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Anomalous Moisture Diffusion in Viscoelastic Polymers: Modeling and Testing

Article  in  Journal of Applied Mechanics · June 2000

DOI: 10.1115/1.1304912

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 S. Roy
Assistant Professor,
Mem. ASME
Anomalous Moisture Diffusion in
W. X. Xu Viscoelastic Polymers: Modeling
Graduate Research Assistant

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Missouri-Rolla,
1870 Miner Circle,
Rolla, MO 65401
S. J. Park
Graduate Research Assistant
K. M. Liechti
Professor
Center for the Mechanics of Solids,
Structures and Mechanics,
ASE/EM WRW 110C,
The University of Texas,
Austin, TX 78712
and Testing
It is now well known that Fick’s Law is frequently inadequate for describing moisture
diffusion in polymers or polymer composites. Non-Fickian or anomalous diffusion typi-
cally occurs when the rates of diffusion and viscoelastic relaxation in a polymer are
comparable, and the ambient temperature is below the glass transition temperature 共 T g 兲
of the polymer. As a result, it is necessary to take into account the time-dependent
response of a polymer, analogous to viscoelastic relaxation of mechanical properties, in
constructing such a model. In this paper, a simple yet robust methodology is proposed
that would allow characterization of non-Fickian diffusion coefficients from moisture
weight gain data for a polymer below its T g . Subsequently, these diffusion coefficients are
used for predicting moisture concentration profiles through the thickness of a polymer.
Moisture weight gain data at different temperatures for an epoxy adhesive is employed to
calibrate the model. Specimen thickness independence of the modeling parameters is
established through comparison with test data. A finite element procedure that extends
this methodology to more complex shapes and boundary conditions is also validated.
关S0021-8936共00兲02402-8兴

Introduction hidden coordinates. The results of the analysis allowed an insight

into the mechanism that causes a time-drift toward equilibrium at
It is now widely recognized that moisture plays a significant
the boundary of a viscoelastic material subjected to a constant
role in influencing the mechanical behavior, and therefore, the
chemical potential of the ambient vapor. The governing equations
long-term durability of polymers and polymer matrix composites
also indicated that the saturation levels vary quadratically with
共PMC兲. Numerous diffusion models have been proposed over the
stress and that they can be expressed in terms of the dilatational
years for modeling hygrothermal effects in polymers and PMC.
and the deviatoric stress invariant. However, the mathematical
The one most frequently used by researchers is the one-
expression for diffusivity obtained from the analysis was too cum-
dimensional Fickian model due to its simplicity and mathematical
bersome for experimental characterization and it was recom-
tractability. Unfortunately, this model tends to overestimate the
mended that simplifications should be used in practical cases. In
moisture absorption in panels for short diffusion time 共关1兴兲. Some
this vein, Cai and Weitsman 关12兴 developed a simplified method-
researchers have suggested that the deviation can be explained by
ology within the framework of Fickian diffusion with step-wise
a two-stage Fickian process 共关2,3兴兲. Others claim that the diffusion
time-varying boundary conditions. Their procedure allowed the
process in a PMC is really non-Fickian 共关4,5兴兲. The applicability
reduction of non-Fickian moisture weight-gain data in a manner
of Fick’s law for a given material system under a specified load-
that enabled the evaluation of the diffusion coefficient and
ing cannot be guessed a priori but must be determined from mois-
through-thickness concentration profiles. Even so, an iterative nu-
ture absorption/desorption test data.
merical procedure had to be employed for the evaluation of the
Frisch 关6兴 and Crank 关7兴 were among the first researchers to
time varying boundary concentrations in the form of an exponen-
recognize and attribute non-Fickian moisture transport in resins to
tial 共Prony兲 series. They also discussed characterization of the
time-dependent molecular mechanisms within a polymer. In a
non-Fickian diffusion coefficient using an approach that involved
landmark article, Frisch 关8兴 suggested that a polymer below its
the Carson transform.
glass transition temperature (T g ) must possess history-dependent
Subsequently, Weitsman 关13兴 extended the rigorous thermody-
diffusion coefficients and experience time-dependent changes in
namic model to incorporate polymer ‘‘free volume’’ as an internal
surface concentrations in order to maintain sorption-equilibrium at
state variable in order to include the effect of physical aging on
its boundaries. These time-dependencies are intrinsically related
moisture diffusion. The resulting governing equations were not
to the relaxation times for molecular rearrangement in the poly-
amenable to closed-form solution due to mathematical complex-
mer. To model this phenomenon, Weitsman 关9兴 applied the basic
ity, although it was observed that the diffusion equation followed
principles of continuum mechanics and irreversible thermodynam-
a time-retardation process analogous to mechanical viscoelastic
ics to derive governing equations and boundary conditions for
response, and that it exhibited an aging behavior characteristic of
coupled stress-assisted diffusion in elastic and viscoelastic mate-
glassy polymers. Employing a similar approach, Weitsman 关14兴
rials. Following an approach originally proposed by Biot 关10兴 and
developed a model for coupled damage and moisture transport in
adapted by Schapery 关11兴, viscoelasticity was introduced by
an elastic, transversely isotropic, fiber-reinforced polymer com-
means of scalar-valued internal state variables, also referred to as
posite. The damage entity was represented as a skew-symmetric
tensor and was included in the model as an internal state variable.
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED All of these models are mathematically complex and are not ame-
MECHANICS. Manuscript received by the ASME Applied Mechanics Division, Dec. nable to simple closed-form solutions.
12, 1998; final revision, Oct. 29, 1999. Associate Technical Editor: I. M. Daniel. For stretched polymer sheets where the diffusion-governing
Discussion on the paper should be addressed to the Technical Editor, Professor
Lewis T. Wheeler, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston,
equations are coupled with mechanical response through volumet-
Houston, TX 77204-4792, and will be accepted until four months after final publi- ric strain, Roy et al. 关15兴 presented a numerical procedure for
cation of the paper itself in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS. solving coupled diffusion equations using an approach based on

Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2000 by ASME JUNE 2000, Vol. 67 Õ 391

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 the free volume theory. Sancaktar and Baechtler 关16兴 showed that ⳵C ⳵ 2C
there is a substantial change in the free volume ratio in a polymer ⫽D 共 t 兲 2 (4)
as a result of stress whitening, which in turn results in an increase ⳵t ⳵x
in moisture uptake in the stress-whitened region. A multivalued where D(t) is the time-varying diffusion coefficient assumed to
diffusion coefficient, based on an earlier model proposed by be uniform through the thickness of the polymer.
Wong and Broutman 关17,18兴, was employed to model this effect. The concentration boundary conditions are
More recently, Roy 关19兴 derived governing equations for history-
dependent diffusion using irreversible thermodynamics, and de- C 共 0,t 兲 ⫽C 共 h,t 兲 ⫽C 0 . (5)
veloped a novel numerical framework for solving the complex
non-Fickian governing equations using the finite element method. Defining a change in variable
The objective of this paper is to present a new methodology dU⫽D 共 t 兲 dt, (6)
that enables characterization of non-Fickian diffusion coefficients
from moisture weight gain data in a polymer. The proposed ap- giving

冕
proach is very simple yet robust, and does not require Carson t
transforms and iterative procedures. Subsequently, these diffusion U共 t 兲⫽ D 共 t ⬘ 兲 dt ⬘ . (7)
coefficients are used to predict moisture concentration profiles 0
through the thickness of a polymer. Moisture weight gain data at
different temperatures for an epoxy adhesive is employed to cali- With this change of variable, Eq. 共4兲 reduces to
brate the model. Because the specimens were fully immersed in a ⳵ C ⳵ 2C
salt solution, the variation in the moisture boundary concentration ⫽ . (8)
with time is assumed to be negligible. A finite element procedure ⳵U ⳵x2
that would extend this methodology to more complex shapes and
Equation 共8兲 can now be solved using a standard solution for
time-varying moisture boundary conditions is also discussed.
constant diffusivity 共i.e., D⫽1) to give C as a function of x and
U. The modified boundary conditions in terms of the variable U
take the form
Governing Equations for Diffusion in Viscoelastic
Media C 共 0,U 兲 ⫽C 共 h,U 兲 ⫽C 0 (9)
Using the concept of internal degrees of freedom in a polymer subject to the initial condition
molecule within the framework of irreversible thermodynamics, C 共 x,0兲 ⫽C i . (10)
Frisch 关8兴 employed the Gibbs-Duhem relation to model penetrant
flux in a two component system with component 1 as the polymer The solution to the initial boundary value problem defined by
and component 2, the penetrant. He showed that for a polymer Eqs. 共8兲, 共9兲, and 共10兲 is given by 关7兴
below its glass transition temperature, the diffusivity and bound- ⬁
C⫺C i 4 共 ⫺1 兲 n
兺 2n⫹1
ary concentration are not constants but vary continuously with
⫽1⫺
time. Based on this theory for polymers with glass-like transition, C 0 ⫺C i ␲ n⫽0
it can be rigorously shown that, below its glass-transition tempera-
ture (T g ), the diffusion governing equation in a polymer takes the 共 2n⫹1 兲 ␲ x
form ⫻exp兵 ⫺ 共 2n⫹1 兲 2 ␲ 2 U/h 2 其 cos . (11)
h
⳵C
⫽
⳵
⳵t ⳵Xi
D̄ i j
⳵C
⳵X j
冉 冊 (1)
If M i and M t denote the total amount of diffusing substance
which has entered the sheet at time 0 and t, respectively, and M ⬁
is the corresponding quantity after infinite time, then integrating
where the effective diffusivity is given by Eq. 共11兲 over the thickness h gives

D̄ i j 共 X i ,T, ␴ ,t 兲 ⫽ 冋 Lij
冉
⳵␮
⫹
⳵␮
兺
n

共 1⫺C 兲 ⳵ C r⫽1 ⳵ ln q r
冊册 (2)
M t ⫺M i
M ⬁ ⫺M i
⫽1⫺
␲
8
2
n⫽0
⬁
1
兺 共 2n⫹1 兲 exp兵 ⫺ 共 2n⫹1 兲 ␲ U/h 其 .
2
2 2 2

where C is moisture concentration, X i are the spatial coordinates, (12)

T is temperature, ␴ represents an invariant stress measure, t is Assuming that the diffusivity can be expressed in the form of a
time, L i j are the Onsager coefficients, ␮ is the chemical potential Prony Series
of the diffusing vapor in the polymer, and q r are hidden coordi-
R
nates that define the internal motion of individual chain segments
in polymer molecules, thereby representing viscoelastic behavior D 共 t 兲 ⫽D 0 ⫹ 兺 D 共 1⫺e r
⫺t/ ␶ r
兲. (13)
in a polymer. In addition, Eq. 共1兲 is subject to the sorption- r⫽1

equilibrium boundary condition that requires the chemical poten- Substituting Eq. 共13兲 in 共7兲 gives
tial of the ambient vapor to remain unchanged with time.
R
For an unstressed isotropic viscoelastic polymer, the time-
varying effective diffusivity can be expressed in the form of a U 共 t 兲 ⫽D 0 t⫹ 兺 D 关 t⫹ ␶ 共 e
r⫽1
r r
⫺t/ ␶ r
⫺1 兲兴 . (14)
Prony series 共关8兴兲,
n Substituting Eq. 共14兲 in 共11兲 results in an expression for moisture
D̃ 共 T,t 兲 ⫽D 0 共 T 兲 ⫹ 兺 D r 共 T 兲共 1⫺e ⫺t/ ␶ r 兲 (3) concentration as a function of distance and time
⬁

再
r⫽1
C⫺C i 4 共 ⫺1 兲 n ⫺ 共 2n⫹1 兲 2 ␲ 2
where D 0 , D r are the unknown temperature-dependent Prony co-
C 0 ⫺C i
⫽1⫺
␲ 兺 2n⫹1 exp
h2
efficients, ␶ r are the corresponding retardation times, and n is the n⫽0

再 冎冎
number of terms in the Prony series. R
共 2n⫹1 兲 ␲ x
Diffusion With Time-Varying Diffusivity. The governing ⫻ D 0 t⫹ 兺 D 关 t⫹ ␶ 共 e
r⫽1
r r
⫺t/ ␶ r
⫺1 兲兴 cos
h
.
equation for one-dimensional diffusion in a polymer sheet of
thickness h is given by (15)

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 Finally, substituting Eq. 共14兲 in 共12兲 gives the moisture weight- 关 B 共 e 兲 兴 ⫽ 关 T 共 e 兲 兴 ⫹ 共 1⫺ ␪ 兲 ⌬t n⫹1 关 K 共 e 兲 兴
gain fraction as a function of time

再
⬁
兵 P 共 e 兲 其 ⫽⌬t n⫹1 共 ␪ 兵 F 共 e 兲 其 n⫹1 ⫹ 共 1⫺ ␪ 兲 兵 F 共 e 兲 其 n 兲 .
M t ⫺M i 8 1 ⫺ 共 2n⫹1 兲 2 ␲ 2
M ⬁ ⫺M i
⫽1⫺
␲2
兺 共 2n⫹1 兲 exp
n⫽0
2
h2
Equation 共21兲 is solved using a value of ␪⫽0.5, which corre-
sponds to the Crank-Nicholson scheme and is unconditionally

再 冎冎
R stable. Note that for n⫽1, the value of the starting concentration
in Eq. 共21兲 is known from initial conditions.
⫻ D 0 t⫹ 兺 D 关 t⫹ ␶ 共 e
r⫽1
r r
⫺t/ ␶ r
⫺1 兲兴 . (16)
Diffusion Experiments
Finite Element Formulation. In order to extend the simple
one-dimensional analytical model to more complex shapes and Absorption experiments were conducted on neat epoxy adhe-
boundary conditions, a three-dimensional finite element code sive specimens in a salt water solution. The epoxy specimens
共NOVA-3D兲 was developed. The variational 共weak兲 form of Eq. were cut from 0.51-mm 共0.02-in.兲 thick sheets that were provided
共4兲 in three dimensions is given by by Oak Ridge National Laboratory 共ORNL兲 personnel. Special

冕冋 册 冕 冋冉 冊 册
care was taken to eliminate air bubbles from the sheets. The
⳵Ct ⳵u ⳵Ct ⳵Ct 25.4-mm 共1-in.兲 square specimens were dehydrated for 24 hours,
u ⫹D t dV⫺ u Dt n i dA⫽0, weighted, dehydrated for an additional 65 hours, and weighed to
v共e兲 ⳵t ⳵Xi ⳵Xi A共e兲 ⳵Xi ensure complete dehydration. Both steps were conducted at 70°C
i⫽1,3 (17) in order to accelerate dehydration and the length of the second
step was established by a series of preliminary experiments. The
where u is an admissible variational test function. Based on the specimens were immersed in a salt water solution at four different
variational statement, the diffusion boundary conditions can now temperature levels 共23, 50, 60, and 70°C兲. The solution was
be identified as formed by mixing salt 共five percent by weight兲 with de-ionized

冉 冊
water. The temperatures were controlled to within ⫾1°C. The
⳵Ct mass measurements were made using a Mettler balance that has a
Dt n i ⫹q̂⫽0 on A 共1e 兲 共 specified solvent flux兲
⳵Xi range of 160 g with a resolution of 0.1 mg. The initial mass of the
specimens was typically 0.35 g, so that changes in mass of ap-
C⫽Ĉ on A 共2e 兲 共 specified concentration兲 proximately 0.05 percent could be resolved. The specimens were
weighted after wiping excess liquid from the surface of the speci-
where men. The frequency of the measurements decreased with time as
A 共1e 兲 ⫹A 共2e 兲 ⫽A 共 e 兲 saturation approached. The duration of the experiments was ap-
proximately six months. Subsequently, in order to ensure that the
and n i are the components of the unit outward normal at the model parameters are indeed material properties that are indepen-
boundary. Thus, dent of specimen thickness, a separate set of absorption tests was

冕冋 册 冕
performed at 23°C on epoxy specimens of thickness 1.194 mm
⳵Ct ⳵u ⳵Ct 共0.047 in.兲.
u ⫹D t dV⫽⫺ uq̂ dA. (18)
v共e兲 ⳵t ⳵Xi ⳵Xi A 共1
e兲

Results and Discussion

Finite Element Approximation. A standard finite element
interpolation of the concentration field over each element is given
by
N a result, it became necessary to apply the non-Fickian diffusion
C 共 X i ,t 兲 ⫽ 兺 N 共 X 兲C 共 t 兲
j⫽1
j i
where C j are the nodal concentrations, N j are the interpolation
functions, and N is the number of nodes per element. Substituting
Eq. 共19兲 in 共18兲 and employing matrix notation, Eq. 共18兲 becomes
关 T 共 e 兲 兴 兵 Ċ 其 ⫹ 关 K 共 e 兲 兴 兵 C 其 ⫽ 兵 F 共 e 兲 其
where the subscript (e) is used to denote that the equations are
satisfied over each element and
j (19)
(20)
The salt-water weight gain data clearly indicated that the diffu-
sion characteristic of this epoxy does not conform to Fick’s law
for the range of time and temperature considered in this study. As
model described in the previous sections in order to model diffu-
sion in this material. For this purpose, time-varying diffusivity
characterization data necessary for the viscoelastic diffusion com-
puter modeling were extracted from the salt water absorption test
data. A Prony series representation of the time-varying diffusivity
for the epoxy was obtained by fitting Eq. 共16兲 to the test data
employing a least-squares approach. The Prony coefficients and
the corresponding retardation times obtained in this manner for
the epoxy adhesive at 23°C, 50°C, 60°C, and 70°C are listed in
Table 1. The same retardation times are used to describe the time-

T ejk ⫽ 冕 v共e兲
共 N j N k 兲 dV
dependent diffusion in epoxy at the four temperatures. Because
the specimens were fully immersed in a salt solution, the variation
in the moisture boundary concentration with time was assumed to

K ejk ⫽ 冕 v 共e兲
再 Dt
⳵N j ⳵Nk
⳵Xi ⳵Xi
冎 dV
be negligible. The boundary moisture concentration used as input
to the model for each temperature is listed in Table 2. The bound-
ary concentrations were obtained by dividing the saturation mois-

冕
ture weight gain for each specimen by the volume of that speci-
men. A significant increase in boundary concentration with
F ej ⫽⫺ N j q̂ dA , i⫽1,3 and j,k⫽1,N.
e兲
A 共1 temperature was observed as indicated by the data in Table 2.
Figure 1 shows the comparison of closed-form solution and
The time derivative 兵 Ċ 其 is approximated using a standard theta finite element analysis 共FEA兲 with test data for epoxy adhesive at
family of approximations, yielding for time t n and t n⫹1 , 23°C, assuming time-varying diffusivity. In this figure, percent
moisture weight gain is plotted versus square root of time, in
关 A 共 e 兲 兴 兵 C 其 n⫹1 ⫹ 关 B 共 e 兲 兴 兵 C 其 n ⫽ 兵 p 共 e 兲 其 n , (21) hours. A Fickian uptake curve with constant diffusivity is also
where included to underscore the inaccuracy of using Fick’s law to
model diffusion in this material. The parameters used for model-
关 A 共 e 兲 兴 ⫽ 关 T 共 e 兲 兴 ⫹ ␪ ⌬t n⫹1 关 K 共 e 兲 兴 ing Fickian uptake are tabulated in Table 3 for the four test tem-

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 Table 1 Diffusion Coefficient Data for Epoxy

Diffusion Retardation
Coefficient Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature Time, ␶ r
共mm2/s兲 23°C 50°C 60°C 70°C 共sec兲
D0 2.68998⫻10⫺7 2.7849⫻10⫺7 1.3172⫻10⫺6 9.7293⫻10⫺7 –
D1 ⫺2.2383⫻10⫺7 ⫺4.6998⫻10⫺7 ⫺1.6365⫻10⫺6 ⫺1.3923⫻10⫺6 600
D2 1.3841⫻10⫺8 9.2648⫻10⫺7 1.3012⫻10⫺6 2.4826⫻10⫺6 3000
D3 5.3247⫻10⫺8 ⫺3.341⫻10⫺7 ⫺3.9708⫻10⫺7 ⫺1.597⫻10⫺6 6000
D4 2.19705⫻10⫺7 ⫺1.4022⫻10⫺7 ⫺5.4208⫻10⫺7 ⫺3.034⫻10⫺7 30000
D5 ⫺2.5323⫻10⫺7 ⫺2.3545⫻10⫺7 2.7423⫻10⫺9 ⫺6.6972⫻10⫺8 60000
D6 ⫺7.4449⫻10⫺8 ⫺1.8449⫻10⫺8 ⫺3.9448⫻10⫺8 ⫺8.3294⫻10⫺8 300000

Table 2 Boundary Concentration Data for Epoxy

Boundary Concentration
Temperature 共°C兲 共gm/mm3兲
23 3.366⫻10⫺5
50 4.035⫻10⫺5
60 4.18⫻10⫺5
70 4.16⫻10⫺5

Fig. 2 Reduced absorption plot for epoxy specimens of differ-

ent thickness at 23°C

Fig. 1 Percent moisture weight gain versus square root of

time for epoxy at 23°C

Table 3 Fickian Curve Fit Parameters for Epoxy at Test Tem-

peratures

Temperature 共C兲 Diffusivity (⫻10⫺7 mm2/s) M max 共percent兲

23 1.46029 2.43985
50 2.93600 2.78245
60 3.85563 2.97554
70 3.68567 3.26497
Fig. 3 Percent moisture weight gain versus square root of
time for epoxy at 50°C

peratures. The agreement between the non-Fickian model predic-

tion and test data is quite good. However, in order to ensure that
the model parameters contained in Table 1 are indeed material
properties that are independent of specimen thickness, a separate
set of absorption tests was performed at 23°C on epoxy specimens
of thickness 1.194 mm 共0.047 in.兲. Figure 2 depicts the reduced
absorption plot at a test temperature of 23°C for epoxy specimens
of thickness 0.51 mm. 共0.02 in.兲 and 1.194 mm 共0.047 in.兲, respec-
tively, together with the analytical model prediction. Excellent
correlation is observed between test data and model prediction
over the specimen thickness range for this temperature.

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 Fig. 4 Percent moisture weight gain versus square root of
time for epoxy at 60°C
Good agreement is also observed for moisture uptake in epoxy
at 50°C, 60°C, and 70°C as shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5, respec-
tively. However, the shape of the curve in Fig. 5 seems to indicate
that moisture uptake in epoxy becomes less anomalous and more
Fickian as the test temperature approaches its glass transition tem-
perature of 125°C 共257°F兲. The knockdown in the T g of the speci-
mens due to moisture ingress was not measured, but is unlikely to
be below 70°C. Therefore, these results seem to corroborate
Frisch’s 关8兴 original hypothesis regarding the occurrence of time-
varying diffusion conditions in a glassy polymer at temperatures
below its glass transition.
Figure 6 shows a comparison of through-thickness normalized
moisture concentration profiles at t⫽1.66 hours, predicted by the
non-Fickian analytical model and the finite element analysis for
epoxy at 70°C. Close agreement is observed between the two
predictions. A comparison with test data was not possible due to
difficulties involved with measuring moisture concentrations
Fig. 5 Percent moisture weight gain versus square root of
time for epoxy at 70°C
Journal of Applied Mechanics
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Fig. 6 Through-thickness moisture concentration profile at
timeÄ1.66 hours
within a specimen. A Fickian profile is also included for compari-
son. The figure shows that at early stages of uptake, the differ-
ences between the Fickian and non-Fickian profiles are insignifi-
cant. However, significant differences in the two profiles become
manifest at later times as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. This anomaly
could result in a significant error in stress computation if Fickian
concentration profiles are used in determining swelling strains and
residual stresses in the epoxy.
Figure 9 shows the variation of the predicted non-Fickian dif-
fusion coefficient with time for epoxy at the four test tempera-
tures. The exponential decay in the diffusivity with time from an
initial value toward a final threshold value is analogous to the
change in the viscoelastic relaxation modulus of a polymer. Inter-
estingly, the final threshold value of diffusivity for each case is
roughly the same, indicating that the influence of test temperature
on diffusivity becomes less significant as time progresses and
saturation is approached.
Fig. 7 Through-thickness moisture concentration profile at
timeÄ83.3 hours
JUNE 2000, Vol. 67 Õ 395

Fig. 8 Through-thickness moisture concentration profile at
timeÄ508.3 hours
Fig. 9 Variation of diffusion coefficient with time for epoxy at
test temperatures
Conclusions
A simple yet robust methodology that enables the non-Fickian
diffusion coefficients from weight gain data in a polymer to be
extracted without recourse to Carson transforms and iterative pro-
cedures was presented. Subsequently, these diffusion coefficients
were used to predict moisture concentration profiles through the
thickness of the polymer. Because the specimens were fully im-
mersed in a salt solution, the variation in the moisture boundary
concentration with time was assumed to be negligible. Salt water
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weight gain data at different temperatures for an epoxy adhesive
was employed to calibrate the model. A finite element procedure
that would extend this methodology to more complex shapes and
time-varying moisture boundary conditions was also validated.
Good agreement between model prediction and test data was ob-
served at all temperatures that were considered. Specimen thick-
ness independence of the modeling parameters was established
through comparison with test data at one test temperature. It is
envisioned that additional model verifications will be performed
using different specimen thickness at other test temperatures.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Mr. David Warren and Dr. Ray
Boeman at Oak Ridge National Laboratories for funding this re-
search and providing material for specimens. Thanks are also due
to Dr. Kenneth Morman and Dr. Jessica Schroeder of the Auto-
motive Composites Consortium for technical discussions and pro-
viding industrial relevance to the work.
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