Bone marrow 

is a semi-solid tissue found within the spongy (also known as cancellous) portions

of bones.[2] In birds and mammals, bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production
(or haematopoiesis).[3] It is composed of hematopoietic cells, marrow adipose tissue, and
supportive stromal cells. In adult humans, bone marrow is primarily located in
the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and bones of the pelvis.[4] Bone marrow comprises approximately 5% of
total body mass in healthy adult humans, such that a man weighing 73 kg (161 lbs) will have around
3.7 kg (8 lbs) of bone marrow.[5]
Human marrow produces approximately 500 billion blood cells per day, which join the systemic
circulation via permeable vasculature sinusoids within the medullary cavity.[6] All types of
hematopoietic cells, including both myeloid and lymphoid lineages, are created in bone marrow;
however, lymphoid cells must migrate to other lymphoid organs (e.g. thymus) in order to complete
maturation.
Bone marrow transplants can be conducted to treat severe diseases of the bone marrow, including
certain forms of cancer such as leukemia. Several types of stem cells are related to bone
marrow. Hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow can give rise to hematopoietic lineage cells,
and mesenchymal stem cells, which can be isolated from the primary culture of bone marrow
stroma, can give rise to bone, adipose, and cartilage tissue.[7]

Imaging[edit]
Medical imaging may provide a limited amount of information regarding bone marrow. Plain film x-
rays pass through soft tissues such as marrow and do not provide visualization, although any
changes in the structure of the associated bone may be detected.[19] CT imaging has somewhat
better capacity for assessing the marrow cavity of bones, although with low sensitivity and
specificity. For example, normal fatty "yellow" marrow in adult long bones is of low density (-30 to -
100 Hounsfield units), between subcutaneous fat and soft tissue. Tissue with increased cellular
composition, such as normal "red" marrow or cancer cells within the medullary cavity will measure
variably higher in density.[20]
MRI is more sensitive and specific for assessing bone composition. MRI enables assessment of the
average molecular composition of soft tissues and thus provides information regarding the relative
fat content of marrow. In adult humans, "yellow" fatty marrow is the dominant tissue in bones,
particularly in the (peripheral) appendicular skeleton. Because fat molecules have a high T1-
relaxivity, T1-weighted imaging sequences show "yellow" fatty marrow as bright (hyperintense).
Furthermore, normal fatty marrow loses signal on fat-saturation sequences, in a similar pattern to
subcutaneous fat.[citation needed]
When "yellow" fatty marrow becomes replaced by tissue with more cellular composition, this change
is apparent as decreased brightness on T1-weighted sequences. Both normal "red" marrow and
pathologic marrow lesions (such as cancer) are darker than "yellow" marrow on T1-weight
sequences, although can often be distinguished by comparison with the MR signal intensity of
adjacent soft tissues. Normal "red" marrow is typically equivalent or brighter than skeletal muscle or
intervertebral disc on T1-weighted sequences.[8][21]
Fatty marrow change, the inverse of red marrow hyperplasia, can occur with normal aging,[22] though
it can also be seen with certain treatments such as radiation therapy. Diffuse marrow T1
hypointensity without contrast enhancement or cortical discontinuity suggests red marrow
conversion or myelofibrosis. Falsely normal marrow on T1 can be seen with diffuse multiple
myeloma or leukemic infiltration when the water to fat ratio is not sufficiently altered, as may be seen
with lower grade tumors or earlier in the disease process.[23]
Cytokines are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–25 kDa[1]) important in cell
signaling. Cytokines are peptides and cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm.
Cytokines have been shown to be involved in autocrine, paracrine and endocrine
signaling as immunomodulating agents. Their definite distinction from hormones is still part of
ongoing research.
Cytokines include chemokines, interferons, interleukins, lymphokines, and tumour necrosis factors,
but generally not hormones or growth factors (despite some overlap in the terminology). Cytokines
are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells like macrophages, B lymphocytes, T
lymphocytes and mast cells, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and various stromal cells; a
given cytokine may be produced by more than one type of cell.[2][3] They act through cell surface
receptors and are especially important in the immune system; cytokines modulate the balance
between humoral and cell-based immune responses, and they regulate the maturation, growth, and
responsiveness of particular cell populations. Some cytokines enhance or inhibit the action of other
cytokines in complex ways. They are different from hormones, which are also important cell
signaling molecules. Hormones circulate in higher concentrations, and tend to be made by specific
kinds of cells. Cytokines are important in health and disease, specifically in host immune
responses to infection, inflammation, trauma, sepsis, cancer, and reproduction.