WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather can be defined as the physical condition or state of the atmosphere at a particular time
and place.

-term day-to-day condition of the atmosphere involving a description of rainfall,

humidity, pressure, temperature, cloud cover and winds.

m day to day and is usually expressed with descriptive data.

Climate is defined as generalized or average condition of weather of a place or region. Or it is a

composite or generalized of the variety of day to day weather conditions.

-term atmospheric characteristics of a specified area. The characteristics are usually

represented using numerical data on meteorological elements such as rainfall, temperature, wind,
pressure and humidity.

owest rate of temperature, pressure, rainfall,

cloud cover, etc. over a period of at least thirty years.

measured over a long period of time, usually thirty years.

FACTORS INFLUENCING WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Relief and Altitude

Relief refers to the variations in elevations and slope of a particular area on the earth‟s surface.
For example, when we say an area is flat, gently sloping or mountainous (hilly) we are
describing the relief of the land. The relief of an area can influence the weather and climate of
that area. Generally, air temperature decreases with altitude because air at higher altitudes is less
dense and cooler. Temperature decreases with height on average 10oC/km.
Latitude

Latitude is one of the most influential factors of temperature. Latitudes are imaginary lines
drawn around the earth parallel to the equator.

Two factors affect the temperature are the angle of the overhead sun and the thickness of the
atmosphere. At the equator the over-head sun is high in the sky, as result, high intensity of
insolation is received. On the other hand, at the poles, the sun is low in the sky so less energy or
heat is received resulting in cooler temperatures.

Secondly, the thickness of the atmosphere affects temperature. At higher latitudes reduced
sunrays strike the earth‟s surface. The heat is spread over a larger area and is diffused resulting in
lower temperatures in these areas.

Distance from the Sea

Land heats and cools more quickly than water; this affects the temperatures of coastal and inland
areas. Places nearer to the sea will have fewer variations in temperature than places further
inland. The sea moderates the temperatures near the coastal areas. Water takes up heat and emits
it much slower than land. This is known as maritime influence. The sea has little influence on the
interior of continents. Here the temperatures are more extreme. These areas are under continental
influence.

Land and Sea Breeze

Land and sea does not heat up at the same rate. The earth‟s surface heats up faster than the ocean
as a result; there is a lower pressure over the land than the sea. Wind blows from high pressure to
low pressure. Therefore during the day, the wind blows from the sea to the land lowering the
temperature. On the other hand, during the night, the land cools and the seas stay warm. The low
pressure is now over the sea causing the breeze to blow from the land towards the sea.
ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere is the thin layer of gases held on the earth by gravitation attraction.

- It composed by abiotic (non-living matter) and biotic (living organism).

- Non-living matter found in the atmosphere includes mixture of gases, water vapor and dust
particles. Atmosphere consists of different gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen and other gases.

- The living organism includes the smallest or microscopic organisms like bacteria.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATMOSPHERE

Characteristics of atmosphere categorized into two groups as follow

a. According to its composition.

b. According to its vertical structure from the ground level into interplanetary space.

COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere categorized into biotic and abiotic matters. Biotic matters include the life in
atmosphere above 30m from the ground and abiotic matters include materials with no life found
in air which is gases, water and solid matters.

ATMOSPHERIC GASES

The atmosphere of Earth is composed of nitrogen (about 78%), oxygen (about 21%), argon
(0.009%) and carbon dioxide (0.03%) and other gases include neon, helium, Krypton, xenon.

WATER VAPOUR IN THE ATMOSPHERE

The presence of water vapor in atmosphere plays a large role in determining the weather. Clouds
and precipitation occur as a result of the phase change that occurs when water vapor condenses
into liquid water.

The sources of water vapour in the atmosphere include the following

- Evaporation of water bodies.

- Evaporation of hot springs.

- Evaporation of water from the soil.

- Plants transpiration.

- Evapo- transpiration by plants.

- Volcanic eruption.

SOLID PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

The air seems to be completely clear; it is full of atmospheric particles which are invisible solid
and semisolid bits of matter, including dust, smoke, pollen, spores, soot, sea salt particles etc.

STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

Structure of Atmosphere is viewed on its vertical layers from the Earth‟s surface into the
interplanetary space, in its vertical dimension, atmosphere has varied conditions in temperature
and chemical composition and these have enabled the meteorologists to divide it into a number
or layers.

Atmosphere in its vertical dimension is broadly divided according to

a. Contrasting temperature conditions in it with altitude from ground level into further space.

b. Contrasting chemical composition with altitude.

A. Structure of Atmosphere according to Contrasting temperature conditions

In this group, Atmosphere categorized in terms of altitude

The main atmospheric layers according to contrasting temperature conditions in it with altitude
from ground level are

i. Troposphere.

ii. Stratosphere.

iii. Mesosphere.

iv. Thermosphere.

B. Structure of Atmosphere according to contrasting chemical composition with altitude

The main atmospheric layers according to contrasting chemical composition with altitude are.

i. Homosphere

ii. Heterosphere

I. Homosphere

The homosphere is the lower of the two and the location in which turbulent mixing dominates
the molecular diffusion of gases. In this region, which occurs below 100 km (about 60 miles) or
so, the composition of the atmosphere tends to be independent of height.

II. Heterosphere

Above 100 km, in the zone called the heterosphere, various atmospheric gases are separated by
molecular mass, with the lighter gases being concentrated in the highest layers. Above 1,000 km
(about 600 miles), helium and hydrogen are the dominant species. Diatomic nitrogen (N2), a
relatively heavy gas, drops off rapidly with height and exists in only trace amounts at 500 km
(300 miles) and above. This decrease in the concentration of
heavier gases with height is largest during periods of low Sun activity, when temperatures within
the heterosphere are relatively low. The transition zone, located at a height of around 100 km
between the homosphere and heterosphere, is called the turbopause.

IMPACTS OF ATMOSPHERE ON LIFE

Positive Impacts

i. Some atmospheric layers particularly troposphere consists of much of useful gases to living
organisms.

ii. Atmosphere is associated with the weather making processes such clouds formation which
result into precipitation.

iii. Atmosphere act as protective shield to Earth.

iv. Atmosphere allows air communication. It makes transmission of radio, telephone and
television.

Negative Impacts

i. Carbon dioxide gas present in the Atmosphere causes rate of temperature increase as it absorbs
long wave radiation from the earth surface contributing to the problem of green house effect.

ii. Atmosphere has some constituents which cause the air borne diseases to people.

iii. Pollutant gases present in the Atmosphere contribute to a problem of acidic rain occurrence.

iv. The depletion of ozone layer, results into the following problems

-Melting of Ice due to rise in temperature.

-Rise in sea level because of Ice melting on the landscape.

-Skin cancer diseases to people.

-Death and disappearance of some plant and animal species because of the adverse
atmospheric changes.
TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of a body.

The interaction of insolation with the atmosphere and the earth‟s surface creates heat which is
measured in terms of temperature. While heat represents the molecular movement of particles
comprising a substance, the temperature is the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a
thing (or a place) is.

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the temperature
distribution in January and July. The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map
with the help of isotherms.

Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.

Factors Influencing Temperature Distribution

The temperature of air at any place is influenced by the following

he latitude of the place;

itude of the place;

-mass and Ocean currents

The latitude
The temperature of a place depends on the insolation received. Insolation varies according to the
latitude hence the temperature also varies accordingly.

The altitude

The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial radiation from below. Therefore, the places
near the sea-level record higher temperature than the places situated at higher elevations. In other
words, the temperature generally decreases with increasing height. The rate of decrease of
temperature with height is termed as the normal lapse rate. It is 0.6°C per 100 m.

Distance from the sea

Another factor that influences the temperature is the location of a place with respect to the sea.
Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly. Land heats up and cools
down quickly. Therefore, the variation in temperature over the sea is less compared to land. The
places situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and land breezes
which moderate the temperature.

Air-mass and Ocean currents

Like the land and sea breezes, the passage of air masses also affects the temperature. The places,
which come under the influence of warm air-masses experience higher temperature and the
places that come under the influence of cold air- masses experience low temperature. Similarly,
the places located on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record higher temperature
than the places located on the coast where the cold currents flow.

Continental influence

Located in the interior of large continents or land masses are under continental influence, that is
the sea does not an effect on them as they are too far in temperature. As land heats up rapidly,
inland locations tend to have hotter summers than areas near the coast in similar latitudes.
Cloud cover

Heavy cloud cover will moderate both day and night temperatures.

In hot deserts,absence of clouds results in high day temperatures and very low night
temperatures.Very humid air absorbs heat during the day and retains it during the night.

Clouds reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface and the amount of
radiation leaving.

Aspect

Aspect can have a strong influence on temperature. This is because of the angle of the sun in the
northern and southern hemispheres which is less than 90 degrees or directly overhead. In the
northern hemisphere, the north side of slopes is often shaded, while the southern side receives
more solar radiation for a given surface area insolation because the slope is tilted toward the sun
and isn't shaded directly by the earth itself. The further north or south you are and closer to
winter solstice the more pronounced the effects of aspect of this are, and on steeper slopes the
effect is greater, with no energy received on slopes with an angle greater than 22.5° at 40° north
on December 22 (winter solstice).

SOLAR RADIATION

The earth‟s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths called electromagnetic
spectrum. The energy received by the earth is known as incoming solar radiation which in short
is termed as insolation.

Insolation is the solar radiation that reaches the earth's surface. It is measured by the amount of
solar energy received per square centimetre per minute.

The solar output received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the
variations in the distance between the earth and the sun. During its revolution around the sun, the
earth is farthest from the sun (152 million km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is called
aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This position is
called perihelion. Therefore, the annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly
more than the amount received on 4th July. However, the effect of this variation in the solar
output is masked by other factors like the distribution of land and sea and the atmospheric
circulation. Hence, this variation in the solar output does not have great effect on daily weather
changes on the surface of the earth.

Variability of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth

The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day, in a season and in a year.

The factors that cause these variations in insolation are

transparency of the atmosphere;

The rotation of earth on its axis

The fact that the earth‟s axis makes an angle of 66.5 with the plane of its orbit round the sun has
a greater influence on the amount of insolation received at different latitudes.

The angle of inclination of the sun’s rays

This depends on the latitude of a place. The higher the latitude the less is the angle they make
with the surface of the earth resulting in slant sun rays. The area covered by vertical rays is
always less than the slant rays. If more area is covered, the energy gets distributed and the net
energy received per unit area decreases. Moreover, the slant rays are required to pass through
greater depth of the atmosphere resulting in more absorption, scattering and diffusion.

Distance between the earth and the sun

Since the earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit, the distance varies during the course
of a year. The mean distance between the earth and sun is about 149,000,000 kilometers.

Each year, on about January 3, the earth comes closer to the sun (distance 147 million
kilometers). This position is known as perihelion. On about July 4, the earth is a little farther
from the sun when the distance becomes about 152 million kilometers. This position is called
aphelion.

Although the amount of incoming solar radiation received at the outer boundary of the
atmosphere is a little greater (7 percent) in January than in July, there are other major factors,
such as the angle of incidence and the duration of sunshine that more than offset its effect on
seasonal temperature variations.

It may be interesting to note that the earth is relatively closer to the sun during the northern
hemisphere winter.

Transparency of the atmosphere

Transparency of the atmosphere is an important control on the amount of insolation which

reaches the earth's surface. Reflection from dust, salt, and smoke particles in the air is an
important mechanism for returning shortwave solar radiation to space.

Similarly, reflection from cloud tops also depletes the amount of solar radiation that would
otherwise be available to the earth. The effect of certain gases, water vapour, and dust particles
on reflection, scattering, and absorption is well-known.

Obviously, areas with heavy cloudiness and turbid atmosphere will receive lesser amount of
radiant energy at the surface. But the transparency of the atmosphere varies with time and place.
Transparency of the atmosphere is closely related to the latitude. In the higher latitudes the sun's
rays are more oblique, so that they have to pass through relatively thicker layers of the
atmosphere than at lower latitudes. In winter when the altitude of the sun is relatively lower,
there is greater loss of incoming solar radiation than in summer.

Duration of sunshine

The duration of sunlight hours determines the length of the day, which also affects the amount of
solar radiation received at the surface. Undoubtedly, the longer period of sunshine ensures larger
supply of radiation which a particular area of the earth will receive.

Obviously, the latitudes exercise the most dominant control over the duration of sunshine and
thereby the length of the day.

HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE

There are different ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere. The earth after being heated
by insolation transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near to the earth in long wave form.
The air in contact with the land gets heated slowly and the upper layers in contact with the
lower layers also get heated. This process is called conduction.

Conduction takes place when two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact with one another,
there is a flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues until
both the bodies attain the same temperature or the contact is broken. Conduction is important in
heating the lower layers of the atmosphere. The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on
heating in the form of currents and further transmits the heat of the atmosphere. This process of
vertical heating of the atmosphere is known as convection.

The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere. The transfer of heat
through horizontal movement of air is called advection. Horizontal movement of the air is
relatively more important than the vertical movement. In middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day
and night) variation in daily weather are caused by advection alone.
In tropical regions particularly in northern India during summer season local winds called „loo‟ is
the outcome of advection process.

TERRESTRIAL RADIATION

The insolation received by the earth is in short waves forms and heats up its surface. The earth
after being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere in
long wave form. This energy heats up the atmosphere from below. This process is known as
terrestrial radiation.

The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon dioxide and
the other green house gases. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the earth‟s radiation.

The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount of heat
received from the sun is returned to space, thereby maintaining constant temperature at the
earth‟s surface and in the atmosphere.

ATMOSPHERIC HEAT BUDGET

The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its temperature. This can
happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals the amount lost by
the earth through terrestrial radiation.

Consider that the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While passing
through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed. Only the
remaining part reaches the earth surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even
before reaching the earth‟s surface. Of these, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the
clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The reflected amount of
radiation is called the albedo of the earth.

The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units by the earth‟s
surface. The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation. Of these, 17 units are
radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere (6 units
absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units through convection and turbulence and 19 units
through latent heat of condensation). 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from
insolation +34 units from terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back into space. Thus, the total
radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively is 17+48=65 units which
balance the total of 65 units received from the sun. This is termed the heat budget or heat balance
of the earth.

This explains why the earth neither warms up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of heat
that takes place.

Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth’s Surface

As explained earlier, there are variations in the amount of radiation received at the earth‟s
surface. Some part of the earth has surplus radiation balance while the other part has deficit.

LAPSE RATE

Lapse rate is a rate at which temperature decreases with height.

TYPES OF LAPSE RATE

Two types of lapse rates are

a) Environmental Lapse Rate -ELR

b) Adiabatic Lapse Rate -ALR

a) Environmental Lapse Rate

Environmental Lapse Rate is a normal rate at which temperature of an air in surrounding

decreases for about 0.6 °C per 100m.
b) Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the amount of temperature change by decreasing, in which when air is
forced to rise, expands and cools at the rate which either below or above the normal lapse rate
depending on the condition of air weather saturated or dry.

When air is forced to rise up in the atmosphere, the pressure reduces with height. For a given
volume of gas, the pressure divided by the temperature remains constant (Boyle's Law).
Therefore, as the air pressure reduces, so does the temperature.

If no heat is exchanged with the surrounding air during this process, which is called “adiabatic
cooling”, the rate at which the air cools, the Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) is a constant.

For unsaturated air, the lapse rate is 3°C per 1000 feet; this is called the Dry Adiabatic Lapse
Rate (DALR). However, when the parcel of air reaches the Dew point and becomes saturated,
water vapour condenses, latent heat is released during the condensation process, which warms
the air, and the lapse rate reduces.

The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) is therefore the rate at which saturated air cools
with height and is, at low levels and latitudes, 1.5°C per thousand feet.

At higher altitudes and latitudes, where there is generally less water content in the air, and
therefore less latent heat to release, the SALR is closer to 3°C per thousand feet.

The ELR (Environmental Lapse Rate) is the actual rate at which the ambient temperature
changes with height.

Considering the parcel of air as before and utilizing the DALR and SALR for that parcel of air in
contrast to the surrounding air:
If the ELR is greater than the ALR, rising air will be warmer than the surrounding air and
therefore keep rising; the atmosphere is then said to be unstable. If ELR is greater than SALR,
the air is said to be absolutely unstable, since the air, whether saturated or unsaturated, will
always have a higher temperature than it surroundings.

When the ELR is less than the SALR and greater than the DALR, then the air is considered
conditionally unstable: the condition being whether the air is saturated or not.

If the ELR is less than the ALR, then the rising air will be cooler than the surrounding air and
will sink - the atmosphere is said to be stable.

If the ELR is less than the DALR, the air is said to be absolutely stable, since the air, whether
saturated or unsaturated, will always be cooler than the surrounding air.

QN

What are the effects of lapse rate?

ATMOSPHERIC INSTABILITY AND STABILITY

Atmospheric Instability

Atmospheric Instability is a state of atmosphere in which air is set in convectional current

rising upward from its pocket occurring when Environment Lapse Rate is greater than Adiabatic
Lapse rate.

If a parcel of air is lifted and continues to rise after the lifting force disappears, the atmosphere is
instability. In an instability layer, the lapse rate of a rising parcel is less than the lapse rate of the
environment. Though the parcel cools as it rises, its temperature remains warmer than the
surrounding air during its ascent through an instability layer. Because the parcel is warmer than
the environment, the parcel has positive buoyancy and continues to rise on its own.

Atmospheric Stability
Atmospheric Stability is a state of atmosphere in which air is set in convectional current rising
upward from its pocket occurring when Environment Lapse Rate is less than Adiabatic Lapse
rate.

If some external force such as topographic lifting or convergence pushes the air upward, the
temperature of the rising air relative to the environment suggests that the air would prefer to go
back to its original position. In other words, though a parcel is being forced up, it has negative
buoyancy meaning it wants to sink to its original position where it was in equilibrium with the
environment. If pushed down, the air has positive buoyancy and wants to rise.

TEMPERATURE INVERSION

Normally, temperature decreases with increase in elevation, it is called normal lapse rate. At
times, the situations are reversed and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called of temperature
inversion.

Temperature inversion as atmospheric conditions where by air temperature increase with height
in such away warm air overlies cold air.

Inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless. A long winter night with
clear skies and still air is ideal situation for inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off during
the night, and by early morning hours, the earth is cooler than the air above.

Over polar areas, temperature inversion is normal throughout the year. Surface inversion
promotes stability in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and dust particles get collected
beneath the inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill the lower strata of the atmosphere.
Dense fogs in mornings are common occurrences especially during winter season. This inversion
commonly lasts for few hours until the sun comes up and beings to warm the earth. The
inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air drainage. Cold air at the hills and
mountains, produced during night, flows under the influence of gravity. Being heavy and dense,
the cold air acts almost like water and moves down the slope to pile up deeply in pockets and
valley bottoms with warm air above. This is called air drainage. It protects plants from frost
damages.

TYPES OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION

There are four kinds of temperature inversions, namely:

Ground inversion

A ground inversion develops when air is cooled by contact with a colder surface until it becomes
cooler than the overlying atmosphere; this occurs most often on clear nights, when the ground
cools off rapidly by radiation. If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog
may result. Topography greatly affects the magnitude of ground inversions. If the land is rolling
or hilly, the cold air formed on the higher land surfaces tends to drain into the hollows,
producing a larger and thicker inversion above low ground and little or none above higher
elevations.

Turbulence inversion

A turbulence inversion often forms when quiescent air overlies turbulent air. Within the turbulent
layer, vertical mixing carries heat downward and cools the upper part of the layer. The unmixed
air above is not cooled and eventually is warmer than the air below; an inversion then exists.

Subsidence inversion

A subsidence inversion develops when a widespread layer of air descends. The layer is
compressed and heated by the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and as a result the lapse
rate of temperature is reduced. If the air mass sinks low enough, the air at higher altitudes
becomes warmer than at lower altitudes, producing a temperature inversion. Subsidence
inversions are common over the northern continents in winter and over the subtropical oceans;
these regions generally have subsiding air because they are located under large high-pressure
centres.

Frontal inversion
A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass and lifts it aloft; the
front between the two air masses then has warm air above and cold air below. This kind of
inversion has considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal. In addition,
humidity may be high, and clouds may be present immediately above it.

CAUSES OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION

Causes of temperature inversions are

-At the Night: Earth surface radiates heat away (cools fast)

-Air by ground cools quickly

-At the upper: atmosphere cools slower, creating inversion

-It is Very common in winter.

-Cold air from cold water moves in and under warm air on land

At the Night: cold, dense air flows down slope

-Flows below warmer, less dense air

-Mountains trap air and pollution in valley and also helps bring cold, moist air
QN

Classify temperature invention

ANSWER

Temperature invention is classified according to

1. Levels of its occurrence. 2. Causal factors and 3. Duration of occurrence.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION

Warm air traps pollutants below, does not allow for vertical dispersion of pollutants

High concentrations of sulfur dioxide and other gasses from combustion of fossil fuels by
vehicles and industry Pollutants “trapped” by warm air above city, increasing concentration of
pollutants and smog

eezing rain

Snow melts as it passes through warm air inversion, refreezes as it gets close to ground

Inversion doesn‟t allow air to rise, condense, and create thunderclouds

From distant stations increases due to tropospheric ducting (waves bounce back to earth)

Factors influencing weather and climate continue………………………..