw 12.23 7.30 0.688 2.97 53.53 15.10 5.92 0.1057 1.33 0.49 180 351 120 85 377 417 41 615 121 87
BZY983 mo 10.85 7.55 0.707 2.97 54.37 15.24 6.06 0.1104 1.35 0.43 189 300 120 97 382 447 41 615 116 86
BZY992 mw 11.12 7.07 0.673 3.03 55.44 15.07 5.64 0.0991 1.35 0.26 188 318 124 89 333 400 44 606 106 92
BZY988 mo 9.69 7.90 0.729 3.38 54.46 16.13 5.53 0.1027 1.44 0.37 193 293 131 100 368 425 49 718 113 87
BZY977 lro 8.61 6.29 0.642 3.00 58.85 14.95 4.93 0.0898 1.97 0.40 192 267 114 80 336 323 49 681 95 80
BZY982 lrb 10.05 7.93 0.785 3.01 55.51 16.26 4.38 0.1018 1.05 0.64 240 286 131 113 395 353 46 580 122 101
BZY987 mo 11.13 7.33 0.746 2.92 54.82 15.61 4.98 0.1031 1.36 0.74 220 311 131 103 389 372 47 525 109 92
BZY972 lrt 12.58 8.45 0.680 2.56 49.84 16.00 7.62 0.1157 1.57 0.26 150 281 125 99 369 543 57 447 114 95
BZY978 lro 13.12 8.02 0.695 2.22 50.36 15.55 7.47 0.1170 1.91 0.25 159 316 126 96 371 494 41 523 116 94
BZY990 mo 12.54 7.51 0.678 2.83 52.42 15.10 6.75 0.1394 1.48 0.31 176 315 121 97 357 463 48 512 111 89
m 10.98 7.26 0.696 2.70 54.72 15.09 6.10 0.1025 1.71 0.34 189 288 121 91 375 416 42 538 108 86
σ 1.37 0.48 0.030 0.43 2.27 0.52 0.85 0.0110 0.37 0.13 19 26 6 8 20 48 6 72 7 6

Similar to Ephesus local group c/4

BZY901 lrt 1.27 12.16 1.043 4.36 51.26 24.22 3.57 0.1404 1.38 0.27 226 160 168 164 192 112 78 825 197 155
BZY950 mo 1.47 11.83 1.015 4.39 51.26 23.89 3.62 0.1460 1.81 0.28 231 163 164 161 179 105 74 840 197 150
BZY966 mo 1.34 12.35 1.033 4.31 50.95 24.53 3.51 0.1502 1.30 0.29 229 165 172 167 174 98 72 855 200 153
BZY903 lrb 1.32 12.20 1.031 4.15 51.42 24.17 3.57 0.1491 1.48 0.26 223 156 169 164 184 114 73 789 195 155
BZY905 lrb 1.30 11.84 1.044 4.22 51.99 23.98 3.43 0.1448 1.35 0.30 231 146 155 161 179 111 65 805 197 147
BZY902 lrt 1.21 11.24 1.038 4.35 52.92 23.66 3.49 0.1320 1.39 0.26 247 164 168 147 178 107 62 864 198 138
BZY934 gmw 1.21 11.45 1.040 4.25 52.82 23.61 3.62 0.1355 1.31 0.27 241 162 167 158 187 108 72 841 192 149
BZY932 gmw 1.30 11.30 1.051 4.30 52.92 23.68 3.33 0.1253 1.33 0.26 257 164 160 158 167 87 68 860 199 158
BZY964 lrt 1.20 11.22 1.024 4.35 52.38 23.73 3.58 0.1352 1.40 0.26 231 143 142 159 178 107 64 855 190 148
BZY333 lrt 1.54 11.17 1.007 4.00 53.30 23.11 4.08 0.1517 1.06 0.29 214 155 162 150 215 150 72 746 200 116
BZY334 lro 1.66 10.81 0.980 4.13 53.19 23.00 3.98 0.1306 1.52 0.29 203 161 160 153 201 136 63 731 197 127
BZY332 lrt 1.75 10.88 0.969 4.86 53.36 22.31 4.02 0.1426 1.21 0.26 200 164 164 139 212 148 72 754 203 126
BZY958 lrt 1.76 10.64 1.001 4.51 52.06 23.30 3.53 0.1370 1.53 0.31 221 119 *100 153 168 98 60 842 191 151
BZY943 mw 1.50 11.54 0.974 3.95 53.45 22.25 4.38 0.0967 1.35 0.27 176 136 148 163 245 180 64 716 193 129
BZY965 lrt 1.25 11.03 1.022 3.85 54.53 22.71 3.45 0.1023 1.46 0.31 209 165 159 153 157 89 63 857 196 136
m 1.41 11.44 1.018 4.27 52.52 23.48 3.68 0.1346 1.39 0.28 223 155 161 157 188 117 68 812 196 143
σ 0.20 0.53 0.027 0.24 1.02 0.69 0.30 0.0162 0.17 0.02 20 13 8 8 23 26 5 52 4 13

Marginals to Ephesus local group c/4

BZY991 mw 3.87 10.59 0.970 3.96 52.58 21.87 4.25 0.1220 1.29 0.24 155 206 165 140 257 277 64 759 164 120
BZY933 gmw 2.60 10.13 1.027 3.51 55.32 21.42 3.91 0.1016 1.47 0.24 247 183 144 134 252 179 61 629 188 118

Similar to Ephesus group b/2

BZY995 mw 4.88 8.68 0.938 3.97 54.66 20.56 4.38 0.1006 1.35 0.23 164 269 175 123 225 291 54 700 128 118
BZY993 mw 4.59 8.56 0.940 3.92 55.60 20.36 4.14 0.1008 1.31 0.24 174 262 175 123 223 282 53 714 132 111
BZY940 mw 4.06 8.62 0.977 4.15 55.58 20.80 4.06 0.1014 1.18 0.23 184 263 178 127 211 256 58 728 130 121
BZY942 mw 4.48 8.79 0.943 3.97 55.98 20.39 3.64 0.1037 1.22 0.26 171 274 170 138 224 269 52 712 134 111
BYZ441 mw 4.95 8.33 0.915 3.88 55.57 20.25 3.84 0.1043 1.45 0.47 162 228 162 129 199 277 53 756 142 121
BZY938 mw 4.93 9.43 0.962 3.82 53.81 20.70 4.41 0.1110 0.97 0.56 157 270 172 129 251 338 60 667 140 121
BZY994 mw 3.61 8.30 0.963 3.97 56.98 20.44 3.57 0.0989 1.54 0.27 188 252 172 120 202 224 56 759 135 109
BZY956 gmw 3.03 8.36 0.976 3.92 57.99 20.35 3.52 0.0975 1.29 0.21 199 251 166 120 189 220 56 719 133 120
BZY931 gmw 3.44 8.81 0.993 3.87 56.52 20.69 3.94 0.1027 1.15 0.23 197 268 168 125 197 244 57 720 138 127
BZY373 gmw 3.14 8.16 0.981 3.86 57.81 20.57 3.52 0.0911 1.35 0.22 188 251 175 115 172 198 51 710 149 128
BYZ442 mw 4.01 8.33 0.968 3.59 57.70 19.69 3.93 0.0928 1.22 0.23 177 252 171 119 214 319 55 677 135 115
BZY941 mw 4.74 8.10 0.921 3.79 57.15 19.53 3.86 0.0974 1.28 0.28 191 252 161 117 212 262 53 699 125 117
BZY939 mw 3.42 8.63 0.996 4.05 56.84 21.00 3.02 0.1089 1.40 0.30 190 232 175 134 221 213 57 755 140 120
BYZ440 mw 3.32 8.29 1.024 4.21 55.53 21.98 3.58 0.0929 1.49 0.23 195 340 196 125 159 182 62 835 137 127
BZY996 mw 3.23 8.25 0.998 4.03 56.90 20.98 3.54 0.0941 1.51 0.22 205 337 178 121 168 176 51 785 125 119
m 3.99 8.51 0.966 3.93 56.31 20.55 3.80 0.0999 1.31 0.28 183 267 173 124 204 250 55 729 135 119
σ 0.72 0.34 0.031 0.15 1.20 0.57 0.37 0.0058 0.15 0.10 15 32 8 6 25 48 3 43 7 6

Unclassified
BYZ439 mw 4.70 7.47 0.980 3.23 61.19 17.56 2.89 0.0894 1.40 0.27 248 226 137 111 155 192 55 661 131 108
BZY967 lrt 11.26 6.30 0.673 4.66 51.16 21.99 2.54 0.0647 0.67 0.45 175 209 199 123 145 116 51 765 154 112
BZY935 mw 0.95 9.35 1.336 2.48 62.48 20.09 1.87 0.0811 0.98 0.15 317 87 110 108 204 159 50 388 186 117
BZY936 mw 1.49 9.91 1.304 3.16 60.20 20.50 1.85 0.1141 0.81 0.41 285 109 122 137 194 178 55 674 183 120
BZY937 mw 0.90 9.26 0.943 2.03 63.24 18.88 2.67 0.0839 1.72 0.08 215 70 96 84 333 229 38 358 158 84

Please cite this article as: Waksman, S.Y., et al., Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western Anatolia: A case study
from Ephesus and Miletus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
 S.Y. Waksman et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 7

Table 1 (continued)

Lab nb. Desc. CaO Fe2O3 TiO2 K2O SiO2 Al2O3 MgO MnO (Na2O) (P2O5) Zr Sr Rb Zn Cr Ni (La) Ba V Ce

Ephesus group c/4 (n = 41, Waksman, 2014)

m 1.50 11.19 1.020 4.24 52.72 23.59 3.68 0.1374 1.27 0.29 228 163 171 152 185 114 71 810 203 144
σ 0.33 0.47 0.019 0.18 0.85 0.57 0.35 0.0162 0.17 0.05 20 10 8 6 27 27 13 64 8 14

Ephesus group b/2 (n = 17, Waksman, 2014)

m 3.90 8.42 0.973 3.99 55.82 21.05 3.85 0.0985 1.31 0.25 177 267 182 123 196 242 61 727 141 124
σ 0.89 0.21 0.037 0.20 1.07 0.79 0.33 0.0053 0.12 0.06 10 24 10 7 23 54 14 48 5 9

Abbreviated description of samples: lrt: local reference, tripod stilt; lrb: local reference, biscuit fired ware; lro: other local references; mo: mould; mw: moulded ware; gmw: glazed
moulded ware. Major and minor elements are given in oxides weight %, trace elements in parts per million (ppm); m: mean, σ: standard deviation, n: number of samples. Elements be-
tween brackets are indicative; data with an asterisk were not taken into account in the calculation of m and σ.

period, even within a category of wares (see especially the case of
Pergamum in Waksman, 2014). Conversely, the same clay resources
may be exploited over long periods, and used for various categories of
objects, as seen here with the example of (table) moulded wares
manufactured in a cooking ware fabric. Miletus is no exception, as the
reference group defined by Mommsen for the Kalabaktepe workshop
in Miletus (Akurgal et al., 2002, 121–122: “Herkunftsgruppe A, Milet –
Kalabaktepe-Werkstätten”) can be seen, in spite of the limited number
of chemical elements common to Lyon and Bonn laboratories, to be very
different from ours (due e.g. to its much lower Cr and Ni contents). On
the other hand, another group from Bonn tentatively attributed to Mile-
tus (Akurgal et al., 2002, 126: “Herkunftsgruppe D, Milet(?)”) is not so
different, but it is difficult to go beyond this point due to its heterogene-
ity and in the absence of intercalibration procedure (see e.g. Waksman,
2006).
4.2. Slips and glazes
Among the moulded wares, seven glazed samples were analysed
under the SEM. Three of them belong to Ephesus group b/2 (BZY373,
931, 956), two to Ephesus local group c/4 (BZY932, 934), one to Miletus
local group (BZY997) and the last one (BZY933) is a marginal sample
found in Ephesus (Table 2).
4.2.1. Slips
According to SEM images, all the samples have a slip under the glaze,
except for sample BZY933 whose glaze covers the ceramic body direct-
ly. The slips are white, of clayey type, and include a significant propor-
tion of siliceous inclusions (mainly quartz), usually higher than in the
bodies (Fig. 6a). They are part of the “clay-rich, coarse-grained slips”
category as introduced by Capelli and Cabella (2007). The chemical
compositions of all the slips show high silicon contents (c. 65–75 wt.%
SiO2), and aluminium contents which confirm their clayey nature (c.
11–22 wt.% Al2O3).
It may be possible to distinguish two types of slips, according to the
microstructure of their interstitial matrix and to the contents in some
elements. In samples of Miletus and Ephesus c/4 groups, the interstitial
clayey matrix of the slip, located between the inclusions, shows a sheeted
structure (Fig. 6c). The chemical compositions of the slips of Ephesus
group c/4 have lower aluminium oxide contents (c. 12 wt.% Al2O3 in aver-
age) and also higher contents of lead oxide (c. 11 wt.% PbO, vs. 6 wt.% PbO
in Ephesus group b/2) (Table 2). Lead may have diffused in larger
amounts from the glaze due to the higher porosity of these slips.
The samples of Ephesus group b/2 show a more vitreous matrix,
particularly close to the interface with the glaze (Fig. 6d), which may
explain a lesser diffusion of the lead from the glaze. On the other
hand, it suggests that vitrification occurred during the second firing,
by interaction with the fluxing agents of the glaze, rather than during

Table 2
Semi-quantitative SEM-EDS analysis of the glazes (top) and the slips (bottom), in wt.%.

Sample code/group Colour Thickness (μm) CaO Fe2O3 TiO2 K2O SiO2 Al2O3 MgO MnO Na2O P2O5 PbO (SnO2) CuO

BZY373 (Ephesus b/2) green 80 0.48 0.81 0.17 0.20 32.92 2.79 0.59 0.24 0.39 0.24 57.04 0.05 4.09
BZY931 (Ephesus b/2) green 80 0.79 0.81 0.17 0.46 37.58 4.14 0.58 0.11 0.43 0.10 51.86 n.d. 2.97
BZY956 (Ephesus b/2) green 40 1.53 1.23 0.20 0.79 45.27 5.08 0.59 0.08 0.58 0.03 41.53 n.d. 3.12
BZY932 (Ephesus c/4) green 60 0.95 0.62 0.18 0.21 30.93 4.75 0.58 0.06 0.56 0.15 58.91 n.d. 2.10
BZY934 (Ephesus c/4) yellow 40 0.24 0.52 0.12 0.09 26.75 4.72 0.52 0.13 0.55 0.15 65.94 n.d. 0.28
BZY933 (marginal) dark green 300 0.51 0.83 0.10 0.12 26.46 2.68 0.80 0.12 0.60 0.17 64.96 n.d. 2.65
BZY997 (Miletus local) green 110 0.35 0.67 0.15 0.35 27.75 3.47 0.70 0.12 0.66 0.10 63.36 n.d. 2.31
Ephesus b/2 (m) (n = 6) 0.85 1.48 0.13 0.34 36.54 3.44 0.53 0.36 0.46 0.15 53.78 0.01 1.93
Ephesus b/2 (σ) 0.46 1.87 0.08 0.28 5.37 0.99 0.09 0.57 0.06 0.08 8.16 0.02 1.65
Ephesus c/4 (m) (n = 11) 0.75 0.74 0.16 0.24 33.43 4.83 0.93 0.34 0.65 0.28 56.23 0.04 1.38
Ephesus c/4 (σ) 0.41 0.39 0.05 0.19 4.96 0.86 0.51 0.73 0.22 0.21 6.07 0.06 1.27

Semi-quantitative SEM-EDS analysis of the slips (wt.%).

Sample code/group Thickness (μm) CaO Fe2O3 TiO2 K2O SiO2 Al2O3 MgO MnO Na2O P2O5 PbO CuO

BZY373 (Ephesus b/2) 130 0.38 1.80 0.87 3.34 66.84 22.27 0.95 0.14 0.58 0.10 2.14 0.59
BZY931 (Ephesus b/2) 230 0.60 1.52 0.82 2.85 69.38 19.96 0.93 0.07 0.61 0.09 2.83 0.33
BZY956 (Ephesus b/2) 90 1.53 3.26 0.77 2.75 64.39 19.87 1.93 0.06 0.77 0.11 4.15 0.39
BZY932 (Ephesus c/4) 170 1.17 1.37 0.84 3.11 68.78 13.32 0.61 0.02 0.99 0.11 9.38 0.29
BZY934 (Ephesus c/4) 85 0.61 0.75 0.47 2.14 75.07 11.05 0.50 0.08 0.29 0.16 8.63 0.27
BZY997 (Miletus local) 110 1.14 1.82 0.94 4.34 64.66 18.34 1.31 0.08 0.74 0.02 6.25 0.36
Ephesus b/2 (m) (n = 6) 0.61 2.19 0.77 2.96 65.90 19.07 1.10 0.10 0.72 0.10 6.07 0.40
Ephesus b/2 (σ) 0.48 0.97 0.10 0.42 2.93 2.41 0.41 0.03 0.12 0.04 3.77 0.10
Ephesus c/4 (m) (n = 11) 0.59 0.85 0.52 2.32 69.49 12.59 0.72 0.11 0.74 0.26 11.46 0.35
Ephesus c/4 (σ) 0.31 0.23 0.12 0.45 4.53 1.89 0.16 0.04 0.19 0.15 2.43 0.06

n.d.: below detection limits; n: number of samples, including both moulded and sgraffito wares; m: mean; σ: standard deviation.

Please cite this article as: Waksman, S.Y., et al., Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western Anatolia: A case study
from Ephesus and Miletus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
8 S.Y. Waksman et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Fig. 6. BSE images of cross sections of glazed wares representative of the types discussed in the text: (a) Ephesus c/4 sample BZY934, (b) marginal sample BZY933 showing feldspars
enriched with lead, (c) Miletus local sample BZY997, (d) Ephesus b/2 sample BZY956 (gl: glaze; ws: white slip; cb: ceramic body); binary diagram showing SiO2 contents in the glaze
(without lead and colouring oxides) vs. SiO2 contents in the slip (without lead).

the first firing. It is difficult to know at this stage of the study why vitrifica-
tion started in these slips and not in those of Ephesus group c/4, which are
comparatively poorer in aluminium. It may be due to higher firing temper-
atures and/or to differences in the mineralogy of the interstitial clays.
4.2.2. Glazes
The glazes are all homogenous without significant inclusion and
only the glaze of sample BZY933 contains some bubbles. They are also
similar in their chemical compositions, very rich in lead oxide (≥ 40%
PbO) and poor in alkali contents (≤ 1 wt.% NaO + K2O), lead being
thus the main fluxing agent (Table 2). According to Tite et al. (1998),
these glazes are classified as “high lead, low alkali”. The two other
main components of the glazes are silica (SiO2 ≥ 25 wt.%), and alumina
which acts as a stabilizing agent introduced in the glazing mixture ei-
ther by the addition of clays or by the superficial dissolution of the ce-
ramic body or slip on which the glaze is applied (Kiefer, 1985; Tite

Please cite this article as: Waksman, S.Y., et al., Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western Anatolia: A case study
from Ephesus and Miletus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
 S.Y. Waksman et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
et al., 1998). In these high lead glazes, copper metallic oxides are re-
sponsible for the green colour with CuO contents above 2 wt.%
(Molera et al., 1997; Paynter et al., 2004; Tite, 2011; Kırmızı et al.,
2015). Due to the transparency of the glazes, the green colour may
vary according to the colour of the underlying surface: light green
when the glaze is applied on a white or cream coloured slip, dark
green when applied on a grey coloured body, as it is the case for sample
BZY933. Sample BZY934 has a yellow coloured glaze in spite of a low
iron oxide content (0.52 wt.% Fe2O3), very high lead contents (c.
65 wt.% PbO) being also possibly responsible for the yellowing of the
glaze (Picon et al., 1995). Our results match previous SEM analyses car-
ried out on glazes produced in Ephesus at the same period (Okyar, 2010;
Okyar et al., 2011).
Only samples BZY934 (Fig. 6a), and especially BZY933, show crystals
at the slip/glaze or body/glaze interface (Fig. 6b). These crystals have an
euhedral morphology whose elemental compositions may correspond
to feldspars enriched with lead, formed in high lead glazes during the
firing process (Molera et al., 1993; Tite et al., 1998; Molera et al.,
2001; Waksman et al., 2008). Their abundance in sample BZY933
suggests a single firing, unlike the other samples whose glaze was
applied on a biscuit-fired slip.
Attempts to identify the initial constitution of the glazing mixture
were made using the method proposed by Hurst and Freestone
(1996) (see also Tite et al., 1998; Walton, 2004; Waksman et al., 2008;
Walton and Tite, 2010). On the one hand, this mixture can be created
by a lead compound, introduced as galena (PbS) or lead shot, which
interacts directly with the ceramic body or slip components to form
the glaze during firing. On the other hand, the production of glaze can
be realized with a mixture of a lead compound and of silica in the
form of quartz sand, ground quartz or chert pebbles. In both cases,
clay and organic materials, such as gum or starch, may be added in
order to maintain the lead and silica particles in suspension, to give plas-
ticity to the suspension and to improve the binding between the glazing
mixture and the underlying slip or body (Parmelee, 1973; Picon et al.,
1995; Tite et al., 1998; Waksman et al., 2008). The proposed method
allows to discriminate both types of production by subtracting the
lead oxides and colouring oxides contents in the glazes compositions.
If the resulting composition is close to the one of the slip or body, then
it is conceivable that a lead compound was applied directly or was
mixed with the same clays used for the slip or body. If the silica content
is higher in the glaze than in the slip or the body (recalculated without
lead), it seems more probable that the glaze was produced with a silica–
lead mixture, and possibly with other ingredients.
Fig. 6e shows the comparison between silica contents in the slip (or
in the body for sample BZY933) and in the glaze, recalculated after
removal of the contribution of lead and colouring oxides. It also includes
some other lead-glazed samples of different archaeological types
(especially polychrome sgraffito wares), which belong to the same
productions (Ephesus groups c/2 and b/4: Sauer and Waksman, 2005;
Waksman, 2015) and to the same technical tradition. It seems clear
that all our samples, except those of Ephesus group c/4, were covered
by a lead–silica glazing mixture. Concerning Ephesus group c/4, the
use of this method seems less obvious because the SiO2 contents are
not systematically higher in the glaze compositions. However, it is not
possible to affirm with certitude that the glaze was produced with a
lead compound only, or with a lead–slip mixture, since the glazes com-
positions after subtraction of the contributions of lead and colouring ox-
ides are relatively different from those of the slips (also recalculated
after subtraction of the lead content).
5. Concluding remarks and perspectives
This study confirms the local production of moulded wares in
Ephesus and Miletus at the beginning of the Turkish period. It shows
the introduction of this type of ceramics in the local repertoire of several
sites in Western Anatolia, one of which (corresponding to chemical
Please cite this article as: Waksman, S.Y., et al., Moulded wares production in the Early Turkish/Beylik period in Western Anatolia: A case study
from Ephesus and Miletus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.015
9
group “Ephesus group b/2”) diffused its products to the two above men-
tioned sites. The chemical data suggest that this group, possibly located
in the surroundings of Ephesus, was significant regionally, as most
moulded wares found in Miletus belong to it, and not to the local one,
in spite of the fairly large number of moulds found in Miletus itself. It
seems thus clear that these wares circulated, and could also appear as
imports in sites which manufactured them. On the other hand, we
have no evidence so far of the import of moulds, which are local to
each production site in the present study. Similarities in the designs
of moulded decorations however suggest that craftsmen, moulds,
stamps or models circulated. Other evidences, such as a mould found
in Sardis, or the large number of moulded wares found in a hamam in
Manisa (Gök Gürhan, 2011), suggest that several workshops in the re-
gion manufactured these wares and call for further research.
Further research will also replace moulded wares in the larger
picture of pottery production and dining habits at the early Turkish
period in Western Anatolia. It may rely on the definition of chemical
reference groups, based on the analysis of local reference material
such as pottery wasters and kiln furniture. Previous Ephesian reference
groups were reconsidered, one of them (“Ephesus group b/2”) being
now considered “regional” rather than local stricto sensu (as is the case
of “Ephesus group c/4”). A new reference group was defined for
Miletus, which differs from the one defined for wares of the classical
period (Akurgal et al., 2002), thus calling again for caution in the dia-
chronic use of chemical reference groups (Waksman, 2014).
Moulded wares are among the new types of pottery emerging in
several pottery workshops in Western Turkey in the wake of the Turkish
conquest. They present new techniques of manufacture when
compared to the previous Byzantine productions, or re-introduce earlier
ones as is the case for moulds. In terms of slips and glazes, the moulded
wares considered here show the association of clayey slips, and of high-
lead glazes which perpetuate the late Byzantine tradition of glaze “rec-
ipe” (Armstrong et al., 1997; Waksman, 2005; Kırmızı, 2012; Kırmızı
et al., 2015). For all samples except a marginal one, the lack of crystals
at the glaze/slip interface suggests a double firing, which is consistent
with the presence of biscuit-fired wasters in the archaeological
contexts. The slips show more or less vitrified structures depending on
the production considered. However, it is not yet possible to define
whether it is due to differences in the firing process (and especially in
firing temperatures) and/or in the mineralogy of the clays used for the
slips.
The evolution towards synthetic slips and opacified glazes will occur
slightly later, as seen in the ongoing study of Miletus ware productions
(Burlot et al., forthcoming). The introduction of moulded wares may
thus be seen as one of the first stages of the transition from Byzantine
to Turkish pottery production, whose more advanced stages correspond
to the best known Iznik and Kütahya wares (Aslanapa, 1969; Atasoy and
Raby, 1989; Henderson, 1989; Tite, 1989; Okyar, 2002; Paynter et al.,
2004). The gradual diffusion of pottery manufacturing techniques asso-
ciated to the Islamic world would certainly deserve further investiga-
tions, as moulded wares are already found in Eastern Turkey, Syria
and Irak in the 8th–9th c. AD (Rousset, 2001; Orssaud, 2001; Mulder,
2014). But such study would only be speculative unless we found it on
well-defined archaeological contexts, safe attributions to workshops,
and proper technological characterization. We hope the present paper
can contribute to this wider perspective.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the French National Research Agency
(ANR) through the POMEDOR project, and we acknowledge the support
of the ANR under reference ANR-12-CULT-0008. We would like to
thank: the Directors of the archaeological excavations at Ephesus and
Miletus; the Turkish Ministry of Culture and the Museums of Miletus
and Ephesus for giving us permission to study the samples; B. Aydıl
10 S.Y. Waksman et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
and O. Tuncer, S. Demir and the Ephesus team for their contribution to
the drawings; the staff of the “Laboratoire de Céramologie” in Lyon.
Drawings J. Burlot, S.Y. Waksman and B. Böhlendorf-Arslan, DAO J.
Burlot, photos S.Y. Waksman, SEM photos J. Burlot, plates layout S.Y.
Waksman.
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