FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

FOBJECTIVES OF FIRE PROTECTION

• 1. To prevent fire from starting,
• 2. To save lives and properties.
• 3. To confine the fire in its point of origin.
• 4. To put out the fire.
Understanding Hazards and Codes
• 1.) Hazards - Any act or condition which can cause a threatening event.
• 2.) Fire Hazard - Any act or condition which increases or may cause an increase in the probability
of the occurrence of fire, or which may hinder, delay, obstruct with firefighting operations or the
safeguarding of life and proper:.
• 3.) Codes - Sets of rules and regulations promulgated into law.
OVER VIEW OF P.D. -1185, otherwise known as
THE FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

• Signed - August 26, 1977

• IRR issued - March 20, 1978
• IRR approved - March 25,1978
• Last series published - May 28, 1978
• Effectivity - June 27,1978
• REPEALED BY R.A 9514 Dec. 19, 2008
APPLICABILITY AND SCOPE

• The provisions of The Fire Code shall apply to:

• 1.All persons;
• 2.All private and public buildings, structures, facilities and their premises erected before or after
its effectivity
• 3. Design and installation of all electrical systems.
• 4.Use, handling, storage of explosives, combustible, flammable, toxic and hazardous materials;
• 5.Fire safety construction;
• 6. Fire suppression, protective and warning devices/systems.

INTRODUCTION TO FIRE SERVICE

 EVENTS/PERSONAGES OF SIGNIFICANCE TO THE FIRE SERVICE
• Bucket Brigade First known firefighting unit organized thousands of years B.C. 
• Ctsebius of Alexandria Invented the pump in 200 B.C.
• Vigils Firefighting unit organized by the Romans 1 A.D.
•  Pliny the Younger Roman governor of Bithynia who organized the famous firefighters
known as the vigilantes in 6 A.D.
• Peter Stuyvesant Governor of New Amsterdam who passed the first known fire
prevention ordinance in 1648
• Great London Fire The turning point of the fire service which occurred in 1666
•  Dr. Nicolas Barton underwrote the first insurance policy and organized first known fire
department Famous
 • Richard Newsharn Englishman designer and builder of first water engine
th
• 19 Century Era of inventions which made fire prevention and firefighting procedures more
complicated
• Paul Hodge Designed and built first steam powered fire engine in New York in 1840
• Moses Latta Designed and built first steam powered fire engine in 1852, which was
successfully put in service during the Cincinnati Ohio fire on Jan. 1, 1853
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Organized in 1896 to set standard fire prevention
and firefighting procedures
• Great Triangle Fire Occurred in 1911 in New York which lead to the adoption and
promulgation of Fire Codes
• Regimen de Pompier Be medaled firefighting unit organized in France during the First World
War
• Manila Fire DepartmentFirst organized fire department in the Philippines on Aug. 6, 1901
• Capt. Jacinto Lorenzo First Filipino Fire Chief
• PD765 Established the INP integrating all local police and Fire forces
• PD 1185 Fire Code of the Philippines signed on Aug. 26, 1977
• RA 6975 Established the BFP in 1990
• RA 9263 Professionalization of BFP in March 10, 2004
• RA9514 Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008
Personalities and their Inventions:

JOHN WALKER - English Pharmacist, invented the first match in 1827.

ANTOINE LAVOISIER - French Chemist who proved in 1777 that burning is the result of the rapid union
of oxygen with other substances.

THOMAS ALVA EDISON - American inventor who was able to send an electric current through a carbon
filament (wire) until the filament became so hot that it gave off light

Concept OF FIRE

▪ Derived from the Greek word PYRA which means “glowing ember”

▪ The heat and light that comes from burning substances it is produced by the combustion of
substances.

▪ It is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between a combustible matter and
an oxidizer.

▪ This reaction releases energy in the form of heat and light.

▪ It is an active chemical reaction that takes place between fuel, heat and oxygen in the form of
light and noticeable heat.

▪ Fire could be understood as the phenomenon of combustion manifested in light, flame, and
heat (Merriam Webster Dictionary).

▪ What is TECHNOLOGY?
 ▪ It is the branch of knowledge that deals with industrial arts and sciences. It is the application of
such knowledge that is used to produce the material necessity of society.

▪ Technology is the making, usage and knowledge of tools, techniques, crafts, systems or methods
of organization in order to solve a problem or serve some purpose (Wikipedia).

▪ It could also mean the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area
(Merriam Dictionary)

FIRE TECHNOLOGY

• It is the application of the results of the basic research and of engineering principles to the
solution of practical fire protection problems, but entailing, in its own right, research into fire
phenomena and fire experience (thefreedictionary.com).

FIRE TRIANGLE

FUEL – Any substance which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces flames.

• Solid form such as wood, paper, rubber, coal plastic, cloth.

• Liquid form such as gasoline, alcohol or oil

• Gaseous form such as natural gas, acetylene, hydrogen.

HEAT – source of ignition, usually heat or a spark. Heat sources include, open flame, hot surfaces, sparks
and arcs, friction-chemical action, electrical energy and compression of gases.

• Quantity of heat is measured in BTU, intensity in degrees Fahrenheit.

OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent) a tasteless, colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of air which is
approximately 21% percent by volume.

• ATMOSPHERE = 21% oxygen + 78% nitrogen + 1% impurities.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – a gas which is a product of burning which is not poisonous but dangerous
because it does not support life.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) – a poisonous gas

Pyrophoric substances – a substance (powder) that burst into flames by spontaneous combustion when
exposed to air or oxygen. It ignites spontaneously in air at or below 55 Celsius (130F) Examples: Iron
sulfide, and many reactive metals including plutonium and uranium, when powdered or thinly sliced.
They react with water/water reactive (humid air) (Class D Fire Extinguisher)

FIRE TETRAHEDRON -it refers to a geometric representation of what is required for fire to exist, namely,
fuel, an oxidizing agent, heat, and an uninhibited chemical reaction. With most types of fires, the old fire
triangle model works well enough, but when the fire involves burning metals (lithium, magnesium, etc.),
it becomes useful to consider the chemistry of combustion.

• Putting water on such a fire could result in the fire getting hotter (or even exploding) because
such metals can react with water in an exothermic reaction to produce flammable hydrogen gas.
 Therefore, other specialized chemical (dry chemical) must typically be used to break the chain
reaction of metallic combustion and stop the fire.

The process of PYROLYSIS

• With all elements of fire present, combustion takes place.

• Before a fuel will burn, it must be changed to its vapour state.

• This change usually results from the initial application of heat known as PYROLYSIS.

• Pyrolysis (thermal decomposition) - “chemical decomposition of matter through the action of

heat”. In this case, the decomposition causes a change from a solid state to vapour state. Of the
vapour mixes sufficiently with air and heated to high temperature, combustion results.

Combustion - is a self – sustaining chemical reaction producing energy or products that cause more
reactions producing energy or products that cause more reactions of the same kind. Commonly known
as burning.

Spontaneous Combustion:

- It is a phenomena in which a combustible materials generates or produces heat because of internal

chemical action (oxidation) and eventually ignites without any exposure to external sources of fire,
spark or abnormal heat.

Materials prone to spontaneous combustion:

A. Coal E. grain

B. Dust F. other plant products

C. Flour G. porous materials such as

D. Hay rags, paper, etc. soaked in oil.

Flame - The luminous body of a burning gas. It is the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas
phased combustion.

Types of Flame

A. Based on Colour and Completeness of Combustion

• Luminous Flame – is an orange-red, deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel being heated due to
incomplete combustion and has a low temperature.

• Non-Luminous Flame – is blue, there is complete combustion of fuel and has relatively high
temperature. It does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete combustion

B. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture

• Premixed Flame – is exemplified by a Bunsen-type laboratory burner where

hydrocarbon (any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen) is thoroughly
mixed with air before reaching the flame zone.
 • Diffusion Flame – is observed when gas (fuel) alone is force through a nozzle into the
atmosphere which diffuses in the surrounding atmosphere in order to form a flammable
mixture. The flame of the oxyacetylene torch (diffused – dispersed, widely spread)

Properties OF FIRE

Physical properties

• Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal
volume of water.

• Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the volume of dry air at the
same temperature and pressure.

• Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of a liquid at the
equilibrium. (CLE014)

Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.

• BTU British Thermal Unit – the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound
(0.45 kg) of water one degree Fahrenheit (-17.240C) at 1 atm (atmospheric pressure)

• Celsius (centigrade) – a scale of measuring temperature on which the boiling point of water is at
100 degrees and the freezing point of water is 0 degree. (Metric system)

• Fahrenheit – a scale for measuring temperature on which the boiling point of water is at 212
degrees above zero and the freezing point is at 32 degrees above zero. (English system)

• [c] = ([f] – 32) x 5/9

• [f] = [c] x 9/5 + 32

Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.

Auto Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum temperature at which the substance must be
heated in order to initiate combustion without the addition of heat.

Fire point – the temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning.

Flash point – the temperature at which the material is hot enough to keep burning but still gives off
enough vapors to cause a flame across the surface. (-5 F)

Chemical Properties

• Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the
reaction takes place.

• Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce
substances with less energy than The reactants.
 • Oxidation – a chemical change that is exothermic, a change in which combustible material (fuel)
and an oxidizing agent (air), react. Example of oxidation is combustion which is the same as
actual burning (rapid oxidation)

• Flames – flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It is a
combustion product and a manifestation of fire when it is in its gas-phased combustion.

Elements OF FIRE

A. FUELS (Combustible Materials) - It refers to material or substance being burned in the combustion
process.

Classification of Combustible Materials

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION

• Class A Fuels – they are ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic
substances such as wood and wood-based products. It includes some synthetic or inorganic
materials like rubber, leather, and plastic products.

• Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic
solutions, oil, and liquid petroleum products, etc.

• Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant materials such as materials used on electrical
wiring and other electrical appliances.

• Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic substances such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium and potassium.

Categories of Fuels

• Solid Combustible Materials – includes organic and inorganic, natural or synthetic, and metallic
solid materials.

• Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.

• Gaseous Substances – includes those toxic/hazardous gases that are capable of ignition.

WAYS TO PRODUCE HEAT

• Chemical – chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.

• Mechanical – mechanical heat is the product of friction. The rubbing of two sticks together to
generate enough heat is an example.

• Electrical – electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting or other electrical malfunction. Poor
wire connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and too much current flowing through
an improperly sized wire are other sources of electrical heat.

• Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed, its molecular activity is greatly increased
producing heat.
 • Nuclear – Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting or fusing of atomic particles (Fission or
fusion respectively).

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

• Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular activity within a material or medium,

usually a solid. Direct contact is the underlying factor in conduction.

• Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium, usually air or liquid. Heat
transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in structures.

• Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much like sunlight. Radiated heat travels the
speed, as does visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily responsible for the
exposure hazards that develop and exist during a fire.

3. OXIDIZING AGENT– Oxidizing agents are those materials that yield oxygen or other gasses during the
process of a chemical reaction.

• Oxygen - common oxidizing agent

• Oxygen sources: Oxygen requirements:

• 21% of normal oxygen 12% no fire

• 78% nitrogen 14% to 15 % flash point

• 1% other gases 16 to 21% fire point

1. BASED ON CAUSED

A. NATURAL FIRE

• Spontaneous heating – the automatic chemical reaction that results to spontaneous

combustion due to auto-ignition of organic materials, the gradual rising of heat in a confined
space until ignition temperature is reached.

• Lightning – a form of static electricity; a natural current with a great magnitude, producing
tremendous amperage and voltage. Lightning usually strikes objects that are better electrical
conductors than air. It can cause fire directly or indirectly. Indirectly when it strikes telephone
and other transmission lines, causing an induced line surge.

• Radiation of Sunlight – when sunlight hits a concave mirror, concentrating the light on a
combustible material thereby igniting it.

C. INTENTIONAL OR INCENDIARY

When all the accidental and natural causes have been eliminated, the investigator must begin to
look for an incendiary. If in the burned property, there are arrangements or hint of accelerant, plants
and trailers, then the cause of fire is intentional.
Accelerant – A combustible liquid like highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate or hasten
flame propagation such as: gasoline, paint thinner and lighter fluid.

Plant – are devices which are designed to ignite combustible material sometime after the initiating
action. The arsonist therefore will have the opportunity to escape from the premises. These are:

• Heating appliances- Like flat iron placed in contact with combustible materials and abandoned
until fire starts.

• Mechanical devices

• Clock mechanism which can be arranged so that a movement starts the fire

• Altered equipment’s such as broken pipes on oil burner or sprinkler systems in which
combustible fluid has been placed.

Trailer – It refers to a device utilized by the arsonist in order to spread the fire within the room or
throughout the structure. (Also called streamer)

2. BASED ON BURNING FUEL

• Class A Fire – Ordinary fires; this is the type of fire caused by ordinary combustible materials.

• Class B Fire – Liquid fires; they are caused by flammable and or combustible liquids

• Class C Fire – Electrical fires; they are fires that starts in live electrical wires, equipment, motors,
electrical appliances and telephone switchboards.

• Class D Fire – Metallic fires; fires that result from the combustion of certain metals in finely
divided forms.

• CLASS E fires: Involves Nuclear Power or Atomic fission.

• CLASS K fires: Involves Combustible Cooking Media, such as: Vegetable or Animal Oils and
Fats.

FIRE behavior

• Thermal Balance- rising movement or pattern of the fire; the normal behavior when the fire is
undisturbed.

• Thermal Imbalance - abnormal movement of fire due to interference of foreign matter. Thermal
imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point where the fire
originated.

Dangerous Behavior of FIRE

• Back draft – sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that occurs in
the form of explosion.
 • Flashover – the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is
incomplete combustion of fuels.

Flash Fire - better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post that is completely
covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning.

Fireballs - very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form of
fireball.

Stages of FIRE

STAGES TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR

Base Ceiling
Area Area

1.Initial/ 400 0F 200 0F ▪ The beginning of Fire.

to 800
Incipient 0 ▪ The products of Pyrolysis are mostly water vapors and carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide.
F
▪ Minute quantities of carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide.

▪ The room temperature is normal and as beat from fire rises, the ambient temperature cools.

2. Free 800 0F 1,200 0F ▪ As the fire continues to burn and build up heat, the pyro lytic process accelerates.
Burning to to 1, 600
0 ▪ The thermal column of fire begins to develop and the heat rises.
Phase 1,000 F
0
F ▪ Created the burnt patterned called fingerprint of fire.

▪ Produced inverted cone pattern by which the bottom is usually the origin of fire.

▪ Maximum heat and destructive capability of fire develop.

3.Smold 4600F 1,000 0F ▪ Oxygen drops to 13% or below causing the flame to vanish and the heat to develop in layers.
ering to
▪ Produced Carbon Monoxide.
Phase 1,3000F
▪ Fire Area contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure but little oxygen.

▪ When sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, BACKDRAFT occurs.

Incipient stage – in this stage there is no visible smoke, flame or sufficient heat to be detected. A fire
may remain in this stage from minutes to several hours.

Smoldering or Smoke Stage – visible smoke may be detected rising from the burning mass. During this
stage there is still no flame and very little detectable heat.

Flame Stage – at this point where ignition actually occurs, flames are noticeable and the smoke
decreases in volume as the flames and heat increase.

Heat, Conflagration or Explosion Stage – this stage closely follows the flame stage and once this stage is
reached the fire can normally be said to be out of control.

FIRE extinguishment

A. COOLING

• Temperature reduction

• it uses an extinguishing agent whose characteristics is heat absorption

• The temperature of the substance is lowered below the burning point by using an extinguishing
agent.

• H2O is the best general cooling agent

B. SMOTHERING

• Oxygen Dilution

• The oxygen content of air is reduced below 15% in volume by using chemicals, fog, blankets. Etc.

• Excluding oxygen from the fuel in such a way fuel cannot ignite and start ignition.

• CO2 is the best agent for this purpose.

C. SEPARATION

• Fuel Removal

• Elimination of the fuel supply/ source

D. INTERRUPTION OF CHEMICAL REACTION

• Chemical Inhibition

• Interrupt the production of flame resulting to rapid extinguishment of the fire.

• This method is effective only on burning gas and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in smoldering
mode of combustion.

FIRE EXTINGUISHER

• It is a mechanical device, usually made of metal, containing chemicals, fluids, or gases for
stopping fires.

• Its contents are applicable for the purpose of putting out particularly fire before it propagates,
and is capable of being readily moved from place to place.

• It is also a portable device used to put out fires of limited size.

TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHER

• H20 Fire Extinguisher

▪ extinguisher filled with water

▪ use for Class A and Class B fires EXCEPT class C fires

• Liquefied Fire Extinguisher

▪ extinguishers that contain Carbon Monoxide Gas

▪ use for class A, B, and C fires

• Dry Chemical Extinguisher

▪ Extinguisher that contain chemical powder

▪ proposed to fight all classes of fires

Foam Extinguisher

• Extinguisher that contains sodium bicarbonate and a foam-stabilizing agent in a larger

compartment and a solution of aluminum sulfate in an inner cylinder; reaction between the two
solutions forms a stabilized foam of carbon dioxide bubbles.

Soda-acid Fire Extinguisher

• Filled with sodium bicarbonate mixed with water

• a small bottle of sulfuric acid is suspended inside (near the top) in such a way that when the
extinguisher is turned up-side-down, the acid mixes with sodium bicarbonate;

• Carbon dioxide is formed by the reaction which results to the building of pressure inside the
extinguisher; this pressure forces the water solution out from the container through a hose.
Dry Chemical

• it is mixtures of powders and various additives that improves the storage, flow, and water
repellency of the powder

• Sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate and mono ammonium phosphate are some of the
powders commonly used.

• It is commonly used in inhibiting the chain reaction.

Two types of Dry Chemical

o Multi-Purpose Dry Chemical- refers to powders use on Class A, B, C fires.

o Ordinary and regular dry chemical- Powders that are used on Class B or Class C fires.

Dry Powder

• It is used to extinguish combustible metals.

• It extinguishes fire by removing the air from the combustible metal.

• Primarily used on Class D fires.

Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)

• It has the ability to seal the surface of burning hydrocarbon fires to prevent “Flashback”.

• It is designed for use with fresh water at a 6 % mixture.

• It is generally used in Class B fires and may be applied also to Class A but less effective.

6. HALONS

• It is a generic term for halogenated hydrocarbons and its chemical compound that contains
carbon and one element from the halogens series.

• HALON 1211 or Bromochlorodifluoromethane which discharge partly gas and liquid,

• HALON 1301 or bromotrifluoromethane is the least toxic of the Halons.

• Halogenated Agents are effective on Class B and Class C.

STRATEGY AND TACTICS IN FIREFIGHTING

FIRE FIGHTING OPERATIONS

• PRE-FIRE PLANNING - this activity involves developing and defining systematic course of actions
that maybe performed in order to realize the objectives of fire protection: involves the process
of establishing the SOP in case fire breaks out.

• EVALUATION – SIZE – UP (on-the-spot planning or sizing-up the situation) - this is the process
knowing the emergency situation. It involves mental evaluation by the operation officer-in-
 charge to determine the appropriate course of action that provides the highest probability of
success.

SIZE UP (Evaluation of the situation):

• Learn the facts of the situation - by answering the 5 Ws-1 H

• Understand the probabilities of dangerous/fatal behavior of fire

• Know your own situation or capabilities - weaknesses and strengths; available manpower and
equipment

• Determine the specific course of action - entry or rescue

• ENTRY – This is the process of accessing the burning structure. Entry maybe done in a forcible
manner. Purposes of conducting forcible entry:

• To provide access for fire fighters with equipment for fire extinguishment

• To provide rescue

• To aid in ventilation

• RESCUE – This is the action taken by the firefighters to remove, thus saving, people and other
livestock from the burning building and other involved properties, conveying them to a secure
place

Basic approach for rescue operation

• Learn the facts of the situation – data gathering by: Information, and Person who reported the
incident

• Understanding probabilities “Do the greatest good to the greatest number”.

• Know your own situation - evaluate personnel and equipment & the number of victims and
rescuers

EXPOSURE – It refers to an action taken by the firefighters to cover or secure other buildings and people
from exposing themselves near the affected area or danger from fire.

CONFINEMENT – This is the activity of restricting the fire at the place where it started: the process of
preventing fire from extending from another section or form one section to another section of the
involved building.

• VENTILATION – It refers to a method used for clearing the building of smoke and gases, localize
the fire, and reduce smoke and forcible entry.

Advantages of Ventilations

• Aids rescue operations

• Speeds attack and extinguishment

• Reduces property damage

 • Reduces mushrooming

Factors to determine the location for ventilation

• Location of intensity of fire

• Highest point on the roof Direction of wind

• Existing Exposure

• Extent of Fire

• Obstruction

Types of ventilation

• Vertical ventilation – Heated gases and smoke rise to the highest point and, if confined, will
tend to “mushroom” or rise to the highest point of the building.

• Cross/Horizontal ventilation – It is use if the smoke and gases have not reached the highest
level or point of the building, windows are the easiest and generally most available for the
common types of buildings.

• Mechanical/force ventilation – Process of clearing smokes by using device such as smoke

ejector which utilized to remove faster excessive heat and dense smoke in a building.

SALVAGE – process of preventing excessive damage by fire, smoke with the use of a salvage cover.

EXTINGUISHMENT – This is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the 4 general
methods of fire extinguishments.

OVERHAUL – This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and all materials involved in the
fire to make sure that every spark and ember had been extinguished and to have an assurance against
re- ignition.

FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION - This is the final stage of fire suppression activities. It is an inquiry
conducted to know or determine the origin and cause of fire.

LADDER OPERATIONS

Ladder -equipment made of trussed or solid beam where rungs are connected horizontally to the beam
forming ascent or descent.

Types of ladder

1. Ground ladders – it is being carried on a fire trucks, it vary in sizes 10 to 55 feet long.

Uses of Ground Ladder

• for rescue

• to stretch line into a fire building

 • to provide ventilation by giving access to places that are hard to reach

Various kinds of Ground Ladder

A. Straight Ladder

• It contains only one section

• It ranges from 12 – 16 feet, common size 14 feet.

B. Extension Ladder

• It consists of a bed and one or more fly ladders.

• Extension ladder that has a stay pole is called tormentors.

• It ranges up to 35 feet, extension ladder over 35 feet are called Bangor Ladder.

C. Attic Ladder

• It provides means of reaching an opening for those places which are difficult to reach without
special ladder.

• It can be folded or collapsed for a small room or closet works.

D. Wall Ladder

• It is best used in rescue where a ladder in place is already falls short of endangered person.

• It allows the user to climb up or down, one storey at a time.

• 2. Aerial Ladder – it is mounted on a turntable, capable of extending up to 100 feet, it may have
3 or 4 metal fly sections of ladder that can be raised or lowered by hydraulically controlled
cables.

Various Kinds of Aerial Ladder

• A. Hydraulic Aerial Ladder

• B. Elevating Platform (Articulated Boom)

LADDER TERMINOLOGY

▪ Bed ladder - the lowest section of an extension ladder

▪ Fly ladder - the top section of an extension ladder

▪ Butt - the bottom end of a ladder

▪ Heel - the part of the ladder that touches the ground

▪ Halyard - a rope or cable used to raise the fly ladder

 ▪ Pawl or dog - the mechanism located at the end of the fly ladder that locks to the bed
ladder

▪ Rung - the cross member of the ladder that is used for climbing

▪ Top or tip - it is the top part of the ladder

▪ Hooks - part of a ladder that is used to hook over a roof peak, sills, or walls where the
heel does not rest on a foundation. (roof type ladders)

▪ Stops - made of metal or wood blocks used to prevent the fly of an extension ladder
from extending out further from the ladder

▪ Guides - light metal strips of an extension ladder that guides the fly ladder while it is
being raised or lowered

FIRE DETECTION SYSTEM

The primary purpose of fire detection system is to discover a fire when it is in its earliest phase
and to respond by activating an alarm.

Factors in selecting a fire detector

• Type of Structure and type of occupancy

• Estimated fire load

• Cost, Budget allocations

• Local Fire code requirements

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE DETECTOR

1. Smoke Detector

• Designed to react and activate the alarm when little amount of products of combustion go into
their sensors.

• Smoke detectors are attached to the ceiling or wall in several areas of the home.

Types of Smoke Detector

A. Ionization Detector

• It uses a radioactive source to transform the air inside it into a conductor of electrical current.

• Any visible or invisible products of combustion entering this chamber interrupt the current flow,
which, in return activates the alarm.

B. Photoelectric smoke detector

 • It consists of a projected light beam to cover large areas, or a reflected light beam or spot type
detector to cover small areas.

• Projected light beam- a beam of light is projected from a light source to a receiving
source unit equipped with a photoelectric cell, which monitors the intensity of the light
beam.

• Reflected beam- is a single unit containing a light source, alight catcher or contact point.
Smoke entering the chamber obstructs the directed light beam, reflecting light from the
light source onto the photoelectric cell thereby completing the circuit.

2. Heat Detector

A. Rate-of-rise-detector

• It is calibrated so that a rapid increase in room temperature will cause the detector to react and
activate the alarm.

• It is normally calibrated to allow temperature within a certain range but automatically activates
when the permitted maximum temperature is surpassed.

B. Fixed-temperature detector

• It is preset to activate at a given temperature.

• This detection unit may come from the manufacturer with a fixed temperature rating but be
equipped with a calibration screw, allowing an installer or contractor to reset the unit to avoid
false alarm.

ARSON INVESTIGATION

ARSON

• willful and malicious burning of property for the purpose of collecting insurance money,
covering up a crime, destroying physical property or documents, or as a threat or act of
vengeance or hatred.

• The crime of maliciously and intentionally, or reckless, starting a fire or causing an explosion.

• It comes from the Greek word “ARSIO” meaning to burn.

According to Webster

• Arson is the malicious burning of a building or property or a dwelling of house.

Under the Revised Penal Code

Arson is the destruction of property by fire and the extent of liabilities depends on:

- Kind and character of the building

- Its location

- Extent of damage or value

 - Its state of being inhabited or not

What constitute Arson?

• Burning – to constitute burning, pyrolysis must take place. In other words, there must be
burning or changing, i.e. the fiber of the wood must be destroyed, its identity changed.

• Willfulness – means intentional and implies that the act was done purposely and intentionally

• Malice – denotes hatred or ill will or a desire for revenge; deliberate intention of doing
unjustified harm for the satisfaction of doing it

• Motive – the moving cause which induces the commission of a crime; something that leads or
influences a person to do something

• Intent – the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will; an essential
element of crime, motive is not

METHODS OF PROOF IN ARSON

• Physical evidence in arson is often destroyed. To prove, corpus delicti must be shown
and the identity of the arsonist must be established.

• CORPUS DELICTI –body of the crime, the fact that crime was committed It must be shown by the
following.

• Burning – that there was fire which may be shown by direct testimony of complainant, firemen
responding to the crime, other eyewitness. Burned parts of the building may also indicate
location.

• Criminal design – must show that it was willfully and intentionally done. The presence of the
incendiary devices, flammables such as gasoline, kerosene, may indicate that the fire was not
accidental.

• Evidence of Intent – when valuables were removed before the fire, ill feeling between the
accused and the occupants of the building burned, absence of effort to put out the fire and such
other indicators.

BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY IN ARSON INVESTIGATION

I. POINT OF ORIGIN OF FIRE

• Initially, the important point to be established is the point of origin of fire. Finding the point
where the fire originated is naturally very important to establishing the cause of the fire.

Techniques and factors considered in determining the point of origin

• Firemen, occupant’s passersby and others who arrived at the fire scene during the early stages
of the fire may provide information relating to the location of the fire in its early stages.
• The obvious presence of “trailers” multiple separate fires, incendiary devices and other
suspicious articles may immediately reveal the origin and cause of the fire, especially in those
instances when an attempted arson has failed because the fire was rapidly extinguished or it
“burned out” because the arsonist failed to properly ventilate it.

• Another technique related to tracing the normal path of the fire to its origin, involves tracing the
path of the burning to its sources by observing the intensity of the destruction and charring of
the uprights.

• Origin of the fire can also be traced through the so-called FIRE PATTERNS.

KINDS OF FIRE PATTERNS

• Lines or Areas of Demarcation - These are borders defining the differences in certain heat and
smoke effects of the fire upon various materials. They appear between the affected area and
adjacent unaffected or less affected areas.

• Surface Effect - The nature and material of the surface that contains the fire pattern will have a
bearing on the shape and nature of the pattern itself.

• FIRE LANGUAGE

• Alligatoring – large scales indicate rapid, intense heat.

• Calcinations – refers to the changes that occur during a fire in either plaster or gypsum wall
surfaces. It includes the elimination of water from gypsum to charring the paper surface off the
wall board.

• Clean Burn – refers to a fire pattern on surfaces where soot has been burned away.

• Crazing – refers to the cracking of glass into smaller segments of subdivisions in an irregular
pattern.

• Depth of char – its value is obtained by measuring the distance from the surface of the original
dimensional wood and comparing this with remaining unburned matter. It indicates the length
of the time that a wooden structural member was exposed to flame. (estimate the duration of a
fire.

• Charring – It is an exposure of elevated temperatures in which a material undergoes chemical

decomposition that drives off gases, water vapor, and various pyrolysis products as smoke. Char
shrinks as it forms, and develops cracks and blisters.

• Fusion – Is the change in formation of metals, glass or plastic due to being exposed to high
temperatures, sometimes it is called melting.

• Spalling – Is the breakdown in tensile strength of concrete or brick, usually accompanied by a

color change. Sometimes it causes chipping.

Motive of arsonist

Is Motive Necessary to be proven in Criminal Proceedings?

• No. motive is not necessary to be proven in criminal proceedings but once motive is shown, then
intent can easily established.

• In the crime of arson, the distinction between motive and intent is clearly defined. INTENT is a
material element of arson while motive is not. INTENT is the purpose of design with which the
act is done and involves the will while MOTIVE is what induces the criminal.

A. Economic Gain

1. Insurance fraud with the assured directly benefiting:

• Desire to move - the premises may no longer be desirable because of the condition of the
building, the fact that the quarters are outgrown or because of the locality.

• Disposing of Merchandise - the stocks on hand may have lost value by reason of the seasonal
nature of the business, obsolesce, scarcity of materials necessary to complete the contracts,
overstock in the absence of expected order or a changing market.

• Property Transaction - the business itself may no longer be desirable because of impending
liquidation, settlement of an estate of which it is a part, the need for cash, prospective failure,
the comparatively greater value of the land, or the comparatively greater value of the insurance
benefits.

2. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the assured:

▪ Insurance agents wishing business

▪ Insurance adjusters desiring to adjust a loss by securing a contract

▪ Business competitors

▪ Persons seeking jobs as protection personnel

▪ Salvagers

▪ Contractors wishing to rebuild or wreck

▪ B. Concealment of Crime - the arsonists may set fire to a building in order to conceal a projected
or past crime. He may wish to divert attention in order to loot the burning premises or steal in
other places. The burning may be for the purpose of destroying evidences.

▪ C. Punitive Measure - Arsonists may use fire as a means of punishing another person for reason
of jealousy, hatred or revenge.

▪ D. Intimidation or Economic Disabling - fire may be used as a weapon of the saboteurs, the
strikers or the racketeers to intimidate or to disable economically as a step toward forcing
submission to certain demands.

E. Pyromania - is the uncontrollable impulse of a person to burn anything without motivation.

Pyromaniacs usually do not run away from the scene of the crime, usually alone and feel satisfied
watching the flame
 Types of Pyromaniacs:

• Abnormal Youth – Epileptics, imbeciles and morons may set fire without knowing the
seriousness of the act.

• The Hero Type – a person may set fire on a building, subsequently pretends to discover it and
turn in the alarm so that he will appear a hero to the public. A person may burn a building and
endeavor to achieve spectacular rescue in order to attract the attention of spectators.

• Alcoholics and Drug Addicts – persons who subject themselves to intense artificial stimulants
such as narcotics sometimes develop a strong urge toward incendiaries.

• Sexual Deviates – some sex perverts derive sexual stimulation from setting a fire and watching
the flame. Frequently, he is chronic masturbator who stimulates and enhances his sexual
gratification by means of arson.

• F. Public Disturbance - an offender may resort to arson as a means of a public disturbance

because a fire attracts people and destruction causes confusion that gives rise to attendant
problems that divert police attention.

• G. Vandalism is a general term denoting intentional burning to destroy properties.

Telltale in Arson

• Burned Building – the type of the building may indicate a set fire under some circumstances. A
fire of considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene if it is a modern
concrete or semi-concrete building.

• Separate Fires – when two or more separate fires break out within a building the fire is certainly
suspicious.

• Color of smoke – some fires burn with little or no smoke but they are exception. The
observation of the smoke must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire has assumed a
major proportion; the value of the smoke is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the
material used by the arsonist.

• Smoke marks – an experience investigator will determine the volume of smoked involved at a
fire and the character as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere. Smoke marks have often
been of assistance in determining the possibility of a fire

• Size of Fire – this is important when correlated with the type of alarm, the time received and the
time of arrival of the first fire apparatus. Fires make what might be termed a normal progress.
Such progress can be estimated after an examination of the material burned the building and
the normal ventilation offered to the fire. The time element and the degree of headway much
by the flames become important factors to determine possible incendiarism.

• Odor – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are often
used as accelerant is characteristic and oftentimes arsonists are trapped because of this tell-tale
sign. Most of fire setters are inclined to use substance which will make the blaze certain and at
the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.
 • Condition of Content – persons tending to set their house on fire frequently remove objects of
value either materially or essentially. Store and other business establishments oftentimes
remove a major portion of their content or replace valuable merchandise without of style
article.

Fire INVESTIGATOR’S responsibility in arson detection

FIREINVESTIGATOR’S RESPONSIBILITY IN ARSON DETECTION

• The responsibility of a fireman is “arson detection” rather than arson investigation.

• What then the firemen should do when responding to a fire scene?

I. Observing general conditions at the scene of the fire.

A. Upon Approaching the Fire

▪ Observing the elements. The record of a fire should include weather conditions.

▪ Observe persons and automobiles –

▪ Observe color of smoke and flame.

1. color of smoke is a rather reliable indication of the type of fire to be

extinguished.

2. color of flame – substances burning are responsible for both color of smoke
and color of flame.

• When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact with the fire, it
indicates humid material burning. E.g. – burning hay, vegetable materials.

• Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing coughing indicates presence of chlorine.

• White smoke with yellow flame – indicates burning of humid materials.

▪ Example: burning hay, vegetable matter.

• Black Smoke accompanied by large flame - indicates use of petroleum products or rubber and
plastics

• Reddish brown smoke – presence of nitrocellulose sulfur, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric
acid.

• Meaning of color of Smoke and Fire:

▪ Red flame – presence of petroleum.

▪ Blue flame – presence of alcohol, aldehyde or ketone.

▪ Biting smoke - irritating to nose and caused coughing indicate presence of chlorine.

▪ Garlic odor smoke – presence of phosphorous.

▪ Heavy brown smoke with bright red flame – Nitrogen products.

 ▪ White smoke with bright white flame – Magnesium

▪ Black smoke with red and blue flame – Asphalt

▪ Purple or lavender flame – Potassium

▪ Greenish – yellow flame - Chlorine or manganese

▪ Bright reddish yellow flame - Calcium

B. Upon Arrival at the Fire Scene

1. Observe number of separate fires, intensity and rapidity of spread.

• Was there more than one fire burning?

• Were doors fastened in an open position to allow the fire to spread

2. Observe odors and methods required to extinguish flames.

• Odors detected at fire are often of value in determining what flammable substances
were present.

II. Observing condition of building openings at the time of a fire.

1. Find out whether doors and windows are locked.

• The possibility of outsiders having gained entrance Is important.

2. Determine condition of doors, windows and locks.

• The presence of “jimmy marks “on jambs might be indicative of robbery followed by
arson to cover the crime.

3. Observing owners, occupants and bystanders at the time of a fire.

• Observe dress and manner of persons at the fire.

• Look for familiar faces.

2. Look for arson materials and arson equipment.

• “plants”

• “Trailers”

• “Accelerants”

Points on protecting and preserving evidence

1. Evidence remaining at the scene of a fire can be protected in various ways:

• Do overhauling and salvage work carefully.

• Handle evidence as little as possible.

 • Place barricades, or rope off area around evidence.

• Have photos taken by a qualified photographer at the scene of the fire when evidence
must be removed.

Determining the Origin and Cause of the Fire

1. The main reason for conducting a post-fire examination

• “Point of origin” of a fire is the location where the fire started.

• The term “area of origin” is sometimes used when fire originates over a large tract or
space, or when the exact point of origin cannot be determined.

• “Multiple points of origin” are said to exist when there is more than one place of
beginning.

Evidence Collection

• Physical evidence is any finite or tangible materials, whether in trace or gross quantity, that may
assist in proving the elements of a crime.

• The proper recognition, documentation, collection, analysis and interpretation of physical

evidence can provide valuable information to the investigation.

• P.E. are mute evidence but they speak for themselves and they don’t tell lies compared
witnesses or complainants.

• Physical Evidence – Chain of Custody - Location and security of an item of evidence from the
time it is discovered at the scene until it is introduced as evidence in court

• Specimen to be collected in a fire scene

• Ashes and debris on the suspected fire origin.

• Mechanical and electrical device which may be used to start a fire

• Bottles and cans with liquid containing possible inflammable substance and
solvents.

• LEGAL ASPECTS OF ARSON INVESTIGATION

I. The Law of Arson

• Article 320 – 326 of the Revised Penal Code

Defines Arson its forms and penalties.

• PD 1613 – Amending the Law on Arson.

Defining the Prima Facie Evidence of Arson.

• PD 1744 – Amending Article 320 of RPC.

Imposing death penalty to arsonist.

*But after the EDSA Revolution 1, death penalty was abolished by then President Corazon C. Aquino.

*R.A 9346 Prohibits imposing of DP

• RA 7659 – An act to impose death penalty on certain heinous crimes, amending for that purpose
the Revised Penal Code. As amended, other special laws, and for other purposes.

• RA 6975 Sec. 54 – Which provides that the Fire Bureau shall have the power to investigate all
causes of fires and if necessary file the proper complaint with the City/Provincial Prosecutor who
has jurisdiction over the case.

II. ELEMENTS OF ARSON

• Actual burning took place

• Actual burning is done with malicious intent

• The actual burning is done by person(s) legally and criminally liable

III. Basis and Extent of Criminal Liability in Arson

• Kind and character of the building

• Its location

• Extent of damage of value

• Its state of being inhabited or not

IV. Stages in the Commission of Arson

A. Attempted Arson

• A person intending to burn a wooden structure, collects some rags, soaks them in gasoline and
places them beside the wooden wall of the building. When he is about to light a match to set
fire to the rags, he is discovered by another who trail him away.

• The crime committed is attempted arson, because the offender begins the commission of the
crime directly by overacts (placing the rags soaked in gasoline beside the wooden wall of the
building and lighting a match) but he does not perform all the acts of execution (the setting of
the fire to the rags) due to the timely intervention of another who chases away) the offender.

B. Frustrated Arson

• the fact of having set fire to some rags and soaked in kerosene oil and placed near the partition
of the entire soil of an inhabited house, should not be qualified as a consummated arson, in as
much as no part of the house had begun to burn, although fire would have started in the said
partition had it not been extinguished on time. The crime committed was frustrated arson.

• If the person was able to light the rags but the fire was put out before any part of the building
was burn.

C. Consummated Arson
 • If before the fire was put out, part of the building was burned.

• Setting fire to the contents of a building constitutes the consummated crime of setting fire to a
building even if no part of the building was burned.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1613 - AMENDING THE LAW ON ARSON (AMENDING ARTICLES 320 TO 326-
B, RPC)

V. Who commits Arson?

▪ Anyone who burns or sets fire to the property of another

▪ Anyone who sets fire to his own property under circumstances which expose to danger
the life or property of another (Sec 1. PD 1613)

VI. Destructive Arson (Sec 2. PD 1613)

The penalty of Reclusion Temporal in its maximum period to Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if the
property burned is any of the following:

▪ Any ammunition factory and other establishment where explosives, inflammable or combustible
materials are stored.

▪ Any archive, museum, whether public or private, or any edifice devoted to culture, education or
social services.

▪ Any church or place of worship or other building where people usually assemble.

▪ Any train, airplane or any aircraft, vessel or watercraft, or conveyance for transportation of
persons or property

▪ Any building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, judicial, administrative or
other official proceedings.

▪ Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center,
public or private market, theater or movie house or any similar place or building.

▪ Any building, whether used as a dwelling or not, situated in a populated or congested

area.

VII. Other Cases of Arson(Sec 3. PD 1613)

The penalty of Reclusion Temporal to Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if the property burned is any
of the following:

▪ Any building used as offices of the government or any of its agencies;

▪ Any inhabited house or dwelling;
▪ Any industrial establishment, shipyard, oil well or mine shaft, platform or tunnel;
▪ Any plantation, farm, pastureland, growing crop, grain field, orchard, bamboo grove or
forest;
▪ Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill or mill central; and
▪ Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse.
VIII. Special Aggravating Circumstances in Arson(Sec 4. PD 1613)

The penalty in any case of arson shall be imposed in its maximum period;
▪ If committed with intent to gain;
▪ If committed for the benefit of another;
▪ If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the
property burned;
▪ If committed by a syndicate.
▪ The offense is committed by a syndicate if it is planned or carried out by a group of
three (3) or more persons.
IX. Prima Facie Evidence of Arson (Sec 6. PD 1613)

▪ If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment.
▪ If substantial amount of flammable substances or materials are stored within the
building note necessary in the business neither of the offender nor for household us.
▪ If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum or other flammable or combustible substances or
materials soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical,
chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to start a fire, or ashes or traces of any of
the foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of the burned building or property.
FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Republic Act 9514

• Approved on December 19, 2008

• Repealed PD 1185

• Known as the "Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008".

Section 05. Responsibility for the enforcement of this Code.

• This Code shall be administered and enforced by the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) under the
direct supervision and control of the Chief of BFP through the hierarchy of organization as
provided for in Chapter VI of R.A 6975 with the approval of the Secretary of DILG.

• C. the BFP may enter into external party agreements for the conduct of training, education and
evaluation of fire volunteers, practitioners and fire volunteer organizations which shall be under
the full control and supervision of the BFP. Provided however, that during firefighting
operations, fire volunteer organizations shall be under the direct operational control of the fire
ground commanders of the BFP.

• G. Designate a fire safety inspector through his/her duly authorized representative, who shall
conduct an inspection of every building or structure within his area of responsibility at least
ONCE A YEAR and every time the owner, administrator or occupant shall RENEW his/her
business permit or permit to operate.

Section 07 Inspections, safety measures, fire safety, constructions, and protective and/or warning
systems A. Inspection Requirement – A fire safety inspection shall be conducted by the Chief, BFP or his
duly authorized representative as prerequisite to the grants of permits and/or licenses by local
governments and other government agencies concerned, for the;

• 1. Use or occupancyof buildings, structures, facilities or other premises including the installation
of fire protection and fire safety equipment, and electrical system in any building structure or
facility; and

• 2. Storage, handling and/or use of explosives or of combustible, flammable, toxic and other
hazardous materials.

TERMS TO PONDER

⚫ Administrator - Any person who acts as agent of the owner and manages the use of a building
for him.

⚫ Occupant - Any person actually occupying and using a building or portions thereof by virtue of a
lease contract with the owner or administrator or by permission or sufferance of the latter.

⚫ Owner - The person who holds the legal right of possession or title to a building or real property.

⚫ Abatement - Any act that would remove or neutralize a fire hazard.

⚫ Distillation - The process of first raising the temperature in separate the more volatile from the
less volatile parts and then cooling and condensing the resulting vapor so as to produce a nearly
purified substance.

⚫ Hazardous Operation/Process - Any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion, etc., that

uses or produces materials which are likely to cause fires or explosions.

⚫ Forcing -A process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its shape or dimensions.

⚫ Refining - A process where impurities and/or deleterious materials are removed from a mixture
in order to produce a pure element of compound. It shall also refer to partial distillation and
electrolysis.

⚫ Smelting - Melting or fusing of metallic ores or compounds so as to separate impurities from

pure metals.

⚫ Blasting Agent - Any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer used to set off
explosives.

⚫ Cellulose Nitrate Or Nitro Cellulose - A highly combustible and explosive compound produced
by the reaction of nitric acid with a cellulose material.

⚫ Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) - Any plastic substance, materials or compound having
cellulose nitrate (nitro cellulose) as base.

⚫ Combustible Liquid - Any liquid having a flash point at or above 37.8_C (100_F).

⚫ Corrosive Liquid - Any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic matter or with
certain chemicals.
⚫ Cryogenic - Descriptive of any material which by its nature or as a result of its reaction with
other elements produces a rapid drop in temperature of the immediate surroundings.

⚫ Combustible Fiber - Any readily ignitable and free burning fiber such as cotton, oakum, rags,
waste cloth, waste paper, kapok, hay, straw, Spanish moss, excelsior and other similar materials
commonly used in commerce.

⚫ Organic Peroxide - A strong oxidizing organic compound which releases oxygen readily. It causes
fire when in contact with combustible materials especially under conditions of high
temperature.

⚫ Pyrophoric - Descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when exposed to air.

⚫ Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable - Descriptive of materials that are easily set on fire.

⚫ Oxidizing Material - A material that readily yields oxygen in quantities sufficient to stimulate or
support combustion.

⚫ Dust - A finely powdered substance which, when mixed with air in the proper proportion and
ignited will cause an explosion.

⚫ Finishes - Materials used as final coating of a surface for ornamental or protective purposes.

⚫ Vestibule - A passage hall or entrance between the outer doors and the interior parts of a house
or building.

⚫ Vertical Shaft - An enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to floor, as well as
from the base to the top of the building.

⚫ Public Way - Any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the ground to the sky,
deeded, dedicated or otherwise permanently appropriated for public use.

⚫ Horizontal Exit - Passageway from one building to another or through or around a wall in
approximately the same floor level.

⚫ Fire Lane - The portion of a roadway or public way that should be kept opened and
unobstructed at all times for the expedient operation of firefighting units.