• A voltage regulator provides a constant dc output voltage

that is essentially independent of the input voltage, output

load current, and temperature.
• The voltage regulator is one part of a power supply. Its input
voltage comes from the filtered output of a rectifier derived
from an ac voltage source.
• Two basic categories of voltage regulation:
Line regulation:- used to maintain a nearly constant output
voltage when the input voltage varies.
Load regulation:- used to maintain a nearly constant output
2
voltage when the load varies.
1. Voltage Regulation
i. Line Regulation
When the ac input (line) voltage of a power supply changes,
an electronic circuit called a regulator maintains a nearly
constant output voltage.

3
Line regulation can be defined as the percentage change in the
output voltage for a given change in the input voltage.
 VOUT 
Line regulation   100%
 VIN 

Line regulation units is %/V. For example, a line regulation of

0.05%/V means that the output voltage changes 0.05% when
4

the input voltage increases or decreases by one volt.

Line regulation can be calculated using the following

Line regulation 
 VOUT / VOUT 100%
VIN

Example
When the ac input voltage of a certain power supply
changes, the VIN decreases by 5 V, and the output of the
regulator decreases by 0.25 V. The nominal output is 15 V.
Determine the line regulation in %/V.
Sol
Line regulation 
 VOUT / VOUT 100%

 0.25 / 15 100%
VIN 5
 0.333% / V 5
 ii. Load Regulation
When the amount of current through a load changes due to
a varying load resistance, the voltage regulator must
maintain a nearly constant output voltage across the load.

6
- Load regulation can be defined as the percentage change in
output voltage for a given change in load current.
- One way to express load regulation is as a percentage
change in output voltage from no-load (NL) to full-load (FL).
 VNL  VFL 
Load regulation   100%
 VFL 
- Alternately, the load regulation can be expressed as a
percentage change in output voltage for each mA change in
load current.
Ex, a load regulation of 0.01%/mA means the output voltage
changes 0.01 percent when the load current increases or
7
decreases 1 mA.
Example
A certain voltage regulator has a 12 V output when there is
no load (IL=0). When there is a full-load current of 10 mA,
the output voltage is 11.9 V. Express the voltage regulation
as a percentage change from no-load to full-load and also as
a percentage change for each mA change in load current.
Sol  VNL  VFL 
Load regulation   100%
 VFL 
 12  11.9 
 100%  0.84%
 11.9 

where the change in load current from no-load to full-load is

10 mA.
0.84%
Load regulation   0.084% / mA 8

10mA
- Sometimes power supply manufacturers specify the
equivalent output resistance ROUT of a power supply instead
of its load regulation.
- Recall that an equivalent Thévenin circuit for a power
supply with a load resistor.

Ideally, ROUT is zero, corresponding to 0% load regulation,

9
but in practical power supplies ROUT is a small value.
If we let RFL equal the smallest-rated load resistance (largest
-rated current), then the full-load output voltage VFL is
 RFL 
VFL  VNL  
 OUT
R  RFL 

 ROUT  RFL 
VNL  VFL  
 R FL 
  ROUT  RFL  
 FL 
V   VFL 
Load regulation    RFL  100%
 VFL 
 
 
 ROUT  RFL   ROUT 
  1100%   100%
 RFL   RFL  10
2. Basic Regulators
The fundamental classes of voltage regulators are linear
regulators and switching regulators.
- Both of these are available in integrated circuit form. Two
basic types of linear regulator are the series regulator and
the shunt regulator.
Linear Series

11
 Pass transistor in series with the load
between the input and output.

Compares the sample voltage

with a reference voltage and
causes the control element to
senses a change in
compensate in order to maintain
the output voltage. 12
a constant output voltage.
Regulating Action
When VIN or RL ↓, VOUT ↓.
The VFB also ↓, as a result,
VB ↑, thus compensate the
VOUT ↓ by increasing the Q1
emitter voltage (VOUT ).
until the voltage VFB again
equals the reference (zener)
voltage.
The power transistor Q1, is usually used
with a heat sink because it must handle
all of the load current. 13
Non-inverting amplifier
R2
Acl  1 
R3
neglecting the base-emitter voltage of Q1
 R2 
VOUT  1   VREF 14
 R3 
Example
Determine the output voltage for the regulator

Sol

 R2   10 
VOUT  1  
 REF 
V 1   5.1  10.2V
 R3   10 
15
Short-Circuit or Overload Protection
- If an excessive amount of load current is drawn, the series-
pass transistor can be quickly damaged or destroyed.
- Most regulators use some type of excess current protection
in the form of a current-limiting mechanism.

16
- The load current through R4 produces a voltage from base to
emitter of Q2 . When IL reaches a predetermined maximum
value, the voltage drop across R4 is sufficient to forward-bias
the base-emitter junction of Q2, thus causing it to conduct.
- Enough op-amp output current is diverted through Q2 to
reduce the Q1 base current, so that IL is limited to its maximum
value IL(max).
- Since the base-to-emitter voltage of Q2 cannot exceed
approximately 0.7 V, the voltage across R4 is held to this
value, and the load current is limited to
0.7 V
I L max   17

R4
3. Basic Linear Shunt Regulators
The control element in the series regulator is the series-pass
transistor.
• In the shunt regulator, the control element is a transistor in
parallel (shunt) with the load.

18
 R1 is in series with the load.

regulation is achieved
by controlling the
current through the
parallel transistor Q1

19
VOUT

20
21
• With IL and VOUT constant, a change in the input voltage
produces a change in shunt current IS
VIN
I S 
R1
• With a constant VIN and VOUT , a change in load current
causes an opposite change in shunt current. If IL increases, IS
decreases, and vice versa.
I S  I L
• The shunt regulator is less efficient than the series but offers
inherent short-circuit protection.
• If the output is shorted (VOUT =0) the IL is limited by the
series resistor R1 to a maximum value (IS = 0).
VIN
I L max   22

R1
Example
what power rating must R1 have if the maximum input voltage
is 12.5 V
Sol
The worst-case power
dissipation in R1 occurs
when: VOUT =0
 VR1  VIN  VOUT  12.5V

12.5 
2 2
V
PR1  
R1
 7.1W
R1 22
Therefore, a resistor with a rating of at least 10 W used. 23
4. Integrated Circuit Voltage Regulators
• Several types of both linear and switching regulators are
available in integrated circuit (IC) form.
• Generally, the linear regulators are three-terminal devices
that provide either +ve or -ve output voltages that can be
either fixed or adjustable.
i. Fixed Positive Linear Voltage Regulators
The 78XX series of IC regulators is three-terminal devices
that provide a fixed positive output voltage.
• The last two digits in the part number designate the output
24
voltage. For example, the 7805 is a +5V regulator.
filters the input and prevents unwanted
oscillations (if the regulator is far from Acts as a line filter to
the power supply). improve transient response.

Pin 1. Input, 2. Ground

3. Output
Heatsink surface connected to
Pin 2.

Heatsink surface (terminal 4)

25
connected to Pin 2.
• For any given regulator, the output voltage can be as much
as ±4% of the nominal output.
• Thus, a 7805 may have an output from 4.8 V to 5.2 V but
will remain constant in that range.
• The 78XX series can produce output currents up to in excess
of 1 A when used with an adequate heat sink.
• The input voltage must be approximately 2.5 V above the
output voltage in order to maintain regulation.
•Thermal overload occurs when the internal power dissipation
becomes excessive and the temperature of the device exceeds
a certain value. 26
ii. Fixed Negative Linear Voltage Regulators
The 79XX series is three-terminal IC regulators that provide a
fixed negative output voltage.

27
iii. Adjustable Positive Linear Voltage Regulators
The LM317 is a three-terminal positive regulator with an
adjustable output voltage. The capacitors are for decoupling
and do not affect the dc operation.

28
provide the output voltage adjustment
• VOUT can be varied from 1.2 V to 37 V depending on the

resistor values.

• The LM317 can provide over 1.5 A of output current .

• This allows the output voltage to be much higher than that of a

fixed-voltage regulator.

29
Basic Operation constant 1.25 V reference voltage

VREF 1.25
I REF   very small constant current ≈50 μA
R1 R1
VOUT  V1  V2  I REF R1   I REF  I ADJ  R2
VREF
 I REF  R1  R2   I ADJ R2   R1  R2   I ADJ R2
R1 30
  R2 
VOUT  VREF 1    I ADJ R2
 R1 

Example
Determine the minimum and maximum output voltages for the
voltage. Assume IADJ = 50 mA.

Sol
31
 VR1=VREF
When R2=0 Ω as minimum value
 R2 
VOUT  VREF 1    I ADJ R2  1.25V
 R1 
When R2=5kΩ as maximum value

 R2 
VOUT  VREF 1    I ADJ R2
 R1 
 5k  
 1.25 1     50  A  5k 
 220 
 29.9 V 32
iv. Adjustable Negative Linear Voltage Regulators

The LM337 is the negative adjustable output voltage regulator.

The output voltage can be adjusted from -1.2 V to -37 V.

33