Sulphur Release During AFR Use

Downloaded from orbit.dtu.
dk on: Sep 08, 2020
Sulfur Release during Alternative fuels Combustion in Cement Rotary Kilns
Cortada Mut, Maria del Mar
Publication date:
2014
Document Version
Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record
Link back to DTU Orbit
Citation (APA):
Cortada Mut, M. D. M. (2014). Sulfur Release during Alternative fuels Combustion in Cement Rotary Kilns.
Technical University of Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering.
General rights
Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright
owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights.
 Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research.
 You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain
 You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal
If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately
and investigate your claim.
Sulfur Release during Alternative Fuels
Combustion in Cement Rotary Kilns
Maria del Mar Cortada Mut

Ph.D. Thesis
August 2014
Sulfur Release during Alternative Fuels Sulfur Release during Alternative Fuels
Combustion in Cement Rotary Kilns Combustion in Cement Rotary Kilns
Maria del Mar Cortada Mut Maria del Mar Cortada Mut
Ph.D. Thesis Ph.D. Thesis
August, 2014 August, 2014
1 1
Copyright©: Maria del Mar Cortada Mut Copyright©: Maria del Mar Cortada Mut
August 2014 August 2014
Address: Centre of Combustion and Harmful Emission Control Address: Centre of Combustion and Harmful Emission Control
Department of Chemical and Department of Chemical and
Biochemical Engineering Biochemical Engineering
Technical University of Denmark Technical University of Denmark
Søltofts Plads, Building 229 Søltofts Plads, Building 229
DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby
Denmark Denmark
Phone: +45 4525 2800 Phone: +45 4525 2800
Fax: +45 4525 4588 Fax: +45 4525 4588
Web: www.chec.kt.dtu.dk Web: www.chec.kt.dtu.dk
Print: J&R Frydenberg A/S Print: J&R Frydenberg A/S

København København
November 2014 November 2014
ISBN: 978-87-93054-48-6 ISBN: 978-87-93054-48-6
2 2
Preface Preface
This dissertation summarizes the outcome of 3 years of research and is submitted partial fulfillment of the This dissertation summarizes the outcome of 3 years of research and is submitted partial fulfillment of the
requirements for obtaining the Ph.D. degree at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU). The work has requirements for obtaining the Ph.D. degree at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU). The work has
been carried out at the research center CHEC at the Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering at been carried out at the research center CHEC at the Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering at
the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) in close collaboration with FLSmidth A/S. The project is part of the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) in close collaboration with FLSmidth A/S. The project is part of
the research platform “New Cement Production Technology”, financially supported by the Technical the research platform “New Cement Production Technology”, financially supported by the Technical
University of Denmark, FLSmidth A/S, and The Danish National Advanced Technology Foundation. University of Denmark, FLSmidth A/S, and The Danish National Advanced Technology Foundation.
First of all, I would like to thank my supervisors Kim Dam-Johansen (DTU), Peter Glarborg (DTU) and Linda First of all, I would like to thank my supervisors Kim Dam-Johansen (DTU), Peter Glarborg (DTU) and Linda
Kaare Nørskov (FLSmidth A/S) for their guidance and support during the supervision of this project. Thanks Kaare Nørskov (FLSmidth A/S) for their guidance and support during the supervision of this project. Thanks
also to Anders Rooma Nielsen and Kim Hougaard Pedersen, who were involved in the supervision at some also to Anders Rooma Nielsen and Kim Hougaard Pedersen, who were involved in the supervision at some
point during the 3 years. I would like to express my gratitude to all of them for their time, ideas, feedback, point during the 3 years. I would like to express my gratitude to all of them for their time, ideas, feedback,
support, and fruitful discussions during the project. support, and fruitful discussions during the project.
Furthermore, I would like to thank current and former employees from DTU and FLSmidth that directly or Furthermore, I would like to thank current and former employees from DTU and FLSmidth that directly or
indirectly have been involved in the project, especial thanks to Flemming Frandsen, Stig Wedel, and Ebbe indirectly have been involved in the project, especial thanks to Flemming Frandsen, Stig Wedel, and Ebbe
Jøns for their help, patience, and knowledge sharing. Thanks to Erik Benzen for the collaboration and the great Jøns for their help, patience, and knowledge sharing. Thanks to Erik Benzen for the collaboration and the great
opportunity, and to his team for their assistance taking samples. Thanks to the PhD comics, which are always opportunity, and to his team for their assistance taking samples. Thanks to the PhD comics, which are always
th
true in a cheer up way, and to the participants in 8 CemFuels conference for the big interest in my project, true in a cheer up way, and to the participants in 8th CemFuels conference for the big interest in my project,
which gave me extra motivation to complete this project. Thanks to Søren Henkel and Tobias Hansen for their which gave me extra motivation to complete this project. Thanks to Søren Henkel and Tobias Hansen for their
contribution to the project, to Nezam Azizaddini for the help with some figures, to the CHEC technicians contribution to the project, to Nezam Azizaddini for the help with some figures, to the CHEC technicians
group, the workshop at DTU and to the people at FLSmidth’s research center Dania and Valby, who have also group, the workshop at DTU and to the people at FLSmidth’s research center Dania and Valby, who have also
been involved and helped in this project. been involved and helped in this project.
Finally, I would also like to thank to the Ph.D. students at CHEC, especially David Bøgh, Claus Maarup, and Finally, I would also like to thank to the Ph.D. students at CHEC, especially David Bøgh, Claus Maarup, and
Thomas Klint, for providing a pleasant working atmosphere, and of course for enjoyable lunches, fruitful Thomas Klint, for providing a pleasant working atmosphere, and of course for enjoyable lunches, fruitful
discussions, and the social activities we have had. discussions, and the social activities we have had.
At last but not least, thanks to my family and friends for all their support through the last 3 years, Moltes At last but not least, thanks to my family and friends for all their support through the last 3 years, Moltes
Gràcies!, and big thanks to Per, who has been there in all moments. Gràcies!, and big thanks to Per, who has been there in all moments.
Maria del Mar Cortada Mut Maria del Mar Cortada Mut
Kgs. Lyngby, August 2014. Kgs. Lyngby, August 2014.
i i
3 3
ii ii
4 4
Abstract Abstract
Cement production is an energy-intensive process, which has traditionally been dependent on fossil fuels. Cement production is an energy-intensive process, which has traditionally been dependent on fossil fuels.
However, the usage of selected waste, biomass, and by-products with recoverable calorific value, defined as However, the usage of selected waste, biomass, and by-products with recoverable calorific value, defined as
alternative fuels, is increasing and their combustion is more challenging compared to fossil fuels, due to the alternative fuels, is increasing and their combustion is more challenging compared to fossil fuels, due to the
lack of experience in handling the different and varying combustion characteristics caused by different lack of experience in handling the different and varying combustion characteristics caused by different
chemical and physical properties, e.g. higher moisture content and larger particle sizes. chemical and physical properties, e.g. higher moisture content and larger particle sizes.
When full combustion of alternative fuels in the calciner and/or main burner is not achieved, partially or When full combustion of alternative fuels in the calciner and/or main burner is not achieved, partially or
unburned solid fuels may drop into the material bed in direct contact with the bed material of the rotary kiln. unburned solid fuels may drop into the material bed in direct contact with the bed material of the rotary kiln.
The combustion of alternative fuels in direct contact with the bed material of the rotary kiln causes local The combustion of alternative fuels in direct contact with the bed material of the rotary kiln causes local
reducing conditions and may alter the input and the behavior of minor elements into the kiln system. reducing conditions and may alter the input and the behavior of minor elements into the kiln system.
The minor elements of concern are sulfur, chlorine, sodium, and potassium, which are known to be circulating The minor elements of concern are sulfur, chlorine, sodium, and potassium, which are known to be circulating
or volatile elements in the kiln system. Compounds containing these elements evaporate, when exposed to or volatile elements in the kiln system. Compounds containing these elements evaporate, when exposed to
high temperatures, and may subsequently condense in cooler parts of the plant. High internal circulation high temperatures, and may subsequently condense in cooler parts of the plant. High internal circulation
seriously affects the process stability and operation of the cement kiln system, such as material build-ups in seriously affects the process stability and operation of the cement kiln system, such as material build-ups in
the cyclones and/or in the rotary kiln as rings, and on a longer time-scale by shell corrosion. the cyclones and/or in the rotary kiln as rings, and on a longer time-scale by shell corrosion.
This thesis provides a detailed analysis of the circulation of the volatile elements and the transformation of This thesis provides a detailed analysis of the circulation of the volatile elements and the transformation of
different species containing these elements at different locations in the cement plant. This is complemented by different species containing these elements at different locations in the cement plant. This is complemented by
thermodynamic calculations for a better understanding of the inorganic chemistry in the rotary kiln. The main thermodynamic calculations for a better understanding of the inorganic chemistry in the rotary kiln. The main
focus is given to SO2 release due to decomposition of calcium sulfate in the kiln inlet and the modification of focus is given to SO2 release due to decomposition of calcium sulfate in the kiln inlet and the modification of
the sulfur circulation during alternative fuel combustion, because sulfur is the most affected element by the sulfur circulation during alternative fuel combustion, because sulfur is the most affected element by
reducing combustion conditions. reducing combustion conditions.
Sulfur release from cement raw materials during alternative fuel combustion is experimentally investigated Sulfur release from cement raw materials during alternative fuel combustion is experimentally investigated
using pine wood and tire rubber particles in a pilot scale set-up, which is able to simulate the process conditions using pine wood and tire rubber particles in a pilot scale set-up, which is able to simulate the process conditions
in the material inlet end of an industrial rotary kiln. The SO2 release increases with decreasing fuel particle in the material inlet end of an industrial rotary kiln. The SO2 release increases with decreasing fuel particle
size, oxygen content in the freeboard gas, and increasing sulfur content in the bed material. Experiments with size, oxygen content in the freeboard gas, and increasing sulfur content in the bed material. Experiments with
wood with different degree of volatiles show that the sulfur release mainly takes place during devolatilization. wood with different degree of volatiles show that the sulfur release mainly takes place during devolatilization.
This is supported by the finding of the industrial investigation on sulfur released, where no clear relationship This is supported by the finding of the industrial investigation on sulfur released, where no clear relationship
is observed between the carbon from the fuel, mainly expected to be in the form of char, entering in the rotary is observed between the carbon from the fuel, mainly expected to be in the form of char, entering in the rotary
kiln and the sulfur recirculation. kiln and the sulfur recirculation.
The effect of different concentrations and binary mixtures of the main reducing agents released from fuels on The effect of different concentrations and binary mixtures of the main reducing agents released from fuels on
sulfur release are investigated experimentally in order to separate the influence of the simultaneous phenomena sulfur release are investigated experimentally in order to separate the influence of the simultaneous phenomena
occurring in the experimental set-up, such as mixing the fuel with the bed material, heating up of a particle, occurring in the experimental set-up, such as mixing the fuel with the bed material, heating up of a particle,
iii iii
5 5
devolatilization, char combustion, the reactions between CaSO4 and the different reducing agents, and the devolatilization, char combustion, the reactions between CaSO4 and the different reducing agents, and the
oxidation of the volatiles gases in the freeboard. The main reducing agents are CO, CH4 and H2, which are oxidation of the volatiles gases in the freeboard. The main reducing agents are CO, CH4 and H2, which are
introduced under the bed material in the high temperature rotary drum to characterize the SO2 release under introduced under the bed material in the high temperature rotary drum to characterize the SO2 release under
variation of temperature, oxygen content in the gas, and time of exposure. A threshold concentration for each variation of temperature, oxygen content in the gas, and time of exposure. A threshold concentration for each
reducing gas, below which no SO2 release occurs, is found. The reducing concentration and the time of reducing gas, below which no SO2 release occurs, is found. The reducing concentration and the time of
exposure are of high importance for SO2 release because it is shown that introducing the same total amount of exposure are of high importance for SO2 release because it is shown that introducing the same total amount of
gas, the highest reducing agent concentration for a short period released a higher total SO2 amount compared gas, the highest reducing agent concentration for a short period released a higher total SO2 amount compared
to the lowest concentration during a long period. to the lowest concentration during a long period.
A mathematical reaction based model for predicting sulfur release caused by volatiles from wood particles A mathematical reaction based model for predicting sulfur release caused by volatiles from wood particles
fired in the material kiln inlet is developed and evaluated against pilot scale data, which shows that the model fired in the material kiln inlet is developed and evaluated against pilot scale data, which shows that the model
follows the experimental data tendency. The model can predict SO2 release varying particle size, fill degree, follows the experimental data tendency. The model can predict SO2 release varying particle size, fill degree,
and firing degree but the effect of sulfur content in the bed cannot be predicted. Further development regarding and firing degree but the effect of sulfur content in the bed cannot be predicted. Further development regarding
particle motion according to the rotational speed may be needed. Furthermore, a model for predicting the particle motion according to the rotational speed may be needed. Furthermore, a model for predicting the
tendency of build-ups for a kiln system is developed based on the prediction of SO3 and Cl concentrations in tendency of build-ups for a kiln system is developed based on the prediction of SO3 and Cl concentrations in
the hot meal. The predictions can be performed for a kiln system operating only with fuel in the calciner and the hot meal. The predictions can be performed for a kiln system operating only with fuel in the calciner and
kiln burner, and the influence of bypass operation can be added as well as alternative fuels substitution in the kiln burner, and the influence of bypass operation can be added as well as alternative fuels substitution in the
kiln inlet. kiln inlet.
The sulfur release in the inlet of the rotary kiln can be minimized if the fuel combustion takes place at The sulfur release in the inlet of the rotary kiln can be minimized if the fuel combustion takes place at
o
temperatures lower than 800 C and can be avoided when the volatile gases from fuels are not released in temperatures lower than 800 oC and can be avoided when the volatile gases from fuels are not released in
contact with the bed material. contact with the bed material.
iv iv
6 6
Dansk resumé Dansk resumé
Cementproduktion er en energikrævende proces, som traditionelt har været afhængig af fossile brændstoffer. Cementproduktion er en energikrævende proces, som traditionelt har været afhængig af fossile brændstoffer.
Brugen af udvalgt affald, biomasse og biprodukter med genindvindingsværdi, defineret som alternative Brugen af udvalgt affald, biomasse og biprodukter med genindvindingsværdi, defineret som alternative
brændstoffer, er imidlertid stigende, og forbrændingen er mere udfordrende end fossile brændsel, på grund af brændstoffer, er imidlertid stigende, og forbrændingen er mere udfordrende end fossile brændsel, på grund af
manglende erfaring i håndtering af den anderledes og varierende udbrændingskarakteristik, som skyldes manglende erfaring i håndtering af den anderledes og varierende udbrændingskarakteristik, som skyldes
forskellige kemiske og fysiske egenskaber, f.eks. højere vandindhold og større partikelstørrelser. forskellige kemiske og fysiske egenskaber, f.eks. højere vandindhold og større partikelstørrelser.
Ved ufuldstændig forbrænding af brændsler i kalcineren og/eller brænderen, kan uforbrændt eller delvis Ved ufuldstændig forbrænding af brændsler i kalcineren og/eller brænderen, kan uforbrændt eller delvis
udbrændt brændsler havne i roterovnsfyldningen i direkte kontakt med fyldningsmaterialet. Forbrænding af udbrændt brændsler havne i roterovnsfyldningen i direkte kontakt med fyldningsmaterialet. Forbrænding af
alternative brændsler i direkte kontakt med roterovnens fyldningsmateriale medfører lokale reducerende alternative brændsler i direkte kontakt med roterovnens fyldningsmateriale medfører lokale reducerende
betingelser og kan ændre input og adfærd af mindre elementer i ovnsystemet. Disse elementer, er svovl, klor, betingelser og kan ændre input og adfærd af mindre elementer i ovnsystemet. Disse elementer, er svovl, klor,
natrium og kalium, som er kendt for at cirkulere i ovnsystemet pga. deres flygtighed. Forbindelser, der natrium og kalium, som er kendt for at cirkulere i ovnsystemet pga. deres flygtighed. Forbindelser, der
indeholder disse elementer, fordamper når de udsættes for høje temperaturer, og kan senere kondensere i indeholder disse elementer, fordamper når de udsættes for høje temperaturer, og kan senere kondensere i
køligere dele af anlægget. En høj intern cirkulation kan skade processtabiliteten og driften alvorligt i form af køligere dele af anlægget. En høj intern cirkulation kan skade processtabiliteten og driften alvorligt i form af
materialeopbygninger, ringdannelse og på længere sigt ved ovnskalskorrosion. materialeopbygninger, ringdannelse og på længere sigt ved ovnskalskorrosion.
Denne afhandling indeholder en detaljeret beskrivelse af cirkulationen af de flygtige elementer og Denne afhandling indeholder en detaljeret beskrivelse af cirkulationen af de flygtige elementer og
omdannelsen af forskellige forbindelser af disse elementer under fremstillingen af klinker. Dette supplereres omdannelsen af forskellige forbindelser af disse elementer under fremstillingen af klinker. Dette supplereres
af termodynamiske beregninger for forbedret forståelse af den uorganiske kemi i roterovnen. Resultaterne af termodynamiske beregninger for forbedret forståelse af den uorganiske kemi i roterovnen. Resultaterne
stemmer godt overens med stabiliteten af sulfater i roterovnens ovnindløb beskrevet i litteraturen. stemmer godt overens med stabiliteten af sulfater i roterovnens ovnindløb beskrevet i litteraturen.
Afhandlingen fokuserer på SO2 frigivelse på grund af nedbrydning af kalciumsulfat i ovnindløb og ændring af Afhandlingen fokuserer på SO2 frigivelse på grund af nedbrydning af kalciumsulfat i ovnindløb og ændring af
svovlcirkulationen ved forbrænding af alternative brændsler, fordi svovl er det mest påvirkede element under svovlcirkulationen ved forbrænding af alternative brændsler, fordi svovl er det mest påvirkede element under
reducerende forbrændingsbetingelser. reducerende forbrændingsbetingelser.
Svovlfrigivelse fra cement råmaterialer under forbrænding af alternative brændsler, repræsenteret af fyrretræ Svovlfrigivelse fra cement råmaterialer under forbrænding af alternative brændsler, repræsenteret af fyrretræ
og gummipartikler af dæk, er undersøgt eksperimentelt i en pilotskala opstilling, som er i stand til at simulere og gummipartikler af dæk, er undersøgt eksperimentelt i en pilotskala opstilling, som er i stand til at simulere
procesbetingelserne i materieindløbet af en industriel roterovn. SO2 frigivelsen stiger med faldende procesbetingelserne i materieindløbet af en industriel roterovn. SO2 frigivelsen stiger med faldende
brændeselpartikelstørrelse, iltindhold i atmosfæren og stigende indhold af svovl i fyldningsmaterialet. Forsøg brændeselpartikelstørrelse, iltindhold i atmosfæren og stigende indhold af svovl i fyldningsmaterialet. Forsøg
med træ med forskellig indhold af flygtige stoffer viste, at frigivelsen af svovl hovedsageligt fandt sted under med træ med forskellig indhold af flygtige stoffer viste, at frigivelsen af svovl hovedsageligt fandt sted under
afgasningen. Dette er i god overensstemmelse med resultaterne af den industrielle undersøgelse om frigivelse afgasningen. Dette er i god overensstemmelse med resultaterne af den industrielle undersøgelse om frigivelse
af svovl udført i dette projekt, hvor ingen direkte sammenhæng mellem kulstof fra brændsel, hovedsagelig af svovl udført i dette projekt, hvor ingen direkte sammenhæng mellem kulstof fra brændsel, hovedsagelig
forventet at være i form af koks, som ender i ovnindløbet og svovlcirkulationen kunne påvises. forventet at være i form af koks, som ender i ovnindløbet og svovlcirkulationen kunne påvises.
Virkningen af forskellige koncentrationer af de vigtigste reduktionsmidler og binære blandinger heraf som Virkningen af forskellige koncentrationer af de vigtigste reduktionsmidler og binære blandinger heraf som
frigøres fra brændstoffer er undersøgt eksperimentelt for at adskille indflydelsen af de samtidige fænomener i frigøres fra brændstoffer er undersøgt eksperimentelt for at adskille indflydelsen af de samtidige fænomener i
den eksperimentelle opsætning, såsom opblanding af brændstoffet med fyldningsmaterialet, den eksperimentelle opsætning, såsom opblanding af brændstoffet med fyldningsmaterialet,
v v
7 7
partikelopvarmning, pyrolyse, koksforbrænding, reaktionerne mellem CaSO4 og de forskellige partikelopvarmning, pyrolyse, koksforbrænding, reaktionerne mellem CaSO4 og de forskellige
reduktionsmidler, og oxidation af flygtige gasser i gasfasen. De vigtigste reduktionsmidler er CO, CH4 og H2, reduktionsmidler, og oxidation af flygtige gasser i gasfasen. De vigtigste reduktionsmidler er CO, CH4 og H2,
som blev indført under fyldningsmaterialet i en roterende højtemperaturtromle for at karakterisere SO 2 som blev indført under fyldningsmaterialet i en roterende højtemperaturtromle for at karakterisere SO 2
frigivelse under varierende temperaturer, iltindhold og eksponeringstid. En grænseværdi for koncentrationen frigivelse under varierende temperaturer, iltindhold og eksponeringstid. En grænseværdi for koncentrationen
af hver reducerende gas, hvorunder der ikke forekommer SO2 frigivelse, blev fundet. Koncentration af den af hver reducerende gas, hvorunder der ikke forekommer SO2 frigivelse, blev fundet. Koncentration af den
reducerende specie og eksponeringstiden er af stor betydning for den totale SO2 frigivelse, fordi det blev påvist reducerende specie og eksponeringstiden er af stor betydning for den totale SO2 frigivelse, fordi det blev påvist
ved indførelse af den samme samlede mængde gas, at en høj reducerende koncentration i løbet af en kort ved indførelse af den samme samlede mængde gas, at en høj reducerende koncentration i løbet af en kort
periode medførte en højere samlet SO2 frigivelse i forhold til en lav koncentration i en længere periode. periode medførte en højere samlet SO2 frigivelse i forhold til en lav koncentration i en længere periode.
En matematisk reaktionsbaseret model til forudsigelse af svovlfrigivelse forårsaget af flygtige stoffer fra En matematisk reaktionsbaseret model til forudsigelse af svovlfrigivelse forårsaget af flygtige stoffer fra
træpartikler fyret i ovnindløbet er blevet udviklet og valideret mod pilotskala data, hvilket viste, at modellen træpartikler fyret i ovnindløbet er blevet udviklet og valideret mod pilotskala data, hvilket viste, at modellen
følger tendensen for de eksperimentelle data. Modellen kan forudsige SO2 frigivelse for varierende følger tendensen for de eksperimentelle data. Modellen kan forudsige SO2 frigivelse for varierende
partikelstørrelse, fyldningsgrad og fyringsgrad, men effekten af svovlindholdet i fyldningen kan ikke partikelstørrelse, fyldningsgrad og fyringsgrad, men effekten af svovlindholdet i fyldningen kan ikke
forudsiges. Yderligere udvikling vedrørende partikelbevægelse som funktion af rotationshastigheden kan være forudsiges. Yderligere udvikling vedrørende partikelbevægelse som funktion af rotationshastigheden kan være
nødvendig. Herudover er en model til forudsigelse af materialeopbygningstendens for en ovn blevet udviklet, nødvendig. Herudover er en model til forudsigelse af materialeopbygningstendens for en ovn blevet udviklet,
baseret på forudsigelse af SO3 og Cl koncentrationer i ovnindløbsmaterialet. Forudsigelserne kan udføres for baseret på forudsigelse af SO3 og Cl koncentrationer i ovnindløbsmaterialet. Forudsigelserne kan udføres for
et ovnsystem med brændselsfyring kun i kalcinatoren og roterovnensbrænderen, og derudover kan indflydelsen et ovnsystem med brændselsfyring kun i kalcinatoren og roterovnensbrænderen, og derudover kan indflydelsen
af bypass og alternative brændslesfyring i ovnindløbet tilføjes. af bypass og alternative brændslesfyring i ovnindløbet tilføjes.
Svovlfrigivelsen i ovnindløbet af roterovnen kan minimeres, hvis forbrændingen sker ved temperature lavere Svovlfrigivelsen i ovnindløbet af roterovnen kan minimeres, hvis forbrændingen sker ved temperature lavere
o
end 800 C, og kan udgås hvis afgasningen af de flygtige forbindelser fra brændslerne ikke sker i direkte end 800 oC, og kan udgås hvis afgasningen af de flygtige forbindelser fra brændslerne ikke sker i direkte
kontakt med fyldningsmaterialet. kontakt med fyldningsmaterialet.
vi vi
8 8
Table of Contents Table of Contents
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................. 1 1. Introduction................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background........................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background........................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Project Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Project Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Structure of the Ph.D. Thesis ............................................................................................................. 2 1.3 Structure of the Ph.D. Thesis ............................................................................................................. 2
1.4 References ......................................................................................................................................... 3 1.4 References ......................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Cement Chemistry and Production .......................................................................................... 5 2. Cement Chemistry and Production .......................................................................................... 5
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Cement Chemistry ............................................................................................................................. 5 2.2 Cement Chemistry ............................................................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Raw Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 6 2.2.1 Raw Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Calcination................................................................................................................................................ 6 2.2.2 Calcination................................................................................................................................................ 6
2.2.3 Clinker Reactions ..................................................................................................................................... 7 2.2.3 Clinker Reactions ..................................................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Cement Production ............................................................................................................................ 8 2.3 Cement Production ............................................................................................................................ 8
2.3.1 Preparation of Raw Materials ................................................................................................................... 9 2.3.1 Preparation of Raw Materials ................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 Pyro Processing ...................................................................................................................................... 10 2.3.2 Pyro Processing ...................................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.3 Clinker Processing .................................................................................................................................. 12 2.3.3 Clinker Processing .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.3.4 Process Data Overview ........................................................................................................................... 12 2.3.4 Process Data Overview ........................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 13 2.4 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 13
2.5 References ....................................................................................................................................... 13 2.5 References ....................................................................................................................................... 13
3. Alternatives Fuels in the Cement Production ........................................................................ 17 3. Alternatives Fuels in the Cement Production ........................................................................ 17
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 17 3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Combustion of Alternative Fuels ..................................................................................................... 21 3.2 Combustion of Alternative Fuels ..................................................................................................... 21
3.2.1 Combustion Studies of Alternative Fuels ............................................................................................... 24 3.2.1 Combustion Studies of Alternative Fuels ............................................................................................... 24
3.2.2 Volatile Gases from Fuels ...................................................................................................................... 25 3.2.2 Volatile Gases from Fuels ...................................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Technologies for Alternative Fuels Combustion ............................................................................. 28 3.3 Technologies for Alternative Fuels Combustion ............................................................................. 28
3.3.1 External reactors ..................................................................................................................................... 29 3.3.1 External reactors ..................................................................................................................................... 29
3.3.2 Kiln burners ............................................................................................................................................ 30 3.3.2 Kiln burners ............................................................................................................................................ 30
3.3.3 Emerging technologies ........................................................................................................................... 31 3.3.3 Emerging technologies ........................................................................................................................... 31
4. Circulation of Inorganic Elements in the Kiln System ......................................................... 39 4. Circulation of Inorganic Elements in the Kiln System ......................................................... 39
4.1 Circulation of Volatiles Elements.................................................................................................... 39 4.1 Circulation of Volatiles Elements.................................................................................................... 39
4.1.1 Reaction Affinity between Volatile Elements ........................................................................................ 40 4.1.1 Reaction Affinity between Volatile Elements ........................................................................................ 40
vii vii
9 9
4.1.2 Circulation of Sulfur ............................................................................................................................... 40 4.1.2 Circulation of Sulfur ............................................................................................................................... 40
4.1.3 Circulation of Chlorine ........................................................................................................................... 47 4.1.3 Circulation of Chlorine ........................................................................................................................... 47
4.1.4 Circulation of Alkalis ............................................................................................................................. 50 4.1.4 Circulation of Alkalis ............................................................................................................................. 50
4.2 Consequences of High Volatile Circulation .................................................................................... 53 4.2 Consequences of High Volatile Circulation .................................................................................... 53
4.2.1 Deposit Build-up Formation ................................................................................................................... 53 4.2.1 Deposit Build-up Formation ................................................................................................................... 53
4.2.2 Coating and Ring Formation in Rotary Kilns ......................................................................................... 57 4.2.2 Coating and Ring Formation in Rotary Kilns ......................................................................................... 57
4.2.3 Shell Corrosion and Refractory Deterioration ........................................................................................ 61 4.2.3 Shell Corrosion and Refractory Deterioration ........................................................................................ 61
4.3 Circulation of Volatile Elements due to Combustion of Alternative Fuels ..................................... 63 4.3 Circulation of Volatile Elements due to Combustion of Alternative Fuels ..................................... 63
4.3.1 Introduction or Increase of Elements in the Cement Chemistry ............................................................. 64 4.3.1 Introduction or Increase of Elements in the Cement Chemistry ............................................................. 64
4.3.2 Local Reducing Conditions .................................................................................................................... 64 4.3.2 Local Reducing Conditions .................................................................................................................... 64
4.3.3 Increase of Circulation Phenomena in the Kiln System ......................................................................... 65 4.3.3 Increase of Circulation Phenomena in the Kiln System ......................................................................... 65
4.4 Thermodynamic Calculations .......................................................................................................... 67 4.4 Thermodynamic Calculations .......................................................................................................... 67
4.4.1 System considering inorganic chemistry with clinker chemistry ........................................................... 67 4.4.1 System considering inorganic chemistry with clinker chemistry ........................................................... 67
4.4.2 System considering inorganic chemistry ................................................................................................ 71 4.4.2 System considering inorganic chemistry ................................................................................................ 71
4.4.3 Concluding Remarks about Thermodynamic Equilibrium Calculations ................................................ 78 4.4.3 Concluding Remarks about Thermodynamic Equilibrium Calculations ................................................ 78
5. Sulfur Release during Combustion of Alternative Fuels Particles ...................................... 87 5. Sulfur Release during Combustion of Alternative Fuels Particles ...................................... 87
5.1 Literature Study on Sulfur Release in the Kiln System ................................................................... 87 5.1 Literature Study on Sulfur Release in the Kiln System ................................................................... 87
5.1.1 Phase Diagrams for CaSO4-CaO-CaS system ........................................................................................ 87 5.1.1 Phase Diagrams for CaSO4-CaO-CaS system ........................................................................................ 87
5.1.2 Sulfur Release during Combustion of Solid Fuels .................................................................................. 89 5.1.2 Sulfur Release during Combustion of Solid Fuels .................................................................................. 89
5.1.3 Pre-experimental Considerations ............................................................................................................ 92 5.1.3 Pre-experimental Considerations ............................................................................................................ 92
5.2 Experimental.................................................................................................................................... 93 5.2 Experimental.................................................................................................................................... 93
5.2.1 Experimental Set-up ............................................................................................................................... 93 5.2.1 Experimental Set-up ............................................................................................................................... 93
5.2.2 Experimental Method ............................................................................................................................. 95 5.2.2 Experimental Method ............................................................................................................................. 95
5.2.3 Fuel Samples .......................................................................................................................................... 96 5.2.3 Fuel Samples .......................................................................................................................................... 96
5.2.4 Wood Char Preparation .......................................................................................................................... 97 5.2.4 Wood Char Preparation .......................................................................................................................... 97
5.3 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 98 5.3 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 98
5.3.1 General Observations ............................................................................................................................. 98 5.3.1 General Observations ............................................................................................................................. 98
5.3.2 Effect of Particle Size of Different Fuel Types .................................................................................... 100 5.3.2 Effect of Particle Size of Different Fuel Types .................................................................................... 100
5.3.3 Effect of Degree of Devolatilization of Wood Particles ....................................................................... 103 5.3.3 Effect of Degree of Devolatilization of Wood Particles ....................................................................... 103
5.3.4 Effect of Sulfur Concentration in the Bed Material .............................................................................. 107 5.3.4 Effect of Sulfur Concentration in the Bed Material .............................................................................. 107
5.3.5 Effect of Moisture Content ................................................................................................................... 108 5.3.5 Effect of Moisture Content ................................................................................................................... 108
5.3.6 Discussion ............................................................................................................................................ 110 5.3.6 Discussion ............................................................................................................................................ 110
5.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 111 5.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 111
5.5 References ..................................................................................................................................... 111 5.5 References ..................................................................................................................................... 111
viii viii
10 10
6. Effect of Different Pyrolized Gases on Sulfur Release ........................................................ 115 6. Effect of Different Pyrolized Gases on Sulfur Release ........................................................ 115
6.1 Literature Study of the CaSO4 Reductive Decomposition ............................................................. 115 6.1 Literature Study of the CaSO4 Reductive Decomposition ............................................................. 115
6.1.1 Carbon Monoxide ................................................................................................................................. 115 6.1.1 Carbon Monoxide ................................................................................................................................. 115
6.1.2 Hydrogen .............................................................................................................................................. 118 6.1.2 Hydrogen .............................................................................................................................................. 118
6.1.3 Methane ................................................................................................................................................ 118 6.1.3 Methane ................................................................................................................................................ 118
6.1.4 Alternating Oxidizing and Reducing conditions .................................................................................. 119 6.1.4 Alternating Oxidizing and Reducing conditions .................................................................................. 119
6.1.5 Pre-experimental Considerations .......................................................................................................... 120 6.1.5 Pre-experimental Considerations .......................................................................................................... 120
6.2 Experimental.................................................................................................................................. 121 6.2 Experimental.................................................................................................................................. 121
6.3 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 122 6.3 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 122
6.3.1 Carbon Monoxide ................................................................................................................................. 123 6.3.1 Carbon Monoxide ................................................................................................................................. 123
6.3.2 Methane ................................................................................................................................................ 132 6.3.2 Methane ................................................................................................................................................ 132
6.3.3 Hydrogen .............................................................................................................................................. 135 6.3.3 Hydrogen .............................................................................................................................................. 135
6.3.4 Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Methane Comparison .................................................................... 141 6.3.4 Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Methane Comparison .................................................................... 141
6.3.5 Binary Mixtures .................................................................................................................................... 143 6.3.5 Binary Mixtures .................................................................................................................................... 143
6.3.6 Thermal Decomposition of CaSO4 ....................................................................................................... 146 6.3.6 Thermal Decomposition of CaSO4 ....................................................................................................... 146
7. Modeling the Sulfur Release in the Inlet of the Rotary Kiln .............................................. 151 7. Modeling the Sulfur Release in the Inlet of the Rotary Kiln .............................................. 151
7.1 Literature Study on Rotary Kiln Models for the Cement Industry ................................................ 151 7.1 Literature Study on Rotary Kiln Models for the Cement Industry ................................................ 151
7.1.1 Review of Rotary Kilns Models ........................................................................................................... 151 7.1.1 Review of Rotary Kilns Models ........................................................................................................... 151
7.1.2 Kiln System Models including Alternative Fuels Usage ...................................................................... 152 7.1.2 Kiln System Models including Alternative Fuels Usage ...................................................................... 152
7.2 System Description and Modeling approach ................................................................................. 154 7.2 System Description and Modeling approach ................................................................................. 154
7.3 Assumptions .................................................................................................................................. 156 7.3 Assumptions .................................................................................................................................. 156
7.4 Mathematical Development ........................................................................................................... 157 7.4 Mathematical Development ........................................................................................................... 157
7.4.1 Calculation of the Particle Temperature Profile ................................................................................... 157 7.4.1 Calculation of the Particle Temperature Profile ................................................................................... 157
7.4.2 Calculation of Pyrolysis ....................................................................................................................... 158 7.4.2 Calculation of Pyrolysis ....................................................................................................................... 158
7.4.3 Rotary Kiln Model ................................................................................................................................ 158 7.4.3 Rotary Kiln Model ................................................................................................................................ 158
7.5 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 162 7.5 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 162
7.5.1 Substitution 10 % Energy with Alternative Fuels fired in the Kiln Inlet .............................................. 162 7.5.1 Substitution 10 % Energy with Alternative Fuels fired in the Kiln Inlet .............................................. 162
7.5.2 Effect of Firing Degree in the Kiln Inlet .............................................................................................. 171 7.5.2 Effect of Firing Degree in the Kiln Inlet .............................................................................................. 171
7.5.3 Sensitivity analysis ............................................................................................................................... 172 7.5.3 Sensitivity analysis ............................................................................................................................... 172
7.6 Model Validation ........................................................................................................................... 173 7.6 Model Validation ........................................................................................................................... 173
ix ix
11 11
8. Model on Build-ups Tendency in the Kiln System .............................................................. 183 8. Model on Build-ups Tendency in the Kiln System .............................................................. 183
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 183 8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 183
8.2 Kiln System without Alternative Fuel Substitution in the Kiln Inlet ............................................ 185 8.2 Kiln System without Alternative Fuel Substitution in the Kiln Inlet ............................................ 185
8.2.1 Model Development ............................................................................................................................. 185 8.2.1 Model Development ............................................................................................................................. 185
8.2.2 Results .................................................................................................................................................. 188 8.2.2 Results .................................................................................................................................................. 188
8.3 Kiln System with Alternative Fuel Substitution in the Kiln Inlet ................................................. 191 8.3 Kiln System with Alternative Fuel Substitution in the Kiln Inlet ................................................. 191
8.3.1 Model Modification .............................................................................................................................. 191 8.3.1 Model Modification .............................................................................................................................. 191
8.3.2 Results .................................................................................................................................................. 193 8.3.2 Results .................................................................................................................................................. 193
8.4 Model Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 195 8.4 Model Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 195
9. Industrial Experience on Sulfur Release .............................................................................. 197 9. Industrial Experience on Sulfur Release .............................................................................. 197
9.1 Background.................................................................................................................................... 197 9.1 Background.................................................................................................................................... 197
9.2 Gas Measurements......................................................................................................................... 200 9.2 Gas Measurements......................................................................................................................... 200
9.2.1 Comparison between Two Measurements Systems .............................................................................. 200 9.2.1 Comparison between Two Measurements Systems .............................................................................. 200
9.3 Investigation of Sulfur Evaporation on the Process ...................................................................... 205 9.3 Investigation of Sulfur Evaporation on the Process ...................................................................... 205
9.3.1 Fuel Conversion in the Calciner ........................................................................................................... 208 9.3.1 Fuel Conversion in the Calciner ........................................................................................................... 208
9.3.2 Tendency of Build-ups ......................................................................................................................... 210 9.3.2 Tendency of Build-ups ......................................................................................................................... 210
9.3.3 Sulfur Volatility .................................................................................................................................... 211 9.3.3 Sulfur Volatility .................................................................................................................................... 211
9.4 Conclusions for the Industrial Experience and Challenges ........................................................... 212 9.4 Conclusions for the Industrial Experience and Challenges ........................................................... 212
10. Final Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 215 10. Final Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 215
10.1 Main Results and Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 215 10.1 Main Results and Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 215
10.2 Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 217 10.2 Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 217
10.3 Suggestions for Future Work ......................................................................................................... 219 10.3 Suggestions for Future Work ......................................................................................................... 219
List of Symbols ............................................................................................................................... 221 List of Symbols ............................................................................................................................... 221
Appendixes...................................................................................................................................... 225 Appendixes...................................................................................................................................... 225
Appendix A: Equilibrium Calculations............................................................................................ 227 Appendix A: Equilibrium Calculations............................................................................................ 227
Appendix B: Species included in the Thermodynamic Calculations ............................................... 229 Appendix B: Species included in the Thermodynamic Calculations ............................................... 229
Appendix C: Data from the Experiments using Reducing Agents .................................................. 233 Appendix C: Data from the Experiments using Reducing Agents .................................................. 233
Appendix D: Kinetic Studies of CaSO4 Reductive Decomposition ................................................ 239 Appendix D: Kinetic Studies of CaSO4 Reductive Decomposition ................................................ 239
Appendix E: CaSO4 Particle Analysis ............................................................................................ 241 Appendix E: CaSO4 Particle Analysis ............................................................................................ 241
Appendix F: Mass balance in basis of loss of ignition free ............................................................. 243 Appendix F: Mass balance in basis of loss of ignition free ............................................................. 243
Appendix G: Industrial gas measurement system principles ........................................................... 245 Appendix G: Industrial gas measurement system principles ........................................................... 245
x x
12 12
Appendix H: Clinker composition for the industrial investigation .................................................. 247 Appendix H: Clinker composition for the industrial investigation .................................................. 247
Publication ...................................................................................................................................... 249 Publication ...................................................................................................................................... 249
xi xi
13 13
xii xii
14 14
Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 1: Introduction
1. Introduction 1. Introduction
1.1 Background 1.1 Background
Cement production is an energy-intensive process, which requires approximate 3 MJ/kg cement clinker Cement production is an energy-intensive process, which requires approximate 3 MJ/kg cement clinker
produced, equivalent to 60-130 kg coal/ton of cement clinker depending on the type of coal (VDZ, 2009). The produced, equivalent to 60-130 kg coal/ton of cement clinker depending on the type of coal (VDZ, 2009). The
energy consumed by the cement industry is estimated to constitute about 2 % of the global primary energy energy consumed by the cement industry is estimated to constitute about 2 % of the global primary energy
consumption (Rubenstein, 2010; Worrell et al., 2001). consumption (Rubenstein, 2010; Worrell et al., 2001).
During the last decades, an interest in replacing fossil fuels with selected waste, biomass, and by-products with During the last decades, an interest in replacing fossil fuels with selected waste, biomass, and by-products with
recoverable calorific value, defined as alternative fuels, has arisen in order to minimize production cost and recoverable calorific value, defined as alternative fuels, has arisen in order to minimize production cost and
due to environmental concerns (Lechtenberg and Diller, 2012). The introduction of alternative fuels is however due to environmental concerns (Lechtenberg and Diller, 2012). The introduction of alternative fuels is however
not straight forward because it may influence emissions, product quality, process efficiency, and process not straight forward because it may influence emissions, product quality, process efficiency, and process
stability of the cement production plant. stability of the cement production plant.
Furthermore, alternative fuels may be partly or fully CO2-neutral, which may be important from an Furthermore, alternative fuels may be partly or fully CO2-neutral, which may be important from an
environmental point of view. The European cement industry recovers a substantial amount of waste-derived environmental point of view. The European cement industry recovers a substantial amount of waste-derived
fuels, which replace fossil fuels up to a level of more than 80 % in some individual plants (European IPPC, fuels, which replace fossil fuels up to a level of more than 80 % in some individual plants (European IPPC,
2013). The change in energy sources is illustrated in Figure 1-1 and Figure 1-2, which show the type of the 2013). The change in energy sources is illustrated in Figure 1-1 and Figure 1-2, which show the type of the
fuels used in average by the cement industry in Europe in 1990 and 2011, respectively. fuels used in average by the cement industry in Europe in 1990 and 2011, respectively.
3% 3%
34% 34%
66 % 66 %
97 % 97 %
Fossil fuel Alternative fuel Fossil fuel Alternative fuel Fossil fuel Alternative fuel Fossil fuel Alternative fuel
Figure 1-1: Percentage of fossil fuels and alternative fuels used Figure 1-2: Percentage of fossil fuels and alternative fuels used Figure 1-1: Percentage of fossil fuels and alternative fuels used Figure 1-2: Percentage of fossil fuels and alternative fuels used
in Europe in 1990 (CW Group, 2013). in Europe in 2011 (CW Group, 2013). in Europe in 1990 (CW Group, 2013). in Europe in 2011 (CW Group, 2013).
In comparison with fossil fuels, alternative fuels typically consist of relatively large particles, which are In comparison with fossil fuels, alternative fuels typically consist of relatively large particles, which are
difficult to downsize, and may have different chemical and physical properties. This will be elaborated in difficult to downsize, and may have different chemical and physical properties. This will be elaborated in
Chapter 3. Despite these differences, alternative fuels are fired at the traditional firing points of a cement plant Chapter 3. Despite these differences, alternative fuels are fired at the traditional firing points of a cement plant
(calciner and kiln burner) or directly in the rotary kiln. The combustion of alternative fuels at these location (calciner and kiln burner) or directly in the rotary kiln. The combustion of alternative fuels at these location
may have some consequences (Nielsen, 2011), which are: may have some consequences (Nielsen, 2011), which are:
1 1
15 15
- Direct physical contact between the solid fuel and the cement raw materials. - Direct physical contact between the solid fuel and the cement raw materials.
- Local reducing conditions in the material bed of the rotary kiln. - Local reducing conditions in the material bed of the rotary kiln.
- Potential of increase internal circulation of sulfur, chlorine and alkali metal species. - Potential of increase internal circulation of sulfur, chlorine and alkali metal species.
These consequences lead to modification of process conditions and may affect the clinker quality and the These consequences lead to modification of process conditions and may affect the clinker quality and the
process operation, causing build-ups, blockages, and/or corrosion. process operation, causing build-ups, blockages, and/or corrosion.
1.2 Project Objectives 1.2 Project Objectives
The main objective of this thesis is to obtain a scientifically based knowledge about the release of sulfur due The main objective of this thesis is to obtain a scientifically based knowledge about the release of sulfur due
to combustion of solid alternative fuels in cement production. This is achieved via a combination of theoretical to combustion of solid alternative fuels in cement production. This is achieved via a combination of theoretical
considerations and experimental investigations coupled with mathematical modeling. considerations and experimental investigations coupled with mathematical modeling.
The main technical subject of this Ph.D. project has been to investigate the consequences of the combustion of The main technical subject of this Ph.D. project has been to investigate the consequences of the combustion of
solid alternative fuels on the process operation and process stability of a cement plant. The project has focused solid alternative fuels on the process operation and process stability of a cement plant. The project has focused
on the sulfur release from the bed material close to the inlet of the rotary kiln. The strategy is first to provide on the sulfur release from the bed material close to the inlet of the rotary kiln. The strategy is first to provide
a detailed analysis of the inorganic chemistry in the kiln system and how it may be affected by utilization of a detailed analysis of the inorganic chemistry in the kiln system and how it may be affected by utilization of
alternative fuels in the material inlet end. Experiments with solid fuels and reducing gases have been conducted alternative fuels in the material inlet end. Experiments with solid fuels and reducing gases have been conducted
in a pilot-scale rotary drum in order to understand the behavior of the sulfur release at the inlet of the rotary in a pilot-scale rotary drum in order to understand the behavior of the sulfur release at the inlet of the rotary
kiln. The experimental data were also used for the validation of a mathematical model capable of qualitatively kiln. The experimental data were also used for the validation of a mathematical model capable of qualitatively
predicting the SO2 release from the bed material. The tendency of build-ups when using alternative fuels can predicting the SO2 release from the bed material. The tendency of build-ups when using alternative fuels can
be predicted on basis of the model and consequently operational problems may be avoided. be predicted on basis of the model and consequently operational problems may be avoided.
The knowledge obtained may be used to improve the design basis of cement plants, redesign of existing The knowledge obtained may be used to improve the design basis of cement plants, redesign of existing
technology or to develop new technology in order to minimize the sulfur release, and operational problems technology or to develop new technology in order to minimize the sulfur release, and operational problems
such as build-ups, due to the combustion of solid alternative fuels in the calciner and/or in the inlet of the rotary such as build-ups, due to the combustion of solid alternative fuels in the calciner and/or in the inlet of the rotary
kiln. kiln.
1.3 Structure of the Ph.D. Thesis 1.3 Structure of the Ph.D. Thesis
Chapter 2 provides an introduction to the cement chemistry and production. Chapter 2 provides an introduction to the cement chemistry and production.
Chapter 3 introduces the general characteristics of alternative fuels in cement production and reviews the Chapter 3 introduces the general characteristics of alternative fuels in cement production and reviews the
current status regarding combustion of solid alternative fuels and the available technologies. current status regarding combustion of solid alternative fuels and the available technologies.
The inorganic chemistry consisting of the volatile elements (S, Cl, K, and Na) in the kiln system is described The inorganic chemistry consisting of the volatile elements (S, Cl, K, and Na) in the kiln system is described
in details in Chapter 4. The consequences related to the combustion of alternative fuels are also reviewed; in details in Chapter 4. The consequences related to the combustion of alternative fuels are also reviewed;
special attention is given to the modification of the sulfur circulation. Furthermore, the inorganic chemistry special attention is given to the modification of the sulfur circulation. Furthermore, the inorganic chemistry
along the rotary kiln is studied by thermodynamic equilibrium calculations. along the rotary kiln is studied by thermodynamic equilibrium calculations.
2 2
16 16
Chapter 5 describes the experiments with sulfur release from raw materials during solid fuel combustion, Chapter 5 describes the experiments with sulfur release from raw materials during solid fuel combustion,
focusing on fuel particle size, degree of fuel devolatilization, and moisture content. focusing on fuel particle size, degree of fuel devolatilization, and moisture content.
Experiments quantifying the sulfur release from raw materials by introduction of CO, CH4, and H2, and their Experiments quantifying the sulfur release from raw materials by introduction of CO, CH4, and H2, and their
mixtures under the bed material are explained in Chapter 6. mixtures under the bed material are explained in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 contains the development of a mathematical model for predicting sulfur release in the inlet of the Chapter 7 contains the development of a mathematical model for predicting sulfur release in the inlet of the
rotary kiln. The results are further used to predict the tendency of build-ups, which is described in Chapter 8. rotary kiln. The results are further used to predict the tendency of build-ups, which is described in Chapter 8.
An analysis of industrial experience with focus on sulfur release is provided in Chapter 9. The chapter An analysis of industrial experience with focus on sulfur release is provided in Chapter 9. The chapter
determines the calciner fuel conversion, the tendency of build-ups and the sulfur volatility. An analysis of the determines the calciner fuel conversion, the tendency of build-ups and the sulfur volatility. An analysis of the
current challenges with monitoring and controlling sulfur release in the cement plants is also provided. current challenges with monitoring and controlling sulfur release in the cement plants is also provided.
Finally, the overall conclusions regarding the sulfur release during combustion of alternative fuels in the rotary Finally, the overall conclusions regarding the sulfur release during combustion of alternative fuels in the rotary
kiln material inlet end and suggestions for further work are provided in Chapter 10. kiln material inlet end and suggestions for further work are provided in Chapter 10.
1.4 References 1.4 References
CW Group. Alternative fuels in Spain and in the rest of Europe. CemWeek Magazine Issue 17. October- CW Group. Alternative fuels in Spain and in the rest of Europe. CemWeek Magazine Issue 17. October-
November 2013. Available at http://www.cemweek.com/magazine/cemweek-magazine. November 2013. Available at http://www.cemweek.com/magazine/cemweek-magazine.
Lechtenberg, D., and Diller, H.; Alternative fuels and raw materials handbook for the cement and lime industry. Lechtenberg, D., and Diller, H.; Alternative fuels and raw materials handbook for the cement and lime industry.
MVW Lechtenberg & Partner, Düsseldorf, Germany. 2012. ISBN: 978-3-7640-0550-4. MVW Lechtenberg & Partner, Düsseldorf, Germany. 2012. ISBN: 978-3-7640-0550-4.
Nielsen, A.R., Larsen, M.B., Glarborg, P., Dam-Johansen, K.; High-Temperature Release of SO2 from Nielsen, A.R., Larsen, M.B., Glarborg, P., Dam-Johansen, K.; High-Temperature Release of SO2 from
Calcined Cement Raw Materials. Energy & Fuels, 25, 2917-2926, 2011. Calcined Cement Raw Materials. Energy & Fuels, 25, 2917-2926, 2011.
Rubenstein, M.; The GNCS factsheets: Mitigating emissions from cement. Columbia Climate Cementer. Earth Rubenstein, M.; The GNCS factsheets: Mitigating emissions from cement. Columbia Climate Cementer. Earth
Institute, Columbia University, 2010. Institute, Columbia University, 2010.
VDZ (Verein Deutscher Zementwerke); Activity report 2007-2009. Available at http://www.vdz.de. VDZ (Verein Deutscher Zementwerke); Activity report 2007-2009. Available at http://www.vdz.de.
Worrell, E., Price, L., Martin, N., Hendriks, C., and Meida, L. O.; Carbon dioxide emissions from the global Worrell, E., Price, L., Martin, N., Hendriks, C., and Meida, L. O.; Carbon dioxide emissions from the global
cement industry. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 26, 303-29, 2001. cement industry. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 26, 303-29, 2001.
European IPPC; Best available techniques (BAT) reference document for the production of cement, lime and European IPPC; Best available techniques (BAT) reference document for the production of cement, lime and
magnesium oxide- European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau. 2013. magnesium oxide- European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau. 2013.
3 3
17 17
4 4
18 18
Chapter 2: Cement Chemistry and Production Chapter 2: Cement Chemistry and Production
2. Cement Chemistry and Production 2. Cement Chemistry and Production

This chapter seeks to provide a fundamental understanding of the cement chemistry and the cement production, This chapter seeks to provide a fundamental understanding of the cement chemistry and the cement production,
which is necessary for the understanding of the subsequent chapters. which is necessary for the understanding of the subsequent chapters.
2.1 Introduction 2.1 Introduction
Cement has been known as a binder material since ancient times, but the manufacturing process has evolved Cement has been known as a binder material since ancient times, but the manufacturing process has evolved
greatly since then. Nowadays, cement is one of the most important materials, used for production of concrete greatly since then. Nowadays, cement is one of the most important materials, used for production of concrete
and mortar in the construction sector. Cement and mortar are used for bonding of natural and artificial and mortar in the construction sector. Cement and mortar are used for bonding of natural and artificial
aggregates in infrastructure and in many building materials (Cembureau, 2009). The most commonly used type aggregates in infrastructure and in many building materials (Cembureau, 2009). The most commonly used type
of cement is the so-called Portland cement. Several other types of cement with other characteristics are also of cement is the so-called Portland cement. Several other types of cement with other characteristics are also
produced for specific purposes. However, this thesis will focus on the Portland cement. produced for specific purposes. However, this thesis will focus on the Portland cement.
The industrial production of cement started in the middle of the 19th century with the development of the The industrial production of cement started in the middle of the 19th century with the development of the
continuous kiln. One of the first continuous kilns was the shaft kiln, which bears a high degree of resemblance continuous kiln. One of the first continuous kilns was the shaft kiln, which bears a high degree of resemblance
to a blast furnace. In the end of the 19th century, the shaft kiln was replaced by the rotary kiln, which is still an to a blast furnace. In the end of the 19th century, the shaft kiln was replaced by the rotary kiln, which is still an
important part of a modern cement plant (Schneider et al., 2011). important part of a modern cement plant (Schneider et al., 2011).
Cement production is a very energy-consuming process. The energy costs account typically for 30-40 % of the Cement production is a very energy-consuming process. The energy costs account typically for 30-40 % of the
total costs of the cement production. Cement production is an industrial sectors that have been growing steadily total costs of the cement production. Cement production is an industrial sectors that have been growing steadily
since the end of World War II. The annual global cement production grew from 100 million tons in 1950 (van since the end of World War II. The annual global cement production grew from 100 million tons in 1950 (van
Oss, 2005), to 2600 million tons in 2006 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2007). After a decrease in production due Oss, 2005), to 2600 million tons in 2006 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2007). After a decrease in production due
to the global economic down of 2007-2009, the cement production has recovered and in 2013 a total of 4 to the global economic down of 2007-2009, the cement production has recovered and in 2013 a total of 4
billion tons cement was estimated to be manufactured worldwide (U.S. Geological Survey, 2014). The cement billion tons cement was estimated to be manufactured worldwide (U.S. Geological Survey, 2014). The cement
industry accounts for around 5 % of the global CO2 emissions (World Energy Council, 2008), making it one industry accounts for around 5 % of the global CO2 emissions (World Energy Council, 2008), making it one
of the more greenhouse emissions-intense industries. of the more greenhouse emissions-intense industries.
2.2 Cement Chemistry 2.2 Cement Chemistry
Portland cement is a hydraulic binder that sets and hardens by hydration (Hewlett, 1998) and is manufactured Portland cement is a hydraulic binder that sets and hardens by hydration (Hewlett, 1998) and is manufactured
from Portland cement clinker, which consists of a mixture of burned limestone, sand, and clay. The clinker is from Portland cement clinker, which consists of a mixture of burned limestone, sand, and clay. The clinker is
ground and mixed with gypsum (calcium sulfates) and other minerals may be added to obtain cement with the ground and mixed with gypsum (calcium sulfates) and other minerals may be added to obtain cement with the
desired performance in terms of setting time and strength development (Cochez and Wouter, 2010). desired performance in terms of setting time and strength development (Cochez and Wouter, 2010).
Portland clinker consists mainly of belite, alite, ferrite and aluminate, comprising more than 90 wt. % of the Portland clinker consists mainly of belite, alite, ferrite and aluminate, comprising more than 90 wt. % of the
product. The typical content of these minerals are displayed in Table 2-1. Subsequently, 3-6 wt. % of gypsum product. The typical content of these minerals are displayed in Table 2-1. Subsequently, 3-6 wt. % of gypsum
is added to the clinker and the mixture is finely ground to form the finished cement (Theisen, 2007). is added to the clinker and the mixture is finely ground to form the finished cement (Theisen, 2007).
5 5
19 19
Table 2-1: Main constituents of Portland cement clinker (Hewlett, 1998; Taylor, 1997). Table 2-1: Main constituents of Portland cement clinker (Hewlett, 1998; Taylor, 1997).
Name Chemical composition Nomenclature Approximate content [wt. %] Name Chemical composition Nomenclature Approximate content [wt. %]
Belite (CaO)2·SiO2 C2S 15-30 Belite (CaO)2·SiO2 C2S 15-30
Alite (CaO)3·SiO2 C3S 50-70 Alite (CaO)3·SiO2 C3S 50-70
Ferrite (CaO)4·Al2O3·Fe2O3 C4AF 5-10 Ferrite (CaO)4·Al2O3·Fe2O3 C4AF 5-10
Aluminate (CaO)3·Al2O3 C3A 5-15 Aluminate (CaO)3·Al2O3 C3A 5-15
The major mineral phase in the Portland cement is tricalciumsilicate, often referred to as alite. Alite is The major mineral phase in the Portland cement is tricalciumsilicate, often referred to as alite. Alite is
responsible for setting and development of early strength, because it is relatively fast reacting. Dicalcium responsible for setting and development of early strength, because it is relatively fast reacting. Dicalcium
silicate, belite, controls the late strength due to its slow reactivity properties. Ferrite and aluminate are present silicate, belite, controls the late strength due to its slow reactivity properties. Ferrite and aluminate are present
due to the need to obtain a liquid at the peak kiln temperature (1400-1450 °C), facilitating the formation of the due to the need to obtain a liquid at the peak kiln temperature (1400-1450 °C), facilitating the formation of the
desired silicate phases during the clinker reactions. Besides these phases, cement contains from 0.5 to 1.5 % desired silicate phases during the clinker reactions. Besides these phases, cement contains from 0.5 to 1.5 %
of free lime (CaO), and 1 % of SO3, and a small proportion of MgO. Clinker has typically a mass content of of free lime (CaO), and 1 % of SO3, and a small proportion of MgO. Clinker has typically a mass content of
67 % CaO, 22 % SiO2, 5 % Al2O3, 3 % Fe2O3, and 3 % other components (Taylor, 1997). 67 % CaO, 22 % SiO2, 5 % Al2O3, 3 % Fe2O3, and 3 % other components (Taylor, 1997).
2.2.1 Raw Materials 2.2.1 Raw Materials
The typical mixture of raw materials used for Portland cement contains ground limestone, clay, shale, and The typical mixture of raw materials used for Portland cement contains ground limestone, clay, shale, and
sand, introducing the various elements needed for clinker formation. Calcium is mainly provided by raw sand, introducing the various elements needed for clinker formation. Calcium is mainly provided by raw
materials such as limestone, marl, or chalk and constitutes approximately 75-80 wt. % of the raw materials. materials such as limestone, marl, or chalk and constitutes approximately 75-80 wt. % of the raw materials.
Silica, aluminum, and iron components, as well as other elements, are provided by clay, shale, and other Silica, aluminum, and iron components, as well as other elements, are provided by clay, shale, and other
materials. Small amounts of additives such as iron ore, bauxite, and shale may be needed to provide additional materials. Small amounts of additives such as iron ore, bauxite, and shale may be needed to provide additional
iron oxide (Fe2O3), alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) to adjust the chemical composition of the raw mix to the iron oxide (Fe2O3), alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) to adjust the chemical composition of the raw mix to the
process and product requirements (Hewlett, 1998; Bye, 1999). The different kinds of raw materials needed to process and product requirements (Hewlett, 1998; Bye, 1999). The different kinds of raw materials needed to
achieve the required cement composition are ground and mixed to produce a homogeneous blend, which is achieve the required cement composition are ground and mixed to produce a homogeneous blend, which is
processed in the kiln (CSI, 2005). processed in the kiln (CSI, 2005).
Selected waste and by-products, such as blast furnace slag and fly ash, containing useful minerals are also used Selected waste and by-products, such as blast furnace slag and fly ash, containing useful minerals are also used
in the production of cement. The usage of waste as a replacement for conventional raw materials decreases the in the production of cement. The usage of waste as a replacement for conventional raw materials decreases the
demands on local landfills. Hence, the overall environmental impact is reduced (CSI, 2005). demands on local landfills. Hence, the overall environmental impact is reduced (CSI, 2005).
2.2.2 Calcination 2.2.2 Calcination
Calcination is the first major chemical change in the thermal treatment of the raw materials and consists of the Calcination is the first major chemical change in the thermal treatment of the raw materials and consists of the
thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide as shown in reaction (2- thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide as shown in reaction (2-
1). The calcination occurs in the temperature range of 700-900 °C. 1). The calcination occurs in the temperature range of 700-900 °C.
CaCO3 s o CO2 g CaO s ΔH°= 1782 kJ/kg CaCO3 (2-1) CaCO3 s o CO2 g CaO s ΔH°= 1782 kJ/kg CaCO3 (2-1)
6 6
20 20
The reaction is highly endothermic and consumes around 60 % of the total energy required for the production The reaction is highly endothermic and consumes around 60 % of the total energy required for the production
of cement (Hewlett, 1998). The energy required by the calcination process comes from the combustion of fuels of cement (Hewlett, 1998). The energy required by the calcination process comes from the combustion of fuels
in the calciner, which is the furnace where calcination takes place (see Figure 2-2 and Figure 2-3). The degree in the calciner, which is the furnace where calcination takes place (see Figure 2-2 and Figure 2-3). The degree
of calcination, which is the degree of dissociation of the calcium carbonate, is typically around 90-95 % in a of calcination, which is the degree of dissociation of the calcium carbonate, is typically around 90-95 % in a
modern calciner kiln system (Taylor, 1997). modern calciner kiln system (Taylor, 1997).
2.2.3 Clinker Reactions 2.2.3 Clinker Reactions
Clinker reactions occur at temperatures between 700 and 1450 °C. The reactions may be affected by minor Clinker reactions occur at temperatures between 700 and 1450 °C. The reactions may be affected by minor
compounds and involve intermediate compounds before the formation of the final clinker product. A general compounds and involve intermediate compounds before the formation of the final clinker product. A general
description of the overall clinker reactions are presented in reactions (2-2) to (2-5). A detailed overview of the description of the overall clinker reactions are presented in reactions (2-2) to (2-5). A detailed overview of the
chemistry, phase relations, etc. is provided elsewhere (Hewlett, 1998; Bye, 1999). chemistry, phase relations, etc. is provided elsewhere (Hewlett, 1998; Bye, 1999).
The formation of belite from lime and silica, reaction (2-2), starts at temperatures above 700 °C. The formation of belite from lime and silica, reaction (2-2), starts at temperatures above 700 °C.
2CaO s SiO2 s o CaO 2 SiO2 s (2-2) 2CaO s SiO2 s o CaO 2 SiO2 s (2-2)
Above 1300 °C, the proportion of clinker liquid increases and nodules are formed. At the same time, Above 1300 °C, the proportion of clinker liquid increases and nodules are formed. At the same time,
intermediate phases dissociate to form liquid and belite. The belite reacts with free lime to form alite, according intermediate phases dissociate to form liquid and belite. The belite reacts with free lime to form alite, according
to reaction (2-3). A clinker temperature of about 1450 °C is required in order to obtain a proper product quality. to reaction (2-3). A clinker temperature of about 1450 °C is required in order to obtain a proper product quality.
A proper clinker quality has an alite content of minimum 50 wt. % and a free lime content of maximum of 1.5 A proper clinker quality has an alite content of minimum 50 wt. % and a free lime content of maximum of 1.5
wt. % (Taylor, 1997). wt. % (Taylor, 1997).
CaO s CaO 2 SiO2 s o CaO 3 SiO2 s (2-3) CaO s CaO 2 SiO2 s o CaO 3 SiO2 s (2-3)
The formation of solid aluminate and ferrite from the liquid phase takes place when the temperature drops to The formation of solid aluminate and ferrite from the liquid phase takes place when the temperature drops to
1230 °C, according to reactions (2-4) and (2-5). 1230 °C, according to reactions (2-4) and (2-5).
3CaO s Al2O3 l o CaO 3 Al2O3 s (2-4) 3CaO s Al2O3 l o CaO 3 Al2O3 s (2-4)
4CaO s Al2O3 l Fe2O3 l o CaO 4 Al2O3 Fe2O3 s (2-5) 4CaO s Al2O3 l Fe2O3 l o CaO 4 Al2O3 Fe2O3 s (2-5)
Figure 2-1 shows the distribution of the different phases in the temperature range 300-1500 oC during heating Figure 2-1 shows the distribution of the different phases in the temperature range 300-1500 oC during heating
and for 1500 to 1100 oC during cooling. and for 1500 to 1100 oC during cooling.
7 7
21 21
100 100
wt.%
wt.%
0 0
Figure 2-1: Phases distributed by weight, as a function of material temperature. Abbreviations are: C=CaO, A=Al2O3, S=SiO2, and Figure 2-1: Phases distributed by weight, as a function of material temperature. Abbreviations are: C=CaO, A=Al2O3, S=SiO2, and
F=Fe2O3 (Theisen, 2007). F=Fe2O3 (Theisen, 2007).
2.3 Cement Production 2.3 Cement Production
Cement is produced in a continuous process and can be produced by at least four different methods, Cement is produced in a continuous process and can be produced by at least four different methods,
respectively referred to as wet, semi-wet, semi-dry and dry. This thesis will focus on the dry process because respectively referred to as wet, semi-wet, semi-dry and dry. This thesis will focus on the dry process because
it is the most common production process nowadays. A more comprehensive description of the different types it is the most common production process nowadays. A more comprehensive description of the different types
of production processes can be found elsewhere (Labahn and Kohlaas, 1983; Peray and Waddell, 1972). of production processes can be found elsewhere (Labahn and Kohlaas, 1983; Peray and Waddell, 1972).
The cement production process can be divided into three consecutive parts: 1) Preparation of the raw materials, The cement production process can be divided into three consecutive parts: 1) Preparation of the raw materials,
2)
pyro-processing, and 3) clinker processing. A flow diagram for the pyro processing stage, consisting of the 2)
pyro-processing, and 3) clinker processing. A flow diagram for the pyro processing stage, consisting of the
kiln system is shown in Figure 2-2. kiln system is shown in Figure 2-2.
8 8
22 22
Flue gas Raw materials Flue gas Raw materials
Raw meal Raw material silos Raw meal Raw material silos
Raw meal silo Raw meal silo
Raw mill Raw mill

Mixed raw materials Mixed raw materials
Gas flow Gas flow

Flue gas Fuel flow Flue gas Fuel flow
Preheater Preheater
tower Solid material flow tower Solid material flow
Recycled filter dust Recycled filter dust
Dust Stack Dust Stack

filter filter
Preheated raw meal Preheated raw meal
Primary air Primary air
Fuel Fuel Fuel Fuel
Calciner Calciner
Tertiary air Tertiary air
Calcined raw meal Calcined raw meal

ILC ILC
Flue gas Rotary kiln Secondary air Clinker cooler Clinker Flue gas Rotary kiln Secondary air Clinker cooler Clinker
SLC SLC
Clinker Clinker
Flue gas by-pass Flue gas by-pass
Fuel Fuel
Air Air
Portland Clinker silo Portland Clinker silo
cement cement
silo silo
Crusher/ Crusher/
mills mills
Additives (Gypsum) Additives (Gypsum)
Figure 2-2: Flow diagram of modern kiln system for cement production. The abbreviations ILC and SLC refer to In-Line Calciner Figure 2-2: Flow diagram of modern kiln system for cement production. The abbreviations ILC and SLC refer to In-Line Calciner
and Separate-Line Calciner, respectively (Nielsen, 2012). and Separate-Line Calciner, respectively (Nielsen, 2012).
2.3.1 Preparation of Raw Materials 2.3.1 Preparation of Raw Materials
The first step in the production of cement is the crushing of the raw materials to a particle size of about 25-100 The first step in the production of cement is the crushing of the raw materials to a particle size of about 25-100
mm. The raw materials are subsequently stored in separate tanks according to their composition. This facilitates mm. The raw materials are subsequently stored in separate tanks according to their composition. This facilitates
and controls the continuous delivery of raw materials to the raw mill with the desired composition. In the raw and controls the continuous delivery of raw materials to the raw mill with the desired composition. In the raw
mill, the raw materials are dried by hot flue gasses from the kiln system and ground together in a defined and mill, the raw materials are dried by hot flue gasses from the kiln system and ground together in a defined and
well controlled proportion to produce the raw meal. The particle size of the ground raw material can vary from well controlled proportion to produce the raw meal. The particle size of the ground raw material can vary from
5 to 125 μm (Bye, 1999). The fineness of the particles is important for reaching the desired reactivity and 5 to 125 μm (Bye, 1999). The fineness of the particles is important for reaching the desired reactivity and
ensuring a good heating and calcination (Bhatty et al., 2011; Cembureau, 1999). The blended raw materials ensuring a good heating and calcination (Bhatty et al., 2011; Cembureau, 1999). The blended raw materials
are stored in a silo before being fed into the kiln system. The silo can typically store raw material for several are stored in a silo before being fed into the kiln system. The silo can typically store raw material for several
production days in order to provide a buffer to ensure a continuous cement production (Cembureau, 1999). production days in order to provide a buffer to ensure a continuous cement production (Cembureau, 1999).
9 9
23 23
2.3.2 Pyro Processing 2.3.2 Pyro Processing
The pyro-processing step is the heart of cement production, and covers the thermal treatment of the raw The pyro-processing step is the heart of cement production, and covers the thermal treatment of the raw
material, necessary to obtain the cement clinker. It involves preheating of raw materials, calcination, clinker material, necessary to obtain the cement clinker. It involves preheating of raw materials, calcination, clinker
reactions, and cooling of the clinker. These steps take place in the kiln system, which consists of a preheater reactions, and cooling of the clinker. These steps take place in the kiln system, which consists of a preheater
tower, a calciner, a rotary kiln, and a clinker cooler. A typical modern kiln system and its parts are tower, a calciner, a rotary kiln, and a clinker cooler. A typical modern kiln system and its parts are
schematically illustrated in Figure 2-3. schematically illustrated in Figure 2-3.
The raw materials, which are referred to as raw meal in the kiln system, are introduced to the preheater tower. The raw materials, which are referred to as raw meal in the kiln system, are introduced to the preheater tower.
A preheater tower consists of a series of 4-6 vertical cyclones and is arranged in a 50-120 m high tower A preheater tower consists of a series of 4-6 vertical cyclones and is arranged in a 50-120 m high tower
structure. By direct contact with hot exhaust gases from the kiln flowing counter currently, the raw meal is structure. By direct contact with hot exhaust gases from the kiln flowing counter currently, the raw meal is
heated. Thus, a part of the thermal energy is recovered in the system. The most common preheater tower is the heated. Thus, a part of the thermal energy is recovered in the system. The most common preheater tower is the
five staged, meaning with 5 cyclones, where the first cyclone has a temperature of approximately 300 °C and five staged, meaning with 5 cyclones, where the first cyclone has a temperature of approximately 300 °C and
the final cyclone has a temperature around 800-900 °C. The residence time in each cyclone step is the final cyclone has a temperature around 800-900 °C. The residence time in each cyclone step is
approximately 8 seconds for the raw materials and 1-2 seconds for the hot flue gases. Overall, the raw materials approximately 8 seconds for the raw materials and 1-2 seconds for the hot flue gases. Overall, the raw materials
pass through the preheating tower in less than a minute (Hewlett, 1998; Taylor, 1997). pass through the preheating tower in less than a minute (Hewlett, 1998; Taylor, 1997).
The preheated raw meal is admitted to the calciner, which has a temperature of 850-900 °C and under these The preheated raw meal is admitted to the calciner, which has a temperature of 850-900 °C and under these
conditions the majority of the CaCO3 will thermally decompose into CaO and CO2. Hot air from the clinker conditions the majority of the CaCO3 will thermally decompose into CaO and CO2. Hot air from the clinker
cooler, so-called tertiary air, is utilized as combustion air in the calciner. The fuel consumption for calcination cooler, so-called tertiary air, is utilized as combustion air in the calciner. The fuel consumption for calcination
can account for up to 60 % of the fuel needed for cement production (Madlool et al., 2011). The calciner can can account for up to 60 % of the fuel needed for cement production (Madlool et al., 2011). The calciner can
be integrated into the kiln system as an In-Line Calciner (ILC), where the flue gas from the rotary kiln passes be integrated into the kiln system as an In-Line Calciner (ILC), where the flue gas from the rotary kiln passes
through the calciner, or as a Separate-Line Calciner (SLC), where the flue gas from the rotary kiln bypasses through the calciner, or as a Separate-Line Calciner (SLC), where the flue gas from the rotary kiln bypasses
the calciner, and enters the preheater. The ILC-system minimizes the amount of gas flow through the rotary the calciner, and enters the preheater. The ILC-system minimizes the amount of gas flow through the rotary
kiln and hence rotary kiln size reduction. In addition, good conditions for reduction of NO x produced in the kiln and hence rotary kiln size reduction. In addition, good conditions for reduction of NO x produced in the
rotary kiln are achieved (Jensen, 1999). On the other hand, in a SLC-configuration, fuel combustion takes rotary kiln are achieved (Jensen, 1999). On the other hand, in a SLC-configuration, fuel combustion takes
place more rapidly, due to a higher O2 concentration, and a smaller calciner volume is needed compared to the place more rapidly, due to a higher O2 concentration, and a smaller calciner volume is needed compared to the
ILC-system, for a fixed residence time, since the amount of gas through the calciner is smaller (Jensen, 1999). ILC-system, for a fixed residence time, since the amount of gas through the calciner is smaller (Jensen, 1999).
However, the solid residence time is lower in a SLC-system and the mass and the particle behaviours lowers However, the solid residence time is lower in a SLC-system and the mass and the particle behaviours lowers
heat transfer from gas to fuel particle (Larsen, 2007). This thesis will refer only to the ILC-configuration heat transfer from gas to fuel particle (Larsen, 2007). This thesis will refer only to the ILC-configuration
because it is the preferred and most common design nowadays. because it is the preferred and most common design nowadays.
The hot meal, i.e. calcined raw meal after the 5th stage cyclone, enters into the rotary kiln, and flows counter The hot meal, i.e. calcined raw meal after the 5th stage cyclone, enters into the rotary kiln, and flows counter
currently to the hot flue gases, that are produced by the kiln burner flame. The rotary kiln is a long tube which currently to the hot flue gases, that are produced by the kiln burner flame. The rotary kiln is a long tube which
is inclined 1-4° with horizontal and rotates 1-5 rpm to ease mass transport (Taylor, 1997). The rotary kiln can is inclined 1-4° with horizontal and rotates 1-5 rpm to ease mass transport (Taylor, 1997). The rotary kiln can
be divided into three different zones, as illustrated in Figure 2-3. The material cold end is the inlet of hot meal be divided into three different zones, as illustrated in Figure 2-3. The material cold end is the inlet of hot meal
into the rotary kiln. In the transition zone, the materials start to melt, and form the clinker nodules. The clinker into the rotary kiln. In the transition zone, the materials start to melt, and form the clinker nodules. The clinker
10 10
24 24
reactions take place in the burning zone, or the hot end of the rotary kiln, where the clinker achieves a reactions take place in the burning zone, or the hot end of the rotary kiln, where the clinker achieves a
temperature of up to 1450 °C. temperature of up to 1450 °C.
The clinker is cooled down by atmospheric air in the clinker cooler, which is typically a grate cooler (Hewlett, The clinker is cooled down by atmospheric air in the clinker cooler, which is typically a grate cooler (Hewlett,
1998). In this manner, preheated combustion air is produced and returned to the process through the rotary kiln 1998). In this manner, preheated combustion air is produced and returned to the process through the rotary kiln
(for combustion of the main burner fuel as secondary air) and the calciner (for combustion of the calciner fuel, (for combustion of the main burner fuel as secondary air) and the calciner (for combustion of the calciner fuel,
as tertiary air). Grate coolers provide the most efficient and most flexible heat recovery system for modern as tertiary air). Grate coolers provide the most efficient and most flexible heat recovery system for modern
o
cement plants (Cembureau, 1999). Experience has shown that a rapid cooling down from 1450 to 1200 C is cement plants (Cembureau, 1999). Experience has shown that a rapid cooling down from 1450 to 1200 oC is
advantageous in order to minimize the formation of secondary belite and free lime (Taylor, 1997; Hewlett advantageous in order to minimize the formation of secondary belite and free lime (Taylor, 1997; Hewlett
1998). 1998).
Exhaust gas outlet Exhaust gas outlet
Raw meal Raw meal

~ 290 oC Material solid flow ~ 290 oC Material solid flow
Gas flow Gas flow
Gas Temperature Gas Temperature
~ 480oC ~ 480oC
Material solid Temperature Material solid Temperature
Cyclone Preheater Cyclone Preheater
tower tower
~ 650oC ~ 650oC
~ 800oC ~ 800oC
Calciner Calciner
~ 890 oC ~ 890 oC
~ 950oC ~ 950oC
Hot meal Hot meal
Calciner Tertiary air Calciner Tertiary air
fuel Bypass fuel Bypass
o
~1000 C ~1000 oC
Rotary kiln Rotary kiln
Riser duct Riser duct
~1150 oC ~1150 oC
Kiln burner Kiln burner
~2000 oC Fuel and ~2000 oC Fuel and
~900 Co primary air ~900 Co primary air
o o
1200 oC melt phase . ~1450 C Cooler 1200 oC melt phase . ~1450 C Cooler
secondary air secondary air
Zones: Material cold Hot end/ Zones: Material cold Hot end/
Transition zone Transition zone
end Burning zone end Burning zone
Process: Heating Nodulisation Process: Heating Nodulisation
Clinker reactions Clinker reactions
Cooling air Cement clinker Cooling air Cement clinker
Figure 2-3: Scheme of a typical kiln system, specifying the nomenclature used for different parts. Figure 2-3: Scheme of a typical kiln system, specifying the nomenclature used for different parts.
11 11
25 25
Modern cement plants can have a bypass system for the process gases, in order to reduce the chloride Modern cement plants can have a bypass system for the process gases, in order to reduce the chloride
concentration the kiln. The bypass system comprises the steps of extracting a portion of kiln exhaust gases, concentration the kiln. The bypass system comprises the steps of extracting a portion of kiln exhaust gases,
cooling the extracted exhaust gases and separating the dust. The bypass starts at the gas extraction point, which cooling the extracted exhaust gases and separating the dust. The bypass starts at the gas extraction point, which
is located at the kiln side of the riser duct. At this position, the kiln gases have a low dust concentration and is located at the kiln side of the riser duct. At this position, the kiln gases have a low dust concentration and
high gaseous concentration of Cl (FLSmidth A/S, 2008). The extracted kiln gases containing Cl and kiln dust, high gaseous concentration of Cl (FLSmidth A/S, 2008). The extracted kiln gases containing Cl and kiln dust,
are quenched by air, in order to initiate condensation of the chlorides, and facilitate the subsequent separation are quenched by air, in order to initiate condensation of the chlorides, and facilitate the subsequent separation
of chlorides from the gas. This separation takes place in an electrostatic precipitator or a baghouse filter of chlorides from the gas. This separation takes place in an electrostatic precipitator or a baghouse filter
(FLSmidth A/S, 2008). Typical bypass rates are of up to 15 % for chlorine bypass (European IPPC, 2013). (FLSmidth A/S, 2008). Typical bypass rates are of up to 15 % for chlorine bypass (European IPPC, 2013).
The installation of the bypass requires additional capital investment and increases heat and material losses. The installation of the bypass requires additional capital investment and increases heat and material losses.
The removal of hot gas by the bypass leads to higher specific heat consumption of about 6–12 MJ/ton clinker The removal of hot gas by the bypass leads to higher specific heat consumption of about 6–12 MJ/ton clinker
per cent of removed kiln inlet gas (European IPPC, 2013). per cent of removed kiln inlet gas (European IPPC, 2013).
2.3.3 Clinker Processing 2.3.3 Clinker Processing
The cooled clinker has a variable particle size, typically a diameter between 3-25 mm (Taylor, 1997). The The cooled clinker has a variable particle size, typically a diameter between 3-25 mm (Taylor, 1997). The
clinker may be stored in a clinker silo or it can be directly ground in a ball mill, which is a rotating horizontal clinker may be stored in a clinker silo or it can be directly ground in a ball mill, which is a rotating horizontal
steel tube filled with steel balls, or in a vertical mill. When the tube rotates, the steel balls tumble and crush steel tube filled with steel balls, or in a vertical mill. When the tube rotates, the steel balls tumble and crush
the clinker into a fine power with a particle size ranging mainly from 3 to 30 μm (Taylor, 1997). A small the clinker into a fine power with a particle size ranging mainly from 3 to 30 μm (Taylor, 1997). A small
amount of gypsum is added during the final grinding to control the setting properties. Additives such as coal amount of gypsum is added during the final grinding to control the setting properties. Additives such as coal
fly ash, sand or raw material may also be added in order to improve the strength properties of the cement or to fly ash, sand or raw material may also be added in order to improve the strength properties of the cement or to
make the cement production more sustainable (Hewlett, 1998). The final cement product is transported to a make the cement production more sustainable (Hewlett, 1998). The final cement product is transported to a
cement silo until it is packed and distributed. cement silo until it is packed and distributed.
2.3.4 Process Data Overview 2.3.4 Process Data Overview
Table 2-2 provides an overview of typical process data, for a modern calciner kiln, representative for an ILC- Table 2-2 provides an overview of typical process data, for a modern calciner kiln, representative for an ILC-
system. The process data consists of the temperatures and residence times for both the gas and solids, and the system. The process data consists of the temperatures and residence times for both the gas and solids, and the
O2 concentration in the gas phase. O2 concentration in the gas phase.
Table 2-2: Typical temperatures, residence times, and O2 concentration range in a modern calciner kiln (Cembureau, 1999). Table 2-2: Typical temperatures, residence times, and O2 concentration range in a modern calciner kiln (Cembureau, 1999).
Preheater Calciner Rotary kiln Cooler Preheater Calciner Rotary kiln Cooler
Gas temperature [°C] 350-880 880-1100 1100-2000 1100-25 Gas temperature [°C] 350-880 880-1100 1100-2000 1100-25
Gas residence time [s] ~ 5-10 ~ 3-4 ~ 5-10 ~1 Gas residence time [s] ~ 5-10 ~ 3-4 ~ 5-10 ~1
Material temperature [°C] 100-780 780-900 900-1450 1400-100 Material temperature [°C] 100-780 780-900 900-1450 1400-100
Material residence time [s] ~ 50 ~5 15-30 min ~ 30 min Material residence time [s] ~ 50 ~5 15-30 min ~ 30 min
Gas O2 concentration [vol. %] ~3-12 11-12 2-7 ~ 21 Gas O2 concentration [vol. %] ~3-12 11-12 2-7 ~ 21
12 12
26 26
The data for the temperatures of the gas and the materials is a consequence of the counter current flow. The The data for the temperatures of the gas and the materials is a consequence of the counter current flow. The
solid material is heated from 100 °C in the preheater to 1450 °C in the burning zone of the rotary kiln, while solid material is heated from 100 °C in the preheater to 1450 °C in the burning zone of the rotary kiln, while
the gas that flows in the opposite direction, enters at ambient temperature in the cooler and reaches 2000 °C in the gas that flows in the opposite direction, enters at ambient temperature in the cooler and reaches 2000 °C in
the rotary kiln. The gas temperature gradually decreases until 350 °C in the preheater. The cooled gas is usually the rotary kiln. The gas temperature gradually decreases until 350 °C in the preheater. The cooled gas is usually
used to preheat the cement raw materials in the raw mill and leaves to the stack at a temperature around 100 used to preheat the cement raw materials in the raw mill and leaves to the stack at a temperature around 100
°C. °C.
Atmospheric air, which contains 21 vol. % O2, is introduced into the cooler and further used in the kiln system. Atmospheric air, which contains 21 vol. % O2, is introduced into the cooler and further used in the kiln system.
The oxygen concentration decreases to 2-7 vol. % in the rotary kiln as the combustion proceeds. However, a The oxygen concentration decreases to 2-7 vol. % in the rotary kiln as the combustion proceeds. However, a
fraction of the cooling combustion air is bypassed via the tertiary air duct from the cooler to the lower part of fraction of the cooling combustion air is bypassed via the tertiary air duct from the cooler to the lower part of
the calciner, where the oxygen content is around 11-12 vol. %. In the lower part of the calciner, the fuel is the calciner, where the oxygen content is around 11-12 vol. %. In the lower part of the calciner, the fuel is
introduced without combustion air, which contributes to a low oxygen level. The oxygen level decreases in introduced without combustion air, which contributes to a low oxygen level. The oxygen level decreases in
the rotary kiln due to the combustion process and the dilution with the CO2 formed during the calcination. In the rotary kiln due to the combustion process and the dilution with the CO2 formed during the calcination. In
the preheater section, the oxygen concentration is affected slightly by oxidation reactions in the raw meal. The the preheater section, the oxygen concentration is affected slightly by oxidation reactions in the raw meal. The
reactions include formation of SO2 from pyrite, recarbonation of CaO, formation of CaCO3 and combustion of reactions include formation of SO2 from pyrite, recarbonation of CaO, formation of CaCO3 and combustion of
organic bound carbon. organic bound carbon.
2.4 Conclusions 2.4 Conclusions
The production of Portland cement is a highly energy-consuming process which consists of a three step The production of Portland cement is a highly energy-consuming process which consists of a three step
process. The process can be divided into preparation of raw materials, clinker production, and cement grinding. process. The process can be divided into preparation of raw materials, clinker production, and cement grinding.
The clinker production, which takes place in the kiln system, requires that the raw materials, which consist The clinker production, which takes place in the kiln system, requires that the raw materials, which consist
typically of a mixture of limestone, clay and sand, are heated up to approx. 1450 ºC in order to calcine limestone typically of a mixture of limestone, clay and sand, are heated up to approx. 1450 ºC in order to calcine limestone
and facilitate the clinker reactions. The calcination is a very endothermic process which normally uses 50-60 and facilitate the clinker reactions. The calcination is a very endothermic process which normally uses 50-60
% of the total energy required for the production of cement. Gas temperatures in the kiln system range from % of the total energy required for the production of cement. Gas temperatures in the kiln system range from
o
ambient temperatures up to 2000 C and the oxygen levels range from 2 to 21 vol. %, depending on the position ambient temperatures up to 2000 oC and the oxygen levels range from 2 to 21 vol. %, depending on the position
in the kiln system. in the kiln system.
Portland clinker consists mainly of four different minerals, which are alite, belite, ferrite, and aluminate. A Portland clinker consists mainly of four different minerals, which are alite, belite, ferrite, and aluminate. A
proper clinker quality has an alite content of minimum 50 wt. % and a free lime content of maximum of 1.5 proper clinker quality has an alite content of minimum 50 wt. % and a free lime content of maximum of 1.5
wt. %. The main strength giving compounds in Portland cement are alite and belite. wt. %. The main strength giving compounds in Portland cement are alite and belite.
Bhatty, J. I., Miller, F. M., and Kosmathka, S. K.; Innovations in Portland cement manufacturing. Illinois, Bhatty, J. I., Miller, F. M., and Kosmathka, S. K.; Innovations in Portland cement manufacturing. Illinois,
USA. 2011. ISBN: 978-0893122713. USA. 2011. ISBN: 978-0893122713.
Bye, G. C.; Portland cement. Second Edition. Thomas Telford, London, 1999. ISBN: 0-7277-2766-4. Bye, G. C.; Portland cement. Second Edition. Thomas Telford, London, 1999. ISBN: 0-7277-2766-4.
13 13
27 27
Cembureau; Best available techniques for the cement industry, 1999. Available at http://cembureau.be/. Cembureau; Best available techniques for the cement industry, 1999. Available at http://cembureau.be/.
Cembureau; Sustainable cement production: Co-processing of alternative fuels and raw materials in the cement Cembureau; Sustainable cement production: Co-processing of alternative fuels and raw materials in the cement
industry, 2009. Available at http://cembureau.be/. industry, 2009. Available at http://cembureau.be/.
CSI (Cement Sustainability Initiative); Guidelines for the selection and use of fuels and raw materials in the CSI (Cement Sustainability Initiative); Guidelines for the selection and use of fuels and raw materials in the
cement manufacturing process. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Switzerland, cement manufacturing process. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Switzerland,
2005. 2005.
Cochez, E., and Wouter, N.; Cement production. IEA-Energy Technology Network, Issue IEA ETSAP- Cochez, E., and Wouter, N.; Cement production. IEA-Energy Technology Network, Issue IEA ETSAP-
Technology Brief I03, 2010. Technology Brief I03, 2010.
FLSmidth A/S; Overcoming side effects of alternative fuels on pyro process. Highlights, 28, November, 2008. FLSmidth A/S; Overcoming side effects of alternative fuels on pyro process. Highlights, 28, November, 2008.
Hewlett, P. C.; Lea's chemistry of cement and concrete. Fourth edition. New York, 1998. ISBN: 978-0-7506- Hewlett, P. C.; Lea's chemistry of cement and concrete. Fourth edition. New York, 1998. ISBN: 978-0-7506-
6256-7. 6256-7.
Jensen, L. S.; NOx from cement production- reduction by primary measures. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University Jensen, L. S.; NOx from cement production- reduction by primary measures. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University
of Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 1999. ISBN: 87-90142-55-1. of Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 1999. ISBN: 87-90142-55-1.
Labahn, O., and Kohlaas, B.; Cement engineer's handbook. Third Edition. Bauvelarg GmbH, 1983. ISBN: 978- Labahn, O., and Kohlaas, B.; Cement engineer's handbook. Third Edition. Bauvelarg GmbH, 1983. ISBN: 978-
3-7625-0975-2. 3-7625-0975-2.
Madlool, N. A., Saidur, R., Hossain, M. S., and Rahim, N. A.; A critical review on energy use and savings in Madlool, N. A., Saidur, R., Hossain, M. S., and Rahim, N. A.; A critical review on energy use and savings in
the cement industries. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, 2042-60, 2011. the cement industries. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, 2042-60, 2011.
Nielsen, A. R.; Combustion of large solid fuels in cement rotary kilns. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Nielsen, A. R.; Combustion of large solid fuels in cement rotary kilns. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of
Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2012. ISBN: 978-87-92481-66-5. Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2012. ISBN: 978-87-92481-66-5.
Peray, K. E., and Waddell, J. J.; The rotary cement kiln. Chemical Publishing Co., New York, 1972. ISBN: Peray, K. E., and Waddell, J. J.; The rotary cement kiln. Chemical Publishing Co., New York, 1972. ISBN:
978-08-20603-67-4. 978-08-20603-67-4.
Schneider, M., Romer, M., Tschudin, M., and Bolio, H.; Sustainable cement production-present and future. Schneider, M., Romer, M., Tschudin, M., and Bolio, H.; Sustainable cement production-present and future.
Cement and Concrete Research, 41, 642-650, 2011. Cement and Concrete Research, 41, 642-650, 2011.
Taylor, H. F. W.; Cement chemistry. Second Edition. Academic Press Thomas Telford., London, 1997. ISBN: Taylor, H. F. W.; Cement chemistry. Second Edition. Academic Press Thomas Telford., London, 1997. ISBN:
978-0727725929. 978-0727725929.
Theisen, K.; The international cement production seminar 2007. FLSmidth A/S, Valby, Denmark, Volume II, Theisen, K.; The international cement production seminar 2007. FLSmidth A/S, Valby, Denmark, Volume II,
2007. 2007.
U.S. Geological Survey; Minerals yearbook 2007, cement. U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of U.S. Geological Survey; Minerals yearbook 2007, cement. U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of
the Interior prepared by van Oss, H.G., 2007. Available at the Interior prepared by van Oss, H.G., 2007. Available at
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement/index.html. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement/index.html.
U.S. Geological Survey; Mineral commodity summaries- cement. U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. U.S. Geological Survey; Mineral commodity summaries- cement. U.S. Geological Survey and U.S.
Department of the Interior prepared by van Oss, H.G., 2014. Available at Department of the Interior prepared by van Oss, H.G., 2014. Available at
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement/index.html. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement/index.html.
14 14
28 28
van Oss, H. G.; Background facts and issues concerning cement and cement data. U.S. Geological Survey and van Oss, H. G.; Background facts and issues concerning cement and cement data. U.S. Geological Survey and
U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-11522005. Available at U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-11522005. Available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1152/index.htm http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1152/index.htm
World Energy Council; Energy efficiency policies around the world: Review and evaluation, 2008. ISBN: 0- World Energy Council; Energy efficiency policies around the world: Review and evaluation, 2008. ISBN: 0-
946121-30-3. Available at http://www.worldenergy.org/ 946121-30-3. Available at http://www.worldenergy.org/
VDZ (Verein Deutscher Zementwerke); Activity Report 2007-2009, 2009. Available at http://www.vdz.de VDZ (Verein Deutscher Zementwerke); Activity Report 2007-2009, 2009. Available at http://www.vdz.de
15 15
29 29
16 16
30 30
Chapter 3: Alternative Fuels in the Cement Production Chapter 3: Alternative Fuels in the Cement Production
3. Alternatives Fuels in the Cement Production 3. Alternatives Fuels in the Cement Production
This chapter provides an insight in the use of alternative fuels in cement production. Sections 3.1 and 3.2 This chapter provides an insight in the use of alternative fuels in cement production. Sections 3.1 and 3.2
describe the general characteristics of alternative fuels and their combustion. Finally, section 3.3 outlines the describe the general characteristics of alternative fuels and their combustion. Finally, section 3.3 outlines the
existing technologies for combustion of alternative fuels. existing technologies for combustion of alternative fuels.
Cement production has depended mainly on the use of fossil fuels such as coal and petcoke. However, the Cement production has depended mainly on the use of fossil fuels such as coal and petcoke. However, the
utilization of secondary fuels or alternative fuels, such as car tires (Trezza and Scian, 2009), plastic waste, utilization of secondary fuels or alternative fuels, such as car tires (Trezza and Scian, 2009), plastic waste,
sewage sludge (Zabaniotou and Theofilou, 2008) and wood waste (Mackes and Lightburn, 2003), is sewage sludge (Zabaniotou and Theofilou, 2008) and wood waste (Mackes and Lightburn, 2003), is
continuously increasing due to environmental concerns and the increase of conventional fuels prices. One of continuously increasing due to environmental concerns and the increase of conventional fuels prices. One of
the leading countries with respect to replacement of fossil fuels is Germany, where 61.1 % of the thermal the leading countries with respect to replacement of fossil fuels is Germany, where 61.1 % of the thermal
energy came from alternative fuel sources in 2011 (VDZ, 2012). Individual cement plants are reported to have energy came from alternative fuel sources in 2011 (VDZ, 2012). Individual cement plants are reported to have
alternative fuels energy shares higher than 80 % (European IPPC, 2013). Alternative fuels cover a wide range alternative fuels energy shares higher than 80 % (European IPPC, 2013). Alternative fuels cover a wide range
of fuels ranging from fossil fuel based (e.g. waste oil and natural gas) and all non-fossil fuels, such as biomass of fuels ranging from fossil fuel based (e.g. waste oil and natural gas) and all non-fossil fuels, such as biomass
based, and waste from other industries. based, and waste from other industries.
Alternative fuels can have different chemical and physical properties compared to fossil fuels. The most Alternative fuels can have different chemical and physical properties compared to fossil fuels. The most
important fuel characteristics to consider, when selecting alternative fuels, are the heating value, the ash important fuel characteristics to consider, when selecting alternative fuels, are the heating value, the ash
content and composition, the particle size, and the moisture content. The heterogeneity amongst the physical content and composition, the particle size, and the moisture content. The heterogeneity amongst the physical
and chemical properties of alternative fuels affect both the thermal energy input and the process stability, such and chemical properties of alternative fuels affect both the thermal energy input and the process stability, such
as possible fuel spillage and modification of the input of minor elements. Fuel spillage is considered when as possible fuel spillage and modification of the input of minor elements. Fuel spillage is considered when
unburned fuel drops into the material bed and this can happen in the kiln flame and in the calciner. The fuel unburned fuel drops into the material bed and this can happen in the kiln flame and in the calciner. The fuel
ash, which is incorporated into the clinker chemistry, may modify the minor elements input, thus the ash, which is incorporated into the clinker chemistry, may modify the minor elements input, thus the
composition balance of the raw materials needs to be readjusted. The different types of typical alternative fuels composition balance of the raw materials needs to be readjusted. The different types of typical alternative fuels
used in the cement industry can be grouped as shown in Table 3-1. Some of the most common alternative fuels used in the cement industry can be grouped as shown in Table 3-1. Some of the most common alternative fuels
are industrial and municipal waste, tire derived fuels, meat and bone meal, and wood waste. are industrial and municipal waste, tire derived fuels, meat and bone meal, and wood waste.
Table 3-1: Grouping of typical alternatives fuels used in cement production (Larsen, 2007; Murray and Price, 2008; Nielsen, 2012). Table 3-1: Grouping of typical alternatives fuels used in cement production (Larsen, 2007; Murray and Price, 2008; Nielsen, 2012).
Solid alternative fuels Liquid alternative fuels Gas alternative fuels Solid alternative fuels Liquid alternative fuels Gas alternative fuels
Sewage sludge Tar waste oil Landfill gas Sewage sludge Tar waste oil Landfill gas
Meat and bone meal Paint residues Pyrolysis gas Meat and bone meal Paint residues Pyrolysis gas
Refuse derived fuel (RDF) Waste solvents Refinery waste gas Refuse derived fuel (RDF) Waste solvents Refinery waste gas
Waste wood/saw dust Wax suspension Biogas Waste wood/saw dust Wax suspension Biogas
Tire derived fuel (TDF) Petrochemical wastes Tire derived fuel (TDF) Petrochemical wastes
Agricultural waste Agricultural waste
Plastic/paper/textile waste Plastic/paper/textile waste
17 17
31 31
There are numerous advantages of using alternative fuels, both for the cement industry, and from society's There are numerous advantages of using alternative fuels, both for the cement industry, and from society's
point of view in relation to the general waste problems (Pizant and Gauthier, 1997; Mokrzycki and Uliasz- point of view in relation to the general waste problems (Pizant and Gauthier, 1997; Mokrzycki and Uliasz-
Bochenczyk, 2003; Greco and Enfil, 2006). Some benefits of the substitution of fossil fuels by alternative fuels Bochenczyk, 2003; Greco and Enfil, 2006). Some benefits of the substitution of fossil fuels by alternative fuels
are: are:
- Reduction of fuel and production costs. - Reduction of fuel and production costs.
- Alternative fuels may be partly or fully CO2-neutral. - Alternative fuels may be partly or fully CO2-neutral.
- Waste is effectively utilized as energy. - Waste is effectively utilized as energy.
- The ash residue is incorporated into the cement clinker. - The ash residue is incorporated into the cement clinker.
However, the usage of alternative fuels has some general requirements, such as availability of large amounts, However, the usage of alternative fuels has some general requirements, such as availability of large amounts,
legislation and permissions before a specific alternative fuel can be used, logistics for transport and handling legislation and permissions before a specific alternative fuel can be used, logistics for transport and handling
of the specific fuel. The usage of alternative fuels varies widely across regions and countries and depends on of the specific fuel. The usage of alternative fuels varies widely across regions and countries and depends on
local conditions. local conditions.
Fuel analyses of fossil fuels and some commonly used alternative fuels are presented in Table 3-2. The Fuel analyses of fossil fuels and some commonly used alternative fuels are presented in Table 3-2. The
presented values are approximate and may deviate depending on source, local conditions, water content, pre- presented values are approximate and may deviate depending on source, local conditions, water content, pre-
treatment, etc. However, the tabulated values reflect the diversity amongst typical fuels utilized and give an treatment, etc. However, the tabulated values reflect the diversity amongst typical fuels utilized and give an
estimation of heating value and elemental composition. The fraction of volatile matter and fixed carbon are estimation of heating value and elemental composition. The fraction of volatile matter and fixed carbon are
important for the combustion characteristics. The most important differences between alternative fuels and important for the combustion characteristics. The most important differences between alternative fuels and
fossil fuels are listed below, because these differences may have a significant impact on the combustion and fossil fuels are listed below, because these differences may have a significant impact on the combustion and
cement production. cement production.
- Alternative fuels may have a significantly higher content of volatiles compared to the solid fossil fuels. - Alternative fuels may have a significantly higher content of volatiles compared to the solid fossil fuels.
In general, alternative fuels contain less sulfur, fixed carbon, and fuel-bound nitrogen, and have a In general, alternative fuels contain less sulfur, fixed carbon, and fuel-bound nitrogen, and have a
higher oxygen and hydrogen content than fossil fuels. higher oxygen and hydrogen content than fossil fuels.
- The ash content of alternative fuels is typically higher than for fossil fuels. The ash may introduce - The ash content of alternative fuels is typically higher than for fossil fuels. The ash may introduce
some new elements, which can interfere with the chemistry of the cement materials and affect the some new elements, which can interfere with the chemistry of the cement materials and affect the
operation of the system. Furthermore, alternative fuels may contain different amounts of volatile operation of the system. Furthermore, alternative fuels may contain different amounts of volatile
elements, such as S, Cl, Na, K, and Hg. elements, such as S, Cl, Na, K, and Hg.
- Alternative fuels often have high moisture content, which may increase the combustion time needed. - Alternative fuels often have high moisture content, which may increase the combustion time needed.
Furthermore, some energy is consumed for heating and evaporation of water and the flue gas volume Furthermore, some energy is consumed for heating and evaporation of water and the flue gas volume
is increased. This may decrease the production capacity and negatively affect the process efficiency. is increased. This may decrease the production capacity and negatively affect the process efficiency.
- The heating value of some alternative fuels may be significantly lower than typical fossil fuels, due to - The heating value of some alternative fuels may be significantly lower than typical fossil fuels, due to
ash and moisture content and the chemical composition. This implies that higher fuel mass flows are ash and moisture content and the chemical composition. This implies that higher fuel mass flows are
needed to provide the same thermal input. The increase of volume (if the density of the fuel is low) needed to provide the same thermal input. The increase of volume (if the density of the fuel is low)
together with the increased mass flow can cause handling and feeding problems. together with the increased mass flow can cause handling and feeding problems.
18 18
32 32
- Alternative fuels may have different devolatilization and char oxidation kinetics than conventional - Alternative fuels may have different devolatilization and char oxidation kinetics than conventional
fuels due to different chemical composition and structure. This may influence the fuel combustion fuels due to different chemical composition and structure. This may influence the fuel combustion
time and NOx emissions. time and NOx emissions.
Moreover, the composition of alternative fuels is rarely constant, which will be reflected by inhomogeneous Moreover, the composition of alternative fuels is rarely constant, which will be reflected by inhomogeneous
physical and chemical properties. These variations can affect emissions, process stability, and clinker quality. physical and chemical properties. These variations can affect emissions, process stability, and clinker quality.
Another important difference with respect to fossil fuels is that alternative fuels may be introduced to the kiln Another important difference with respect to fossil fuels is that alternative fuels may be introduced to the kiln
system in the form of large particles in the range of millimetres and centimetres, while fossil fuels are typically system in the form of large particles in the range of millimetres and centimetres, while fossil fuels are typically
introduced with a particle sieve residue of 2-20 % on a 90 μm sieve (Nørskov, 2012). introduced with a particle sieve residue of 2-20 % on a 90 μm sieve (Nørskov, 2012).
The use of alternative fuels has been shown not to increase the total emissions of pollutants compared to fossil The use of alternative fuels has been shown not to increase the total emissions of pollutants compared to fossil
fuels (Lemarchand, 2000; Karstensen, 2008; Lee et al., 2007; Prisciandaro et al., 2003; Realff et al., 2005; fuels (Lemarchand, 2000; Karstensen, 2008; Lee et al., 2007; Prisciandaro et al., 2003; Realff et al., 2005;
Wurst and Prey, 2003). However, the use of alternative fuels may have positive as well as negative effects on Wurst and Prey, 2003). However, the use of alternative fuels may have positive as well as negative effects on
the emissions of gas pollutants (Tokheim, 2012). The cement plants located in the European Union, which are the emissions of gas pollutants (Tokheim, 2012). The cement plants located in the European Union, which are
using alternative fuels, are subject to Directive 2010/75/EU about industrial emissions (Directive 2010/75/EU). using alternative fuels, are subject to Directive 2010/75/EU about industrial emissions (Directive 2010/75/EU).
The important emissions are SO2, NOx, HCl, HF, Hg, Tl, dioxins and furans, total organic carbon, and CO. The important emissions are SO2, NOx, HCl, HF, Hg, Tl, dioxins and furans, total organic carbon, and CO.
Further information about the legislation of emissions and the emission limit of each compound can be found Further information about the legislation of emissions and the emission limit of each compound can be found
in the aforementioned European Directive, except CO emission limit, which is set by local authorities. in the aforementioned European Directive, except CO emission limit, which is set by local authorities.
19 19
33 33
Chapter 3: Alternative Fuels in the Cement Production
Table 3-2: Typical composition, proximate analysis and heating values of fossil and alternative fuels used in the cement production. Notes: 1 VM: Volatile matter, 2 FC: fixed carbon, 3RDF:
Refuse derived fuel, 4 TDF: Tire Derived fuel, 5 MBM: Meat and Bone Meal, 6 PE: Polyethylene, 7 PVC: Poly-Vinyl-Chloride, a lower heating value calculated from the higher heating value, *
Concentration in ppm weight dry basis, # Chemical ash composition as wt. % Na2O and K2O, n.a.: not available
Proximate analysis
Ultimate analysis [wt. % dry] LHV
Fuel [wt. % dry] Reference
[MJ/kg]
VM1 FC2 Ash C H N O Cl S Na K
Anthracite Coal 1.7-11 67-98 3.8-20 64-87 0.4-3.4 0.2-1.5 0.7-2.2 300-380* 0.7-2.2 30.23-34.89 (Tsubouchi et al., 2005)
(Weston, 1992) (Singer, 1991)
Bituminous coal 14-40 33-86 3.7-12 55-85 3.8-5.9 1.0-2.0 1.8-13 100-340* 0.3-4.3 0.09-2.9# 0.29-4.15# 19.77-34.89
(Zevenhoven and Kilpinen, 2004)
Lignite coal 26-47 29-40 4.2-18 42-65 2.8-6.2 0.7-1.6 12-31 100-140* 0.5-6.7 9.30-19.30 (Vassilev et al.,2010)
(Singer, 1991)(AFPM, 2012)

Petcoke 10-20 71-88 0.2-3.0 81-90 3.1-3.7 0.9-1.7 0.8-4.3 ~0 2.9-7.4 40-70* 20-50* 29.5-34 (US Department of Energy, 2012)
(Milenkova et al., 2003)
Fossil fuels
(US Department of Energy, 2012)
Crude oil n.a. n.a. ~0 81-87 10-15 n.a. 0-3.8 ~0 0-5.7 n.a. n.a. 39-42.7
(Babcock & Wilcox Co., 2007)
20
(Weston, 1992)
34
Natural gas 100 0 0 65-75 20-24 0-1.5 0-1.5 ~0 0-10 n.a. n.a. 46.8-53.8
(Hassan et al., 2009)
Pine wood 79-83 15-17 0.3-0.5 49-51 5.8-6.0 0.1-5.9 36-44 < 0.1 ~0 n.a. ~ 1000* 19.7-19.8a
(Weston, 1992) (BioBank, 2013)
(Stenseng, 2001)
Straw 64.3-80.5 13-19.5 4.7-20.1 46-50 5.6-6.4 0.5-2.1 40.1-44.6 0.6 0.2 0.16-3.5# 12.6-38.5# 18.1a
(Vassilev et al.,2010)
(Varhegyi et al., 2011)
Rice Husks 61-69 16-17 15-20 38-42 3.0-4.8 0.4-0.6 36-54 n.a. 0.1-0.2 0.1 2.2 15.4a
(BioBank, 2013)
(Tokheim, 1999)
RDF3 60-84 2-16 8-32 42-72 5-1 0.8-2.4 3-36 0.1-3.9 0.1-0.6 0.1-0.2 0-0.1 14.0
(Kobyashi et al., 2005)
(Larsen, 2007) (Weston, 1992)
TDF4 54-66 23-30 7-23 64-81 5.6-7.2 0.3-0.5 2-6 0.2-2 1.4-1.6 ~0 ~0 31-32.8
(Chinyama and Lockwood, 2007)
(Aho and Ferrer, 2005)
MBM5 65-72 7.2-9.7 18-28 42-46 5.8-6.4 7.5-11 15-38 0.4-0.6 0.4-1.0 0.31 0.1 16.2-19.9 (Ayllon et al., 2006)
Alternative fuels
(Kaantee et al., 2004)
PE6 100 ~0 ~0 86 14 ~0 ~0 ~0 ~0 ~0 ~0 40.2-44.2 (Panagiotou and Levendis, 1994)
PVC 7
91 9 1 36 5 ~0 ~0 57 ~0 ~0 ~0 19.2 (Wang et al., 2004)
(Nielsen, 2012)
Sewage sludge 48-64 0-6 17-50 28-39 3.8-4.1 3.8-4.3 29-36 0.1-0.8 ~1 0.2 0.6 14.0-19.1
(BioBank, 2013)
Chapter 3: Alternative Fuels in the Cement Production
Table 3-2: Typical composition, proximate analysis and heating values of fossil and alternative fuels used in the cement production. Notes: 1 VM: Volatile matter, 2 FC: fixed carbon, 3RDF:
Refuse derived fuel, 4 TDF: Tire Derived fuel, 5 MBM: Meat and Bone Meal, 6 PE: Polyethylene, 7 PVC: Poly-Vinyl-Chloride, a lower heating value calculated from the higher heating value, *
Concentration in ppm weight dry basis, # Chemical ash composition as wt. % Na2O and K2O, n.a.: not available
Proximate analysis
Ultimate analysis [wt. % dry] LHV
Fuel [wt. % dry] Reference
[MJ/kg]
VM1 FC2 Ash C H N O Cl S Na K
Anthracite Coal 1.7-11 67-98 3.8-20 64-87 0.4-3.4 0.2-1.5 0.7-2.2 300-380* 0.7-2.2 30.23-34.89 (Tsubouchi et al., 2005)
# # (Weston, 1992) (Singer, 1991)
Bituminous coal 14-40 33-86 3.7-12 55-85 3.8-5.9 1.0-2.0 1.8-13 100-340* 0.3-4.3 0.09-2.9 0.29-4.15 19.77-34.89
Lignite coal 26-47 29-40 4.2-18 42-65 2.8-6.2 0.7-1.6 12-31 100-140* 0.5-6.7 9.30-19.30 (Vassilev et al.,2010)
(Singer, 1991)(AFPM, 2012)

Petcoke 10-20 71-88 0.2-3.0 81-90 3.1-3.7 0.9-1.7 0.8-4.3 ~0 2.9-7.4 40-70* 20-50* 29.5-34 (US Department of Energy, 2012)
(Milenkova et al., 2003)
Fossil fuels
(US Department of Energy, 2012)

Crude oil n.a. n.a. ~0 81-87 10-15 n.a. 0-3.8 ~0 0-5.7 n.a. n.a. 39-42.7
(Babcock & Wilcox Co., 2007)
20
(Weston, 1992)
34
Natural gas 100 0 0 65-75 20-24 0-1.5 0-1.5 ~0 0-10 n.a. n.a. 46.8-53.8
(Hassan et al., 2009)
Pine wood 79-83 15-17 0.3-0.5 49-51 5.8-6.0 0.1-5.9 36-44 < 0.1 ~0 n.a. ~ 1000* 19.7-19.8a
(Weston, 1992) (BioBank, 2013)
(Stenseng, 2001)
Straw 64.3-80.5 13-19.5 4.7-20.1 46-50 5.6-6.4 0.5-2.1 40.1-44.6 0.6 0.2 0.16-3.5# 12.6-38.5# 18.1a
(Vassilev et al.,2010)
(Varhegyi et al., 2011)
Rice Husks 61-69 16-17 15-20 38-42 3.0-4.8 0.4-0.6 36-54 n.a. 0.1-0.2 0.1 2.2 15.4a
(BioBank, 2013)
(Tokheim, 1999)
RDF3 60-84 2-16 8-32 42-72 5-1 0.8-2.4 3-36 0.1-3.9 0.1-0.6 0.1-0.2 0-0.1 14.0
(Kobyashi et al., 2005)
(Larsen, 2007) (Weston, 1992)
TDF4 54-66 23-30 7-23 64-81 5.6-7.2 0.3-0.5 2-6 0.2-2 1.4-1.6 ~0 ~0 31-32.8
(Chinyama and Lockwood, 2007)
(Aho and Ferrer, 2005)
MBM5 65-72 7.2-9.7 18-28 42-46 5.8-6.4 7.5-11 15-38 0.4-0.6 0.4-1.0 0.31 0.1 16.2-19.9 (Ayllon et al., 2006)
Alternative fuels
(Kaantee et al., 2004)

PE6 100 ~0 ~0 86 14 ~0 ~0 ~0 ~0 ~0 ~0 40.2-44.2 (Panagiotou and Levendis, 1994)
PVC7 91 9 1 36 5 ~0 ~0 57 ~0 ~0 ~0 19.2 (Wang et al., 2004)
(Nielsen, 2012)
Sewage sludge 48-64 0-6 17-50 28-39 3.8-4.1 3.8-4.3 29-36 0.1-0.8 ~1 0.2 0.6 14.0-19.1
(BioBank, 2013)
3.2 Combustion of Alternative Fuels 3.2 Combustion of Alternative Fuels
Many cement plants utilize alternative fuels in the calciner and the main burner, and these two units have been Many cement plants utilize alternative fuels in the calciner and the main burner, and these two units have been
subject to modifications in order to optimize the combustion of such alternative fuels. Despite these subject to modifications in order to optimize the combustion of such alternative fuels. Despite these
modifications, the usage of relatively small particles is required in the calciner and in the kiln burner to ensure modifications, the usage of relatively small particles is required in the calciner and in the kiln burner to ensure
a sufficient fuel combustion and the desired flame profile. A consequence of firing large alternative fuels a sufficient fuel combustion and the desired flame profile. A consequence of firing large alternative fuels
particles in the calciner and main burner is that the combustion may not be complete and subsequently partially particles in the calciner and main burner is that the combustion may not be complete and subsequently partially
or unburned solid fuels may drop into the material bed. In addition, coarse alternative fuels are sometimes fired or unburned solid fuels may drop into the material bed. In addition, coarse alternative fuels are sometimes fired
directly into the material inlet end of the rotary kiln, because this solution requires minimal shredding of the directly into the material inlet end of the rotary kiln, because this solution requires minimal shredding of the
fuel. However, there are several challenges associated with the combustion of fuels in direct physical contact fuel. However, there are several challenges associated with the combustion of fuels in direct physical contact
with the cement raw materials, which may lead to modifications of the process conditions, stability, and clinker with the cement raw materials, which may lead to modifications of the process conditions, stability, and clinker
quality. quality.
Firstly, it is necessary to evaluate the reaction path encountered when the different solid fuels are converted Firstly, it is necessary to evaluate the reaction path encountered when the different solid fuels are converted
during devolatilization and char combustion, as illustrated in Figure 3-1. This topic has been discussed in during devolatilization and char combustion, as illustrated in Figure 3-1. This topic has been discussed in
details by Larsen (2007) and Nielsen (2012). The conversion pathway of a fuel is important to know and be details by Larsen (2007) and Nielsen (2012). The conversion pathway of a fuel is important to know and be
aware of in the cement industry, because it will influence the total conversion time. The size of the char particle aware of in the cement industry, because it will influence the total conversion time. The size of the char particle
and the time required to complete the char oxidation is determined by the pathway that the fuel follows. For and the time required to complete the char oxidation is determined by the pathway that the fuel follows. For
example, the char particle following pathway I or F gets smaller and will convert faster than char particle example, the char particle following pathway I or F gets smaller and will convert faster than char particle
following pathway H1 and H2. following pathway H1 and H2.
Oxidizer Oxidizer
A Gas Gaseous combustion products A Gas Gaseous combustion products
D D
B B
Liquid Liquid
Virgin solid C Virgin solid C
f uel particle(s) Tar f uel particle(s) Tar
K K
I I
E Ash E Ash
Oxidizer Oxidizer
F F
G G
Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer
H1 H1
Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer

H2 H2
Fuel with volatiles Fuel with volatiles
Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer
Char without volatiles J Char without volatiles J
Converted via pathway F,G or H Converted via pathway F,G or H
Figure 3-1: Main reaction pathways involved in the combustion process of a solid fuel particle (Larsen, 2007). Figure 3-1: Main reaction pathways involved in the combustion process of a solid fuel particle (Larsen, 2007).
21 21
35 35
Consequently, if the solid fuels do not reach full conversion in the calciner or in the flame of the main burner, Consequently, if the solid fuels do not reach full conversion in the calciner or in the flame of the main burner,
the fuel particles may end up in the bed material and affect the process stability. The solid fuels can end up in the fuel particles may end up in the bed material and affect the process stability. The solid fuels can end up in
the bed material in the rotary kiln in four different ways depending on whether the fuels are fired in the calciner, the bed material in the rotary kiln in four different ways depending on whether the fuels are fired in the calciner,
main burner or directly into the material inlet of the kiln (Nielsen, 2012). The four scenarios are illustrated in main burner or directly into the material inlet of the kiln (Nielsen, 2012). The four scenarios are illustrated in
Figure 3-2 and outlined briefly below: Figure 3-2 and outlined briefly below:
1. Large solid fuels particles with a considerable weight, which are fired in the calciner and cannot be 1. Large solid fuels particles with a considerable weight, which are fired in the calciner and cannot be
carried upwards with the gas flow, may drop through the riser duct, and into the rotary kiln. carried upwards with the gas flow, may drop through the riser duct, and into the rotary kiln.
2. Large solid fuels particles fired through the kiln burners may not be completely combusted in the flame 2. Large solid fuels particles fired through the kiln burners may not be completely combusted in the flame
of the main burner, and fall into the bed material. of the main burner, and fall into the bed material.
3. Small and unconverted solid fuel particles, which are light enough to be carried upwards with the gas 3. Small and unconverted solid fuel particles, which are light enough to be carried upwards with the gas
flow through the calciner and transported into the cyclones, can fall into the kiln inlet with the calcined flow through the calciner and transported into the cyclones, can fall into the kiln inlet with the calcined
raw meal. raw meal.
4. Coarse solid fuels may be fired directly into the rotary kiln material inlet end. 4. Coarse solid fuels may be fired directly into the rotary kiln material inlet end.
To preheater To preheater
Material solid flow Material solid flow

Gas flow Gas flow
3) 3)
Calciner Calciner
3) 3)
Cyclone Cyclone

1) Calciner fuel 1) Calciner fuel
4) Coarse 4) Coarse
alternative Rotary kiln secondary air alternative Rotary kiln secondary air
fuel particles Fuel and fuel particles Fuel and
2) primary air 2) primary air
Cooling air Cement clinker Cooling air Cement clinker

Figure 3-2: Illustrative scheme of the four scenarios, whereby solid fuels can drop into the bed material in the rotary kiln, modified Figure 3-2: Illustrative scheme of the four scenarios, whereby solid fuels can drop into the bed material in the rotary kiln, modified
from (Nielsen, 2012). The numbers from 1 to 4 refer to the scenarios described above. from (Nielsen, 2012). The numbers from 1 to 4 refer to the scenarios described above.
22 22
36 36
When solid fuel particles are partly or fully combusted in the material inlet of the rotary kiln, three situations When solid fuel particles are partly or fully combusted in the material inlet of the rotary kiln, three situations
1) 2)
can occur: The particles can be fully covered by raw materials, the particles can be partly covered by raw can occur: 1) The particles can be fully covered by raw materials, 2) the particles can be partly covered by raw
materials, or 3) the particles can be on top of the raw material bed. The position of the fuel particle controls the materials, or 3) the particles can be on top of the raw material bed. The position of the fuel particle controls the
heating mechanism, the mass transfer of oxygen, and the mass transfer of devolatilization and combustion heating mechanism, the mass transfer of oxygen, and the mass transfer of devolatilization and combustion
products. The three situations are illustrated in Figure 3-3, where the mechanisms of the heat transfer and mass products. The three situations are illustrated in Figure 3-3, where the mechanisms of the heat transfer and mass
transfer of oxygen are also stated. Due to the rotation of the kiln, both the cement raw materials and the solid transfer of oxygen are also stated. Due to the rotation of the kiln, both the cement raw materials and the solid
fuel particles are constantly in motion and the particle will therefore not experience just one situation during fuel particles are constantly in motion and the particle will therefore not experience just one situation during
its combustion, but a combination of the three situations. its combustion, but a combination of the three situations.
ω ω
2) R
Radiation and convection to and from gas phase. 2) R
Radiation and convection to and from gas phase.
Conduction from raw materials. 3) R
Radiation to and from gas phase. Conduction from raw materials. 3) R
Radiation to and from gas phase.
Mass transfer of O2 partly hindered by Freeboard gas Conduction from raw materials. Mass transfer of O2 partly hindered by Freeboard gas Conduction from raw materials.
the bed material. Optimal mass transfer of O2. the bed material. Optimal mass transfer of O2.
1) C
Conduction from raw materials. Kiln bed 1) C
Conduction from raw materials. Kiln bed
Slow mass transfer of O2. Slow mass transfer of O2.
Figure 3-3: Graphical scheme of the three situations with corresponding heat transfer and mass transfer mechanisms that a fuel Figure 3-3: Graphical scheme of the three situations with corresponding heat transfer and mass transfer mechanisms that a fuel
particle can experience, modified from (Nielsen, 2012). particle can experience, modified from (Nielsen, 2012).
During the combustion of the fuel particles, volatile gases are released and further combusted in contact with During the combustion of the fuel particles, volatile gases are released and further combusted in contact with
the gas in the freeboard. The gases may be reducing agents, such as CO, H2, and light hydrocarbons, causing the gas in the freeboard. The gases may be reducing agents, such as CO, H2, and light hydrocarbons, causing
local reducing conditions in the kiln bed material. If no oxygen is available around the fuel particle, the solid local reducing conditions in the kiln bed material. If no oxygen is available around the fuel particle, the solid
fuels will experience pyrolysis and the gases released will not be combusted until they reach the freeboard. fuels will experience pyrolysis and the gases released will not be combusted until they reach the freeboard.
The induced reductive conditions in the material inlet of the rotary kiln may affect the product quality by The induced reductive conditions in the material inlet of the rotary kiln may affect the product quality by
modification of the clinker chemistry and the process stability of the kiln system by an increase in the internal modification of the clinker chemistry and the process stability of the kiln system by an increase in the internal
circulation of sulfur, chlorine, and alkali metal species. The circulation of sulfur, which will be further circulation of sulfur, chlorine, and alkali metal species. The circulation of sulfur, which will be further
discussed in Chapter 4, is especially important. This thesis will primarily focus on the effects of the combustion discussed in Chapter 4, is especially important. This thesis will primarily focus on the effects of the combustion
of alternative fuels fired in the calciner and directly into the rotary kiln inlet end on the process operation. The of alternative fuels fired in the calciner and directly into the rotary kiln inlet end on the process operation. The
effects of firing alternative fuels in the main burner have been investigated previously (Nørskov, 2012). The effects of firing alternative fuels in the main burner have been investigated previously (Nørskov, 2012). The
effect of alternative fuels on the clinker product (quality and chemistry) is outside the scope of this thesis. effect of alternative fuels on the clinker product (quality and chemistry) is outside the scope of this thesis.
In order to provide further insight into the effects and consequences of the combustion of alternative fuels on In order to provide further insight into the effects and consequences of the combustion of alternative fuels on
the kiln bed material, it is necessary to understand how different alternative fuels are converted in the the kiln bed material, it is necessary to understand how different alternative fuels are converted in the
laboratory and industrial scale during combustion. It is also important to be aware of the different compounds laboratory and industrial scale during combustion. It is also important to be aware of the different compounds
23 23
37 37
released during devolatilization of different fuels, because these gaseous compounds play a main role in the released during devolatilization of different fuels, because these gaseous compounds play a main role in the
reductive decomposition of sulfates, as described in section 3.2.2. reductive decomposition of sulfates, as described in section 3.2.2.
3.2.1 Combustion Studies of Alternative Fuels 3.2.1 Combustion Studies of Alternative Fuels
An extensive parameter laboratory scale study using a high temperature rotary drum with conditions similar An extensive parameter laboratory scale study using a high temperature rotary drum with conditions similar
to the industrial rotary kiln material inlet has previously been conducted (Nielsen, 2012). The study to the industrial rotary kiln material inlet has previously been conducted (Nielsen, 2012). The study
investigated the combustion of tire rubber, polypropylene, petcoke and pine wood. In the experiments, real investigated the combustion of tire rubber, polypropylene, petcoke and pine wood. In the experiments, real
cement raw material was not used because of its sticky characteristics during heating, and inert sand was cement raw material was not used because of its sticky characteristics during heating, and inert sand was
therefore used. The effects of fuel mass, particle shape and size were investigated, showing that the external therefore used. The effects of fuel mass, particle shape and size were investigated, showing that the external
surface area and the particle thickness are more important parameters for the conversion, time of surface area and the particle thickness are more important parameters for the conversion, time of
devolatilization and char oxidation than the mass of the fuel sample. devolatilization and char oxidation than the mass of the fuel sample.
For polypropylene (which doesn’t have fixed carbon) and the devolatilization period of the other fuels, the For polypropylene (which doesn’t have fixed carbon) and the devolatilization period of the other fuels, the
temperature was the major rate influencing parameter. The conversion time decreased as the temperature temperature was the major rate influencing parameter. The conversion time decreased as the temperature
o
increased from 700 to 1000 C. increased from 700 to 1000 oC.
The rotational speed was observed to have an effect on the conversion for the char oxidation of tire, wood, and The rotational speed was observed to have an effect on the conversion for the char oxidation of tire, wood, and
petcoke, as the conversion time increased when the rotational speed was increased in the interval 20 rpm to 6 petcoke, as the conversion time increased when the rotational speed was increased in the interval 20 rpm to 6
rpm. There was also a change in bed behavior which affected the mixing process. Experiments with different rpm. There was also a change in bed behavior which affected the mixing process. Experiments with different
raw material particle sizes, with average size from 18 to 600 μm, showed that the char oxidation time was raw material particle sizes, with average size from 18 to 600 μm, showed that the char oxidation time was
dependent on the particle size. The time to complete the char oxidation was longer for the fine raw materials dependent on the particle size. The time to complete the char oxidation was longer for the fine raw materials
than for the medium and coarse raw materials. This can be explained by the fact that the fine sand follows a than for the medium and coarse raw materials. This can be explained by the fact that the fine sand follows a
slumping bed motion where the mixing is less efficient, which means that the fuel particles are in poor contact slumping bed motion where the mixing is less efficient, which means that the fuel particles are in poor contact
with oxygen from the freeboard gas. The char oxidation was found to vary with oxygen concentration in the with oxygen from the freeboard gas. The char oxidation was found to vary with oxygen concentration in the
freeboard gas, which is reasonable because char oxidation is dependent on diffusion of oxygen to the char freeboard gas, which is reasonable because char oxidation is dependent on diffusion of oxygen to the char
surface. surface.
Several industrial studies using alternative fuels have been reported in literature (Zabaniotou and Theofilou, Several industrial studies using alternative fuels have been reported in literature (Zabaniotou and Theofilou,
2008; Li and Zhang, 2011). Zabaniotou and Theofilou (2008) studied the usage of 7.5 wt. % wet sewage sludge 2008; Li and Zhang, 2011). Zabaniotou and Theofilou (2008) studied the usage of 7.5 wt. % wet sewage sludge
(60-70 % moisture content) in a cement plant on Cyprus in which the sewage sludge was mixed with (60-70 % moisture content) in a cement plant on Cyprus in which the sewage sludge was mixed with
conventional solid petcoke. Subsequently, it was fed for drying and grinding in the coal mill. This procedure conventional solid petcoke. Subsequently, it was fed for drying and grinding in the coal mill. This procedure
reduced the moisture content of the fuel to 1 %. In this way, no fuel costs were required for drying. The reduced the moisture content of the fuel to 1 %. In this way, no fuel costs were required for drying. The
approach of mixing an alternative fuel and a fossil fuel have been applied in several studies (Mackes and approach of mixing an alternative fuel and a fossil fuel have been applied in several studies (Mackes and
Lightburn, 2003; Kara et al., 2011) and have been found not to affect the clinker quality and the process Lightburn, 2003; Kara et al., 2011) and have been found not to affect the clinker quality and the process
stability. stability.
24 24
38 38
The study of Mackes and Lightburn (2003) used wood chips in a US based cement plant and reported that no The study of Mackes and Lightburn (2003) used wood chips in a US based cement plant and reported that no
operation problems were encountered when wood chips were pulverized and burned in combination with operation problems were encountered when wood chips were pulverized and burned in combination with
petcoke (ratio of 15 % wood and 85 % petcoke) through the burners in the calciner. Another industrial study petcoke (ratio of 15 % wood and 85 % petcoke) through the burners in the calciner. Another industrial study
burning alternative fuel (RDF based on 66 wt. % textile, 17 wt. % paper and 17 wt. % plastic) in the main burning alternative fuel (RDF based on 66 wt. % textile, 17 wt. % paper and 17 wt. % plastic) in the main
burner was performed by Kara et al. (2011). The fuel mixture was added to the main fuel (petcoke) in ratios burner was performed by Kara et al. (2011). The fuel mixture was added to the main fuel (petcoke) in ratios
of 0, 8, 12, and 15 %, and it was observed that the clinker produced was acceptable. However, RDF caused of 0, 8, 12, and 15 %, and it was observed that the clinker produced was acceptable. However, RDF caused
low flame temperature and high humidity content inside the kiln and these conditions were reflected by a low flame temperature and high humidity content inside the kiln and these conditions were reflected by a
decrease in NOx emissions with increasing amount of RDF (Kara et al., 2011). decrease in NOx emissions with increasing amount of RDF (Kara et al., 2011).
3.2.2 Volatile Gases from Fuels 3.2.2 Volatile Gases from Fuels
The identification of the gases released from different alternative fuels during devolatilization in an oxygen- The identification of the gases released from different alternative fuels during devolatilization in an oxygen-
lean environment or during pyrolysis (absence of oxygen, e.g. when the particle is buried in the bed material) lean environment or during pyrolysis (absence of oxygen, e.g. when the particle is buried in the bed material)
is important to know because amongst these gases may be reducing agents, which can promote the sulfur is important to know because amongst these gases may be reducing agents, which can promote the sulfur
release from the raw materials. release from the raw materials.
Several studies in the literature have analyzed and quantified the volatile composition of fuels (Di Blasi et al., Several studies in the literature have analyzed and quantified the volatile composition of fuels (Di Blasi et al.,
1999; Wang et al., 2003; Kyari et al., 2005; Ouiminga et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2009; Fu et al., 2011). It is 1999; Wang et al., 2003; Kyari et al., 2005; Ouiminga et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2009; Fu et al., 2011). It is
possible to identify the volatiles of different fuels at different conditions (pyrolysis, combustion). However, possible to identify the volatiles of different fuels at different conditions (pyrolysis, combustion). However,
the measurements produced by different studies are not directly comparable due to the differences in the the measurements produced by different studies are not directly comparable due to the differences in the
experimental configurations (heat transfer mechanism from the heating system to the specimen), sample experimental configurations (heat transfer mechanism from the heating system to the specimen), sample
characteristics (size, shape, moisture content) and the focus of the investigation. Table 3-3 compares the main characteristics (size, shape, moisture content) and the focus of the investigation. Table 3-3 compares the main
volatiles compounds of various alternative fuels, which may be used in the cement industry. The thermal volatiles compounds of various alternative fuels, which may be used in the cement industry. The thermal
treatment, the reactor type, and the temperature range of the study are also indicated. These investigations are treatment, the reactor type, and the temperature range of the study are also indicated. These investigations are
further explained in the following subsections. The nitrogenous species analyzed in the studies have been further explained in the following subsections. The nitrogenous species analyzed in the studies have been
neglected because they are not an active part of the sulfur chemistry. neglected because they are not an active part of the sulfur chemistry.
25 25
39 39
Table 3-3: Main volatile compounds for a variety of alternative fuels. Note: 1 Ordered by decreasing order of contribution. Table 3-3: Main volatile compounds for a variety of alternative fuels. Note: 1 Ordered by decreasing order of contribution.
Thermal Reactor Thermal Reactor

Fuel Main volatiles compounds1 Temp. [ºC] Reference Fuel Main volatiles compounds1 Temp. [ºC] Reference
treatment type treatment type
(Ouiminga et (Ouiminga et
Millet straws Pyrolysis CO > CO2 > CH4 800 - 1000 Tubular kiln Millet straws Pyrolysis CO > CO2 > CH4 800 - 1000 Tubular kiln
al., 2009) al., 2009)
Macro- Macro-
Biomass (rice straw, thermal (Wu et al., Biomass (rice straw, thermal (Wu et al.,
Pyrolysis CO > CxHy > CO2 > H2 700 - 900 Pyrolysis CO > CxHy > CO2 > H2 700 - 900
corncob, corn straw) gravimetric 2009) corncob, corn straw) gravimetric 2009)
analysis analysis
Agricultural residues Agricultural residues
Thermal Thermal
(maize stalks, rice (Fu et al., (maize stalks, rice (Fu et al.,
Pyrolysis CO > CO2 > CH4 600 - 1000 gravimetric Pyrolysis CO > CO2 > CH4 600 - 1000 gravimetric
straw, cotton straw, 2011) straw, cotton straw, 2011)
analysis analysis
rice husk) rice husk)
Bench-scale (Di Blasi et Bench-scale (Di Blasi et
Wood chips Pyrolysis CO2 > CO > CH4 377-727 Wood chips Pyrolysis CO2 > CO > CH4 377-727
plant al.,1999) plant al.,1999)
Fixed bed (Kyari et al., Fixed bed (Kyari et al.,
Rubber tires Pyrolysis CO2 > H2 > CH4 > CO > C2H6 500 Rubber tires Pyrolysis CO2 > H2 > CH4 > CO > C2H6 500
reactor 2005) reactor 2005)
Rubber tire Horizontal Rubber tire Horizontal
CxHy > CH4> COx (Fernandez et CxHy > CH4> COx (Fernandez et
granulates Pyrolysis 550, 900 electrically granulates Pyrolysis 550, 900 electrically
al., 2012) al., 2012)
fibers COx > CxHy > CH4 heated oven fibers COx > CxHy > CH4 heated oven
(Ouiminga et (Ouiminga et
Polyethylene Pyrolysis C2H4 > CH4 > C6H6 800 - 1000 Tubular kiln Polyethylene Pyrolysis C2H4 > CH4 > C6H6 800 - 1000 Tubular kiln
al., 2009). al., 2009).
Polyethylene CO2 > CO > C2H4 > CH4 > C2H2 Polyethylene CO2 > CO > C2H4 > CH4 > C2H2
Two stage Two stage
Combustion (Wang et al., Combustion (Wang et al.,
Polystyrene CO2 > CO > CH4 > C2H2 > C2H4 500- 1000 laminar flow Polystyrene CO2 > CO > CH4 > C2H2 > C2H4 500- 1000 laminar flow
with air 2003). with air 2003).
reactor reactor
Poly-vinyl chloride CO2 > CO > CH4 > C2H4 > C2H2 Poly-vinyl chloride CO2 > CO > CH4 > C2H4 > C2H2
3.2.2.1 Biomass 3.2.2.1 Biomass
Ouimiga et al. (2009) characterized carbonaceous species from the pyrolysis of millet stalks in a tubular kiln. Ouimiga et al. (2009) characterized carbonaceous species from the pyrolysis of millet stalks in a tubular kiln.
The kiln was pre-heated to the desired temperature of degradation (between 800 and 1000 ºC) before The kiln was pre-heated to the desired temperature of degradation (between 800 and 1000 ºC) before
introducing the fuel. The gaseous compounds from millet stalks were mainly CO and CO2 for carbonaceous introducing the fuel. The gaseous compounds from millet stalks were mainly CO and CO2 for carbonaceous
species. The CO formation increased significantly with increasing temperature. The formation of carbon species. The CO formation increased significantly with increasing temperature. The formation of carbon
dioxide increased especially from 950 to 1000 ºC and the formation of CH4 remained constant from 900 to dioxide increased especially from 950 to 1000 ºC and the formation of CH4 remained constant from 900 to
1000 ºC. The total amount of volatile carbon also increased from 40 % of the total mass at 800 ºC to 53.4 % at 1000 ºC. The total amount of volatile carbon also increased from 40 % of the total mass at 800 ºC to 53.4 % at
1000 ºC (Ouiminga et al., 2009). 1000 ºC (Ouiminga et al., 2009).
The study of isothermal pyrolysis of biomass (rice straw, pelletized corncob, and pelletized corn straw) at 700, The study of isothermal pyrolysis of biomass (rice straw, pelletized corncob, and pelletized corn straw) at 700,
800, and 900 °C by macro-thermal gravimetric analysis was carried out by Wu et al. (2009). The biomass 800, and 900 °C by macro-thermal gravimetric analysis was carried out by Wu et al. (2009). The biomass
pyrolysis gas yield increased with increasing temperature, i.e. for pelletized corncob, from 67.2 to 93.2 % at pyrolysis gas yield increased with increasing temperature, i.e. for pelletized corncob, from 67.2 to 93.2 % at
700 and 900 °C, respectively. About 30 % by volume of total volatile gas was light hydrocarbons, such as CH4, 700 and 900 °C, respectively. About 30 % by volume of total volatile gas was light hydrocarbons, such as CH4,
C2H6, and C2H4. The CO2 content decreased with increasing temperature, while the H2 content increased as the C2H6, and C2H4. The CO2 content decreased with increasing temperature, while the H2 content increased as the
temperature rose, for example from pelletized corn straw pyrolysis almost no H2 was obtained at 700 °C and temperature rose, for example from pelletized corn straw pyrolysis almost no H2 was obtained at 700 °C and
26 26
40 40
increased to 6.5 % at 900 °C. The light hydrocarbons content decreased from 700 to 900 °C, because the increased to 6.5 % at 900 °C. The light hydrocarbons content decreased from 700 to 900 °C, because the
hydrocarbons decomposed into more simple molecules such as CO, CO2, and H2. hydrocarbons decomposed into more simple molecules such as CO, CO2, and H2.
Maize stalks, rice straw, cotton straw, and rice husk were pyrolized in order to study the effect of the Maize stalks, rice straw, cotton straw, and rice husk were pyrolized in order to study the effect of the
temperature on gas composition and char structure (Fu et al., 2011). The experiments were performed using a temperature on gas composition and char structure (Fu et al., 2011). The experiments were performed using a
fixed bed reactor at different temperatures ranging from 600 to 1000 °C. The main gases produced were CO, fixed bed reactor at different temperatures ranging from 600 to 1000 °C. The main gases produced were CO,
CO2, CH4, ethane (C2H6), and ethylene (C2H4). Methane was the most abundant hydrocarbon. The CO and CO2, CH4, ethane (C2H6), and ethylene (C2H4). Methane was the most abundant hydrocarbon. The CO and
CH4 content in the product gases increased significantly with increasing temperature from 600 to 1000 °C, i.e. CH4 content in the product gases increased significantly with increasing temperature from 600 to 1000 °C, i.e.
for maize stalk from 45.4 to 59.7 vol. % for CO and from 15.0 and 19.7 vol. % for CH4. The CO2 concentration for maize stalk from 45.4 to 59.7 vol. % for CO and from 15.0 and 19.7 vol. % for CH4. The CO2 concentration
exhibited the opposite trend. The maximum release rate of CO2, CO, and CH4 increased significantly with exhibited the opposite trend. The maximum release rate of CO2, CO, and CH4 increased significantly with
temperature and the time to reach the maximum release rate became shorter. Ethane and ethylene were minor temperature and the time to reach the maximum release rate became shorter. Ethane and ethylene were minor
gas products and the concentration of H2 was below the detection limit of the gas analyzer. gas products and the concentration of H2 was below the detection limit of the gas analyzer.
The pyrolysis of wood chips has been studied extensively (Di Blasi et al., 1999; Di Blasi et al., 2001; Di Blasi The pyrolysis of wood chips has been studied extensively (Di Blasi et al., 1999; Di Blasi et al., 2001; Di Blasi
and Branca, 2001; Di Blasi, 2008). The product distribution and the gas composition was studied on a bench and Branca, 2001; Di Blasi, 2008). The product distribution and the gas composition was studied on a bench
scale in the temperature range of 377-727 °C (Di Blasi et al., 1999). At all temperatures, the pyrolysis gas scale in the temperature range of 377-727 °C (Di Blasi et al., 1999). At all temperatures, the pyrolysis gas
consisted mainly of CO2 (the largest contribution), CO, CH4, and lower amounts of H2 and C2 hydrocarbons. consisted mainly of CO2 (the largest contribution), CO, CH4, and lower amounts of H2 and C2 hydrocarbons.
At temperatures below 800 °C, the production of H2 was negligible. It was also observed that the CO yield At temperatures below 800 °C, the production of H2 was negligible. It was also observed that the CO yield
increased with increasing temperature, and the CO fraction decreased with increasing particle size (Jand and increased with increasing temperature, and the CO fraction decreased with increasing particle size (Jand and
Foscolo, 2005). Foscolo, 2005).
3.2.2.2 Tires 3.2.2.2 Tires
The pyrolysis gas obtained by different rubber tires consisted mainly of CO2, CH4, H2, C2H6, and C2H4, but The pyrolysis gas obtained by different rubber tires consisted mainly of CO2, CH4, H2, C2H6, and C2H4, but
propane, propene, butane, butane, butadiene, and CO have also been found. Overall, the results suggest that propane, propene, butane, butane, butadiene, and CO have also been found. Overall, the results suggest that
the yields of oil, gas, and char from the pyrolysis of tires are not significantly influenced by the type and origin the yields of oil, gas, and char from the pyrolysis of tires are not significantly influenced by the type and origin
of the tire. However, there are noticeable differences in the composition of the derived gases and oils (Kyari of the tire. However, there are noticeable differences in the composition of the derived gases and oils (Kyari
et al., 2005). et al., 2005).
Fernandez et al. (2012) studied the pyrolysis of tire rubber at 550 and 900 °C using rubber tire granules and Fernandez et al. (2012) studied the pyrolysis of tire rubber at 550 and 900 °C using rubber tire granules and
tire fibers obtained as a waste during grinding and shredding of scrap tires. The amount of CH4 increased with tire fibers obtained as a waste during grinding and shredding of scrap tires. The amount of CH4 increased with
increasing pyrolysis temperature, especially in the case of the rubber granules from 9.9 % of the composition increasing pyrolysis temperature, especially in the case of the rubber granules from 9.9 % of the composition
of the gas at 550 °C to 24.1 % at 900 °C. The amount of C3 (propane and propene) did not vary with the of the gas at 550 °C to 24.1 % at 900 °C. The amount of C3 (propane and propene) did not vary with the
temperature. The behavior of C2 (ethane and ethane) was different for the two types of wastes; it increased temperature. The behavior of C2 (ethane and ethane) was different for the two types of wastes; it increased
with temperature in the case of the tire granules and did not show any great variation in the case of the fibers. with temperature in the case of the tire granules and did not show any great variation in the case of the fibers.
Sulfuric acid was also detected from tire granulate, because it originated from the decomposition of sulfurous Sulfuric acid was also detected from tire granulate, because it originated from the decomposition of sulfurous
compounds. Hydrogen sulfide did not vary with the pyrolysis temperature, indicating that the vulcanized compounds. Hydrogen sulfide did not vary with the pyrolysis temperature, indicating that the vulcanized
structure of the rubber had already decomposed at 550 °C. The C4 components of the gas (butane, butane, and structure of the rubber had already decomposed at 550 °C. The C4 components of the gas (butane, butane, and
27 27
41 41
isobutylene) originate from the depolymerization of styrene-butadiene rubber and the diminution with isobutylene) originate from the depolymerization of styrene-butadiene rubber and the diminution with
temperature is attributed to the occurrence of reactions which lead to an increase in the amount of lighter temperature is attributed to the occurrence of reactions which lead to an increase in the amount of lighter
hydrocarbons and H2. For example, for tire granulate the C4 components contributed 38.1 % of the composition hydrocarbons and H2. For example, for tire granulate the C4 components contributed 38.1 % of the composition
of the gas at 550 °C and decreased to 24.8 % at 900 °C, and for tires fibers the amount of C4 decreased from of the gas at 550 °C and decreased to 24.8 % at 900 °C, and for tires fibers the amount of C4 decreased from
28 % at 550 °C and 25.6 % at 900 °C. 28 % at 550 °C and 25.6 % at 900 °C.
3.2.2.3 Plastics 3.2.2.3 Plastics
Pyrolysis gases from polyethylene (PE) plastic bags have been characterized by Ouiminga et al. (2009). More Pyrolysis gases from polyethylene (PE) plastic bags have been characterized by Ouiminga et al. (2009). More
than 50 % of the volatile carbon was predominantly expressed in the form of light (C2H4 and CH4) and heavy than 50 % of the volatile carbon was predominantly expressed in the form of light (C2H4 and CH4) and heavy
(C6H6) hydrocarbons. The CO and CO2 concentrations were 10 times lower than the concentration of (C6H6) hydrocarbons. The CO and CO2 concentrations were 10 times lower than the concentration of
hydrocarbons. The percentage of carbon converted to CO, CO2, and CH4 increased with increasing pyrolysis hydrocarbons. The percentage of carbon converted to CO, CO2, and CH4 increased with increasing pyrolysis
o
temperature, i.e. at 800 and 1000 C the percentage of carbon in the form of CO, CO2, and CH4 was 0.3, 0, and temperature, i.e. at 800 and 1000 oC the percentage of carbon in the form of CO, CO2, and CH4 was 0.3, 0, and
13 % and 2, 3, and 23 %, respectively. 13 % and 2, 3, and 23 %, respectively.
The emissions of pollutants from batch combustion of polystyrene (PS), PE, and poly-vinyl chloride (PVC) The emissions of pollutants from batch combustion of polystyrene (PS), PE, and poly-vinyl chloride (PVC)
from 500 to 1000 °C were studied by Wang et al. (2003). The emissions of light hydrocarbon from the from 500 to 1000 °C were studied by Wang et al. (2003). The emissions of light hydrocarbon from the
combustion consisted mainly of CH4, C2H6, C2H4, acetylene, propane, propylene, and butane. In the case of combustion consisted mainly of CH4, C2H6, C2H4, acetylene, propane, propylene, and butane. In the case of
PE, CH4, C2H6, C2H4, acetylene, and propylene were identified at all temperatures and C2H4 (ethylene) was PE, CH4, C2H6, C2H4, acetylene, and propylene were identified at all temperatures and C2H4 (ethylene) was
the most abundant light hydrocarbon specie. In addition, propane was identified at 600 °C, and butane at 800 the most abundant light hydrocarbon specie. In addition, propane was identified at 600 °C, and butane at 800
°C. The maximum CO2 yield for PS and PE was around 1500 mg CO2/g sample at 600 ºC, and the CO2 yield °C. The maximum CO2 yield for PS and PE was around 1500 mg CO2/g sample at 600 ºC, and the CO2 yield
decreased with increasing temperature from 700 to 1000 ºC. The highest CO emission with 150 mg CO/g decreased with increasing temperature from 700 to 1000 ºC. The highest CO emission with 150 mg CO/g
sample was produced by PE, followed by PS with 80 mg CO/g sample, and in the case of PVC, the yield of sample was produced by PE, followed by PS with 80 mg CO/g sample, and in the case of PVC, the yield of
CO peaked at 800 ºC with 50 mg CO/g sample. The yields of CO did not change drastically with increasing CO peaked at 800 ºC with 50 mg CO/g sample. The yields of CO did not change drastically with increasing
temperature (Wang et al., 2003). temperature (Wang et al., 2003).
Pyrolysis studies of plastics and tires have been focusing on the emissions of poly-aromatic hydrocarbons Pyrolysis studies of plastics and tires have been focusing on the emissions of poly-aromatic hydrocarbons
(PHAs) which are considered harmful to the environment. Therefore, the main pyrolized gases have not been (PHAs) which are considered harmful to the environment. Therefore, the main pyrolized gases have not been
quantified (Font et al., 2004; Aracil et al., 2005; Kwon and Castaldi, 2012). quantified (Font et al., 2004; Aracil et al., 2005; Kwon and Castaldi, 2012).
3.3 Technologies for Alternative Fuels Combustion 3.3 Technologies for Alternative Fuels Combustion
New types of combustion equipments have been developed in order to avoid operational process challenges New types of combustion equipments have been developed in order to avoid operational process challenges
when alternative fuels are used in the traditional firing points of cement plants and for optimizing the when alternative fuels are used in the traditional firing points of cement plants and for optimizing the
combustion of alternative fuels. The technologies for alternative fuel combustion can be divided into external combustion of alternative fuels. The technologies for alternative fuel combustion can be divided into external
reactors which are typically placed next to the calciner, kiln burners, and new kiln designs as emerging reactors which are typically placed next to the calciner, kiln burners, and new kiln designs as emerging
technologies. technologies.
28 28
42 42
3.3.1 External reactors 3.3.1 External reactors
Different types of external reactors for treatment of alternative fuels have been developed and are used at some Different types of external reactors for treatment of alternative fuels have been developed and are used at some
cement plants. The common concept is to use the high heating value gas in the calciner and incorporate solid cement plants. The common concept is to use the high heating value gas in the calciner and incorporate solid
residues into the cement chemistry. residues into the cement chemistry.
3.3.1.1 Combustion Chambers 3.3.1.1 Combustion Chambers
A combustion chamber, which is an external reactor attached to the calciner or preheater, is a design for A combustion chamber, which is an external reactor attached to the calciner or preheater, is a design for
combustion of large fuel particles. Many different designs have been developed (Gaser and Tadular, 2009; combustion of large fuel particles. Many different designs have been developed (Gaser and Tadular, 2009;
FLSmidth A/S, 2011; KHD Humboldt Wedag, 2012a; Tyssenkrup Industrial solutions, 2014a) and the FLSmidth A/S, 2011; KHD Humboldt Wedag, 2012a; Tyssenkrup Industrial solutions, 2014a) and the
combustion chambers operate typically with an excess of air, using the air generated in the clinker cooler and combustion chambers operate typically with an excess of air, using the air generated in the clinker cooler and
extracted from the tertiary air duct. Two types of large combustion chambers, where lumpy alternative fuels extracted from the tertiary air duct. Two types of large combustion chambers, where lumpy alternative fuels
can be fired and the fuel residence time can be varied, will be further described in this section. can be fired and the fuel residence time can be varied, will be further described in this section.
The HOTDISC from FLSmidth A/S is a combustion chamber designed for combustion of large and lumpy The HOTDISC from FLSmidth A/S is a combustion chamber designed for combustion of large and lumpy
solid alternative fuels. Figure 3-4 and Figure 3-5 show a cross-sectional view of the HOTDISC and its typical solid alternative fuels. Figure 3-4 and Figure 3-5 show a cross-sectional view of the HOTDISC and its typical
position in an ILC-system. In the HOTDISC chamber, alternative fuels are introduced into a slowly rotating position in an ILC-system. In the HOTDISC chamber, alternative fuels are introduced into a slowly rotating
disc, where the fuels burn under oxidizing conditions when meeting the hot tertiary air. The fuel residence disc, where the fuels burn under oxidizing conditions when meeting the hot tertiary air. The fuel residence
time is typically 20-40 min and can be optimized by adjusting the rotational speed of the disc. Raw meal from time is typically 20-40 min and can be optimized by adjusting the rotational speed of the disc. Raw meal from
the lower cyclone stages of the preheater is added in order to control the temperatures inside the HOTDISC the lower cyclone stages of the preheater is added in order to control the temperatures inside the HOTDISC
(FLSmidth A/S, 2011). (FLSmidth A/S, 2011).
Raw meal Raw meal
Alternative fuel Alternative fuel

Calciner bottom Calciner bottom
Calciner
lciner Calciner
lciner
HOTDISC
HOTD HOTDISC
HOTD
Rotary kiln gas Rotary kiln gas
Rotary
y kiln Rotary
y kiln
Figure 3-4: Cross-sectional view of the HOTDISC Figure 3-5: Typical position
iti off the
th HOTDIS
HOTDISC installed in Figure 3-4: Cross-sectional view of the HOTDISC Figure 3-5: Typical position
iti off the
th HOTDIS
HOTDISC installed in
combustion device (FLSmidth A/S, 2011). preheater of an ILC-system (FLSmidth A/S, 2011). combustion device (FLSmidth A/S, 2011). preheater of an ILC-system (FLSmidth A/S, 2011).
29 29
43 43
The step combustor from Tyssenkrup Polysius (Tyssenkrup Industrial solutions, 2014a) is a combustion The step combustor from Tyssenkrup Polysius (Tyssenkrup Industrial solutions, 2014a) is a combustion
chamber specifically developed for high feed rates of low calorific and large-sized alternative fuels. Figure 3-6 chamber specifically developed for high feed rates of low calorific and large-sized alternative fuels. Figure 3-6
shows the different parts and the principle of the step combustor. The fuel is fed into the inlet by special screw shows the different parts and the principle of the step combustor. The fuel is fed into the inlet by special screw
conveyors and by the conveying pressure of the screws, the fuel is lifted to the first stage, where the material conveyors and by the conveying pressure of the screws, the fuel is lifted to the first stage, where the material
is heated due to the hot tertiary air flowing over the material. The fuel transport through the different steps is is heated due to the hot tertiary air flowing over the material. The fuel transport through the different steps is
realized with pulse jets. As function of the alternative fuel quality, the transport and discharge rates in the step realized with pulse jets. As function of the alternative fuel quality, the transport and discharge rates in the step
combustor can be separately controlled and retention time extended up to 15 minutes (Menzel et al., 2009). combustor can be separately controlled and retention time extended up to 15 minutes (Menzel et al., 2009).
Tertiary air with meal Tertiary air with meal
Alternative fuels Alternative fuels
Flyable combustion Flyable combustion

residue residue
Calciner Calciner
Figure 3-6: Principle of the step combustor (Tyssenkrup Industrial solutions, 2014a). Figure 3-6: Principle of the step combustor (Tyssenkrup Industrial solutions, 2014a).
3.3.1.2 Gasifiers 3.3.1.2 Gasifiers
Fluidized bed gasifiers for alternative fuels are also used in the cement industry (Schmidthals, 2003). In the Fluidized bed gasifiers for alternative fuels are also used in the cement industry (Schmidthals, 2003). In the
gasifiers, the fuel is pyrolized under low-oxygen conditions and the lean gas produced is subsequently fed to gasifiers, the fuel is pyrolized under low-oxygen conditions and the lean gas produced is subsequently fed to
the calciner as fuel, while the solid residues (char and ashes) are used as raw materials for cement production. the calciner as fuel, while the solid residues (char and ashes) are used as raw materials for cement production.
The gasifiers can handle a wide variety of waste, regardless of their calorific values, i.e. paper and plastic waste The gasifiers can handle a wide variety of waste, regardless of their calorific values, i.e. paper and plastic waste
(Wirthwein et al., 2002), whole tires (Saito et al., 1987), and sewage sludge (Kawasaki Heavy industries, (Wirthwein et al., 2002), whole tires (Saito et al., 1987), and sewage sludge (Kawasaki Heavy industries,
2013). 2013).
The world’s largest gasification furnace is the Conch Kawasaki Kiln (Kawasaki Heavy industries, 2013), The world’s largest gasification furnace is the Conch Kawasaki Kiln (Kawasaki Heavy industries, 2013),
which is able to process 300 tons of waste per day. which is able to process 300 tons of waste per day.
3.3.2 Kiln burners 3.3.2 Kiln burners
New kiln burners have been designed specially to combust alternative fuels and have been developed by many New kiln burners have been designed specially to combust alternative fuels and have been developed by many
manufactures (FLSmidth A/S, 2008; Pillard Feuerungen GmbH, 2004; KHD Humboldt Wedag, 2012b; manufactures (FLSmidth A/S, 2008; Pillard Feuerungen GmbH, 2004; KHD Humboldt Wedag, 2012b;
ThyssenKrupp industrial solutions, 2014b; Kaufmann, 2014). The new designs involve a compromise between ThyssenKrupp industrial solutions, 2014b; Kaufmann, 2014). The new designs involve a compromise between
30 30
44 44
high substitution rates of alternative fuels and low NOx emissions (Hass et al., 1999). A detailed review of high substitution rates of alternative fuels and low NOx emissions (Hass et al., 1999). A detailed review of
rotary kiln burner design configurations for alternative fuels co-firing may be found elsewhere (Emberger and rotary kiln burner design configurations for alternative fuels co-firing may be found elsewhere (Emberger and
Hoenig, 2011). Hoenig, 2011).
Oxygen enrichment in the rotary kiln is a new technology, which has been demonstrated on a commercial scale Oxygen enrichment in the rotary kiln is a new technology, which has been demonstrated on a commercial scale
to increase the alternative fuel utilization, decrease emissions, and improve the kiln performance and to increase the alternative fuel utilization, decrease emissions, and improve the kiln performance and
productivity (Arslan et al., 2013; Leger and Friday, 2001). However, economic considerations have prevented productivity (Arslan et al., 2013; Leger and Friday, 2001). However, economic considerations have prevented
this technology from becoming a generally accepted practice (Leger and Friday, 2001). this technology from becoming a generally accepted practice (Leger and Friday, 2001).
3.3.3 Emerging technologies 3.3.3 Emerging technologies
3.3.3.1 Pyrorotor 3.3.3.1 Pyrorotor
The Pyrorotor is an invention from KHD Humboldt Wedag, which has not currently been installed in any The Pyrorotor is an invention from KHD Humboldt Wedag, which has not currently been installed in any
cement plant yet (Streit, 2004). It consists of a rotary kiln that is flanged in between the ILC-system and the cement plant yet (Streit, 2004). It consists of a rotary kiln that is flanged in between the ILC-system and the
tertiary air duct, as illustrated in Figure 3-7. The large alternative fuels particles can be introduced, together tertiary air duct, as illustrated in Figure 3-7. The large alternative fuels particles can be introduced, together
with raw meal to control the temperature, in the upper end of the Pyrorotor and are converted by their with raw meal to control the temperature, in the upper end of the Pyrorotor and are converted by their
downward movement caused by the rotation. downward movement caused by the rotation.
Figure 3-7: Pyrorotor for large fuel particles in cement production (Streit, 2004). Figure 3-7: Pyrorotor for large fuel particles in cement production (Streit, 2004).
31 31
45 45
3.3.3.2 New Kiln Concept 3.3.3.2 New Kiln Concept
The New Kiln Concept is an invention from FLSmidth A/S, which is patented (Jensen et al., 2010) but not The New Kiln Concept is an invention from FLSmidth A/S, which is patented (Jensen et al., 2010) but not
commercialized. The equipment consists of a cement kiln that allows separate introduction of the calcined raw commercialized. The equipment consists of a cement kiln that allows separate introduction of the calcined raw
material and the fuels, as illustrated in Figure 3-8. Both the calcined raw meal and the fuels are heated by hot material and the fuels, as illustrated in Figure 3-8. Both the calcined raw meal and the fuels are heated by hot
gases coming from the kiln burner. The fuel introduced in the cold inlet of the rotary kiln will be converted gases coming from the kiln burner. The fuel introduced in the cold inlet of the rotary kiln will be converted
before the calcined raw meal is introduced. Thereby, the contact with the calcined raw materials and the local before the calcined raw meal is introduced. Thereby, the contact with the calcined raw materials and the local
reducing zones will be minimized. The gases formed during the combustion of the fuel introduced in the kiln reducing zones will be minimized. The gases formed during the combustion of the fuel introduced in the kiln
may be utilized for additional process stages, such as the calciner. The ashes from the fuel may be utilized in may be utilized for additional process stages, such as the calciner. The ashes from the fuel may be utilized in
the forming of cement clinker or extracted with the cement clinker (Jensen et al., 2010). the forming of cement clinker or extracted with the cement clinker (Jensen et al., 2010).
Fan Fan
Inlet raw Inlet raw

materials materials
Preheater Preheater
Calciner Calciner
Inlet calcined raw Terciary pipe Inlet calcined raw Terciary pipe
meal meal
Inlet fuels Inlet fuels
Clinker cooler Clinker cooler
Figure 3-8: Scheme of the New Kiln Concept (Jensen et al., 2010). Figure 3-8: Scheme of the New Kiln Concept (Jensen et al., 2010).
The usage of alternative fuels is increasing continuously due to environmental concerns and the increase of The usage of alternative fuels is increasing continuously due to environmental concerns and the increase of
conventional fuel prices. The physical and chemical characteristics of alternative fuels are different from the conventional fuel prices. The physical and chemical characteristics of alternative fuels are different from the
ones of fossil fuels, examples include higher content of volatiles, moisture and ash, lower heating value and ones of fossil fuels, examples include higher content of volatiles, moisture and ash, lower heating value and
particle size. The introduction of alternative fuels has led to modifications of the traditional firing points and particle size. The introduction of alternative fuels has led to modifications of the traditional firing points and
32 32
46 46
creation of new combustion equipments specialized for firing alternative fuels, such as external reactors, creation of new combustion equipments specialized for firing alternative fuels, such as external reactors,
especially designed kiln burners, and new layouts of kiln systems, in order to optimize the combustion. especially designed kiln burners, and new layouts of kiln systems, in order to optimize the combustion.
However, large particles are often fired in the calciner, kiln burner and also directly into the material inlet end However, large particles are often fired in the calciner, kiln burner and also directly into the material inlet end
of the rotary kiln because this solution requires a minimum of investments. Subsequently, partially or unburned of the rotary kiln because this solution requires a minimum of investments. Subsequently, partially or unburned
solid fuels end up in the bed material and cause local reducing conditions. The induced reductive conditions solid fuels end up in the bed material and cause local reducing conditions. The induced reductive conditions
in the material inlet of the rotary kiln may affect the process stability of the kiln system due to an increase in in the material inlet of the rotary kiln may affect the process stability of the kiln system due to an increase in
the internal circulation of volatiles elements. the internal circulation of volatiles elements.
Combustion studies of alternative fuels have been reviewed in order to understand the consequences of Combustion studies of alternative fuels have been reviewed in order to understand the consequences of
combusting alternative fuels in cement plants. The main gases released under pyrolysis conditions from combusting alternative fuels in cement plants. The main gases released under pyrolysis conditions from
biomass and agricultural waste, have been identified as CO, CO2, CH4, and light hydrocarbons from tire rubber biomass and agricultural waste, have been identified as CO, CO2, CH4, and light hydrocarbons from tire rubber
and plastics. The amount of CO released from biomass and plastics increased with increasing temperature from and plastics. The amount of CO released from biomass and plastics increased with increasing temperature from
o
800 to 1000 C, and the same trend for CH4 was observed with biomass and tires. For biomass, the yield of gas 800 to 1000 oC, and the same trend for CH4 was observed with biomass and tires. For biomass, the yield of gas
and the amount of H2 released increased with increasing temperature and the fraction of CO decreased with and the amount of H2 released increased with increasing temperature and the fraction of CO decreased with
increasing particle size. For tire rubber, sulfur species, such as H2S and H2SO4, were also released due to its increasing particle size. For tire rubber, sulfur species, such as H2S and H2SO4, were also released due to its
sulfur content from vulzanizers. Thereby, the amount of reducing agents increases as well as the gas yield with sulfur content from vulzanizers. Thereby, the amount of reducing agents increases as well as the gas yield with
increasing pyrolysis temperature and these gaseous compounds play an important role in the reductive increasing pyrolysis temperature and these gaseous compounds play an important role in the reductive
decomposition of sulfates. decomposition of sulfates.
Aho, M., and Ferrer, E.; Importance of coal ash composition in protecting the boiler against chlorine deposition Aho, M., and Ferrer, E.; Importance of coal ash composition in protecting the boiler against chlorine deposition
during combustion of chlorine-rich biomass. Fuel, 84, 201-212, 2005. during combustion of chlorine-rich biomass. Fuel, 84, 201-212, 2005.
AFPM (Americal Fuel and Petrochemical Manufactures); Petroleum coke overview, 2012. Available at AFPM (Americal Fuel and Petrochemical Manufactures); Petroleum coke overview, 2012. Available at
http://www.afpm.org/policy-position-petroleum-coke/ Accessed 28/08/2014. http://www.afpm.org/policy-position-petroleum-coke/ Accessed 28/08/2014.
Aracil, I., Font, R., and Conesa, J. A.; Semivolatile and volatile compounds from the pyrolysis and combustion Aracil, I., Font, R., and Conesa, J. A.; Semivolatile and volatile compounds from the pyrolysis and combustion
of polyvinyl chloride. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 74, 465-478, 2005. of polyvinyl chloride. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 74, 465-478, 2005.
Arslan, E., Cirucci, J., Farmer, L., Listemann, M. and Shah, J.; Breathing life into fuel use. Air products Arslan, E., Cirucci, J., Farmer, L., Listemann, M. and Shah, J.; Breathing life into fuel use. Air products
technology, International Cement Review, 2013. technology, International Cement Review, 2013.
Ayllon, M., Aznar, M., Sanchez, J. L., Gea, G., and Arauzo, J.; Influence of temperature and heating rate on Ayllon, M., Aznar, M., Sanchez, J. L., Gea, G., and Arauzo, J.; Influence of temperature and heating rate on
the fixed bed pyrolysis of meat and bone meal. Chemical Engineering Journal, 121, 85-96, 2006. the fixed bed pyrolysis of meat and bone meal. Chemical Engineering Journal, 121, 85-96, 2006.
Babcock & Wilcox Co.; Steam, its generation and use. 2007. EBook #22657. Available at Babcock & Wilcox Co.; Steam, its generation and use. 2007. EBook #22657. Available at
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/22657/22657-h/22657-h.htm. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/22657/22657-h/22657-h.htm.
BioBank; Biomass database from IEA bioenergy task 32. BIOS bioneregiesysteme GmbH, Graz, Austria. BioBank; Biomass database from IEA bioenergy task 32. BIOS bioneregiesysteme GmbH, Graz, Austria.
2013. Available at http://ieabcc.nl/database/biomass.php. 2013. Available at http://ieabcc.nl/database/biomass.php.
33 33
47 47
Chinyama, M. P. M., and Lockwood, F. C.; Devolatilisation behaviour of shredded tyre chips in combusting Chinyama, M. P. M., and Lockwood, F. C.; Devolatilisation behaviour of shredded tyre chips in combusting
environment. Journal of the Energy Institute, 80, 162-167, 2007. environment. Journal of the Energy Institute, 80, 162-167, 2007.
Di Blasi, C.; Modeling of chemical and physical processes of wood and biomass pyrolysis. Progress in Energy Di Blasi, C.; Modeling of chemical and physical processes of wood and biomass pyrolysis. Progress in Energy
and Combustion Science, 34, 47-90, 2008. and Combustion Science, 34, 47-90, 2008.
Di Blasi, C., and Branca, C.; Kinetics of primary product formation from wood pyrolysis. Industrial & Di Blasi, C., and Branca, C.; Kinetics of primary product formation from wood pyrolysis. Industrial &
Engineering Chemistry Research, 40, 5547-56, 2001. Engineering Chemistry Research, 40, 5547-56, 2001.
Di Blasi, C., Branca, C., Santoro, A., and Hernandez, E. G.; Pyrolytic behavior and products of some wood Di Blasi, C., Branca, C., Santoro, A., and Hernandez, E. G.; Pyrolytic behavior and products of some wood
varieties. Combustion and Flame, 124, 165-77, 2001. varieties. Combustion and Flame, 124, 165-77, 2001.
Di Blasi, C., Signorelli, G., Di Russo, C., and Rea, G.; Product distribution from pyrolysis of wood and Di Blasi, C., Signorelli, G., Di Russo, C., and Rea, G.; Product distribution from pyrolysis of wood and
agricultural residues. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 38, 2216-24, 1999. agricultural residues. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 38, 2216-24, 1999.
Directive 2010/75/EU. The Industrial Emissions Directive. Available at hhtp://www.europa.eu. Directive 2010/75/EU. The Industrial Emissions Directive. Available at hhtp://www.europa.eu.
Emberger, E. and Hoenig, V.; Rotary kiln burner technology for alternative fuel co-firing. Cement Emberger, E. and Hoenig, V.; Rotary kiln burner technology for alternative fuel co-firing. Cement
International, 9, 5, 84-60, 2011. International, 9, 5, 84-60, 2011.
Fernandez, A. M., Barriocanal, C., and Alvarez, R.; Pyrolysis of a waste from the grinding of scrap tyres. Fernandez, A. M., Barriocanal, C., and Alvarez, R.; Pyrolysis of a waste from the grinding of scrap tyres.
Journal of Hazardous Materials, 203-204, 236-243, 2012. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 203-204, 236-243, 2012.
FLSmidth A/S; The next generation Duoflex burner is here. Highlights FLSmidth November, 2008, Available FLSmidth A/S; The next generation Duoflex burner is here. Highlights FLSmidth November, 2008, Available
at: www. flsmidth.com. at: www. flsmidth.com.
FLSmidth A/S; HOTDISC combustion device, Brochure, 2011. Available at: www.flsmidth.com. FLSmidth A/S; HOTDISC combustion device, Brochure, 2011. Available at: www.flsmidth.com.
Font, R., Aracil, I., Fullana, A., and Conesa, J. A.; Semivolatile and volatile compounds in combustion of Font, R., Aracil, I., Fullana, A., and Conesa, J. A.; Semivolatile and volatile compounds in combustion of
polyethylene. Chemosphere, 57, 615-627, 2004. polyethylene. Chemosphere, 57, 615-627, 2004.
Fu, P., Yi, W., Bai, X., Li, Z., Hu, S., and Xiang, J.; Effect of temperature on gas composition and char Fu, P., Yi, W., Bai, X., Li, Z., Hu, S., and Xiang, J.; Effect of temperature on gas composition and char
structural features of pyrolyzed agricultural residues. Bioresource Technology, 102, 8211-8219, 2011. structural features of pyrolyzed agricultural residues. Bioresource Technology, 102, 8211-8219, 2011.
Gaser, U., and Tadular, E. L.; Method and device for use of alternative fuels in clinker and cement production. Gaser, U., and Tadular, E. L.; Method and device for use of alternative fuels in clinker and cement production.
United States. Patent US20090283015. Filed 2009. United States. Patent US20090283015. Filed 2009.
Greco, R., and Enfil, G.; Combustion of unusual fuels. World Cement, 37, 33-38, 2006. Greco, R., and Enfil, G.; Combustion of unusual fuels. World Cement, 37, 33-38, 2006.
Hass, J., Agostini, a., Martens, C., Carrea, E. and van de Kamp, W. L.; The combustion of pulverized coal and Hass, J., Agostini, a., Martens, C., Carrea, E. and van de Kamp, W. L.; The combustion of pulverized coal and
alternative fuels in cement kilns. Results on the CEMFLAME-3 experiments. International Flame alternative fuels in cement kilns. Results on the CEMFLAME-3 experiments. International Flame
Research Foundation (IFRF), IFRF doc no F97/y/4, 1999. Research Foundation (IFRF), IFRF doc no F97/y/4, 1999.
Hassan, E. M., Steele, P. H., and Ingram, L.; Characterization of fast pyrolysis bio-oils produced from Hassan, E. M., Steele, P. H., and Ingram, L.; Characterization of fast pyrolysis bio-oils produced from
pretreated pine wood. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 154, 3-13, 2009. pretreated pine wood. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 154, 3-13, 2009.
34 34
48 48
Jand, N., and Foscolo, P. U.; Decomposition of wood particles in fluidized beds. Industrial & Engineering Jand, N., and Foscolo, P. U.; Decomposition of wood particles in fluidized beds. Industrial & Engineering
Chemistry Research, 44, 2005. Chemistry Research, 44, 2005.
Jensen, L., Christensen, N., and Larsen, M.; Rotary kilns for alternative fuels. Denmark. Patent WO Jensen, L., Christensen, N., and Larsen, M.; Rotary kilns for alternative fuels. Denmark. Patent WO
20210/032149, filed 2010. 20210/032149, filed 2010.
Kaantee, U., Zevenhoven, R., Backman, R., and Hupa, M.; Cement manufacturing using alternative fuels and Kaantee, U., Zevenhoven, R., Backman, R., and Hupa, M.; Cement manufacturing using alternative fuels and
the advantages of process modelling. Fuel Processing Technology, 85, 293-301, 2004. the advantages of process modelling. Fuel Processing Technology, 85, 293-301, 2004.
Kara, M., Gunay, E., Tabak, Y., Durgut, U., Yildiz, S., and Enc, V.; Development of refuse derived fuel for Kara, M., Gunay, E., Tabak, Y., Durgut, U., Yildiz, S., and Enc, V.; Development of refuse derived fuel for
cement factories in Turkey. Combustion Science and Technology, 183, 203-19, 2011. cement factories in Turkey. Combustion Science and Technology, 183, 203-19, 2011.
Karstensen, K. H.; Formation, release and control of dioxins in cement kilns. Chemosphere, 70, 543-560, 2008. Karstensen, K. H.; Formation, release and control of dioxins in cement kilns. Chemosphere, 70, 543-560, 2008.
Kaufmann, M.; Experience in burning alternative fuels in kiln burners-A TEC GRECO. Presentation at 8th Kaufmann, M.; Experience in burning alternative fuels in kiln burners-A TEC GRECO. Presentation at 8th
Global Cemfuels Conference and Exhibition, Vienna, Austria, 2014. Global Cemfuels Conference and Exhibition, Vienna, Austria, 2014.
Kawasaki Heavy industries; CKK at Work in China. Scope -Kawasaki Heavy industries quarterly newsletter. Kawasaki Heavy industries; CKK at Work in China. Scope -Kawasaki Heavy industries quarterly newsletter.
No. 96, July, 2013. Available at https://www.khi.co.jp. No. 96, July, 2013. Available at https://www.khi.co.jp.
KHD Humboldt Wedag; Burning Tehcnology: Pyroclon ® calciner, KHD combustion chamber. Brochure, KHD Humboldt Wedag; Burning Tehcnology: Pyroclon ® calciner, KHD combustion chamber. Brochure,
2012a. Available at www.khd.com. 2012a. Available at www.khd.com.
KHD Humboldt Wedag; High pressure jet burners for multi-fuel scenarios- the PYROSTREAMTM. Brochure, KHD Humboldt Wedag; High pressure jet burners for multi-fuel scenarios- the PYROSTREAMTM. Brochure,
2012b. Available at www.khd.com. 2012b. Available at www.khd.com.
Kobyashi, N., Itaya, Y., Piao, G., Mori, S., Kondo, M., Hamai, M., and Yamaguchi, M.; The behavior of flue Kobyashi, N., Itaya, Y., Piao, G., Mori, S., Kondo, M., Hamai, M., and Yamaguchi, M.; The behavior of flue
gas from RDF combustion in a fluidized bed. Powder Technology, 151, 87-95, 2005. gas from RDF combustion in a fluidized bed. Powder Technology, 151, 87-95, 2005.
Kwon, E. E., and Castaldi, M. J.; Mechanistic understanding of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Kwon, E. E., and Castaldi, M. J.; Mechanistic understanding of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
from the thermal degradation of tires under various oxygen concentration atmospheres. Environmental from the thermal degradation of tires under various oxygen concentration atmospheres. Environmental
Science & Technology, 46, 12921-6, 2012. Science & Technology, 46, 12921-6, 2012.
Kyari, M., Cunliffe, A., and Williams, P.T.; Characterization of oils, gases, and char in relation to the pyrolysis Kyari, M., Cunliffe, A., and Williams, P.T.; Characterization of oils, gases, and char in relation to the pyrolysis
of different brands of scrap automotive tires. Energy & Fuels, 19, 1165-73, 2005. of different brands of scrap automotive tires. Energy & Fuels, 19, 1165-73, 2005.
Larsen, M. B.; Alternative fuels in cement production. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Larsen, M. B.; Alternative fuels in cement production. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Denmark,
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2007. ISBN: 978-87-91435-49-8. Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2007. ISBN: 978-87-91435-49-8.
Lee, V. K. C., Kwok, K. C. M., Cheung, W. H., and McKay, G.; Operation of a municipal solid waste co- Lee, V. K. C., Kwok, K. C. M., Cheung, W. H., and McKay, G.; Operation of a municipal solid waste co-
combustion pilot plant. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2, 631-639, 2007. combustion pilot plant. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2, 631-639, 2007.
Leger, C.B. and Friday, J.G.; Oxygen enrichment for cement kiln firing. IEEE/IAS 2001 Cement Industry Leger, C.B. and Friday, J.G.; Oxygen enrichment for cement kiln firing. IEEE/IAS 2001 Cement Industry
Technical Conference, 3271-277, 2001. Technical Conference, 3271-277, 2001.
Lemarchand, D.; Burning issues. International Cement Review, February, 65-67, 2000. Lemarchand, D.; Burning issues. International Cement Review, February, 65-67, 2000.
Li, F., and Zhang, W.; Combustion of sewage sludge as alternative fuel for cement industry. Journal of Wuhan Li, F., and Zhang, W.; Combustion of sewage sludge as alternative fuel for cement industry. Journal of Wuhan
University of Technology-Materials Science Edition, 26, 556-560, 2011. University of Technology-Materials Science Edition, 26, 556-560, 2011.
35 35
49 49
Mackes, K. H., and Lightburn, C. R.; Evaluating the use of green wood chips processed from small-diameter Mackes, K. H., and Lightburn, C. R.; Evaluating the use of green wood chips processed from small-diameter
trees as an alternate fuel for making cement. Forest Products Journal, 53, 42-47, 2003. trees as an alternate fuel for making cement. Forest Products Journal, 53, 42-47, 2003.
Menzel, K., Mass, U. and Lampe, Karl; Technologies for alternative fuel enhancement in clinker production Menzel, K., Mass, U. and Lampe, Karl; Technologies for alternative fuel enhancement in clinker production
lines. IEEE-IAS 2009 Cement Industry Conference, 188-196, 2009. lines. IEEE-IAS 2009 Cement Industry Conference, 188-196, 2009.
Milenkova, K. S., Borrego, A. G., Alvarez, D., Xiberta, J., and Menendez, R.; Devolatilisation behaviour of Milenkova, K. S., Borrego, A. G., Alvarez, D., Xiberta, J., and Menendez, R.; Devolatilisation behaviour of
petroleum coke under pulverised fuel combustion conditions. Fuel, 82, 1883-91, 2003. petroleum coke under pulverised fuel combustion conditions. Fuel, 82, 1883-91, 2003.
Mokrzycki, E., and Uliasz-Bochenczyk, A.; Alternative fuels for the cement industry. Applied Energy, 74, 95- Mokrzycki, E., and Uliasz-Bochenczyk, A.; Alternative fuels for the cement industry. Applied Energy, 74, 95-
100, 2003. 100, 2003.
Murray, A., and Price, L. Use of alternative fuels in cement manufacture: Analysis of fuel characteristics and Murray, A., and Price, L. Use of alternative fuels in cement manufacture: Analysis of fuel characteristics and
feasibility for use in the Chinese cement sector. USA Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National feasibility for use in the Chinese cement sector. USA Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, 2008. Laboratory, 2008.
Nørskov, L. K.; Combustion of solid alternative fuels in cements kiln burners. Ph.D. thesis, Technical Nørskov, L. K.; Combustion of solid alternative fuels in cements kiln burners. Ph.D. thesis, Technical
University of Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2012. ISBN: 978-87- University of Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2012. ISBN: 978-87-
92481-98-6. 92481-98-6.
Ouiminga, S. K., Rogaume, T., Sougoti, M., Commandre, J. M., and Koulidiati, J.; Experimental Ouiminga, S. K., Rogaume, T., Sougoti, M., Commandre, J. M., and Koulidiati, J.; Experimental
characterization of gaseous species emitted by the fast pyrolysis of biomass and polyethylene. Journal of characterization of gaseous species emitted by the fast pyrolysis of biomass and polyethylene. Journal of
Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 86, 260-268, 2009. Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 86, 260-268, 2009.
Panagiotou, T., and Levendis, Y.; A study on the combustion characteristics of PVC, poly(styrene), Panagiotou, T., and Levendis, Y.; A study on the combustion characteristics of PVC, poly(styrene),
poly(ethylene), and poly(propylene) particles under high heating rates. Combustion and Flame, 99, 53- poly(ethylene), and poly(propylene) particles under high heating rates. Combustion and Flame, 99, 53-
74, 1994. 74, 1994.
Pillard Feuerungen GmbH; Progressive burning. Burner Technology, February, 2004. Pillard Feuerungen GmbH; Progressive burning. Burner Technology, February, 2004.
Pizant, J., and Gauthier, J. C.; Burning alternative fuels in rotary kilns. World Cement, 9, 64-74, 1997. Pizant, J., and Gauthier, J. C.; Burning alternative fuels in rotary kilns. World Cement, 9, 64-74, 1997.
Prisciandaro, M., Mazziotti, G., and Veglio, F.; Effect of burning supplementary waste fuels on the pollutant Prisciandaro, M., Mazziotti, G., and Veglio, F.; Effect of burning supplementary waste fuels on the pollutant
emissions by cement plants: A statistical analysis of process data. Resources Conservation and Recycling, emissions by cement plants: A statistical analysis of process data. Resources Conservation and Recycling,
39, 161-84, 2003. 39, 161-84, 2003.
Realff, M. J., Lemieux, P., Lucero, S., Mulholland, J., and Smith, P. B.; Characterization of transient puff Realff, M. J., Lemieux, P., Lucero, S., Mulholland, J., and Smith, P. B.; Characterization of transient puff
emissions from the burning of carpet waste charges in a rotary kiln combustor. 2005 IEEE Cement emissions from the burning of carpet waste charges in a rotary kiln combustor. 2005 IEEE Cement
Industry Technical Conference Record, 212-228, 2005. Industry Technical Conference Record, 212-228, 2005.
Saito, I., Sakae, K., Origi, T. and Ueda, Y.; Effective use of waste tyres by gasification in cement plant, World Saito, I., Sakae, K., Origi, T. and Ueda, Y.; Effective use of waste tyres by gasification in cement plant, World
Cement, 18, 264-259, 1987. Cement, 18, 264-259, 1987.
Schmidthals, H.; The pre-combustion chamber for secondary fuels - development status of a new technology. Schmidthals, H.; The pre-combustion chamber for secondary fuels - development status of a new technology.
IEEE-IAS/PCA 2003 Cement Industry Technical Conference, Conference Record, 207-218, 2003. IEEE-IAS/PCA 2003 Cement Industry Technical Conference, Conference Record, 207-218, 2003.
36 36
50 50
Schürmann, H.; KHD’s combustion chamber, rotary kiln burner and services for alternative fuels use in the Schürmann, H.; KHD’s combustion chamber, rotary kiln burner and services for alternative fuels use in the
cement industry- KHD Humboldt Wedag, 8th Global Cemfuels Conference and Exhibition, Vienna, cement industry- KHD Humboldt Wedag, 8th Global Cemfuels Conference and Exhibition, Vienna,
Austria, 2014. Austria, 2014.
Singer, J. G.; Combustion Fossil Power: A reference book on Fuel burning and Steam Generation, Fourth Singer, J. G.; Combustion Fossil Power: A reference book on Fuel burning and Steam Generation, Fourth
Edition, Combustion engineering Inc. 1993. ISBN: 0-9605974-0-9. Edition, Combustion engineering Inc. 1993. ISBN: 0-9605974-0-9.
Stenseng, M.; Pyrolysis and combustion of biomass. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Stenseng, M.; Pyrolysis and combustion of biomass. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Denmark,
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2001. ISBN: 87-90142-65-9. Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2001. ISBN: 87-90142-65-9.
Streit, N.; A modular Calciner Concept- The Right Solution for any Kind of Fuel; Presented at the ECRA Streit, N.; A modular Calciner Concept- The Right Solution for any Kind of Fuel; Presented at the ECRA
Seminar: Experience with Precalciners, Kilns, Bernburg, Novemeber, 2004. Seminar: Experience with Precalciners, Kilns, Bernburg, Novemeber, 2004.
ThyssenKrup industrial solutions; Special PREPOL calcining systems for different requirement profiles, ThyssenKrup industrial solutions; Special PREPOL calcining systems for different requirement profiles,
2014a. Available at http://www.thyssenkrupp-industrial-solutions.com/. 2014a. Available at http://www.thyssenkrupp-industrial-solutions.com/.
ThyssenKrup industrial solutions; POLFAME® clinkering zone burner, Brochure, 2014b. Available at ThyssenKrup industrial solutions; POLFAME® clinkering zone burner, Brochure, 2014b. Available at
http://www.thyssenkrupp-industrial-solutions.com/. http://www.thyssenkrupp-industrial-solutions.com/.
Tokheim, L.; Alternative fuels. 2012. Available at Tokheim, L.; Alternative fuels. 2012. Available at
http://www.hit.no/nor/HiT/Forskning/Forskningsaktiviteter/Technology-and-Engineering/Alternative-Fuels. http://www.hit.no/nor/HiT/Forskning/Forskningsaktiviteter/Technology-and-Engineering/Alternative-Fuels.
Accessed in 18/3/2013. Accessed in 18/3/2013.
Tokheim, L.; The impact of staged combustion on the operation of a precalciner cement kiln. Ph.D. thesis, Tokheim, L.; The impact of staged combustion on the operation of a precalciner cement kiln. Ph.D. thesis,
Institute of Environmental Technology, Norway, 1999. Institute of Environmental Technology, Norway, 1999.
Trezza, M. A., and Scian, A. N.; Scrap tire ashes in Portland cement production. Materials Research-Ibero- Trezza, M. A., and Scian, A. N.; Scrap tire ashes in Portland cement production. Materials Research-Ibero-
American Journal of Materials, 12, 489-94, 2009. American Journal of Materials, 12, 489-94, 2009.
Tsubouchi, N., Ohtsuka, S., Nakazato, Y., and Ohtsuka, Y.; Formation of hydrogen chloride during Tsubouchi, N., Ohtsuka, S., Nakazato, Y., and Ohtsuka, Y.; Formation of hydrogen chloride during
temperature-programmed pyrolysis of coals with different ranks. Energy & Fuels, 19, 554-560, 2005. temperature-programmed pyrolysis of coals with different ranks. Energy & Fuels, 19, 554-560, 2005.
US Department of Energy; Hydrogen and fuel cells program: Lower and higher heating values of hydrogen US Department of Energy; Hydrogen and fuel cells program: Lower and higher heating values of hydrogen
and fuels. 2012. Available at http://hydrogen.pnl.gov/. and fuels. 2012. Available at http://hydrogen.pnl.gov/.
Varhegyi, G., Bobaly, B., Jakab, E., and Chen, H.; Thermogravimetric study of biomass pyrolysis kinetics. A Varhegyi, G., Bobaly, B., Jakab, E., and Chen, H.; Thermogravimetric study of biomass pyrolysis kinetics. A
distributed activation energy model with prediction tests. Energy & Fuels, 25, 24-32, 2011. distributed activation energy model with prediction tests. Energy & Fuels, 25, 24-32, 2011.
Vassilev, S. V., Baxter, D., Andersen, L. K., Vassileva,C. G.; An overview of the chemical composition of Vassilev, S. V., Baxter, D., Andersen, L. K., Vassileva,C. G.; An overview of the chemical composition of
biomass, Fuel, 89, 913-933, 2010. biomass, Fuel, 89, 913-933, 2010.
VDZ (Verein Deutscher Zementwerke); Activity report 2009-2012. 2012. Available at www.vdz.de/. VDZ (Verein Deutscher Zementwerke); Activity report 2009-2012. 2012. Available at www.vdz.de/.
Wang, Z., Richter, H., Howard, J. B., Jordan, J., Carlson, J., and Levendis, Y.; Laboratory investigation of the Wang, Z., Richter, H., Howard, J. B., Jordan, J., Carlson, J., and Levendis, Y.; Laboratory investigation of the
products of the incomplete combustion of waste plastics and techniques for their minimization. ndustrial products of the incomplete combustion of waste plastics and techniques for their minimization. ndustrial
& Engineering Chemistry Research, 43, 2873-2886, 2004. & Engineering Chemistry Research, 43, 2873-2886, 2004.
Wang, Z. L., Wang, J., Richter, H., Howard, J. B., Carlson, J., and Levendis, Y. A.; Comparative study on Wang, Z. L., Wang, J., Richter, H., Howard, J. B., Carlson, J., and Levendis, Y. A.; Comparative study on
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, light hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate emissions from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, light hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate emissions from
the combustion of polyethylene, polystyrene, and poly(vinyl chloride). Energy & Fuels, 17, 999-1013, the combustion of polyethylene, polystyrene, and poly(vinyl chloride). Energy & Fuels, 17, 999-1013,
2003. 2003.
37 37
51 51
Weston, K. C.; Energy conversion. Ws Pub Co., 1992. ISBN: 978-0534938611. Available at Weston, K. C.; Energy conversion. Ws Pub Co., 1992. ISBN: 978-0534938611. Available at
http://www.personal.utulsa.edu/~kenneth-weston/. http://www.personal.utulsa.edu/~kenneth-weston/.
Wirthwein, R., Scharf, K. F., Scur, P., and Drebelhoff, S.; Operating experience gained with a fluidized-bed Wirthwein, R., Scharf, K. F., Scur, P., and Drebelhoff, S.; Operating experience gained with a fluidized-bed
gasifier using waste materials for lean gas making. ZKG International, 55, 61-69, 2002. gasifier using waste materials for lean gas making. ZKG International, 55, 61-69, 2002.
Wu, W., Chen, Y., Hu, L., and Luo, Y.; Isothermal pyrolysis of biomass by macro-TG. Power and Energy Wu, W., Chen, Y., Hu, L., and Luo, Y.; Isothermal pyrolysis of biomass by macro-TG. Power and Energy
Engineering Conference, 2009. APPEEC 2009. Asia-Pacific, 2009. Engineering Conference, 2009. APPEEC 2009. Asia-Pacific, 2009.
Wurst, F., and Prey, T.; Dioxin emissions when using alternative fuels in the cement industry. ZKG Wurst, F., and Prey, T.; Dioxin emissions when using alternative fuels in the cement industry. ZKG
International, 56, 74-77, 2003. International, 56, 74-77, 2003.
Zabaniotou, A., and Theofilou, C.; Green energy at cement kiln in Cyprus-use of sewage sludge as a Zabaniotou, A., and Theofilou, C.; Green energy at cement kiln in Cyprus-use of sewage sludge as a
conventional fuel substitute. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12, 531-541, 2008. conventional fuel substitute. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12, 531-541, 2008.
Zevenhoven, R., and Kilpinen, P. Chapter 3: Sulphur. In Control of pollutants in flue gases and fuel gases. Zevenhoven, R., and Kilpinen, P. Chapter 3: Sulphur. In Control of pollutants in flue gases and fuel gases.
Helsinki University of Technology, Finland, 2004. Online book Available at Helsinki University of Technology, Finland, 2004. Online book Available at
http://users.abo.fi/rzevenho/gasbook.html. http://users.abo.fi/rzevenho/gasbook.html.
38 38
52 52
Chapter 4: Circulation of Inorganic Elements in the Kiln System Chapter 4: Circulation of Inorganic Elements in the Kiln System
4. Circulation of Inorganic Elements in the Kiln System 4. Circulation of Inorganic Elements in the Kiln System
This chapter provides an insight into the inorganic chemistry in the cement kiln system. Sulfur, chlorine, This chapter provides an insight into the inorganic chemistry in the cement kiln system. Sulfur, chlorine,
sodium, and potassium are considered in this chapter, since these elements are strongly related to operational sodium, and potassium are considered in this chapter, since these elements are strongly related to operational
problems experienced in the kiln. The main focus is on sulfur, in section 4.4 and in further chapters, because problems experienced in the kiln. The main focus is on sulfur, in section 4.4 and in further chapters, because
this element is most strongly affected by combustion of solid fuels in direct contact with the bed material. this element is most strongly affected by combustion of solid fuels in direct contact with the bed material.
The chapter initially outlines a description of the circulation of each of the volatile elements and the The chapter initially outlines a description of the circulation of each of the volatile elements and the
transformations of the different species containing these elements at different locations in the cement plant. transformations of the different species containing these elements at different locations in the cement plant.
The consequences and process challenges related to the combustion of alternative fuels are further described The consequences and process challenges related to the combustion of alternative fuels are further described
in section 4.2, with a special focus to the modification of the sulfur circulation, since this element is mostly in section 4.2, with a special focus to the modification of the sulfur circulation, since this element is mostly
affected by combustion conditions. Finally, thermodynamic equilibrium calculations are applied to map affected by combustion conditions. Finally, thermodynamic equilibrium calculations are applied to map
theoretically the inorganic chemistry in the kiln system under different atmospheres. theoretically the inorganic chemistry in the kiln system under different atmospheres.
4.1 Circulation of Volatiles Elements 4.1 Circulation of Volatiles Elements
The circulating or volatile elements are minor components introduced in the kiln system through the raw meal The circulating or volatile elements are minor components introduced in the kiln system through the raw meal
and the fuels. The volatile elements evaporate when exposed to high temperature in the burning zone and then and the fuels. The volatile elements evaporate when exposed to high temperature in the burning zone and then
subsequently condense on the incoming raw meal or on plant surfaces in the cooler parts of the kiln system. subsequently condense on the incoming raw meal or on plant surfaces in the cooler parts of the kiln system.
By repetitive evaporation and condensation, these elements circulate at different temperatures and locations of By repetitive evaporation and condensation, these elements circulate at different temperatures and locations of
a cement plant. When they are present in high concentrations, they often cause difficulties in kiln operation a cement plant. When they are present in high concentrations, they often cause difficulties in kiln operation
due to material build-up and ring formation, which will be further described in section 4.2. due to material build-up and ring formation, which will be further described in section 4.2.
Table 4-1 lists the range of the concentrations of Na2O, K2O, SO3, and Cl found in different raw materials used Table 4-1 lists the range of the concentrations of Na2O, K2O, SO3, and Cl found in different raw materials used
in the cement industry. Sodium, potassium, and sulfur concentrations are usually expressed as oxides due to in the cement industry. Sodium, potassium, and sulfur concentrations are usually expressed as oxides due to
the elements analysis method. The concentrations of these elements found in fuels were presented in Table 3- the elements analysis method. The concentrations of these elements found in fuels were presented in Table 3-
2 in Chapter 3. 2 in Chapter 3.
Table 4-1: Concentrations of Na, K, Cl, and S in the different raw materials. Table 4-1: Concentrations of Na, K, Cl, and S in the different raw materials.
Raw materials Raw materials

Concentration Concentration
Limestone, Clay, Reference Limestone, Clay, Reference
[wt. %] Sand [wt. %] Sand
marl, chalk shale marl, chalk shale
Na2O 0-0-1.5 0.0-1.0 0.1-1.5 Na2O 0-0-1.5 0.0-1.0 0.1-1.5
(Jawed and Skalny, 1977; Sturz et al., 1998; (Jawed and Skalny, 1977; Sturz et al., 1998;
Bhatty et al., 2011; European IPPC, 2013) Bhatty et al., 2011; European IPPC, 2013)
K 2O 0.0-3.5 0.2-3.0 0.4-5.0 K 2O 0.0-3.5 0.2-3.0 0.4-5.0
Cl 0.0-0.6 Traces 0.0-1.0 (European IPPC, 2013; Bhatty et al., 2011) Cl 0.0-0.6 Traces 0.0-1.0 (European IPPC, 2013; Bhatty et al., 2011)
SO3 0.0-0.7 0.0-0.5 0.21 (Jawed and Skalny, 1977; European IPPC, 2013) SO3 0.0-0.7 0.0-0.5 0.21 (Jawed and Skalny, 1977; European IPPC, 2013)
39 39
53 53
4.1.1 Reaction Affinity between Volatile Elements 4.1.1 Reaction Affinity between Volatile Elements
The circulating elements have a strong affinity for other elements, and form chemical species like chlorides The circulating elements have a strong affinity for other elements, and form chemical species like chlorides
and sulfates. The following order of affinity has been observed (Bhatty et al., 2011; Hewlett, 1998; Chinyama, and sulfates. The following order of affinity has been observed (Bhatty et al., 2011; Hewlett, 1998; Chinyama,
2011): 2011):
1. The chlorine reacts primary with the alkalis, forming KCl and/or NaCl, typically in gas phase. The 1. The chlorine reacts primary with the alkalis, forming KCl and/or NaCl, typically in gas phase. The
residual chlorine combines with calcium, forming CaCl2 (s/l). However, it is seldom that the input of residual chlorine combines with calcium, forming CaCl2 (s/l). However, it is seldom that the input of
chlorine is higher than the input of alkalis. chlorine is higher than the input of alkalis.
2. The excess alkali reacts with sulfur, forming K2SO4 and/or Na2SO4 in solid or gas phase. The residual 2. The excess alkali reacts with sulfur, forming K2SO4 and/or Na2SO4 in solid or gas phase. The residual
alkalis combine with CO2, forming K2CO3 and Na2CO3 (Glasser, 2011), or with moisture, thereby alkalis combine with CO2, forming K2CO3 and Na2CO3 (Glasser, 2011), or with moisture, thereby
forming NaOH and KOH in gas phase. The alkalis can also be embedded in clinker minerals. forming NaOH and KOH in gas phase. The alkalis can also be embedded in clinker minerals.
3. The excess of sulfur present as SO3 and/or SO2 in the gas will react with CaO (s), forming CaSO4 (s). 3. The excess of sulfur present as SO3 and/or SO2 in the gas will react with CaO (s), forming CaSO4 (s).
The quantification of the circulation is determined by the volatility, which indicates the portion that is The quantification of the circulation is determined by the volatility, which indicates the portion that is
volatilized in the kiln and therefore not leaves the kiln with the clinker. The volatility is described using volatilized in the kiln and therefore not leaves the kiln with the clinker. The volatility is described using
evaporation factors for each compound varying from 1 to 0, where 1 means that all volatile compounds are evaporation factors for each compound varying from 1 to 0, where 1 means that all volatile compounds are
evaporated, and 0 that none is evaporated and therefore all leaves with the clinker. evaporated, and 0 that none is evaporated and therefore all leaves with the clinker.
4.1.2 Circulation of Sulfur 4.1.2 Circulation of Sulfur
The sulfur circulation is the most complex. An illustration of the sulfur containing species and their The sulfur circulation is the most complex. An illustration of the sulfur containing species and their
transformation at different locations in a cement plant is shown Figure 4-1. transformation at different locations in a cement plant is shown Figure 4-1.
Sulfur can be introduced to cement rotary kilns by either cement raw materials and/or by the fuels. Biomass Sulfur can be introduced to cement rotary kilns by either cement raw materials and/or by the fuels. Biomass
fuels, such as wood waste and straw, contain between 5 to 10 times lower amounts of sulfur, as when compared fuels, such as wood waste and straw, contain between 5 to 10 times lower amounts of sulfur, as when compared
to fossil fuels. Sulfur can also be found in waste derived fuels, e.g. in car tires as a vulcanizer. to fossil fuels. Sulfur can also be found in waste derived fuels, e.g. in car tires as a vulcanizer.
40 40
54 54

Organic S,CaSO4, Organic S,CaSO4,
CaSO4·2H2O, FeS2, CaSO4·2H2O, FeS2,
CaS,CaSO3, ~ 290 oC CaS,CaSO3, ~ 290 oC
Material solid flow ~ 480oC Material solid flow ~ 480oC

2 FeS2 (s) +5.5 O2 (g) ÆFe2O3 (s) + 4SO2 (g) 2 FeS2 (s) +5.5 O2 (g) ÆFe2O3 (s) + 4SO2 (g)
Gas flow Gas flow
organic S (s) + O2 (g) ÆSO2 (g) organic S (s) + O2 (g) ÆSO2 (g)
~ 650 oC ~ 650 oC
Circulation of Sulfur Circulation of Sulfur

~ 800oC ~ 800oC
~ 890 oC ~ 890 oC
CaO (s) +SO2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) ÆCaSO4 (s) CaO (s) +SO2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) ÆCaSO4 (s)
SO2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) ÆSO3 (g) SO2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) ÆSO3 (g)
CaO (s) + SO3 (g) ÆCaSO4 (s) CaO (s) + SO3 (g) ÆCaSO4 (s)
~ 950 oC ~ 950 oC
On the dust transported SO2(g) On the dust transported SO2(g)

with gas with gas
1000 oC er fuel 1000 oC er fuel

Calcin S Calcin S
Organic Organic
1150 oC 1150 oC
K2SO4(l) K2SO4(s) CaSO4 (s) K2SO4(l) K2SO4(s) CaSO4 (s)
(g) Na2SO4(s) (g) Na2SO4(s)
Kiln burner fuel 2000 oC Na2SO4 Na2SO4(l) K2SO4 (s) Kiln burner fuel 2000 oC Na2SO4 Na2SO4(l) K2SO4 (s)
SO2(g) K2SO4 (g) Na2SO4 (s) SO2(g) K2SO4 (g) Na2SO4 (s)
Organic S Sulfate melt Organic S Sulfate melt
SO2 (g) (Ca, S, Na, K,Cl) 900 oC SO2 (g) (Ca, S, Na, K,Cl) 900 oC
100 oC 1200 oC 100 oC 1200 oC
o o
1450 C 1450 C
Cement clinker Cement clinker
Na2SO4, K2SO4, Na2SO4, K2SO4,
3K2SO4∙Na2SO4, CaSO4, Cooling air 3K2SO4∙Na2SO4, CaSO4, Cooling air
K2SO4∙2CaSO4 (N2/O2) K2SO4∙2CaSO4 (N2/O2)
(CaO∙SiO2)2∙CaSO4 (CaO∙SiO2)2∙CaSO4
Figure 4-1: Circulation of the sulfur compounds in the kiln system. Figure 4-1: Circulation of the sulfur compounds in the kiln system.
In the preheater system, the organic sulfur and the pyrite from the raw meal are oxidized, thereby releasing In the preheater system, the organic sulfur and the pyrite from the raw meal are oxidized, thereby releasing
SO2 upon heating in an oxidizing environment. The oxidation of sulfur species (pyrite and organic sulfur SO2 upon heating in an oxidizing environment. The oxidation of sulfur species (pyrite and organic sulfur
impurities) occurs between 300 and 600 °C, which corresponds to the temperature in the first or second cyclone impurities) occurs between 300 and 600 °C, which corresponds to the temperature in the first or second cyclone
in a preheater tower (Klotz, 1997). The decomposition of pyrite has been reviewed by Hu et al. (2006a), who in a preheater tower (Klotz, 1997). The decomposition of pyrite has been reviewed by Hu et al. (2006a), who
found that in an atmosphere containing oxygen, pyrite can decompose by direct oxidation (reaction (4-1)) or found that in an atmosphere containing oxygen, pyrite can decompose by direct oxidation (reaction (4-1)) or
by thermal decomposition of pyrite to pyrrhotite and sulfur, followed by subsequent oxidation to SO2 (reaction by thermal decomposition of pyrite to pyrrhotite and sulfur, followed by subsequent oxidation to SO2 (reaction
(4-2)). Iron sulfates may also be formed as minor products during the oxidation of pyrite in a gas rich in SO2 (4-2)). Iron sulfates may also be formed as minor products during the oxidation of pyrite in a gas rich in SO2
at temperatures lower than 600-650 °C (Hu et al., 2006a). at temperatures lower than 600-650 °C (Hu et al., 2006a).
2FeS2 (s) 5.5 O2 o Fe2O3 (s) 4SO2 ( g ) (4-1) 2FeS2 (s) 5.5 O2 o Fe2O3 (s) 4SO2 ( g ) (4-1)
2FeS2 (s) o 2FeSx (s) 2(1 0,5x)S2 ( g )

O2 ( g )
o Fe2O3 (s) 4SO2 ( g ) (4-2) 2FeS2 (s) o 2FeSx (s) 2(1 0,5x)S2 ( g )
O2 ( g )
o Fe2O3 (s) 4SO2 ( g ) (4-2)
41 41
55 55
The gases leaving the preheater tower are used for drying the raw materials in the raw meal mill and a portion The gases leaving the preheater tower are used for drying the raw materials in the raw meal mill and a portion
of the SO2 will be captured, and thereby the SO2 emissions will be lowered. Of the sulfur entering with the raw of the SO2 will be captured, and thereby the SO2 emissions will be lowered. Of the sulfur entering with the raw
meal in the form of pyrites, it is often assumed that 30-50 % will leave the preheater tower as SO2 (Nielsen meal in the form of pyrites, it is often assumed that 30-50 % will leave the preheater tower as SO2 (Nielsen
and Jepsen, 1990; Bech and Gundtoft, 1998; Salmento and Shenk, 2004), but SO2 emission from stack will and Jepsen, 1990; Bech and Gundtoft, 1998; Salmento and Shenk, 2004), but SO2 emission from stack will
account for 15-30 % of the sulfur entering with the raw materials in the form of non-sulfates (Nielsen and account for 15-30 % of the sulfur entering with the raw materials in the form of non-sulfates (Nielsen and
Jepsen, 1990). However, incorrect estimations of SO2 emissions can be led because the amount SO2 leaving Jepsen, 1990). However, incorrect estimations of SO2 emissions can be led because the amount SO2 leaving
the preheater tower can range from 10 to 65 % (Salmento and Shenk, 2004). the preheater tower can range from 10 to 65 % (Salmento and Shenk, 2004).
The SO2 coming from the rotary kiln or from the calciner fuel is let to the calciner, where the good gas-solid The SO2 coming from the rotary kiln or from the calciner fuel is let to the calciner, where the good gas-solid
mixing and the temperature favor capture of the sulfur, which is nearly 100 % (Salmento and Shenk, 2004). mixing and the temperature favor capture of the sulfur, which is nearly 100 % (Salmento and Shenk, 2004).
The sulfation of CaO with SO2 has been recognized as a complex, high-temperature, short-time heterogeneous The sulfation of CaO with SO2 has been recognized as a complex, high-temperature, short-time heterogeneous
process, limited by gas-phase and solid-phase diffusion, with simultaneous physical transformation of the process, limited by gas-phase and solid-phase diffusion, with simultaneous physical transformation of the
solid. The sulfation process can follow a number of routes, and in the literature, there is a lack of agreement solid. The sulfation process can follow a number of routes, and in the literature, there is a lack of agreement
on the mechanism. Two possible routes of sulfation have been discussed by Moss (1970), who examined the on the mechanism. Two possible routes of sulfation have been discussed by Moss (1970), who examined the
sulfation mechanisms, if proceeded via formation of CaSO3 or via the conversion of SO2 to SO3 and this sulfation mechanisms, if proceeded via formation of CaSO3 or via the conversion of SO2 to SO3 and this
directly reacts with CaO to form CaSO4. The relevant chemical reactions are: directly reacts with CaO to form CaSO4. The relevant chemical reactions are:
CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) o CaSO3 (s) (4-3) CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) o CaSO3 (s) (4-3)
CaSO3 (s) ½ O2 ( g ) o CaSO4 (s) (4-4) CaSO3 (s) ½ O2 ( g ) o CaSO4 (s) (4-4)
or or
SO2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o SO3 ( g ) (4-5) SO2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o SO3 ( g ) (4-5)

CaO (s) SO3 ( g ) o CaSO4 (s) (4-6) CaO (s) SO3 ( g ) o CaSO4 (s) (4-6)
It was suggested that the reaction proceeds via the formation of CaSO3 (i.e. reaction (4-3) and (4-4)), at It was suggested that the reaction proceeds via the formation of CaSO3 (i.e. reaction (4-3) and (4-4)), at
o
temperatures lower than 850 C, where CaSO3 is thermally stable. While reactions (4-5) and (4-6) dominate at temperatures lower than 850 oC, where CaSO3 is thermally stable. While reactions (4-5) and (4-6) dominate at
temperatures above 850 oC (Moss, 1970) and the formation of SO3 increases with decreasing temperature temperatures above 850 oC (Moss, 1970) and the formation of SO3 increases with decreasing temperature
favored below 1000 oC by gas phase equilibrium, see Figure A-1 in Appendix A. The second route has been favored below 1000 oC by gas phase equilibrium, see Figure A-1 in Appendix A. The second route has been
supported by many authors (Burdett, 1980; Dam-Johansen and Østergaard, 1991; Hansen et al., 1993; Hu et supported by many authors (Burdett, 1980; Dam-Johansen and Østergaard, 1991; Hansen et al., 1993; Hu et
al., 2006b), although it has been suggested that both mechanisms might take place (Lin, 1988). Hu et al. al., 2006b), although it has been suggested that both mechanisms might take place (Lin, 1988). Hu et al.
(2006b) discussed the influence of the reaction conditions, such as SO2, O2, CO2, and H2O gas concentrations, (2006b) discussed the influence of the reaction conditions, such as SO2, O2, CO2, and H2O gas concentrations,
limestone properties, reaction mechanism and modeling of the direct sulfation reaction via the second route. limestone properties, reaction mechanism and modeling of the direct sulfation reaction via the second route.
Kinetic studies have shown that the rate of reaction of CaO with SO2/O2 mixture is similar to that of the direct Kinetic studies have shown that the rate of reaction of CaO with SO2/O2 mixture is similar to that of the direct
reaction with SO3 (Allen and Hayhurst, 1996; Qin, 1995). No literature has been found to measure the precise reaction with SO3 (Allen and Hayhurst, 1996; Qin, 1995). No literature has been found to measure the precise
SO3 concentration because calibration gases for SO3 analyzers are not available in the market. Both routes may SO3 concentration because calibration gases for SO3 analyzers are not available in the market. Both routes may
take place simultaneously, however this topic is out of the scope of this review. take place simultaneously, however this topic is out of the scope of this review.
42 42
56 56
Calcium sulfate, CaSO4, is incorporated in the hot meal entering the rotary kiln where it is gradually heated. Calcium sulfate, CaSO4, is incorporated in the hot meal entering the rotary kiln where it is gradually heated.
o
Sulfates combined with calcium and alkalis forma liquid phase, so-called sulfate melt, at around 1200 C (Choi Sulfates combined with calcium and alkalis forma liquid phase, so-called sulfate melt, at around 1200 oC (Choi
and Glasser, 1988). In the transient zone of the kiln, two immiscible liquids may occur at equilibrium: one is and Glasser, 1988). In the transient zone of the kiln, two immiscible liquids may occur at equilibrium: one is
an oxide melt, containing Al2O3, Fe2O3 and SiO2, and the other is a sulfate melt, in which Al2O3, Fe2O3 and an oxide melt, containing Al2O3, Fe2O3 and SiO2, and the other is a sulfate melt, in which Al2O3, Fe2O3 and
SiO2 are nearly insoluble (Bhattly et al., 2011; Glasser, 2011). The sulfur liquid phase contributes to ion SiO2 are nearly insoluble (Bhattly et al., 2011; Glasser, 2011). The sulfur liquid phase contributes to ion
mobility and promotes combination in the clinkering process as fluxing agents allowing a significant increase mobility and promotes combination in the clinkering process as fluxing agents allowing a significant increase
in the rate of reaction of the calcium silicates. In an absolutely homogenous mixture, no liquid phases are in the rate of reaction of the calcium silicates. In an absolutely homogenous mixture, no liquid phases are
o
formed below 1338 C (Lea and Parker, 1935; de la Torre et al., 2007), where an eutectic in CaO-Al2O3-Fe2O3- formed below 1338 oC (Lea and Parker, 1935; de la Torre et al., 2007), where an eutectic in CaO-Al2O3-Fe2O3-
SiO2 system exists. Nevertheless, local inhomogeneities in the raw meal mixture cause a shift of the eutectic SiO2 system exists. Nevertheless, local inhomogeneities in the raw meal mixture cause a shift of the eutectic
toward lower temperatures (de la Torre et al., 2007). Further explanation on the clinker phases and liquid phase toward lower temperatures (de la Torre et al., 2007). Further explanation on the clinker phases and liquid phase
formation has been reviewed by Telschow et al. (2014). formation has been reviewed by Telschow et al. (2014).
In the burning zone, where the bed material reaches its maximum temperature of 1450 oC, evaporation of sulfur In the burning zone, where the bed material reaches its maximum temperature of 1450 oC, evaporation of sulfur
takes place forming SO2, K2SO4, and/or Na2SO4 in the gas phase. The alkali sulfates in the gas phase are takes place forming SO2, K2SO4, and/or Na2SO4 in the gas phase. The alkali sulfates in the gas phase are
transported with the hot gases and the dust, along the rotary kiln. Alkali sulfates condense on dust particles, transported with the hot gases and the dust, along the rotary kiln. Alkali sulfates condense on dust particles,
entrained by the kiln gases. The condensation product obtained between 700 and 800 °C is a melt, but at lower entrained by the kiln gases. The condensation product obtained between 700 and 800 °C is a melt, but at lower
temperatures, condensation may result in a solid. Dust particles are incorporated in the solid stream in the temperatures, condensation may result in a solid. Dust particles are incorporated in the solid stream in the
calciner, and alkali sulfates enter then with the hot meal into the rotary kiln and are partly incorporated in the calciner, and alkali sulfates enter then with the hot meal into the rotary kiln and are partly incorporated in the
sulfate melt, thereby improving the chemical reactivity of the material in the kiln and lowering the viscosity sulfate melt, thereby improving the chemical reactivity of the material in the kiln and lowering the viscosity
of the melt, which can facilitate some of the clinker reactions (Choi and Glasser, 1988). of the melt, which can facilitate some of the clinker reactions (Choi and Glasser, 1988).
Thus, an internal sulfur cycle is established in the rotary kiln and the calciner, as illustrated in Figure 4-2; a Thus, an internal sulfur cycle is established in the rotary kiln and the calciner, as illustrated in Figure 4-2; a
Sankey diagram, in which the width of the lines, are proportional to mass flow. This is a schematic Sankey diagram, in which the width of the lines, are proportional to mass flow. This is a schematic
representation made by Nielsen and Jepsen (1990), using data from 12 preheater kiln systems in the US. The representation made by Nielsen and Jepsen (1990), using data from 12 preheater kiln systems in the US. The
SO2 coming from the kiln is absorbed by the raw meal in the calciner, and reincorporated in the solid stream SO2 coming from the kiln is absorbed by the raw meal in the calciner, and reincorporated in the solid stream
that is introduced in the rotary kiln. Therefore, there is a significant circulation around the inlet of the rotary that is introduced in the rotary kiln. Therefore, there is a significant circulation around the inlet of the rotary
kiln and the calciner, considering both the incoming material and the outgoing kiln gases. The molar flow of kiln and the calciner, considering both the incoming material and the outgoing kiln gases. The molar flow of
sulfates in the kiln inlet is approx. three times the molar flow in the outlet (clinker). sulfates in the kiln inlet is approx. three times the molar flow in the outlet (clinker).
43 43
57 57
Figure 4-2: Sankey diagram of the sulfur circulation in a cement plant operating by the dry method. Raw meal and fuel are sulfur Figure 4-2: Sankey diagram of the sulfur circulation in a cement plant operating by the dry method. Raw meal and fuel are sulfur
contributors and the sulfur leaves as emissions, in the dust or embedded in the clinker. The thickness of the lines indicates relative contributors and the sulfur leaves as emissions, in the dust or embedded in the clinker. The thickness of the lines indicates relative
flow rates (Nielsen and Jepsen, 1990) flow rates (Nielsen and Jepsen, 1990)
The fraction of sulfur released as SO2 depends on the sulfur to alkali ratio in the rotary kiln (Mortensen et al., The fraction of sulfur released as SO2 depends on the sulfur to alkali ratio in the rotary kiln (Mortensen et al.,
1998), which is defined in equation 4.1, and expresses the proportion of sulfur that can be bound with alkalis. 1998), which is defined in equation 4.1, and expresses the proportion of sulfur that can be bound with alkalis.
wSO3 , LOI free wSO3 , LOI free

SO3 M SO3 SO3 M SO3
[4.1] [4.1]
Alk wK2 O, LOI free wNa 2O, LOI free Alk wK2 O, LOI free wNa 2O, LOI free
D D
M K 2O M Na2O M K 2O M Na2O
where Mi is the molar mass of the component i, α is the fraction of Na2O that reacts with SO3, and wi, LOI free is where Mi is the molar mass of the component i, α is the fraction of Na2O that reacts with SO3, and wi, LOI free is
the total input concentrations of the specie i, being SO3, K2O and Na2O (representing sulfur, potassium and the total input concentrations of the specie i, being SO3, K2O and Na2O (representing sulfur, potassium and
sodium, respectively) in wt. % loss on ignition free base. The loss on ignition (LOI) indicates how complete sodium, respectively) in wt. % loss on ignition free base. The loss on ignition (LOI) indicates how complete
the calcination processing is. By practical experience, α has the value of 0.5 because there is substantial excess the calcination processing is. By practical experience, α has the value of 0.5 because there is substantial excess
of K2O over Na2O (Bhatty, 1995) and analyses of different clinker compositions have revealed that nearly the of K2O over Na2O (Bhatty, 1995) and analyses of different clinker compositions have revealed that nearly the
entire amount of potassium and half the amount of sodium forms sulfate (Jawed and Skalny, 1977; Hansen, entire amount of potassium and half the amount of sodium forms sulfate (Jawed and Skalny, 1977; Hansen,
2003). The optimum SO3/Alk is close to 1, for a low sulfur evaporation (Newkirk, 1951; Plang-ngern and 2003). The optimum SO3/Alk is close to 1, for a low sulfur evaporation (Newkirk, 1951; Plang-ngern and
Rattanussorn, 2003; Whitehopleman, 2011; Rahman and Krapkat, 2012) because there will be enough alkali Rattanussorn, 2003; Whitehopleman, 2011; Rahman and Krapkat, 2012) because there will be enough alkali
metals for formation of alkali sulfates, rather than formation of free SO2 (Mortensen et al., 1998). If SO3/Alk metals for formation of alkali sulfates, rather than formation of free SO2 (Mortensen et al., 1998). If SO3/Alk
is lower than 1, the sulfur is bound but there is an excess of alkali, which lead to alkali circulation forming is lower than 1, the sulfur is bound but there is an excess of alkali, which lead to alkali circulation forming
KOH and NaOH in gas phase (Bhatty et al., 2011; Cemnet, 2012). If the ratio is higher than 1, there will be an KOH and NaOH in gas phase (Bhatty et al., 2011; Cemnet, 2012). If the ratio is higher than 1, there will be an
amount of sulfur in the kiln material which will not be covered by alkalis. The excess of sulfur in the raw amount of sulfur in the kiln material which will not be covered by alkalis. The excess of sulfur in the raw
44 44
58 58
materials to form CaSO4 is termed excess SO3, usually expressed as g excess SO3/100 kg clinker, and may be materials to form CaSO4 is termed excess SO3, usually expressed as g excess SO3/100 kg clinker, and may be
calculated by the equation 4.2 (Fortsch and Smidth, 2004). calculated by the equation 4.2 (Fortsch and Smidth, 2004).
M SO3 M SO3 M SO3 M SO3

Excess SO3 = wSO , LOI free wK2 O, LOI free D wNa2 O, LOI free [4.2] Excess SO3 = wSO , LOI free wK2 O, LOI free D wNa2 O, LOI free [4.2]
3
M K 2O M Na2O 3
M K 2O M Na2O
The limit on excess sulfur is given to be in the range of 250-600 g/100 kg clinker (Fortsch and Smidth, 2004; The limit on excess sulfur is given to be in the range of 250-600 g/100 kg clinker (Fortsch and Smidth, 2004;
Cemnet, 2004). The lower limit is for low burnability raw meal, and the upper limit is for high burnability raw Cemnet, 2004). The lower limit is for low burnability raw meal, and the upper limit is for high burnability raw
meal. The burnability is a measurement of how easy/difficult the clinker phases are formed. The excess sulfur meal. The burnability is a measurement of how easy/difficult the clinker phases are formed. The excess sulfur
will form CaSO4, which is least thermally stable sulfate and will be contributing to a higher evaporation factor. will form CaSO4, which is least thermally stable sulfate and will be contributing to a higher evaporation factor.
The sulfur volatility depends on the SO3/Alk ratio and also on the operating conditions of the kiln, i.e.: The sulfur volatility depends on the SO3/Alk ratio and also on the operating conditions of the kiln, i.e.:
- Oxygen content of the kiln atmosphere. Deficiency of oxygen or local reducing kiln atmosphere - Oxygen content of the kiln atmosphere. Deficiency of oxygen or local reducing kiln atmosphere
increases the volatility of sulfur, because low oxygen level shifts reaction (4-7). increases the volatility of sulfur, because low oxygen level shifts reaction (4-7).
o CaO ( s) SO2 (g) 1 O2 ( g )

CaSO4 ( s) m
(4-7) o CaO ( s) SO2 (g) 1 O2 ( g )

CaSO4 ( s) m
(4-7)
2 2
The variation of the oxygen content in the kiln inlet has shown to modify the SO2 concentration The variation of the oxygen content in the kiln inlet has shown to modify the SO2 concentration
measured in the bypass gas, which is extracted from the kiln inlet. The relationship between SO 2 measured in the bypass gas, which is extracted from the kiln inlet. The relationship between SO 2
bypass emissions and O2 concentration in the kiln inlet of the rotary kiln is shown in Figure 4-3. At bypass emissions and O2 concentration in the kiln inlet of the rotary kiln is shown in Figure 4-3. At
higher O2 concentrations, the SO2 evaporation gets suppressed, and there will be no SO2 emission in higher O2 concentrations, the SO2 evaporation gets suppressed, and there will be no SO2 emission in
the bypass stack representing the SO2 concentration in the material inlet of the rotary kiln. However, the bypass stack representing the SO2 concentration in the material inlet of the rotary kiln. However,
when the oxygen level in the kiln material inlet gets below around 2 vol. %, the sulfur evaporation when the oxygen level in the kiln material inlet gets below around 2 vol. %, the sulfur evaporation
increases steeply, and the bypass emissions can increase significantly (Steuch and Johansen, 1990). increases steeply, and the bypass emissions can increase significantly (Steuch and Johansen, 1990).
At lower oxygen concentrations, reduced sulfur species such as H2S, COS in presence of carbon, and At lower oxygen concentrations, reduced sulfur species such as H2S, COS in presence of carbon, and
SOCl2 in presence of Cl may also be formed, however, these species are not measured in cement plants. SOCl2 in presence of Cl may also be formed, however, these species are not measured in cement plants.
45 45
59 59
1400 1400
SO2 conc. in the bypasses gases
SO2 conc. in the bypasses gases

1200 1200
without dust [ppmv]
without dust [ppmv]

1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
O2 conc. in the kiln inlet [vol. %] O2 conc. in the kiln inlet [vol. %]
Figure 4-3: Relationship between SO2 bypass emissions and O2 concentration in the inlet of the rotary kiln, adapted from (Steuch Figure 4-3: Relationship between SO2 bypass emissions and O2 concentration in the inlet of the rotary kiln, adapted from (Steuch
and Johansen, 1990). and Johansen, 1990).
- Temperature in the burning zone. The volatility of the sulfur species is increasing as a function of - Temperature in the burning zone. The volatility of the sulfur species is increasing as a function of
temperature. Thermal decomposition is avoided by lowering the burning zone temperature. This may temperature. Thermal decomposition is avoided by lowering the burning zone temperature. This may
be achieved by making the raw meal more chemically reactive (burnability), which means finer be achieved by making the raw meal more chemically reactive (burnability), which means finer
grinding of the raw meal or adjusting the chemical composition of the raw meal. If the raw meal has a grinding of the raw meal or adjusting the chemical composition of the raw meal. If the raw meal has a
low burnability, it needs higher temperatures in order to get a low free lime in the clinker. Therefore, low burnability, it needs higher temperatures in order to get a low free lime in the clinker. Therefore,
raw materials with low burnability or high temperatures overheating the clinker have a high impact on raw materials with low burnability or high temperatures overheating the clinker have a high impact on
sulfur volatility (Hewlett, 1998; Smith, 2012). sulfur volatility (Hewlett, 1998; Smith, 2012).
The sulfur volatility can also be modified by carbon from fuels in the bed material, which will be further The sulfur volatility can also be modified by carbon from fuels in the bed material, which will be further
explained in section 4.3.2 and 4.3.3. Under stable operational conditions, and if there is enough alkali available explained in section 4.3.2 and 4.3.3. Under stable operational conditions, and if there is enough alkali available
to combine with the sulfur input, the volatility of the sulfur can vary from 0.35 to 0.6 (Bhatty et al., 2011). to combine with the sulfur input, the volatility of the sulfur can vary from 0.35 to 0.6 (Bhatty et al., 2011).
During nodulization, the sulfate melt can be trapped in the inner core of the clinker nodules (Christensens and During nodulization, the sulfate melt can be trapped in the inner core of the clinker nodules (Christensens and
Johansen, 1979). The sulfate melt reaching the cooler will subsequently crystalize in the clinker. The Johansen, 1979). The sulfate melt reaching the cooler will subsequently crystalize in the clinker. The
composition of the sulfate melt at the end of the burning zone will determine the mixture of compounds that composition of the sulfate melt at the end of the burning zone will determine the mixture of compounds that
will solidify according to the tertiary diagram of CaSO4-K2SO4-Na2SO4, illustrated in Figure 4-4. It can be will solidify according to the tertiary diagram of CaSO4-K2SO4-Na2SO4, illustrated in Figure 4-4. It can be
seen that there are three primary precipitation areas, corresponding to CaSO4, K2SO4∙2CaSO4 (calcium seen that there are three primary precipitation areas, corresponding to CaSO4, K2SO4∙2CaSO4 (calcium
langbeinite) and (K,Na,Ca)SO4 (aphthitalite). If the composition of the melt is located in one of precipitation langbeinite) and (K,Na,Ca)SO4 (aphthitalite). If the composition of the melt is located in one of precipitation
areas, the species of that area will precipitate first. areas, the species of that area will precipitate first.
46 46
60 60
Figure 4-4: Tertiary phase diagram for CaSO4, K2SO4 and Na2SO4, modified from (Rowe et al., 1972) Figure 4-4: Tertiary phase diagram for CaSO4, K2SO4 and Na2SO4, modified from (Rowe et al., 1972)
Sulfur in the Portland cement clinker is mainly found as Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, (Kx,Nay)SO4 (aphthitalite), Sulfur in the Portland cement clinker is mainly found as Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, (Kx,Nay)SO4 (aphthitalite),
K2SO4∙2CaSO4 (calcium langbeinite), and as substituents in the major clinker phases, mainly alite and belite K2SO4∙2CaSO4 (calcium langbeinite), and as substituents in the major clinker phases, mainly alite and belite
with little in the ferrite (Twomey et al., 2004; Pollitt and Brown, 1969). For most common Portland cement, with little in the ferrite (Twomey et al., 2004; Pollitt and Brown, 1969). For most common Portland cement,
the upper acceptable limit of sulfur expressed as SO3 in clinker, in order to assure good quality is 1.6 wt. % the upper acceptable limit of sulfur expressed as SO3 in clinker, in order to assure good quality is 1.6 wt. %
(Farag and Kamel, 1994; Cemnet, 2013) . More than half of the sulfur originating from raw materials and fuel (Farag and Kamel, 1994; Cemnet, 2013) . More than half of the sulfur originating from raw materials and fuel
appears in the clinker, the rest is lost in the flue gas and in the kiln dust (Jawed and Skalny, 1977). appears in the clinker, the rest is lost in the flue gas and in the kiln dust (Jawed and Skalny, 1977).
Larger amounts of sulfur, higher than 2.6 wt. % SO3 in clinker (Uda et al., 1998), start to negatively influence Larger amounts of sulfur, higher than 2.6 wt. % SO3 in clinker (Uda et al., 1998), start to negatively influence
on the clinker mineral formation, via the inhibition of alite formation, and promoting the stabilization of belite on the clinker mineral formation, via the inhibition of alite formation, and promoting the stabilization of belite
and free lime, which needs to be lower than 1.5 wt. % CaO in clinker. One measure to prevent this phenomenon and free lime, which needs to be lower than 1.5 wt. % CaO in clinker. One measure to prevent this phenomenon
is to add calcium fluoride (CaF2) to the raw meal, as a mineralizer. This allows lowering the burning is to add calcium fluoride (CaF2) to the raw meal, as a mineralizer. This allows lowering the burning
temperature, and consequently the formation of alite is accelerated and the burnability is improved. However, temperature, and consequently the formation of alite is accelerated and the burnability is improved. However,
concentrations higher than 0.25 wt. % CaF2 in clinker are negatively affecting the cement properties such as concentrations higher than 0.25 wt. % CaF2 in clinker are negatively affecting the cement properties such as
retarded setting, reduced early strength and increased late strength (Klemm et al., 1979; Ghosh, 1991; Bhatty, retarded setting, reduced early strength and increased late strength (Klemm et al., 1979; Ghosh, 1991; Bhatty,
1995; Bhatty et al., 2011). 1995; Bhatty et al., 2011).
4.1.3 Circulation of Chlorine 4.1.3 Circulation of Chlorine
The chlorine circulation and the locations of the formation of different chlorine species in a cement plant are The chlorine circulation and the locations of the formation of different chlorine species in a cement plant are
illustrated in Figure 4-5. illustrated in Figure 4-5.
The chlorine, as chlorides, is frequently found in limestone and clays, predominantly as NaCl. The raw material The chlorine, as chlorides, is frequently found in limestone and clays, predominantly as NaCl. The raw material
meal usually contains relatively small amounts of Cl, mostly less than 0.01 wt. % LOI free (Bhattly, 1995) and meal usually contains relatively small amounts of Cl, mostly less than 0.01 wt. % LOI free (Bhattly, 1995) and
47 47
61 61
the maximum chlorine concentration allowed in the raw meal is 0.03 wt. % LOI free for ILC-system without the maximum chlorine concentration allowed in the raw meal is 0.03 wt. % LOI free for ILC-system without
a bypass, because higher concentrations will cause heavy build-up problems in the kiln (Norbom, 1973). a bypass, because higher concentrations will cause heavy build-up problems in the kiln (Norbom, 1973).

NaCl (s), KCl (s) NaCl (s), KCl (s)
~ 290 oC ~ 290 oC

~ 480oC ~ 480oC
Gas flow Gas flow
~ 650 oC ~ 650 oC
Circulation of Chlorine Circulation of Chlorine

~ 800oC ~ 800oC
~ 890 oC ~ 950 oC ~ 890 oC ~ 950 oC

KCl (l) KCl (l)
Condensation on the NaCl (l) Condensation on the NaCl (l)
particle surface particle surface

Calcin Calcin
Cl Cl
1150 oC 1150 oC
Cl (g) NaCl (l) Cl (g) NaCl (l)
KCl (g) Na KCl (g) Na
o KCl (l) o KCl (l)
Kiln burner fuel 2000 C KCl (g) CaCl2 (s) Kiln burner fuel 2000 C KCl (g) CaCl2 (s)
Cl NaCl (g) l) Sulfate melt 900 oC
Cl NaCl (g) l) Sulfate melt 900 oC
(Ca, S, Na, K,C (Ca, S, Na, K,C
100 oC 1200 oC 100 oC 1200 oC
o o
1450 C 1450 C

KCl Cooling air KCl Cooling air
(N2/O2) (N2/O2)
Figure 4-5: Circulation of the chlorine compounds in the kiln system. Figure 4-5: Circulation of the chlorine compounds in the kiln system.
Chlorine can be liberated during combustion of fuels, and the chlorine input from fuels can vary significantly, Chlorine can be liberated during combustion of fuels, and the chlorine input from fuels can vary significantly,
depending on the type of fuel. The Cl-content in fossil fuels, such as coal and petcoke, is rather low, but it can depending on the type of fuel. The Cl-content in fossil fuels, such as coal and petcoke, is rather low, but it can
be significant for alternative fuels, such as RDF, see Table 3-2. The possible paths and release mechanisms of be significant for alternative fuels, such as RDF, see Table 3-2. The possible paths and release mechanisms of
Cl during pyrolysis and combustion of biomass are explained elsewhere (Johansen et al., 2013). HCl gas is Cl during pyrolysis and combustion of biomass are explained elsewhere (Johansen et al., 2013). HCl gas is
produced when fuels containing organically bound chlorine or inorganic chloride salts are burned (Partanen, produced when fuels containing organically bound chlorine or inorganic chloride salts are burned (Partanen,
2004). Organically associated Cl can also be released in the gas phase as CH3Cl (Sahel et al., 2014). In the 2004). Organically associated Cl can also be released in the gas phase as CH3Cl (Sahel et al., 2014). In the
calciner, and along lower preheater stages, the HCl will be absorbed by free lime according to reaction (4-8) calciner, and along lower preheater stages, the HCl will be absorbed by free lime according to reaction (4-8)
(Partanen, 2004), however the absorption of HCl by limestone is strongly dependent on the humidity of the (Partanen, 2004), however the absorption of HCl by limestone is strongly dependent on the humidity of the
flue gas. The absorption of HCl by limestone has been extensively studied by Partanen et al. (2005a, 2005b, flue gas. The absorption of HCl by limestone has been extensively studied by Partanen et al. (2005a, 2005b,
2005c). 2005c).
48 48
62 62

o H 2O ( g ) CaCl2 (s/ l )
CaO (s) 2HCl ( g ) m
(4-8)
o H 2O ( g ) CaCl2 (s/ l )
CaO (s) 2HCl ( g ) m
(4-8)
In the burning zone, there is no reactive free CaO suspended in the flame, and HCl from kiln fuel will therefore In the burning zone, there is no reactive free CaO suspended in the flame, and HCl from kiln fuel will therefore
go directly to the preheater and be converted to CaCl2 there. go directly to the preheater and be converted to CaCl2 there.
In the calciner and the lower cyclone stages, at a temperature between 800-850 °C, the chlorine species from In the calciner and the lower cyclone stages, at a temperature between 800-850 °C, the chlorine species from
the raw materials can melt, and the condensation of chlorine species from the kiln gases also occur. Therefore, the raw materials can melt, and the condensation of chlorine species from the kiln gases also occur. Therefore,
the chlorine species are present in the liquid phase. The inverse reaction of (4-8), can also occur in presence of the chlorine species are present in the liquid phase. The inverse reaction of (4-8), can also occur in presence of
moisture. moisture.
In the burning zone, KCl and NaCl as chlorine compounds evaporate from the sulfate melt. The chlorine has In the burning zone, KCl and NaCl as chlorine compounds evaporate from the sulfate melt. The chlorine has
an evaporation factor range of 0.900 to 0.996, and will evaporate nearly 100 % (Bhattly, 1995; Jøns and an evaporation factor range of 0.900 to 0.996, and will evaporate nearly 100 % (Bhattly, 1995; Jøns and
Østergaard, 2001; Jøns et al., 2008). The boiling temperatures of KCl and NaCl are approximately 1400 °C at Østergaard, 2001; Jøns et al., 2008). The boiling temperatures of KCl and NaCl are approximately 1400 °C at
1 atm. The circulation is determined by the phase equilibrium between liquid and gaseous KCl. 1 atm. The circulation is determined by the phase equilibrium between liquid and gaseous KCl.
Figure 4-6 shows a Sankey diagram for chlorine circulation showing how the gaseous, liquid, and solid Figure 4-6 shows a Sankey diagram for chlorine circulation showing how the gaseous, liquid, and solid
chloride flows. The Sankey diagram was made based on data from a Finnish cement plant, and the diagram is chloride flows. The Sankey diagram was made based on data from a Finnish cement plant, and the diagram is
only valid for low chlorine circulation (Jøns, 2013). The chloride has a considerable circulation around the only valid for low chlorine circulation (Jøns, 2013). The chloride has a considerable circulation around the
calciner leading to high chlorine concentration. As an approximation, the chlorine mass flow in the kiln inlet calciner leading to high chlorine concentration. As an approximation, the chlorine mass flow in the kiln inlet
is 200 times greater than the discharched mass flow in the outlet. is 200 times greater than the discharched mass flow in the outlet.
Figure 4-6: Sankey diagram for chlorine circulation in a modern calciner kiln showing the gaseous, liquid and solid chloride flows Figure 4-6: Sankey diagram for chlorine circulation in a modern calciner kiln showing the gaseous, liquid and solid chloride flows
(Jøns et al., 2008). (Jøns et al., 2008).
49 49
63 63
High values of the SO3/Alk ratio are critical in combination with circulation of chlorides, because the High values of the SO3/Alk ratio are critical in combination with circulation of chlorides, because the
sulfidation of alkali chlorides at temperature higher than 900 °C can take place according to the general reaction sulfidation of alkali chlorides at temperature higher than 900 °C can take place according to the general reaction
(4-9), where M can be Na or K. Alkali sulfates can be either solid or gaseous depending on the temperature (4-9), where M can be Na or K. Alkali sulfates can be either solid or gaseous depending on the temperature
and whether aerosol formation occurs or not, i.e. dependent on the local concentration and temperature profiles. and whether aerosol formation occurs or not, i.e. dependent on the local concentration and temperature profiles.
Reaction (4-10) shows the sulfation of CaCl2 which can also react with SO2. The combination of HCl and SO2, Reaction (4-10) shows the sulfation of CaCl2 which can also react with SO2. The combination of HCl and SO2,
in presence of moisture, in the gas phase makes the kiln gas very corrosive and sulfation is enhanced by the in presence of moisture, in the gas phase makes the kiln gas very corrosive and sulfation is enhanced by the
presence of chlorides in the middle zone of the kiln (Jøns and Østergaard, 2001). The same gas combination presence of chlorides in the middle zone of the kiln (Jøns and Østergaard, 2001). The same gas combination
is responsible for deposit build-ups on the riser duct and/or cyclones caused by formation of chloroellestadite is responsible for deposit build-ups on the riser duct and/or cyclones caused by formation of chloroellestadite
(Bhatty et al., 2011), see section 4.2.5. (Bhatty et al., 2011), see section 4.2.5.
2MCl ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) o M 2 SO4 ( g / l ) 2HCl ( g ) (4-9) 2MCl ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) o M 2 SO4 ( g / l ) 2HCl ( g ) (4-9)
CaCl2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) o CaSO4 ( g / l ) 2HCl ( g ) (4-10) CaCl2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) o CaSO4 ( g / l ) 2HCl ( g ) (4-10)
Hydrolysis of alkali chlorides in the gas phase contributes to the formation of HCl (g), according to reaction Hydrolysis of alkali chlorides in the gas phase contributes to the formation of HCl (g), according to reaction
(4-11) especially at temperatures of the burning zone. However, the formation of HCl through this reaction at (4-11) especially at temperatures of the burning zone. However, the formation of HCl through this reaction at
temperatures below 1000-1150 °C is limited, because the majority of the KCl is in gas phase, and the tendency temperatures below 1000-1150 °C is limited, because the majority of the KCl is in gas phase, and the tendency
for KCl (g) to hydrolyze at such temperatures is low (Jøns and Østergård, 2001). for KCl (g) to hydrolyze at such temperatures is low (Jøns and Østergård, 2001).

o KOH ( g ) 2HCl ( g )
KCl ( g ) H 2O ( g ) m
(4-11)
o KOH ( g ) 2HCl ( g )
KCl ( g ) H 2O ( g ) m
(4-11)
The chlorine can be found in the clinker as CaCl2, and sometimes as KCl, if it is trapped in the inner core of The chlorine can be found in the clinker as CaCl2, and sometimes as KCl, if it is trapped in the inner core of
the clinker nodules. Most of the standards for Portland cement restrict the amount of chloride present to 0.1 the clinker nodules. Most of the standards for Portland cement restrict the amount of chloride present to 0.1
wt. %, in order to avoid problems of reinforcement corrosion in concrete (Hewlett, 1998; Dalton et al., 2004; wt. %, in order to avoid problems of reinforcement corrosion in concrete (Hewlett, 1998; Dalton et al., 2004;
Farag and Kamel, 1994) . Farag and Kamel, 1994) .
4.1.4 Circulation of Alkalis 4.1.4 Circulation of Alkalis
Circulation of alkalis, which are mainly introduced from the raw materials, is represented in Figure 4-7. It is Circulation of alkalis, which are mainly introduced from the raw materials, is represented in Figure 4-7. It is
well known, that potassium species are usually more volatile than the sodium species (Bhatty, 1995), see Figure well known, that potassium species are usually more volatile than the sodium species (Bhatty, 1995), see Figure
4-8. The intensity of the alkali cycle depends upon the nature of the alkali metals in the raw material, on 4-8. The intensity of the alkali cycle depends upon the nature of the alkali metals in the raw material, on
operating practices, and on type of kiln (Bucchi, 1981). The limiting content of Na2O and K2O is generally operating practices, and on type of kiln (Bucchi, 1981). The limiting content of Na2O and K2O is generally
expressed as Na2O equivalent, which is defined by equation 4.3. expressed as Na2O equivalent, which is defined by equation 4.3.
M Na2O M Na2O
wNa2O , equiv wNa2O , LOI free wSO3 , LOI free [4.3] wNa2O , equiv wNa2O , LOI free wSO3 , LOI free [4.3]
M K 2O M K 2O
50 50
64 64
Raw meal Raw meal

Limestone, Clay, Limestone, Clay,
Sand, fly ash Sand, fly ash
~ 290 oC ~ 290 oC

~ 480oC ~ 480oC
Gas flow Gas flow
~ 650 oC ~ 650 oC
Circulation of Alkalis Circulation of Alkalis

~ 800oC ~ 800oC
~ 890 oC ~ 890 oC
~ 950 oC ~ 950 oC
KCl (l) KCl (l)
On the dust transported NaCl (l) On the dust transported NaCl (l)
with gas with gas

Calcin Calcin
1150 oC 1150 oC
K2SO4(l) K2SO4(s) K2SO4 (s) K2SO4(l) K2SO4(s) K2SO4 (s)
l (g) l (g)
K SO4(g) KC Na2SO4(l) Na2SO4(s) Na2SO4 (s) K SO4(g) KC Na2SO4(l) Na2SO4(s) Na2SO4 (s)
2000 C KOH (g) 2
o
(g) 2000 C KOH (g) 2
o
(g)
SO4(g) NaCl SO4(g) NaCl
Kiln burner fuel NaOH (g) Ka2 Sulfate melt
Kiln burner fuel NaOH (g) Ka2 Sulfate melt
(Ca, S, Na, K,C
l) 900 oC (Ca, S, Na, K,C
l) 900 oC
100 oC 1200 oC 100 oC 1200 oC
o o
1450 C 1450 C
KCl,Na2SO4, K2SO4, KCl,Na2SO4, K2SO4,
3K2SO4∙Na2SO4, Cooling air 3K2SO4∙Na2SO4, Cooling air
K2SO4∙2CaSO4 (N2/O2) K2SO4∙2CaSO4 (N2/O2)
In aluminate or ferrite phase In aluminate or ferrite phase
Figure 4-7: Circulation of the alkali compounds in the kiln system. Figure 4-7: Circulation of the alkali compounds in the kiln system.
The source of alkali is most commonly clay or shale, but they can also be present in some limestone, sand, and The source of alkali is most commonly clay or shale, but they can also be present in some limestone, sand, and
frequently in various types of alternative raw materials such as fly ashes. The average alkali concentrations are frequently in various types of alternative raw materials such as fly ashes. The average alkali concentrations are
0.17 wt. % Na2O and 0.57 wt. % K2O for the raw materials (Bhatty, 1995). In most cases the alkali input by 0.17 wt. % Na2O and 0.57 wt. % K2O for the raw materials (Bhatty, 1995). In most cases the alkali input by
fossil fuels and/or by alternative fuels is rather small or negligible, except for cases with high alkali content in fossil fuels and/or by alternative fuels is rather small or negligible, except for cases with high alkali content in
the ash, i.e. bituminous coal (Vassilev and Vassileva, 2009). the ash, i.e. bituminous coal (Vassilev and Vassileva, 2009).
In the preheater tower, the alkalis partly dissociate into the gas phase, and recombine with other elements In the preheater tower, the alkalis partly dissociate into the gas phase, and recombine with other elements
according to the affinity order, described in section 4.1.1. If the alkalis are not balanced by sulfates, they will according to the affinity order, described in section 4.1.1. If the alkalis are not balanced by sulfates, they will
remain very volatile and accumulate in the circulation between the kiln and the preheater. The extent of alkali remain very volatile and accumulate in the circulation between the kiln and the preheater. The extent of alkali
volatilization varies with raw materials, and is higher for clays than for feldspars. About 50 wt. % of alkalis volatilization varies with raw materials, and is higher for clays than for feldspars. About 50 wt. % of alkalis
present in the raw feed are volatilized in the kiln, between 800 and 1000 °C (Jawed and Skalny, 1977). present in the raw feed are volatilized in the kiln, between 800 and 1000 °C (Jawed and Skalny, 1977).
51 51
65 65
The acceptable range of Na2O and K2O concentration in the kiln riser, varies from 3 to 5 wt. % LOI free (Bhatty The acceptable range of Na2O and K2O concentration in the kiln riser, varies from 3 to 5 wt. % LOI free (Bhatty
et al., 2011). Excess alkalis have a potential to form alkali carbonates in the cyclones. Furthermore, too high et al., 2011). Excess alkalis have a potential to form alkali carbonates in the cyclones. Furthermore, too high
alkali content without sulfur coverage can also cause build-ups in the kiln riser, or blockages in the tertiary air alkali content without sulfur coverage can also cause build-ups in the kiln riser, or blockages in the tertiary air
pipe, as mentioned in the circulation of sulfur (section 4.1.2). pipe, as mentioned in the circulation of sulfur (section 4.1.2).
The alkali sulfates form part of the sulfate melt and remains trapped in the nodules as a liquid through the The alkali sulfates form part of the sulfate melt and remains trapped in the nodules as a liquid through the
burning process. Clinker nodules more porous tends to contain high alkali sulfates (Harrison, 2009). Studies burning process. Clinker nodules more porous tends to contain high alkali sulfates (Harrison, 2009). Studies
on the distributions of alkalis in the clinker have confirmed that finer nodules contain lower alkali levels than on the distributions of alkalis in the clinker have confirmed that finer nodules contain lower alkali levels than
courser nodules due to the higher surface available for alkali volatilization (Harrison, 2009; Masaki et al., courser nodules due to the higher surface available for alkali volatilization (Harrison, 2009; Masaki et al.,
2002; Samet and Sarkar, 1997). In the burning zone, the alkalis can evaporate as NaCl, KCl, NaOH, KOH, 2002; Samet and Sarkar, 1997). In the burning zone, the alkalis can evaporate as NaCl, KCl, NaOH, KOH,
K2SO4, and/or Na2SO4, as shown in Figure 4-7. Presence of H2O (g) in the kiln atmosphere promotes the K2SO4, and/or Na2SO4, as shown in Figure 4-7. Presence of H2O (g) in the kiln atmosphere promotes the
formation of alkali hydroxides, which are more volatile than the corresponding sulfates, according to reaction formation of alkali hydroxides, which are more volatile than the corresponding sulfates, according to reaction
(4-12). A similar reaction also takes place for sodium. (4-12). A similar reaction also takes place for sodium.
H 2O ( g ) 2K2 SO4 ( g ) o 4KOH ( g ) 2SO2 ( g ) O2 ( g ) (4-12) H 2O ( g ) 2K2 SO4 ( g ) o 4KOH ( g ) 2SO2 ( g ) O2 ( g ) (4-12)
The rest of the alkalis not being in the gas phase recombines directly in the bed material with Cl or S, or are The rest of the alkalis not being in the gas phase recombines directly in the bed material with Cl or S, or are
integrated into the lattice of the clinker minerals, such as belite and aluminate. integrated into the lattice of the clinker minerals, such as belite and aluminate.
Alkali sulfates condense on dust particles at the exit gas temperature of the rotary kiln. Furthermore, raw meal Alkali sulfates condense on dust particles at the exit gas temperature of the rotary kiln. Furthermore, raw meal
is added in the riser duct in order to favor the alkali sulfate condensation, otherwise, the alkali sulfates would is added in the riser duct in order to favor the alkali sulfate condensation, otherwise, the alkali sulfates would
condensate on the walls of the riser duct, creating deposits. In this way, alkali sulfates in gas phase from the condensate on the walls of the riser duct, creating deposits. In this way, alkali sulfates in gas phase from the
kiln are incorporated in the raw meal after the calciner (Jensen, 2014). Too high alkali content without sulfur kiln are incorporated in the raw meal after the calciner (Jensen, 2014). Too high alkali content without sulfur
coverage can also cause build-ups in the riser or blockages in the tertiary air duct. coverage can also cause build-ups in the riser or blockages in the tertiary air duct.
The composition of the condensate is not be pure alkali sulfate but may include CO2 from the gas stream and The composition of the condensate is not be pure alkali sulfate but may include CO2 from the gas stream and
the clinker meal. Thus, the chemistry of the melt is an alkali sulfate and alkali carbonate melt, containing small the clinker meal. Thus, the chemistry of the melt is an alkali sulfate and alkali carbonate melt, containing small
amounts of alkali hydroxide. The presence of carbonate dissolved in the molten sulfate phase explains the amounts of alkali hydroxide. The presence of carbonate dissolved in the molten sulfate phase explains the
presence of CO2 in the clinker analyses (Bhatty et al., 2011). presence of CO2 in the clinker analyses (Bhatty et al., 2011).
In the presence of chlorides and sulfates, the volatilization behavior of both Na and K is modified greatly In the presence of chlorides and sulfates, the volatilization behavior of both Na and K is modified greatly
(depending on how Na and K are combined) as shown by the vapor pressure-kiln temperature relationship in (depending on how Na and K are combined) as shown by the vapor pressure-kiln temperature relationship in
Figure 4-8. In the presence of sulfur, alkalis preferentially form sulfates, if present in amounts higher than the Figure 4-8. In the presence of sulfur, alkalis preferentially form sulfates, if present in amounts higher than the
required stoichiometric balance (Bhatty et al., 2011). required stoichiometric balance (Bhatty et al., 2011).
52 52
66 66
Figure 4-8: Vapor pressure of Na and K chlorides and sulfates (Bhatty, 1995). Figure 4-8: Vapor pressure of Na and K chlorides and sulfates (Bhatty, 1995).
Some of the Na2O and K2O are incorporated into aluminate, ferrite and belite and the residual alkalis will Some of the Na2O and K2O are incorporated into aluminate, ferrite and belite and the residual alkalis will
remain as sulfates. Introduction of alkalis into clinker minerals modifies their crystal structure, which may remain as sulfates. Introduction of alkalis into clinker minerals modifies their crystal structure, which may
decrease the hydraulic reactivity of the cement (Jawed and Skalny, 1977). Alkali compounds in the clinker can decrease the hydraulic reactivity of the cement (Jawed and Skalny, 1977). Alkali compounds in the clinker can
1) 2) 3) 1) 2) 3)
be divided into three main groups: alkali sulfates, alkali aluminates and alumino ferrites, and alkali be divided into three main groups: alkali sulfates, alkali aluminates and alumino ferrites, and alkali
silicates. In some cases, alkali may also occur in the form of carbonates (Jawed and Skalny, 1977). silicates. In some cases, alkali may also occur in the form of carbonates (Jawed and Skalny, 1977).
High levels of total alkali in the final cement often lead to higher pH, and better early strength development, High levels of total alkali in the final cement often lead to higher pH, and better early strength development,
but lower later strengths. Soluble alkalis, which are not bound with sulfur, may cause flash set (rapid and early but lower later strengths. Soluble alkalis, which are not bound with sulfur, may cause flash set (rapid and early
loss of cement workability during water addition), due to activation of the calcium aluminates, and will also loss of cement workability during water addition), due to activation of the calcium aluminates, and will also
cause a significant loss of 28 days strength (Midgley, 1984). Alkalis potentially can give rise to cracking and cause a significant loss of 28 days strength (Midgley, 1984). Alkalis potentially can give rise to cracking and
expansion in concretes, due to their deleterious alkali-silica reaction with reactive aggregates. In this situation, expansion in concretes, due to their deleterious alkali-silica reaction with reactive aggregates. In this situation,
the alkalis react with moisture, and produce a gel which expands (Hewlett, 1998; British ecological survey, the alkalis react with moisture, and produce a gel which expands (Hewlett, 1998; British ecological survey,
2005). Furthermore, high concentration of alkalis in concrete has harmful effects on most mechanical 2005). Furthermore, high concentration of alkalis in concrete has harmful effects on most mechanical
properties of concrete, such as compressive, splitting, direct tensile, and flexure strengths (Smaoui et al., 2005). properties of concrete, such as compressive, splitting, direct tensile, and flexure strengths (Smaoui et al., 2005).
4.2 Consequences of High Volatile Circulation 4.2 Consequences of High Volatile Circulation
4.2.1 Deposit Build-up Formation 4.2.1 Deposit Build-up Formation
The consequences of high internal circulation of elements are formation of build-up and blockages. The The consequences of high internal circulation of elements are formation of build-up and blockages. The
gaseous species condense in the cooler zones, and the condensation products are often chemically aggressive gaseous species condense in the cooler zones, and the condensation products are often chemically aggressive
and with low melting temperature range. Therefore, the liquid is present in the preheater tower, the presence and with low melting temperature range. Therefore, the liquid is present in the preheater tower, the presence
of which, reduces the flowability of raw meal, and causes the particles to stick to the walls (Smith, 2012). This of which, reduces the flowability of raw meal, and causes the particles to stick to the walls (Smith, 2012). This
may subsequently cause build-up on cyclone walls and riser ducts. Formation of build-ups may reduce the kiln may subsequently cause build-up on cyclone walls and riser ducts. Formation of build-ups may reduce the kiln
53 53
67 67
production, and cause higher heat consumption, and kiln or plant stops, which are expensive. Table 4-2 lists production, and cause higher heat consumption, and kiln or plant stops, which are expensive. Table 4-2 lists
the common intermediate compounds found in build-ups and kiln rings and their typical location. the common intermediate compounds found in build-ups and kiln rings and their typical location.
Table 4-2: Common intermediate compounds found in build-ups and kiln rings (Saint-Jean et al., 2005, Nievoll et al., 2009). Table 4-2: Common intermediate compounds found in build-ups and kiln rings (Saint-Jean et al., 2005, Nievoll et al., 2009).
Name Formula Location typically found Name Formula Location typically found
Spurrite (2CaO·SiO2)2·CaCO3 Lower cyclones Spurrite (2CaO·SiO2)2·CaCO3 Lower cyclones
Ca10(SiO4)3(SO4)3Z2 Ca10(SiO4)3(SO4)3Z2
Ellestadite Riser duct Ellestadite Riser duct
for Z= OH, F, or Cl for Z= OH, F, or Cl
Sulfospurrite (2CaO·SiO2)2·CaSO4 Kiln rings Sulfospurrite (2CaO·SiO2)2·CaSO4 Kiln rings

Anhydrite CaSO4 Cyclones and riser duct Anhydrite CaSO4 Cyclones and riser duct
In the literature, chemical analysis of the build-up samples from different cement kiln preheaters have shown In the literature, chemical analysis of the build-up samples from different cement kiln preheaters have shown
-
that the main constituents are SO2, K2O, CaO and Cl and that their proportions may vary significantly, that the main constituents are SO2, K2O, CaO and Cl- and that their proportions may vary significantly,
depending on their location (Recio Dominguez et al., 2010). The dominant phases in most of the samples were depending on their location (Recio Dominguez et al., 2010). The dominant phases in most of the samples were
CaSO4 or a mixture of CaSO4, and CaCO3. Smaller amounts of other phases, such as ellestadite solid solution CaSO4 or a mixture of CaSO4, and CaCO3. Smaller amounts of other phases, such as ellestadite solid solution
(Ca10(SiO4)3(SO3)Z2, where Z can be OH, F, or Cl), more frequently chlorellestadite, Ca10(SiO4)3(SO3)Cl2, and (Ca10(SiO4)3(SO3)Z2, where Z can be OH, F, or Cl), more frequently chlorellestadite, Ca10(SiO4)3(SO3)Cl2, and
spurrite have also been reported. Microstructural examination showed that the growth of the rings was due to spurrite have also been reported. Microstructural examination showed that the growth of the rings was due to
successive deposition of particles and condensation of gases. The study stated that the main cause of the deposit successive deposition of particles and condensation of gases. The study stated that the main cause of the deposit
formation was the presence of a glassy phase, K1-xNaxCl (Recio Dominguez et al., 2010). formation was the presence of a glassy phase, K1-xNaxCl (Recio Dominguez et al., 2010).
The presence of spurrite and KCl were found to be the reasons for the build-up stability in the lower part of The presence of spurrite and KCl were found to be the reasons for the build-up stability in the lower part of
the preheater (Kurdowski and Sobon, 1999). The investigation suggested a KCl crystallization model based the preheater (Kurdowski and Sobon, 1999). The investigation suggested a KCl crystallization model based
on a vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism, which is illustrated in Figure 4-9. The first step is the condensation on a vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism, which is illustrated in Figure 4-9. The first step is the condensation
of volatile elements on the grains of limestone; then agglomerates are formed in the presence of a liquid phase, of volatile elements on the grains of limestone; then agglomerates are formed in the presence of a liquid phase,
and stick to the walls of the gas ducts, causing further increase in thickness of the solid material layer. Then, and stick to the walls of the gas ducts, causing further increase in thickness of the solid material layer. Then,
in the accretion formed, good conditions are created for KCl crystallization according to the VLS mechanism, in the accretion formed, good conditions are created for KCl crystallization according to the VLS mechanism,
i.e. KCl vapor pressure of and a temperature close to the melting point (Kurdowski and Sobon, 1999). i.e. KCl vapor pressure of and a temperature close to the melting point (Kurdowski and Sobon, 1999).
54 54
68 68
Liquid KCl Liquid KCl

Raw meal Raw meal
Vapor KCl Vapor KCl
1. Presence of volatiles 2. Condensation 1. Presence of volatiles 2. Condensation
Deposition onto the wall Vapor KCl Deposition onto the wall Vapor KCl
3. Agglomeration 4. Good conditions for crystallization 3. Agglomeration 4. Good conditions for crystallization
Figure 4-9: Model of KCl crystallization, adapted from (Kurdowski and Sobon, 1999). Figure 4-9: Model of KCl crystallization, adapted from (Kurdowski and Sobon, 1999).
The composition of the build-ups has been further investigated by Saint-Jean et al. (2005), using X-ray The composition of the build-ups has been further investigated by Saint-Jean et al. (2005), using X-ray
fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and chloride potentiometric titration. Based on the fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and chloride potentiometric titration. Based on the
analyses, it was found that the corrosion scale contained water-insoluble as well as water-soluble chlorine. analyses, it was found that the corrosion scale contained water-insoluble as well as water-soluble chlorine.
Build-ups on the walls of cyclones, and the riser duct, contained substantial amounts of chlorine in water- Build-ups on the walls of cyclones, and the riser duct, contained substantial amounts of chlorine in water-
insoluble form, identified as chlorellestadite instead of the more common water-soluble KCl and NaCl. The insoluble form, identified as chlorellestadite instead of the more common water-soluble KCl and NaCl. The
chlorellestadite formation might lead to the clogging of pipes, which results in a decreased clinker output, and chlorellestadite formation might lead to the clogging of pipes, which results in a decreased clinker output, and
necessitate cleaning. Based on thermodynamic calculations, Saint-Jean et al. (2005) proposed that the necessitate cleaning. Based on thermodynamic calculations, Saint-Jean et al. (2005) proposed that the
chlorellestadite was formed due to the presence of gaseous HCl, and the reaction (4-8) which becomes more chlorellestadite was formed due to the presence of gaseous HCl, and the reaction (4-8) which becomes more
favored, as the temperature decreases. Consequently, the presence of chlorellestadite indicates formation of favored, as the temperature decreases. Consequently, the presence of chlorellestadite indicates formation of
HCl in the hot atmosphere (Saint-Jean et al., 2005). HCl in the hot atmosphere (Saint-Jean et al., 2005).
CaO (s) 2HCl ( g ) o H 2O ( g ) CaCl2 (s/ l ) (4-8) CaO (s) 2HCl ( g ) o H 2O ( g ) CaCl2 (s/ l ) (4-8)
The degree of contact between the gas and lime-containing dust in the kiln may influence the HCl formation The degree of contact between the gas and lime-containing dust in the kiln may influence the HCl formation
(Saint-Jean et al., 2005). It was proposed two reactions, (4-13) and (4-14), which can take place in the cooler (Saint-Jean et al., 2005). It was proposed two reactions, (4-13) and (4-14), which can take place in the cooler
parts of the kiln depending on the extent of contact of the gases with lime-containing dust (Saint-Jean, 2003). parts of the kiln depending on the extent of contact of the gases with lime-containing dust (Saint-Jean, 2003).
55 55
69 69
Insufficient dust contact: Insufficient dust contact:

1
o K 2 SO4 (l ) 2HCl ( g ) (4-13) 1
o K 2 SO4 (l ) 2HCl ( g ) (4-13)
SO2 ( g ) 2 KCl ( g ) H 2O ( g ) O2 ( g ) m
SO2 ( g ) 2 KCl ( g ) H 2O ( g ) O2 ( g ) m

2 2
Sufficient dust contact: Sufficient dust contact:

1
o CaSO4 (s ) 2KCl ( g ) (4-14) 1
o CaSO4 (s ) 2KCl ( g ) (4-14)
SO2 ( g ) 2 KCl ( g ) CaO ( s) O2 ( g ) m
SO2 ( g ) 2 KCl ( g ) CaO ( s) O2 ( g ) m

2 2
According to the insufficient dust contact reaction, the poor contact between the hot kiln gases and lime- According to the insufficient dust contact reaction, the poor contact between the hot kiln gases and lime-
containing dust in the kiln causes formation of gaseous HCl from KCl and SO2, and subsequently, HCl in containing dust in the kiln causes formation of gaseous HCl from KCl and SO2, and subsequently, HCl in
contact with the hot meal in the preheater unit can form chlorellestadite (Saint Jean, 2003). Figure 4-10 and contact with the hot meal in the preheater unit can form chlorellestadite (Saint Jean, 2003). Figure 4-10 and
Figure 4-11 illustrate the global equilibrium analyses simulating the reactions with sufficient and insufficient Figure 4-11 illustrate the global equilibrium analyses simulating the reactions with sufficient and insufficient
contact with lime-containing dust, respectively. The system was modeled as an enclosed box of variable contact with lime-containing dust, respectively. The system was modeled as an enclosed box of variable
volume with a fixed pressure of 1 atm and considered two phases: pure solid (chlorides and sulfates) and an volume with a fixed pressure of 1 atm and considered two phases: pure solid (chlorides and sulfates) and an
ideal gas (N2, CO2, O2, and H2O). A third phase, which consisted on CaO (s) representing the dust, was only ideal gas (N2, CO2, O2, and H2O). A third phase, which consisted on CaO (s) representing the dust, was only
included for the case of the sufficient contact with lime containing dust (Figure 4-10). included for the case of the sufficient contact with lime containing dust (Figure 4-10).
0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

Concentration [mol/kg cliknker]
Concentration [mol/kg cliknker]

Concentration [mol/kg clinker]

SO2 (g) SO2 (g)
0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
K2SO4 (s) K2SO4 (s) K2SO4 (s) K2SO4 (s)
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4 KCl (g) 0.4 0.4 KCl (g)

KCl (g) KCl (g)
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
0.2 SO2 (g) KOH (g) 0.2 SO2 (g) KOH (g)
0.2 NaCl (g) 0.2 NaCl (g)
NaCl (g) KOH (g) HCl (g) NaOH (g) NaCl (g) KOH (g) HCl (g) NaOH (g)
0.1 K2SO4 (g) 0.1 K2SO4 (g) 0.1 K2SO4 (g) 0.1 K2SO4 (g)
0 NaOH (g) 0 0 NaOH (g) 0
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
Temperature [oC] Temperature [oC] Temperature [oC] Temperature [oC]
Figure 4-10: Thermodynamic calculations simulating the Figure 4-11: Thermodynamic calculations simulating the Figure 4-10: Thermodynamic calculations simulating the Figure 4-11: Thermodynamic calculations simulating the
reactions with sufficient contact with lime-containing dust, reactions with insufficient contact with lime-containing dust, reactions with sufficient contact with lime-containing dust, reactions with insufficient contact with lime-containing dust,
modified from (Saint Jean, 2005). modified from (Saint Jean, 2005). modified from (Saint Jean, 2005). modified from (Saint Jean, 2005).
Analyzing the results with decreasing temperature (from 1400 to 1000 oC), at high temperature there is SO2 Analyzing the results with decreasing temperature (from 1400 to 1000 oC), at high temperature there is SO2
(g) due to the thermal decomposition in the burning zone for both cases. For the case of sufficient contact with (g) due to the thermal decomposition in the burning zone for both cases. For the case of sufficient contact with
o
dust, the SO2 concentration decreases to zero below 1200 C because it is captured by the lime-containing dust. dust, the SO2 concentration decreases to zero below 1200 oC because it is captured by the lime-containing dust.
In addition, no HCl in the gas phase is observed. On the contrary, for the case of insufficient contact with dust, In addition, no HCl in the gas phase is observed. On the contrary, for the case of insufficient contact with dust,
o
not all the SO2 in gas phase is not absorbed by CaO when decreasing temperature and below 1200 C, formation not all the SO2 in gas phase is not absorbed by CaO when decreasing temperature and below 1200 oC, formation
of alkali sulfates and HCl (g) occurs. Figure 4-11, for the case of insufficient contact with dust, shows that SO2 of alkali sulfates and HCl (g) occurs. Figure 4-11, for the case of insufficient contact with dust, shows that SO2
56 56
70 70
and HCl in the gas phase will be observed in the kiln inlet. Jean et al. (2005) concluded that the HCl (g) and HCl in the gas phase will be observed in the kiln inlet. Jean et al. (2005) concluded that the HCl (g)
concentration can be reduced by means of better gas-solid contact in the kiln. concentration can be reduced by means of better gas-solid contact in the kiln.
Sulfur and chlorine concentrations in the hot meal can be used to evaluate the risk of build-up formation in the Sulfur and chlorine concentrations in the hot meal can be used to evaluate the risk of build-up formation in the
calciner, according to Figure 4-12 (Enders, 2011). The diagram is based on industrial experience, and is divided calciner, according to Figure 4-12 (Enders, 2011). The diagram is based on industrial experience, and is divided
in 3 zones: low, medium and strong build-up tendency. The build-up tendency is linked to the required cleaning in 3 zones: low, medium and strong build-up tendency. The build-up tendency is linked to the required cleaning
or removal of the build-ups. Therefore, it is recommended to operate a cement plant in the low and medium or removal of the build-ups. Therefore, it is recommended to operate a cement plant in the low and medium
build-up tendency zones. build-up tendency zones.
7 7
SO3 in hot meal [wt. % LOI free]

6 6
5 5
4 4
Strong build-up Strong build-up
tendency tendency
3 3
Medium Medium
2 2
build-up tendency build-up tendency
1 1
Low build-up Low build-up
0 tendency 0 tendency
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Cl in hot meal [wt. % LOI free] Cl in hot meal [wt. % LOI free]
Figure 4-12: Evaluation diagram of build-ups tendency as a function of SO3 and Cl content in hot meal, modified from (Enders, Figure 4-12: Evaluation diagram of build-ups tendency as a function of SO3 and Cl content in hot meal, modified from (Enders,
2011). 2011).
According to Figure 4-12, the hot meal content of SO3 should be maintained below 6 wt. %, and the Cl content According to Figure 4-12, the hot meal content of SO3 should be maintained below 6 wt. %, and the Cl content
below 3.5 wt. %, in order to avoid strong coating tendency. below 3.5 wt. %, in order to avoid strong coating tendency.
It is generally accepted, and in agreement with Table 4-2, that the formation of build-ups in the lower cyclones It is generally accepted, and in agreement with Table 4-2, that the formation of build-ups in the lower cyclones
may be associated with an increase in chlorine evaporation, and the build-ups in the riser duct with an increase may be associated with an increase in chlorine evaporation, and the build-ups in the riser duct with an increase
in sulfur evaporation. in sulfur evaporation.
4.2.2 Coating and Ring Formation in Rotary Kilns 4.2.2 Coating and Ring Formation in Rotary Kilns
Blockages in the kiln system are normally referred to as either coating or ring formation (Peray and Waddell, Blockages in the kiln system are normally referred to as either coating or ring formation (Peray and Waddell,
1972), consisting of a mass of clinker or dust that adheres to the wall of the kiln, and solidifies state. They are 1972), consisting of a mass of clinker or dust that adheres to the wall of the kiln, and solidifies state. They are
easily formed, when an excess of sulfur over alkalis exists in the kiln atmosphere. easily formed, when an excess of sulfur over alkalis exists in the kiln atmosphere.
There are different types of kiln rings and their difference is based on their composition and location in the There are different types of kiln rings and their difference is based on their composition and location in the
kiln. Figure 4-13 illustrates a rotary kiln with five typical complications, which are: kiln. Figure 4-13 illustrates a rotary kiln with five typical complications, which are:
57 57
71 71
1. Nose rings or ash rings 1. Nose rings or ash rings

2. Clinker coating 2. Clinker coating
3. Trumpet coating or sinter ring 3. Trumpet coating or sinter ring
4. Clinker rings 4. Clinker rings
5. Transition zone rings 5. Transition zone rings
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Material cold inlet Hot burning zone Material cold inlet Hot burning zone
Tbed = 900 oC Tbed = 1450 oC Tbed = 900 oC Tbed = 1450 oC
Figure 4-13: Illustration of the five typical coating complications in a cement rotary kiln. Figure 4-13: Illustration of the five typical coating complications in a cement rotary kiln.
The nose ring, which is marked by point 1 in Figure 4-13, is formed in the hot burning zone, where the clinker The nose ring, which is marked by point 1 in Figure 4-13, is formed in the hot burning zone, where the clinker
leaves. It can be formed very fast, and sometimes needs daily removal. These formations are caused by leaves. It can be formed very fast, and sometimes needs daily removal. These formations are caused by
crystallization of clinker liquid, or free alkali sulfates in the clinker. The liquid available at the kiln nose permits crystallization of clinker liquid, or free alkali sulfates in the clinker. The liquid available at the kiln nose permits
adherence of the dust particles, and therefore the building of the nose ring continues. Microscopic evaluations adherence of the dust particles, and therefore the building of the nose ring continues. Microscopic evaluations
of clinker produced during the presence of a nose ring, indicate the presence of slow cooling. Slowly cooled of clinker produced during the presence of a nose ring, indicate the presence of slow cooling. Slowly cooled
clinker causes the alite to revert back to belite and free lime (Hamilton, 1997).The build-up in the clinker clinker causes the alite to revert back to belite and free lime (Hamilton, 1997).The build-up in the clinker
cooler back wall, referred as snowman build-up, is illustrated in Figure 4-14, and is caused by the same problem cooler back wall, referred as snowman build-up, is illustrated in Figure 4-14, and is caused by the same problem
that promotes the nose ring, which is a slow cooling of the clinker. that promotes the nose ring, which is a slow cooling of the clinker.
Slow cooling Slow cooling

Kiln burner Kiln burner
clinker clinker
Snowman Snowman
Cooling air Cooling air

Figure 4-14: Illustration of the snowman build-up on the clinker cooler back wall, adapted from (Hamilton, 1997). Figure 4-14: Illustration of the snowman build-up on the clinker cooler back wall, adapted from (Hamilton, 1997).
Point 2 in Figure 4-13 shows the clinker coating, which normally has the same chemistry and mineralogy as Point 2 in Figure 4-13 shows the clinker coating, which normally has the same chemistry and mineralogy as
the clinker bed, since it is made up of the clinker. It is desired to operate the kiln with coating formation in the clinker bed, since it is made up of the clinker. It is desired to operate the kiln with coating formation in
order to protect the lining from thermal shocks, abrasion by the kiln bed and chemical infiltration by the gases, order to protect the lining from thermal shocks, abrasion by the kiln bed and chemical infiltration by the gases,
and prolong the lifetime of the kiln (Clark, 2011). The thickness of the coating is under normal conditions and prolong the lifetime of the kiln (Clark, 2011). The thickness of the coating is under normal conditions
determined by the heat transfer through the lining which means that when the surface temperature of the lining determined by the heat transfer through the lining which means that when the surface temperature of the lining
reaches the melting point of the clinker liquid, it stops growing in thickness. Thus, an equilibrium exists at reaches the melting point of the clinker liquid, it stops growing in thickness. Thus, an equilibrium exists at
58 58
72 72
these conditions. Figure 4-15 shows the influence of the temperature on the coating in the rotary kiln. In these conditions. Figure 4-15 shows the influence of the temperature on the coating in the rotary kiln. In
scenario A, the rotary kiln has a thick coating layer that may continue to grow in thickness until the equilibrium scenario A, the rotary kiln has a thick coating layer that may continue to grow in thickness until the equilibrium
temperature is reached. Scenario C shows a kiln with a hot flame, and the coating layer is seen to become temperature is reached. Scenario C shows a kiln with a hot flame, and the coating layer is seen to become
liquefied and drop off the refractory lining. If the thickness of the coating layer becomes too low, it will liquefied and drop off the refractory lining. If the thickness of the coating layer becomes too low, it will
decrease the refractory lifetime. The surface temperature is the most important factor in the formation of a decrease the refractory lifetime. The surface temperature is the most important factor in the formation of a
coating, since the flame shape governs the surface temperature at all points in the burning zone. For that reason, coating, since the flame shape governs the surface temperature at all points in the burning zone. For that reason,
the flame has a considerable effect on the coating formation (Peray and Waddell 1972). The amount and the the flame has a considerable effect on the coating formation (Peray and Waddell 1972). The amount and the
properties of the liquid phase will also affect the ability to form the coating (Clark, 2011). properties of the liquid phase will also affect the ability to form the coating (Clark, 2011).
Figure 4-15: Influence of temperature on coating in rotary kiln, modified from (Peray and Waddell, 1972) . Figure 4-15: Influence of temperature on coating in rotary kiln, modified from (Peray and Waddell, 1972) .
Point 3 of Figure 4-13 marks the position in the rotary kiln, where the burning zone starts. The coating Point 3 of Figure 4-13 marks the position in the rotary kiln, where the burning zone starts. The coating
composition is similar to the clinker, because this coating is established where the liquid phase begins to form composition is similar to the clinker, because this coating is established where the liquid phase begins to form
but the melt comes into contact with a cooler surface and solidifies, thereby binding clinker particles together but the melt comes into contact with a cooler surface and solidifies, thereby binding clinker particles together
(Hewlett 1998). Changes in operational temperature can lead to coating formation at one location, which will (Hewlett 1998). Changes in operational temperature can lead to coating formation at one location, which will
later come off, when the temperature is changed. Repetitive shedding of coatings and formation of too much later come off, when the temperature is changed. Repetitive shedding of coatings and formation of too much
coating may lead to ring formations (Peray and Waddell, 1972). coating may lead to ring formations (Peray and Waddell, 1972).
Changes in operation temperatures can lead to coating formation at one temperature, which will later come Changes in operation temperatures can lead to coating formation at one temperature, which will later come
off, when the temperature is changed. Frequent falling out of coatings and the formation of too much coating off, when the temperature is changed. Frequent falling out of coatings and the formation of too much coating
can lead to ring formations (Peray and Waddell, 1972) . can lead to ring formations (Peray and Waddell, 1972) .
Point 4 of Figure 4-13 shows the clinker rings that form inside the kiln. Clinker rings are characterized by their Point 4 of Figure 4-13 shows the clinker rings that form inside the kiln. Clinker rings are characterized by their
relatively high content of alite and aluminate. They are typically caused by recirculation of clinker dust in the relatively high content of alite and aluminate. They are typically caused by recirculation of clinker dust in the
combustion product gases from the main burner. These rings can be avoided by eliminating the dust combustion product gases from the main burner. These rings can be avoided by eliminating the dust
recirculation from the cooler or by adjustment of the main burner to produce a short and dense flame (Clark, recirculation from the cooler or by adjustment of the main burner to produce a short and dense flame (Clark,
2011). 2011).
59 59
73 73
The rings in the kiln inlet zone, called transition zone rings, are showed by point 5 of Figure 4-13. These rings The rings in the kiln inlet zone, called transition zone rings, are showed by point 5 of Figure 4-13. These rings
do not contain aluminate, and only very little alite (Palmer, 1990). The composition of transition zone rings is do not contain aluminate, and only very little alite (Palmer, 1990). The composition of transition zone rings is
often quite complex, and they are associated with operating conditions, such as high concentrations of alkali often quite complex, and they are associated with operating conditions, such as high concentrations of alkali
chlorides in the kiln gas, or reducing condition in the material kiln bed. chlorides in the kiln gas, or reducing condition in the material kiln bed.
Reducing conditions, raw meals with difficult burnability, flame shape, and burner position are known to Reducing conditions, raw meals with difficult burnability, flame shape, and burner position are known to
increase the amount of sulfur in the kiln atmosphere, thereby favoring ring formation (Nievoll et al., 2009). increase the amount of sulfur in the kiln atmosphere, thereby favoring ring formation (Nievoll et al., 2009).
Sulfospurrite appears to be the mineral phase responsible for ring formation in the cement preheater kilns Sulfospurrite appears to be the mineral phase responsible for ring formation in the cement preheater kilns
(Nievoll et al., 2009). Sulfospurrite crystals have been found on the surface of the refractory lining, and (Nievoll et al., 2009). Sulfospurrite crystals have been found on the surface of the refractory lining, and
subsequent rapid growth of the ring, in a SO3 rich kiln atmosphere, is probably enhanced by the liquid double subsequent rapid growth of the ring, in a SO3 rich kiln atmosphere, is probably enhanced by the liquid double
sulfate 2CaSO4∙K2SO4 (Ca-langbeinite). The analyzed samples showed an internal variability, which reflected sulfate 2CaSO4∙K2SO4 (Ca-langbeinite). The analyzed samples showed an internal variability, which reflected
the variations in composition and temperature of the kiln gases (Recio Dominguez et al., 2010). The same the variations in composition and temperature of the kiln gases (Recio Dominguez et al., 2010). The same
2-
study tested different refractory materials against ring formation, and concluded that SiO impregnated study tested different refractory materials against ring formation, and concluded that SiO2- impregnated
alumina bricks impeded sulfospurrite crystallization by stabilizing belite very efficiently. alumina bricks impeded sulfospurrite crystallization by stabilizing belite very efficiently.
Kiln rings in a preheater kiln system are not as frequent as in previous kiln systems due to the improvements Kiln rings in a preheater kiln system are not as frequent as in previous kiln systems due to the improvements
in manufacturing technology, operation control, and raw materials and clinker homogeneity (Herfort et al., in manufacturing technology, operation control, and raw materials and clinker homogeneity (Herfort et al.,
2010). These improvements have also resulted in significant improvements in product performance. The 2010). These improvements have also resulted in significant improvements in product performance. The
operation process parameters experience nowadays less variation, this can be illustrated for example in Figure operation process parameters experience nowadays less variation, this can be illustrated for example in Figure
4-16, showing the variation of lime saturation factor (LSF) for three different rotary kilns. The LSF is the ratio 4-16, showing the variation of lime saturation factor (LSF) for three different rotary kilns. The LSF is the ratio
of CaO to the other three main oxides, and controls the ratio of alite to belite in the clinker. The clinker of CaO to the other three main oxides, and controls the ratio of alite to belite in the clinker. The clinker
produced in batches in bottle kilns in the nineteen century were very heterogeneous as the raw materials. The produced in batches in bottle kilns in the nineteen century were very heterogeneous as the raw materials. The
oldest kiln from 1890, presents a big variation of the LSF percentage in short periods of time, and this large oldest kiln from 1890, presents a big variation of the LSF percentage in short periods of time, and this large
variability was causing operational problems, because the clinker was produced in batches in bottle kilns were variability was causing operational problems, because the clinker was produced in batches in bottle kilns were
very heterogeneous as well as the raw materials. The introduction of rotary kilns facilitated the blending and very heterogeneous as well as the raw materials. The introduction of rotary kilns facilitated the blending and
uniformity of the raw materials. In the long kiln, where calcination was taking place inside the rotary kiln, the uniformity of the raw materials. In the long kiln, where calcination was taking place inside the rotary kiln, the
process parameters showed still significant variation, but the variability has been significantly reduced for the process parameters showed still significant variation, but the variability has been significantly reduced for the
actual preheater kilns, which show the improvement on operational control. For that reason, kiln rings are actual preheater kilns, which show the improvement on operational control. For that reason, kiln rings are
rarely formed in the actual preheater kiln systems. rarely formed in the actual preheater kiln systems.
60 60
74 74
2000 preheater kiln 2000 preheater kiln

110 110
1930 long kiln 1930 long kiln
105 1890 batch kiln 105 1890 batch kiln
Lime saturation factor [%]
Lime saturation factor [%]

100 100
95 95
90 90
85 85
80 80
75 75
70 70
65 65
60 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time [h] Time [h]
Figure 4-16: Variability in the lime saturation factor of hourly spot clinker samples of different cement rotary kilns (Herfort et al., Figure 4-16: Variability in the lime saturation factor of hourly spot clinker samples of different cement rotary kilns (Herfort et al.,
2010) 2010)
4.2.3 Shell Corrosion and Refractory Deterioration 4.2.3 Shell Corrosion and Refractory Deterioration
The combined presence of SO2 and HCl makes the kiln gas very corrosive (Jøns and Østergaard, 2001). The combined presence of SO2 and HCl makes the kiln gas very corrosive (Jøns and Østergaard, 2001).
Consequently, the presence of reducing atmospheres coupled with a high sulfur level in the kiln system, may Consequently, the presence of reducing atmospheres coupled with a high sulfur level in the kiln system, may
lead to refractory deterioration and corrosion of rotary kiln shells and calciner shells, which subsequently result lead to refractory deterioration and corrosion of rotary kiln shells and calciner shells, which subsequently result
in high maintenance costs. in high maintenance costs.
Jøns and Østergaard (2001) studied kiln shell corrosion in 12 suspension calciner kilns and found that the Jøns and Østergaard (2001) studied kiln shell corrosion in 12 suspension calciner kilns and found that the
corrosion was restricted to a short zone, located from the start of the kiln coating, to 10-20 m in the direction corrosion was restricted to a short zone, located from the start of the kiln coating, to 10-20 m in the direction
of the kiln inlet. Severe corrosion occurred when the kiln gas contained high levels of both sulfur and chlorine. of the kiln inlet. Severe corrosion occurred when the kiln gas contained high levels of both sulfur and chlorine.
The corrosion products were found to be brittle, and porous, with chlorides and alkali metals present in The corrosion products were found to be brittle, and porous, with chlorides and alkali metals present in
different amounts and homogenously distributed. However, it was not possible to link the composition of the different amounts and homogenously distributed. However, it was not possible to link the composition of the
corrosion product to the position where the sample was taken. corrosion product to the position where the sample was taken.
The corrosion reactions on kiln shell are proposed to be chain reactions (Lai, 1990; Jøns and Østergård, 2001). The corrosion reactions on kiln shell are proposed to be chain reactions (Lai, 1990; Jøns and Østergård, 2001).
First, the release of HCl in gas phase takes place by reactions (4-11) and (4-15), occurring in the kiln, where First, the release of HCl in gas phase takes place by reactions (4-11) and (4-15), occurring in the kiln, where
thermally unstable alkali chlorides are transformed to more stable alkali sulfates. Hydrochloric acid can thermally unstable alkali chlorides are transformed to more stable alkali sulfates. Hydrochloric acid can
penetrate through the refractory and due to the decrease in temperature, chlorine formation proceeds via penetrate through the refractory and due to the decrease in temperature, chlorine formation proceeds via
reaction (4-16). According to Jøns and Østergård (2001), a temperature gradient, which is established by the reaction (4-16). According to Jøns and Østergård (2001), a temperature gradient, which is established by the
lining and the porous deposit, will be formed between the kiln atmosphere and the kiln shell. The elemental lining and the porous deposit, will be formed between the kiln atmosphere and the kiln shell. The elemental
chlorine can chemically interact with the metal shell by chlorination of iron, reaction (4-17). Subsequently, the chlorine can chemically interact with the metal shell by chlorination of iron, reaction (4-17). Subsequently, the
oxidation of FeCl2, the hydrolysis of FeCl3, and sulfidation of iron continue by reactions (4-18), (4-19), and oxidation of FeCl2, the hydrolysis of FeCl3, and sulfidation of iron continue by reactions (4-18), (4-19), and
(4-20), respectively. (4-20), respectively.
61 61
75 75
KCl ( g ) H 2O ( g ) o KOH ( g ) 2HCl ( g ) for T > 900 °C (4-11) KCl ( g ) H 2O ( g ) o KOH ( g ) 2HCl ( g ) for T > 900 °C (4-11)
2KCl ( g ) SO2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) o K2 SO4 ( g ) 2HCl ( g ) (4-15) 2KCl ( g ) SO2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) o K2 SO4 ( g ) 2HCl ( g ) (4-15)
2HCl ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o Cl2 ( g ) H 2O (g/ l) for T< 400 °C (4-16) 2HCl ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o Cl2 ( g ) H 2O (g/ l) for T< 400 °C (4-16)
Cl2 (g) Fe (s) o FeCl2 (s) (4-17) Cl2 (g) Fe (s) o FeCl2 (s) (4-17)
12 FeCl2 (s) O2 ( g ) o 8 FeS3 (g/ l) 2Fe2O3 (s) (4-18) 12 FeCl2 (s) O2 ( g ) o 8 FeS3 (g/ l) 2Fe2O3 (s) (4-18)
FeCl3 (s) 3H 2O (g/ l) o 3HCl (g) Fe(OH )3 (s/ l) (4-19) FeCl3 (s) 3H 2O (g/ l) o 3HCl (g) Fe(OH )3 (s/ l) (4-19)
4Fe(s) SO2 ( g ) o FeS2 (s) Fe3O4 (s) (4-20) 4Fe(s) SO2 ( g ) o FeS2 (s) Fe3O4 (s) (4-20)
The chlorine gas is believed to be the main promoter of corrosion since it increases the porosity of the corrosion The chlorine gas is believed to be the main promoter of corrosion since it increases the porosity of the corrosion
layer, thus decreasing the diffusion resistance, and thereby making the kiln more vulnerable to further attacks layer, thus decreasing the diffusion resistance, and thereby making the kiln more vulnerable to further attacks
(Jøns and Østergård, 2001). A schematic representation of the shell corrosion is presented in Figure 4-17, (Jøns and Østergård, 2001). A schematic representation of the shell corrosion is presented in Figure 4-17,
where it can be observed the different compounds that may be formed in the shell plate causing corrosion. Two where it can be observed the different compounds that may be formed in the shell plate causing corrosion. Two
1)
types of corrosion are observed: corrosion during kiln operation resulting in scaling of the kiln shell, which types of corrosion are observed: 1) corrosion during kiln operation resulting in scaling of the kiln shell, which
is the oxidation of the metallic iron by dry gases (containing S and/or Cl) at elevated temperatures, also known is the oxidation of the metallic iron by dry gases (containing S and/or Cl) at elevated temperatures, also known
as high temperature corrosion; and 2) rusting during kiln shut downs caused by condensation or absorption of as high temperature corrosion; and 2) rusting during kiln shut downs caused by condensation or absorption of
moisture. moisture.
K 2O + SO3/SO2 + H2O + Cl + (Cr6-, V5-) O2 K 2O + SO3/SO2 + H2O + Cl + (Cr6-, V5-) O2
Fe Shell plate Fe Shell plate
+ O2 from kiln gas + O2 from kiln gas

Cr6- and V5- as O2 donors + OH- as water vapour Cr6- and V5- as O2 donors + OH- as water vapour
or catalysts Fe(OH)2 + Cl- from hydrolysis KCl or catalysts Fe(OH)2 + Cl- from hydrolysis KCl
FeO FeO
Fe2O3 Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 Fe(OH)3
Fe3O4 + S- fromSO2/SO3/SO4 (redox) Fe3O4 + S- fromSO2/SO3/SO4 (redox)
+ OH- (hydrolysis) + OH- (hydrolysis)
FeS, FeS2, FeS, FeS2,
FeSO4, Fe2(SO4)3 FeSO4, Fe2(SO4)3
Shell corrosion Shell corrosion

covering with scale (during operation) + rust (when inoperative) covering with scale (during operation) + rust (when inoperative)
Figure 4-17: Schematic mechanism of shell corrosion, modified from (Kötter and Bartha, 1987). Figure 4-17: Schematic mechanism of shell corrosion, modified from (Kötter and Bartha, 1987).
Experiences from different plants have revealed that as long as chlorine is not present, the corrosion rate stays Experiences from different plants have revealed that as long as chlorine is not present, the corrosion rate stays
at an acceptable level, i.e. 1/3 mm per year (Karlsson, 2013). The corrosion rate is calculated for the thinnest at an acceptable level, i.e. 1/3 mm per year (Karlsson, 2013). The corrosion rate is calculated for the thinnest
62 62
76 76
part of the kiln shell, which limits the lifetime of the kiln shell. Assuming a thickness of 25 mm for the thin part of the kiln shell, which limits the lifetime of the kiln shell. Assuming a thickness of 25 mm for the thin
part, this kiln shell can be worn down by corrosion to 12 mm before the stresses become too high, and the part, this kiln shell can be worn down by corrosion to 12 mm before the stresses become too high, and the
process of thinning down takes 30 to 40 years (Holtemann, 1995). process of thinning down takes 30 to 40 years (Holtemann, 1995).
The calciner corrosion is believed to be caused by the increased sulfur circulation, which penetrates into the The calciner corrosion is believed to be caused by the increased sulfur circulation, which penetrates into the
refractory material. Sulfur compounds may react with humidity and subsequently H2SO4 may condense on the refractory material. Sulfur compounds may react with humidity and subsequently H2SO4 may condense on the
inner steel shell (Jensen, 2012). Figure 4-18 illustrates schematically the mechanism of corrosion due to the inner steel shell (Jensen, 2012). Figure 4-18 illustrates schematically the mechanism of corrosion due to the
infiltration of corrosive gases, such as SO2 and HCl, through the pore structure of the refractory lining or infiltration of corrosive gases, such as SO2 and HCl, through the pore structure of the refractory lining or
through joints penetrating the outside steel shell (Lechtenberg and Diller 2012). through joints penetrating the outside steel shell (Lechtenberg and Diller 2012).
Influence of the weather Influence of the weather
Rust Rust
T< 70 oC T< 70 oC
Acid corrosion Acid corrosion

T< 200 oC T< 200 oC
High temperature High temperature

Metallic anchor Metallic anchor
NOX corrosion NOX corrosion
SO2 T> 400 oC SO2 T> 400 oC
HCl HCl
Corrosive gases Corrosive gases
Steel shell Steel shell
Lining Insulation Lining Insulation
Figure 4-18: Scheme of the mechanism of corrosion, modified from (Lechtenberg and Diller 2012). Figure 4-18: Scheme of the mechanism of corrosion, modified from (Lechtenberg and Diller 2012).
Refractory can fail due to chemical attack because brick reaction with clinker melt and alkali salts can occur. Refractory can fail due to chemical attack because brick reaction with clinker melt and alkali salts can occur.
The intensity of the chemical attack increases with temperature, time and proximity to the burning zone. The The intensity of the chemical attack increases with temperature, time and proximity to the burning zone. The
disposal of alternative fuels in cement kilns has intensified chemical attack to the lining in all kiln zones, disposal of alternative fuels in cement kilns has intensified chemical attack to the lining in all kiln zones,
including the preheater and cooler (Szczerba, 2009; Vadász et al., 2009). including the preheater and cooler (Szczerba, 2009; Vadász et al., 2009).
4.3 Circulation of Volatile Elements due to Combustion of Alternative Fuels 4.3 Circulation of Volatile Elements due to Combustion of Alternative Fuels
Alternative fuels have different characteristics compared to fossil fuels. Their utilization in the cement Alternative fuels have different characteristics compared to fossil fuels. Their utilization in the cement
manufacturing may therefore have several effects on the process stability, such as reducing conditions, poor manufacturing may therefore have several effects on the process stability, such as reducing conditions, poor
heat distribution, unstable pre-calciner operation, blockages in the preheater cyclones, build-ups in the kiln heat distribution, unstable pre-calciner operation, blockages in the preheater cyclones, build-ups in the kiln
riser ducts, higher SO2, NOx and CO emissions and dusty kilns (Nielsen, 2012). Furthermore, the type of fuel riser ducts, higher SO2, NOx and CO emissions and dusty kilns (Nielsen, 2012). Furthermore, the type of fuel
used may introduce specific material components or increase the concentration of specific elements, which used may introduce specific material components or increase the concentration of specific elements, which
can interfere with the chemistry/quality of the cement, refractory life, gas and material flow or potential can interfere with the chemistry/quality of the cement, refractory life, gas and material flow or potential
emissions to the atmosphere, and thereby affect the operation of the system. emissions to the atmosphere, and thereby affect the operation of the system.
63 63
77 77
In the following section, the introduction or increase of elements in the cement chemistry coming from In the following section, the introduction or increase of elements in the cement chemistry coming from
alternative fuels is explained, but it is not described in details because the topic is outside of the scope of the alternative fuels is explained, but it is not described in details because the topic is outside of the scope of the
project. project.
4.3.1 Introduction or Increase of Elements in the Cement Chemistry 4.3.1 Introduction or Increase of Elements in the Cement Chemistry
The main elements introduced with alternative fuels are: Na, K, S, Cl, Zn, P, Fe, Si found as SiO2, and carbon The main elements introduced with alternative fuels are: Na, K, S, Cl, Zn, P, Fe, Si found as SiO2, and carbon
in cases of incomplete combustion. Furthermore, heavy metals such as As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Cu, Ni, and Sn may in cases of incomplete combustion. Furthermore, heavy metals such as As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Cu, Ni, and Sn may
be incorporated as traces. The presence of heavy metals in the clinker does not affect the quality when the be incorporated as traces. The presence of heavy metals in the clinker does not affect the quality when the
amount is under a threshold limit. Trace elements exceeding the threshold limit may affect the clinker, e.g. Cu amount is under a threshold limit. Trace elements exceeding the threshold limit may affect the clinker, e.g. Cu
affects the alite formation, while Zn will affect aluminate (Gineys et al., 2011). However, heavy metals are affects the alite formation, while Zn will affect aluminate (Gineys et al., 2011). However, heavy metals are
one of the major hazards in the flue gas from alternative fuels, due to environmental implications. Mercury one of the major hazards in the flue gas from alternative fuels, due to environmental implications. Mercury
and Cd are examples of heavy metals, which tend to be highly volatile at burning zone temperatures (Conesa and Cd are examples of heavy metals, which tend to be highly volatile at burning zone temperatures (Conesa
et al., 2008). et al., 2008).
Alternative fuels that contain Fe (e.g. TDF, up to 25 wt. % for truck tires (Nielsen, 2012)) or silica (e.g. ash Alternative fuels that contain Fe (e.g. TDF, up to 25 wt. % for truck tires (Nielsen, 2012)) or silica (e.g. ash
from rice husks, which contain 70-90 % silica (Chinyama, 2011)) contribute to the main oxides of the clinker, from rice husks, which contain 70-90 % silica (Chinyama, 2011)) contribute to the main oxides of the clinker,
and their required content in the raw materials should therefore be reduced. and their required content in the raw materials should therefore be reduced.
The clinker quality may also be negatively affected, if the clinker is exposed to reducing conditions induced The clinker quality may also be negatively affected, if the clinker is exposed to reducing conditions induced
by the alternative fuel if combusted in direct contact with the material bed in the rotary kiln. The main problem by the alternative fuel if combusted in direct contact with the material bed in the rotary kiln. The main problem
is the reduction of Fe2O3 to FeO, which takes place at temperature higher than 450 °C, or to elemental Fe, is the reduction of Fe2O3 to FeO, which takes place at temperature higher than 450 °C, or to elemental Fe,
which occurs under strongly reducing conditions. FeO, which has Fe in the oxidation state +II, catalyzes the which occurs under strongly reducing conditions. FeO, which has Fe in the oxidation state +II, catalyzes the
decomposition of alite and reduces the ferrite content. This leads to modifications of the Portland cement decomposition of alite and reduces the ferrite content. This leads to modifications of the Portland cement
properties, and potential color change. This phenomenon is known as brown clinker (Klauss, 2000). The properties, and potential color change. This phenomenon is known as brown clinker (Klauss, 2000). The
clinker quality may also be negatively affected by the addition of metal oxide residues (Trezza and Scian, clinker quality may also be negatively affected by the addition of metal oxide residues (Trezza and Scian,
2000) and waste material ashes (Karagiannis et al., 2008; Pipilikaki et al., 2005; Trezza and Scian, 2005; 2000) and waste material ashes (Karagiannis et al., 2008; Pipilikaki et al., 2005; Trezza and Scian, 2005;
Trezza and Scian, 2009) to the clinker during the clinkering process through combustion of alternative fuels if Trezza and Scian, 2009) to the clinker during the clinkering process through combustion of alternative fuels if
the raw meal mixtures is not adjusted accordingly. the raw meal mixtures is not adjusted accordingly.
4.3.2 Local Reducing Conditions 4.3.2 Local Reducing Conditions
The kiln atmosphere is oxidizing in order to produce a good quality cement clinker and ensure a proper The kiln atmosphere is oxidizing in order to produce a good quality cement clinker and ensure a proper
combustion of the fuel (Hewlett, 1998). However, when there is fuel spillage from the calciner and/or main combustion of the fuel (Hewlett, 1998). However, when there is fuel spillage from the calciner and/or main
burner, and/or fuel are fired into the rotary kiln material inlet end, it can consume oxygen locally and thereby burner, and/or fuel are fired into the rotary kiln material inlet end, it can consume oxygen locally and thereby
cause local reducing conditions that may have a negative effect on the clinker quality and the process stability. cause local reducing conditions that may have a negative effect on the clinker quality and the process stability.
Only the effects on the process stability are considered in this thesis. It should be emphasized that reducing Only the effects on the process stability are considered in this thesis. It should be emphasized that reducing
conditions in the material kiln bed do not necessarily mean reducing conditions in the gas phase and vice versa. conditions in the material kiln bed do not necessarily mean reducing conditions in the gas phase and vice versa.
64 64
78 78
The process stability is mainly affected by the increase in sulfur release from the raw meal to the gas phase. The process stability is mainly affected by the increase in sulfur release from the raw meal to the gas phase.
The sulfur release in the kiln inlet comes mainly from the decomposition of CaSO4 by the reducing agents The sulfur release in the kiln inlet comes mainly from the decomposition of CaSO4 by the reducing agents
released by the fuels, so-called reductive decomposition of CaSO4, which will be further discussed in Chapters released by the fuels, so-called reductive decomposition of CaSO4, which will be further discussed in Chapters
5 and 6. The partial or unburned alternative fuels increase the content of solid carbon, especially CO (g) and 5 and 6. The partial or unburned alternative fuels increase the content of solid carbon, especially CO (g) and
can react as follows. can react as follows.
CaSO4 (s) C (s) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) CO ( g ) (4-21) CaSO4 (s) C (s) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) CO ( g ) (4-21)
CaSO4 (s) CO ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) CO2 ( g ) (4-22) CaSO4 (s) CO ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) CO2 ( g ) (4-22)
Similar reactions apply for the alkali sulfates. However, these compounds are thermally more stable than Similar reactions apply for the alkali sulfates. However, these compounds are thermally more stable than
CaSO4. The alkali sulfates may decompose and release both sulfur and alkali metals to the gas phase when CaSO4. The alkali sulfates may decompose and release both sulfur and alkali metals to the gas phase when
fuels fired by the kiln burner fall into the material kiln bed, which is one of the scenarios illustrated in Figure fuels fired by the kiln burner fall into the material kiln bed, which is one of the scenarios illustrated in Figure
3-2. 3-2.
Reducing conditions promote SO2 release and tend to increase the intensity of the sulfur cycle in the kiln Reducing conditions promote SO2 release and tend to increase the intensity of the sulfur cycle in the kiln
system. Therefore, the reducing conditions may alter the material circulation considerably and cause system. Therefore, the reducing conditions may alter the material circulation considerably and cause
operational problems. operational problems.
4.3.3 Increase of Circulation Phenomena in the Kiln System 4.3.3 Increase of Circulation Phenomena in the Kiln System
Sulfur and chlorine circulation may often be increased due to the utilization of alternative fuels. High Sulfur and chlorine circulation may often be increased due to the utilization of alternative fuels. High
concentrations of these compounds often cause difficulties in kiln operation with build-ups, mainly in the concentrations of these compounds often cause difficulties in kiln operation with build-ups, mainly in the
preheater and the kiln inlet section. The intensity of the cycles varies between different systems, and there are preheater and the kiln inlet section. The intensity of the cycles varies between different systems, and there are
also considerable variations within one single kiln system, depending on the operating conditions. also considerable variations within one single kiln system, depending on the operating conditions.
4.3.3.1 Sulfur Circulation 4.3.3.1 Sulfur Circulation
Incomplete combustion of fuels, when they are burned in direct contact with the bed material, can cause an Incomplete combustion of fuels, when they are burned in direct contact with the bed material, can cause an
increase of sulfur circulation because reducing agents, which promote the reductive decomposition of CaSO4, increase of sulfur circulation because reducing agents, which promote the reductive decomposition of CaSO4,
are formed during the combustion in an oxygen-lean environment. Normally, the increase of sulfur circulation are formed during the combustion in an oxygen-lean environment. Normally, the increase of sulfur circulation
is associated to alternative fuels due to their physical and chemical properties differences with fossil fuels is associated to alternative fuels due to their physical and chemical properties differences with fossil fuels
(particle size, moisture content, and others mentioned in Chapter 3) and their place of firing. While fossil fuels (particle size, moisture content, and others mentioned in Chapter 3) and their place of firing. While fossil fuels
do not theoretically give rise to sulfur circulation because they are finely grinded, which causes full combustion do not theoretically give rise to sulfur circulation because they are finely grinded, which causes full combustion
in the calciner or in the main burner. However, an increase of sulfur circulation when petcoke char was in the calciner or in the main burner. However, an increase of sulfur circulation when petcoke char was
combusted in contact with the kiln inlet material bed, has been experienced. combusted in contact with the kiln inlet material bed, has been experienced.
In an industrial cement plant, which was burning pellets of dried sewage sludge through the main burner, the In an industrial cement plant, which was burning pellets of dried sewage sludge through the main burner, the
sulfur evaporation has a decreasing linear tendency with the O2 concentration in the gas phase at the kiln sulfur evaporation has a decreasing linear tendency with the O2 concentration in the gas phase at the kiln
65 65
79 79
material inlet, see Figure 4-19. Increasing the oxygen content at the kiln material inlet minimizes the sulfur material inlet, see Figure 4-19. Increasing the oxygen content at the kiln material inlet minimizes the sulfur
evaporation. The increase of oxygen concentration is believed to reduce the occurrence of local reducing evaporation. The increase of oxygen concentration is believed to reduce the occurrence of local reducing
condition in the clinker be where unburned sewage sludge were dropped from the flame (Nørskov, 2012). condition in the clinker be where unburned sewage sludge were dropped from the flame (Nørskov, 2012).
1.0 1.0
Sulfur evaporation factor, Ɛ
Sulfur evaporation factor, Ɛ

0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
O2 conc. at kiln inlet [vol. %] O2 conc. at kiln inlet [vol. %]
Figure 4-19: Sulfur evaporation factor as function of O2 exhaust gas concentration measured at the kiln material inlet during firing Figure 4-19: Sulfur evaporation factor as function of O2 exhaust gas concentration measured at the kiln material inlet during firing
0.5-2 tons per hour dried sewage sludge in the kiln burner (Nørskov, 2012). 0.5-2 tons per hour dried sewage sludge in the kiln burner (Nørskov, 2012).
In the calciner, the fuel and the raw meal is in direct contact, but the SO2 release is not taking place there. It In the calciner, the fuel and the raw meal is in direct contact, but the SO2 release is not taking place there. It
has been suggested that partly calcined hot meal is less problematic than completely calcined hot meal with has been suggested that partly calcined hot meal is less problematic than completely calcined hot meal with
regards to sulfur release, since the endothermic calcinations reaction will absorb heat developed from the fuels regards to sulfur release, since the endothermic calcinations reaction will absorb heat developed from the fuels
and thereby prevent temperature increment that leads to sulfur release. However, there is a lack of and thereby prevent temperature increment that leads to sulfur release. However, there is a lack of
understanding and experimental results in this area. understanding and experimental results in this area.
4.3.3.2 Chlorine Circulation 4.3.3.2 Chlorine Circulation
Alternative fuels, RDF in particular, may introduce up to 4 wt. % chlorine. The growing use of alternative Alternative fuels, RDF in particular, may introduce up to 4 wt. % chlorine. The growing use of alternative
fuels is increasing the input of chlorine. Some of the waste plastics, such as PVC, sewage sludge, meat and fuels is increasing the input of chlorine. Some of the waste plastics, such as PVC, sewage sludge, meat and
bone meal, and chlorinated hydrocarbons may increase the amount of chlorine introduced into the system bone meal, and chlorinated hydrocarbons may increase the amount of chlorine introduced into the system
significantly. The circulation of chlorine is determined by the phase equilibrium between liquid and gaseous significantly. The circulation of chlorine is determined by the phase equilibrium between liquid and gaseous
KCl. The evaporation generally occurs in the burning zone of the kiln and the re-condensation in the riser pipes KCl. The evaporation generally occurs in the burning zone of the kiln and the re-condensation in the riser pipes
and lower cyclones, where Cl can combine with alkalis and sulfates and form mixtures with a low melting and lower cyclones, where Cl can combine with alkalis and sulfates and form mixtures with a low melting
point. The degree of volatile recycling within the system will increase with increasing amounts of alkali point. The degree of volatile recycling within the system will increase with increasing amounts of alkali
chlorides. Too high Cl is influencing the economy of clinker production by causing kiln stoppages, corrosion, chlorides. Too high Cl is influencing the economy of clinker production by causing kiln stoppages, corrosion,
and uneven clinker quality. and uneven clinker quality.
Under unfavorable circumstances, some of the chlorine, which is normally present in the kiln atmosphere in Under unfavorable circumstances, some of the chlorine, which is normally present in the kiln atmosphere in
the form of NaCl and KCl, can be replaced by HCl. The hydrochloric acid can cause corrosion of the steel the form of NaCl and KCl, can be replaced by HCl. The hydrochloric acid can cause corrosion of the steel
66 66
80 80
walls of the rotary kiln (Saint-Jean et al., 2005). A bypass can be a very effective way of removing chlorides walls of the rotary kiln (Saint-Jean et al., 2005). A bypass can be a very effective way of removing chlorides
from the kiln system. Approximately 90 % of chlorine can be removed by extracting 5 % of kiln exhaust gas, from the kiln system. Approximately 90 % of chlorine can be removed by extracting 5 % of kiln exhaust gas,
but no more than 15 % of alkalis or sulfur can be removed (Sutou et al., 1999). but no more than 15 % of alkalis or sulfur can be removed (Sutou et al., 1999).
The effects of chloride are strongly influenced by the sulfur load in the kiln (Jøns et al., 2008). A model of the The effects of chloride are strongly influenced by the sulfur load in the kiln (Jøns et al., 2008). A model of the
chlorine circulation in the kiln and how this is influenced by the S load based on simple thermodynamic chlorine circulation in the kiln and how this is influenced by the S load based on simple thermodynamic
considerations was developed by Jøns et al. (2008). The findings were supported by statistical treatment of considerations was developed by Jøns et al. (2008). The findings were supported by statistical treatment of
data collected from more than 50 modern kiln systems. It was concluded that the higher the sulfate content in data collected from more than 50 modern kiln systems. It was concluded that the higher the sulfate content in
clinker, the lower the evaporation factor for chlorine. clinker, the lower the evaporation factor for chlorine.
4.4 Thermodynamic Calculations 4.4 Thermodynamic Calculations
For a better understanding of the inorganic chemistry in the rotary kiln, thermodynamic equilibrium For a better understanding of the inorganic chemistry in the rotary kiln, thermodynamic equilibrium
calculations were performed using the commercially available software FactSage 6.2 (Bale et al., 2009). This calculations were performed using the commercially available software FactSage 6.2 (Bale et al., 2009). This
program uses the principle of minimization of the total Gibbs free energy to calculate the equilibrium program uses the principle of minimization of the total Gibbs free energy to calculate the equilibrium
composition of a chemical system with known composition, temperature and pressure. The principle of the composition of a chemical system with known composition, temperature and pressure. The principle of the
Gibbs energy minimization is described in Appendix A. Gibbs energy minimization is described in Appendix A.
4.4.1 System considering inorganic chemistry with clinker chemistry 4.4.1 System considering inorganic chemistry with clinker chemistry
A system model including the inorganic chemistry with the clinker chemistry is first considered. Two groups A system model including the inorganic chemistry with the clinker chemistry is first considered. Two groups
of compounds are differentiated in the bed material: Group 1) containing the elements (Ca, Si, Al, Fe) present of compounds are differentiated in the bed material: Group 1) containing the elements (Ca, Si, Al, Fe) present
in the clinker compounds and Group 2) the volatile elements described in section 4.1. The two groups of solid in the clinker compounds and Group 2) the volatile elements described in section 4.1. The two groups of solid
compounds interact between each other and also with the gas phase. The system examines the equilibrium compounds interact between each other and also with the gas phase. The system examines the equilibrium
between the gas species and the solid species in the bed material and also the equilibrium between the solid between the gas species and the solid species in the bed material and also the equilibrium between the solid
compounds of the bed. This equilibrium is schematically illustrated in Figure 4-20. compounds of the bed. This equilibrium is schematically illustrated in Figure 4-20.
Gas Gas
Bed material Bed material

Ca,Si, Al, Fe Ca, S, Na, K, Cl Ca,Si, Al, Fe Ca, S, Na, K, Cl
Figure 4-20: Schematic view of the gas and bed material in equilibrium. Figure 4-20: Schematic view of the gas and bed material in equilibrium.
4.4.1.1 Assumptions and Limitations 4.4.1.1 Assumptions and Limitations
The equilibrium model is based on the composition of hot meal and the flue gas leaving the rotary kiln. The The equilibrium model is based on the composition of hot meal and the flue gas leaving the rotary kiln. The
hot meal composition in weight percentage and in mol/kg clinker, from Nielsen (2012), is shown in Table 4-3. hot meal composition in weight percentage and in mol/kg clinker, from Nielsen (2012), is shown in Table 4-3.
Nielsen (2012) specified that the defined hot meal contains a relatively high amount of Cl and S, relative to Nielsen (2012) specified that the defined hot meal contains a relatively high amount of Cl and S, relative to
the guidelines for a stable kiln operation. Mn2O3, TiO2, SrO, MgO and P2O5, are specified but they are the guidelines for a stable kiln operation. Mn2O3, TiO2, SrO, MgO and P2O5, are specified but they are
67 67
81 81
neglected in the calculations because these elements are not interacting with sulfur and chlorine due to their neglected in the calculations because these elements are not interacting with sulfur and chlorine due to their
small concentration range. The loss on ignition, which is the weight fraction lost by heating the sample to 975 small concentration range. The loss on ignition, which is the weight fraction lost by heating the sample to 975
°C, is not considered either in the calculations because it is expected not to have any influence in the inorganic °C, is not considered either in the calculations because it is expected not to have any influence in the inorganic
chemistry. chemistry.
The composition of the hot meal is traditionally expressed as oxides (Table 4-3), however, the oxides are not The composition of the hot meal is traditionally expressed as oxides (Table 4-3), however, the oxides are not
the compounds present in the hot meal. Therefore, based on the molar amount of S, K, Na, Si, Al, Fe, Cl and the compounds present in the hot meal. Therefore, based on the molar amount of S, K, Na, Si, Al, Fe, Cl and
1
Ca, the compound concentrations, such as Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, KCl, Ca2SiO4 (belite) , SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, Ca, the compound concentrations, such as Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, KCl, Ca2SiO4 (belite)1, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3,
and CaO, in the hot meal can be calculated and used as input for the thermodynamic calculations. The and CaO, in the hot meal can be calculated and used as input for the thermodynamic calculations. The
aforementioned compounds with their corresponding concentrations are listed in Table 4-4. aforementioned compounds with their corresponding concentrations are listed in Table 4-4.
Table 4-3: Typical composition of hot meal used in the Table 4-4: Specific concentration of Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, KCl, Table 4-3: Typical composition of hot meal used in the Table 4-4: Specific concentration of Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, KCl,
equilibrium calculations (Nielsen, 2012). Ca2SiO4, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and CaO in the hot meal. equilibrium calculations (Nielsen, 2012). Ca2SiO4, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and CaO in the hot meal.
Hot meal Concentration Concentration Hot meal Concentration Concentration

Hot meal compounds Hot meal compounds
composition [mol/kg clinker] composition [mol/kg clinker]
[wt. %] [mol/kg clinker] [wt. %] [mol/kg clinker]
Na2SO4 0.032 Na2SO4 0.032
SiO2 18.00 3.000 SiO2 18.00 3.000
K2SO4 0.101 K2SO4 0.101
Al2O3 4.76 0.467 Al2O3 4.76 0.467
CaSO4 0.632 CaSO4 0.632
Fe2O3 2.30 0.144 Fe2O3 2.30 0.144
KCl 0.330 KCl 0.330
CaO 56.80 10.128 CaO 56.80 10.128
Ca2SiO4 1.000 Ca2SiO4 1.000
K2O 2.50 0.266 K2O 2.50 0.266
SiO2 2.000 SiO2 2.000
Na2O 0.20 0.032 Al2O3 0.467 Na2O 0.20 0.032 Al2O3 0.467
SO3 6.12 0.765 Fe2O3 0.144 SO3 6.12 0.765 Fe2O3 0.144
Cl 1.17 0.330 CaO 7.497 Cl 1.17 0.330 CaO 7.497
Mn2O3 0.05 No included Mn2O3 0.05 No included
TiO2 0.25 No included TiO2 0.25 No included
SrO 0.09 No included SrO 0.09 No included
MgO 1.86 No included MgO 1.86 No included
P2O5 0.07 No included P2O5 0.07 No included
LOI, 975 oC 5.77 No included LOI, 975 oC 5.77 No included
Total 99.94 - Total 99.94 -
The flue gas in the kiln is characterized to be oxidizing. The composition and concentration of the gas used for The flue gas in the kiln is characterized to be oxidizing. The composition and concentration of the gas used for
the thermodynamic calculation of the full system is specified in Table 4-5. The values represent typical values the thermodynamic calculation of the full system is specified in Table 4-5. The values represent typical values
found in the kiln inlet of a cement rotary kiln. All the compounds are inserted in the calculations as mol/kg found in the kiln inlet of a cement rotary kiln. All the compounds are inserted in the calculations as mol/kg
clinker. clinker.
1 The formation of belite starts at temperatures above 700 °C, so it is assumed that part of the silica content is contributed by belite. 1 The formation of belite starts at temperatures above 700 °C, so it is assumed that part of the silica content is contributed by belite.
68 68
82 82
Table 4-5: Flue gas composition in oxidizing conditions. Table 4-5: Flue gas composition in oxidizing conditions.
Gas composition in Concentration Gas composition in Concentration

oxidizing conditions [vol. %] [mol/kg clinker] oxidizing conditions [vol. %] [mol/kg clinker]
CO2 25.00 5.580 CO2 25.00 5.580
O2 5.00 1.116 O2 5.00 1.116
H2O 5.00 1.116 H2O 5.00 1.116
SO2 0.05 0.011 SO2 0.05 0.011
N2 64.95 14.49 N2 64.95 14.49
Total 100.00 - Total 100.00 -
The following considerations have been taken for the model: The following considerations have been taken for the model:
- A closed co-current system is considered. - A closed co-current system is considered.

- The calculations have been performed assuming one kg calcined raw material and 0.5 Nm3 flue gas - The calculations have been performed assuming one kg calcined raw material and 0.5 Nm3 flue gas
for each kg clinker produced. for each kg clinker produced.
o o o
- The temperature of the calculations is in the range between 900 C and 1500 C in a step size of 10 C - The temperature of the calculations is in the range between 900 oC and 1500 oC in a step size of 10 oC
and the pressure is 1 atm. and the pressure is 1 atm.
- Ideal gas phase species, solid phase species, and liquid phase species and their physical and chemical - Ideal gas phase species, solid phase species, and liquid phase species and their physical and chemical
properties are included from the software database (Bale et al., 2009). The list of species included in properties are included from the software database (Bale et al., 2009). The list of species included in
the calculations is specified in Appendix B. the calculations is specified in Appendix B.
The equilibrium model has the following limitations: The equilibrium model has the following limitations:
- The model does not consider mass transfer and kinetic limitations. The residence time of the material - The model does not consider mass transfer and kinetic limitations. The residence time of the material
in the industrial rotary kiln may be too short for the species to transform, decompose or react with each in the industrial rotary kiln may be too short for the species to transform, decompose or react with each
other. Therefore, the predicted formation of species may deviate from reality. other. Therefore, the predicted formation of species may deviate from reality.
- The model considers pure species and the interaction between the compounds are neglected; just the - The model considers pure species and the interaction between the compounds are neglected; just the
interactions between the elements of the input compounds are taken into account. interactions between the elements of the input compounds are taken into account.
- The data of the software might be not fully reliable at higher range of the temperatures studied, because - The data of the software might be not fully reliable at higher range of the temperatures studied, because
the Cp data for some of the species listed in Appendix B were out of the temperature ranged. the Cp data for some of the species listed in Appendix B were out of the temperature ranged.
- The model cannot take into account the uncertainties in the thermodynamic properties. - The model cannot take into account the uncertainties in the thermodynamic properties.
4.4.1.2 Results and Considerations 4.4.1.2 Results and Considerations
Figure 4-21 shows the thermodynamic results of the complex system considering the gas compounds, the main Figure 4-21 shows the thermodynamic results of the complex system considering the gas compounds, the main
clinker compounds, and compounds containing sulfur, alkali, and chlorine. The concentrations of CO2 and N2 clinker compounds, and compounds containing sulfur, alkali, and chlorine. The concentrations of CO2 and N2
in the gas phase are higher than the rest of the species and in order not to shift the magnitude of the y-axis, in the gas phase are higher than the rest of the species and in order not to shift the magnitude of the y-axis,
these species are not presented in the graph. these species are not presented in the graph.
69 69
83 83
3.5 3.5
Ca2SiO4 (s) - Belite Ca2SiO4 (s) - Belite

3 3

2.5 Ca3SiO5 (s) - Alite 2.5 Ca3SiO5 (s) - Alite
2 2
CaO (s) CaO (s)
1.5 1.5
1 1
K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) SO2 (g) K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) SO2 (g)
Ca3Al2O6 (s)-Aluminate Ca2SiO4 (s2) Ca3Al2O6 (s)-Aluminate Ca2SiO4 (s2)
0.5 0.5
K2SO4 (l) K2SO4 (l)
KCl (g) KCl (g)
KCl (l) CaSO4 (s) Ca2Fe2O5 (s) KCl (l) CaSO4 (s) Ca2Fe2O5 (s)
0 0
K2SO4 (g) K2SO4 (g)
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Temperature [oC] Temperature [oC]
Figure 4-21: Thermodynamic results of the system model including the inorganic chemistry with the clinker chemistry. Figure 4-21: Thermodynamic results of the system model including the inorganic chemistry with the clinker chemistry.
The abundant solid compounds from 900 to 1300 oC are CaO and dicalcium silicate (belite). At 1300 oC belite The abundant solid compounds from 900 to 1300 oC are CaO and dicalcium silicate (belite). At 1300 oC belite
starts to not be thermally stable until 1450 oC, where another solid structure of belite is stable. From 1300 to starts to not be thermally stable until 1450 oC, where another solid structure of belite is stable. From 1300 to
1500 oC, tricalcium silicate (alite) is the most abundant silicate. The equilibrium concentration of CaO at 1300 1500 oC, tricalcium silicate (alite) is the most abundant silicate. The equilibrium concentration of CaO at 1300
o o
C decreases because calcium is combined with belite to form alite. C decreases because calcium is combined with belite to form alite.
In Figure 4-21, Al and Fe are combined as Ca3Al2O6 (aluminate) and Ca2Fe2O5, respectively. Their equilibrium In Figure 4-21, Al and Fe are combined as Ca3Al2O6 (aluminate) and Ca2Fe2O5, respectively. Their equilibrium
concentrations do not vary with temperature. However, ferrite (Ca4Al2Fe2O10), which is one of the clinker concentrations do not vary with temperature. However, ferrite (Ca4Al2Fe2O10), which is one of the clinker
minerals, has not been predicted in this calculation. This may be due to the formation of solid aluminate and minerals, has not been predicted in this calculation. This may be due to the formation of solid aluminate and
ferrite from the liquid phase takes place during the cooling, as mentioned in Chapter 2. ferrite from the liquid phase takes place during the cooling, as mentioned in Chapter 2.
The volatile elements are present in the system in minor equilibrium concentrations. Sulfur is found as CaSO4 The volatile elements are present in the system in minor equilibrium concentrations. Sulfur is found as CaSO4
o
and K2Ca2(SO4)3 at the rotary kiln inlet. Calcium sulfate is the abundant sulfate, which is stable until 1200 C, and K2Ca2(SO4)3 at the rotary kiln inlet. Calcium sulfate is the abundant sulfate, which is stable until 1200 oC,
where after it starts to decompose until 1320 oC where CaSO4 is no longer stable. Calcium langbeinite, where after it starts to decompose until 1320 oC where CaSO4 is no longer stable. Calcium langbeinite,
K2Ca2(SO4)3, is a double sulfate containing potassium and calcium and is more thermally stable than calcium K2Ca2(SO4)3, is a double sulfate containing potassium and calcium and is more thermally stable than calcium
o o
sulfate. Calcium langbeinite is stable until 1380 C. At higher temperatures, from 1380 to 1500 C, the stable sulfate. Calcium langbeinite is stable until 1380 oC. At higher temperatures, from 1380 to 1500 oC, the stable
sulfate is K2SO4 in liquid phase and gas phase. SO2 in gas phase is released from 1200 oC, when calcium sulfate sulfate is K2SO4 in liquid phase and gas phase. SO2 in gas phase is released from 1200 oC, when calcium sulfate
starts to be less stable. Calcium langbeinite also contributes to higher equilibrium concentration of SO2 when starts to be less stable. Calcium langbeinite also contributes to higher equilibrium concentration of SO2 when
it is no longer thermally stable. The chlorine compounds in gas phase in the system are KCl, which is the most it is no longer thermally stable. The chlorine compounds in gas phase in the system are KCl, which is the most
o
abundant chloride, and NaCl in the whole range of temperatures studied. From 900 to 930 C, KCl also appears abundant chloride, and NaCl in the whole range of temperatures studied. From 900 to 930 oC, KCl also appears
to be stable in liquid phase. to be stable in liquid phase.
70 70
84 84
The results of this complex system do not represent the chemistry of the rotary kiln explained in section 4.1, The results of this complex system do not represent the chemistry of the rotary kiln explained in section 4.1,
o
especially at temperatures higher than 1200 C. These calculations are assuming perfect mixing between the especially at temperatures higher than 1200 oC. These calculations are assuming perfect mixing between the
compounds and local fluctuations are not considered. The equilibrium conditions where local fluctuations take compounds and local fluctuations are not considered. The equilibrium conditions where local fluctuations take
place inside of the rotary kiln, such as nodulization, can be very different from the simulated conditions, which place inside of the rotary kiln, such as nodulization, can be very different from the simulated conditions, which
have transport and kinetics limitations. The local fluctuations can also influence the interaction between the have transport and kinetics limitations. The local fluctuations can also influence the interaction between the
volatile compounds and the main clinker phases, for example it has been reported that K and Na can be volatile compounds and the main clinker phases, for example it has been reported that K and Na can be
incorporated in the clinker minerals (Jawed and Skalny, 1977) and this phenomena has not appeared in the incorporated in the clinker minerals (Jawed and Skalny, 1977) and this phenomena has not appeared in the
thermodynamic simulations. thermodynamic simulations.
Due to the complexity of the system and because the focus of the investigation is on the volatile elements, Due to the complexity of the system and because the focus of the investigation is on the volatile elements,
which are in minor concentrations than the clinker elements, the system is simplified to study which are in minor concentrations than the clinker elements, the system is simplified to study
thermodynamically the effect of the inorganic chemistry consisting of S, K, Na, and Cl. thermodynamically the effect of the inorganic chemistry consisting of S, K, Na, and Cl.
4.4.2 System considering inorganic chemistry 4.4.2 System considering inorganic chemistry
The system model is simplified by only considering the inorganic chemistry and is based on the same The system model is simplified by only considering the inorganic chemistry and is based on the same
composition of hot meal presented in Table 4-3 and the flue gas presented in Table 4-5. composition of hot meal presented in Table 4-3 and the flue gas presented in Table 4-5.
In this section, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 composition is not included. The model does not consider the main In this section, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 composition is not included. The model does not consider the main
clinker chemistry and the interaction with the volatiles species. Therefore, all the volatiles species will be in clinker chemistry and the interaction with the volatiles species. Therefore, all the volatiles species will be in
gas phase in the hot end of the kiln, while in the industrial rotary kiln some of these volatiles will be part of gas phase in the hot end of the kiln, while in the industrial rotary kiln some of these volatiles will be part of
and leave with clinker nodules. So, this model severely overestimates the evaporation of the gas species. and leave with clinker nodules. So, this model severely overestimates the evaporation of the gas species.
In the next sections, the simplified system model splits apart the different compounds (sulfates and chlorides) In the next sections, the simplified system model splits apart the different compounds (sulfates and chlorides)
in order to study their effect. First, the sulfates are investigated in oxidizing and reducing conditions and then, in order to study their effect. First, the sulfates are investigated in oxidizing and reducing conditions and then,
the effect of chlorides is introduced in the system. the effect of chlorides is introduced in the system.
4.4.2.1 Sulfates in Oxidizing Conditions 4.4.2.1 Sulfates in Oxidizing Conditions
Based on moles of potassium, sodium, sulfur, and calcium, as elements, in the given composition of the hot Based on moles of potassium, sodium, sulfur, and calcium, as elements, in the given composition of the hot
meal, the concentration of Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in moles/kg clinker is specified in Table 4-6. It meal, the concentration of Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in moles/kg clinker is specified in Table 4-6. It
can be seen that the predominant sulfate is CaSO4 with a higher concentration than the alkali sulfates. can be seen that the predominant sulfate is CaSO4 with a higher concentration than the alkali sulfates.
Table 4-6: Specific concentration of Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in the hot meal. Table 4-6: Specific concentration of Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in the hot meal.
Hot meal compounds Concentration [mol/kg clinker] Hot meal compounds Concentration [mol/kg clinker]
Na2SO4 0.032 Na2SO4 0.032
K2SO4 0.266 K2SO4 0.266
CaSO4 0.467 CaSO4 0.467
CaO 9.622 CaO 9.622
71 71
85 85
The thermodynamics results are shown in Figure 4-22. Abundant species such as are CaO, CO2, and O2 are The thermodynamics results are shown in Figure 4-22. Abundant species such as are CaO, CO2, and O2 are
not shown in the graph because the presence of these species would shift the magnitude of the y-axis and make not shown in the graph because the presence of these species would shift the magnitude of the y-axis and make
impossible to see the behavior of alkali and sulfate containing species. impossible to see the behavior of alkali and sulfate containing species.
Calcium langbeinite, K2Ca2(SO4)3, is the most abundant solid sulfate and appears to be thermally stable until Calcium langbeinite, K2Ca2(SO4)3, is the most abundant solid sulfate and appears to be thermally stable until
1250 °C and starts to until 1370 C. In solid phase, a double sulfate of potassium and sodium and K 2SO4 are 1250 °C and starts to until 1370 C. In solid phase, a double sulfate of potassium and sodium and K 2SO4 are
also stable in small concentrations, the first one from 900 to 930 °C and the second from 930 to 1060 °C. also stable in small concentrations, the first one from 900 to 930 °C and the second from 930 to 1060 °C.
CaSO4 does not appear in this results; this may be because the input concentration is quite similar to the K2SO4 CaSO4 does not appear in this results; this may be because the input concentration is quite similar to the K2SO4
input concentration, therefore they are combined as calcium lagnbenite. This does not happens when the input input concentration, therefore they are combined as calcium lagnbenite. This does not happens when the input
concentration of CaSO4 is larger than the input concentration of K2SO4 (see section 4.4.2.3). concentration of CaSO4 is larger than the input concentration of K2SO4 (see section 4.4.2.3).
In In liquid phase, sodium sulfate appears to be the thermally stable compounds until 1350 °C and potassium In In liquid phase, sodium sulfate appears to be the thermally stable compounds until 1350 °C and potassium
sulfate from 1060 to 1500 °C with a maximum concentration at 1380° C. The SO2 in the gas phase is mostly sulfate from 1060 to 1500 °C with a maximum concentration at 1380° C. The SO2 in the gas phase is mostly
produced from the decomposition of the solid sulfates and the concentration also increases above 1370 °C due produced from the decomposition of the solid sulfates and the concentration also increases above 1370 °C due
to the decomposition of alkali sulfates. In the gas phase at temperatures above 1300 °C, there are also in small to the decomposition of alkali sulfates. In the gas phase at temperatures above 1300 °C, there are also in small
quantities of K2SO4 and the alkali hydroxides due to the presence of water vapor. quantities of K2SO4 and the alkali hydroxides due to the presence of water vapor.
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6

SO2 (g) SO2 (g)
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) K2SO4 (l) K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) K2SO4 (l)
0.2 0.2
K2SO4 (s) KOH (g) K2SO4 (s) KOH (g)

0.1 0.1
K3Na(SO4)3 (s) Na2SO4 (l) K2SO4 (g) K3Na(SO4)3 (s) Na2SO4 (l) K2SO4 (g)
0 NaOH (g) 0 NaOH (g)
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Figure 4-22: Thermodynamic results for the alkali and sulfate species in the temperature of the rotary kiln in oxidizing conditions. Figure 4-22: Thermodynamic results for the alkali and sulfate species in the temperature of the rotary kiln in oxidizing conditions.
The behaviors of the solid phases are different as observed in the system considering the inorganic and clinker The behaviors of the solid phases are different as observed in the system considering the inorganic and clinker
chemistry, where CaSO4 and K2Ca2(SO4)3 appeared to be stable but not K3Na(SO4)3 and K2SO4 in Figure 4-21. chemistry, where CaSO4 and K2Ca2(SO4)3 appeared to be stable but not K3Na(SO4)3 and K2SO4 in Figure 4-21.
In liquid phase, Na2SO4 was not predicted in the complex system while in Figure 4-22 is stable in a wide range In liquid phase, Na2SO4 was not predicted in the complex system while in Figure 4-22 is stable in a wide range
of temperatures. Furthermore, K2SO4 in liquid phase appeared to be stable above 1300 °C while in the of temperatures. Furthermore, K2SO4 in liquid phase appeared to be stable above 1300 °C while in the
thermodynamic calculations considering only the volatile species is stable from 1060 °C. The gas species thermodynamic calculations considering only the volatile species is stable from 1060 °C. The gas species
72 72
86 86
above 1400 °C are in good agreement with the observation of the system considering the inorganic and clinker above 1400 °C are in good agreement with the observation of the system considering the inorganic and clinker
chemistry (Figure 4-21). chemistry (Figure 4-21).
4.4.2.2 Sulfates in Reducing Conditions 4.4.2.2 Sulfates in Reducing Conditions
When fuel particles are burned in direct contact with the bed material, the volatiles gases released can react When fuel particles are burned in direct contact with the bed material, the volatiles gases released can react
with the hot meal. Therefore, two scenarios will be simulated to calculate the behavior of the hot meal using with the hot meal. Therefore, two scenarios will be simulated to calculate the behavior of the hot meal using
the flue gas composition in reducing conditions which is shown in Table 4-7. the flue gas composition in reducing conditions which is shown in Table 4-7.
Table 4-7: Flue gas compositions for two different reducing conditions. Table 4-7: Flue gas compositions for two different reducing conditions.
Gas composition Concentration Gas composition Concentration Gas composition Concentration Gas composition Concentration
reducing cond. 1 [vol. %] [mol/kg clinker] reducing cond. 2 [vol. %] [mol/kg clinker] reducing cond. 1 [vol. %] [mol/kg clinker] reducing cond. 2 [vol. %] [mol/kg clinker]
CO2 25.00 5.580 CO2 25.00 5.580 CO2 25.00 5.580 CO2 25.00 5.580
CO 0.10 0.020 CH4 0.10 0.020 CO 0.10 0.020 CH4 0.10 0.020
H2O 5.00 1.116 H2O 5.00 1.116 H2O 5.00 1.116 H2O 5.00 1.116
SO2 0.05 0.011 SO2 0.05 0.011 SO2 0.05 0.011 SO2 0.05 0.011
N2 69.85 15.590 N2 69.85 15.590 N2 69.85 15.590 N2 69.85 15.590
Total 100 - Total 100 - Total 100 - Total 100 -
The thermodynamics results using the flue gas composition for reducing conditions 1, containing 0.1 vol. % The thermodynamics results using the flue gas composition for reducing conditions 1, containing 0.1 vol. %
CO, are illustrated in Figure 4-23. The calcium langbeinite equilibrium concentration is lower than in Figure CO, are illustrated in Figure 4-23. The calcium langbeinite equilibrium concentration is lower than in Figure
4-22. Potassium sulfate appears at approx. 1070 °C in liquid phase with maximum equilibrium concentration 4-22. Potassium sulfate appears at approx. 1070 °C in liquid phase with maximum equilibrium concentration
at 1330 °C (at lower temperature than in Figure 4-22) and from 1380 °C in gas phase. The SO2 release starts at 1330 °C (at lower temperature than in Figure 4-22) and from 1380 °C in gas phase. The SO2 release starts
at 900 °C, seems stable until 1100 °C, and increases significantly with temperature from 1200 to 1330 °C, at 900 °C, seems stable until 1100 °C, and increases significantly with temperature from 1200 to 1330 °C,
which is produced by the decomposition of the double calcium potassium sulfate, and after by the liquid which is produced by the decomposition of the double calcium potassium sulfate, and after by the liquid
potassium sulfate. From 1350 until 1500 °C, alkali hydroxides are thermodynamically stable in the gas phase. potassium sulfate. From 1350 until 1500 °C, alkali hydroxides are thermodynamically stable in the gas phase.
73 73
87 87
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
SO2 (g) SO2 (g)

0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) K2SO4 (l) K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) K2SO4 (l)
0.2 0.2
KOH (g) KOH (g)
0.1 0.1
K2SO4 (g) K2SO4 (g)
Na2SO4 (l) Na2SO4 (l)
NaOH (g) NaOH (g)
0 0
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Figure 4-23: Thermodynamic results for the alkali and sulfate species in the temperature of the rotary kiln in reduction conditions 1. Figure 4-23: Thermodynamic results for the alkali and sulfate species in the temperature of the rotary kiln in reduction conditions 1.
Figure 4-24 shows the thermodynamics results using the flue gas composition for reducing conditions 2, Figure 4-24 shows the thermodynamics results using the flue gas composition for reducing conditions 2,
containing 0.1 vol. % CH4. The results obtained are very similar to the reducing conditions 1. It can be noticed containing 0.1 vol. % CH4. The results obtained are very similar to the reducing conditions 1. It can be noticed
that the SO2 equilibrium concentration is higher and the calcium potassium sulfate concentration in the kiln that the SO2 equilibrium concentration is higher and the calcium potassium sulfate concentration in the kiln
inlet of the rotary kiln are lower than for the reducing conditions 1. inlet of the rotary kiln are lower than for the reducing conditions 1.
0.7 0.7
0.6 SO2 (g) 0.6 SO2 (g)


0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
K2SO4 (l) K2SO4 (l)
K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s)
0.2 0.2
KOH (g) KOH (g)
0.1 0.1
K2SO4 (g) K2SO4 (g)
NaOH (g) NaOH (g)
0 0
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Figure 4-24: Thermodynamic results for the alkali and sulfate species in the temperature of the rotary kiln in reduction conditions 2. Figure 4-24: Thermodynamic results for the alkali and sulfate species in the temperature of the rotary kiln in reduction conditions 2.
74 74
88 88
In both scenarios, the SO2 and K2Ca(SO4)3 are mainly affected by the reducing atmosphere from 900 to 1200 In both scenarios, the SO2 and K2Ca(SO4)3 are mainly affected by the reducing atmosphere from 900 to 1200
°C, in the temperature range of the kiln inlet. At the burning zone temperatures 1400-1500 °C, the equilibrium °C, in the temperature range of the kiln inlet. At the burning zone temperatures 1400-1500 °C, the equilibrium
concentrations of the gas species are not affected. concentrations of the gas species are not affected.
4.4.2.3 Effect of Chlorine Addition 4.4.2.3 Effect of Chlorine Addition
The effect of the chlorine species is investigated in this section. Based on moles of potassium, sodium, sulfur, The effect of the chlorine species is investigated in this section. Based on moles of potassium, sodium, sulfur,
chlorine, and calcium of the hot meal composition in Table 4-3, the concentration of NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, chlorine, and calcium of the hot meal composition in Table 4-3, the concentration of NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4,
K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in moles/kg clinker is specified in Table 4-8. The flue gas composition in oxidizing K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in moles/kg clinker is specified in Table 4-8. The flue gas composition in oxidizing
conditions is used. conditions is used.
Table 4-8: Specific concentration of NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in the hot meal. Table 4-8: Specific concentration of NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in the hot meal.
NaCl 0.065 NaCl 0.065
KCl 0.265 KCl 0.265
K2SO4 0.133 K2SO4 0.133
Na2SO4 0.000 Na2SO4 0.000
CaSO4 0.632 CaSO4 0.632
CaO 9.496 CaO 9.496
The thermodynamic results with the effect of chlorine are shown in Figure 4-25. The behaviors of the sulfates The thermodynamic results with the effect of chlorine are shown in Figure 4-25. The behaviors of the sulfates
and chlorides are quite similar to the observed behavior in the system considering inorganic chemistry with and chlorides are quite similar to the observed behavior in the system considering inorganic chemistry with
o
clinker chemistry. KCl is mainly thermodynamic stable in the gas phase, liquid phase between 900 to 930 C, clinker chemistry. KCl is mainly thermodynamic stable in the gas phase, liquid phase between 900 to 930 oC,
and a dimer of KCl in the gas phase is also thermally stable in the material kiln inlet. This was also observed and a dimer of KCl in the gas phase is also thermally stable in the material kiln inlet. This was also observed
in the thermodynamic results of the complex system. CaSO4 and the double calcium potassium sulfate are in the thermodynamic results of the complex system. CaSO4 and the double calcium potassium sulfate are
o
found to be thermodynamically stable until 1200 and 1350 C, respectively. The SO2 is mainly caused by the found to be thermodynamically stable until 1200 and 1350 oC, respectively. The SO2 is mainly caused by the
decomposition of CaSO4 and after of K2Ca2(SO4)3. There are no sulfates in liquid phase as observed in Figure decomposition of CaSO4 and after of K2Ca2(SO4)3. There are no sulfates in liquid phase as observed in Figure
4-22, Figure 4-23 and Figure 4-24. At temperatures corresponding to the burning zone, from 1350 °C, 4-22, Figure 4-23 and Figure 4-24. At temperatures corresponding to the burning zone, from 1350 °C,
potassium sulfate and alkali hydroxides in gas phase appear stable and this has also been observed in the potassium sulfate and alkali hydroxides in gas phase appear stable and this has also been observed in the
previous graphs. previous graphs.
75 75
89 89
0.7 SO2 (g) 0.7 SO2 (g)
0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5
0.4 CaSO4 (s) 0.4 CaSO4 (s)
0.3 0.3
KCl (g) KCl (g)

0.2 0.2
KCl (l) KCl (l)
K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s)
0.1 KOH (g) 0.1 KOH (g)
(KCl)2 (g) NaCl (g) K2SO4 (g) (KCl)2 (g) NaCl (g) K2SO4 (g)
NaOH (g) NaOH (g)
0 0
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Figure 4-25: Thermodynamic results for the alkali, chloride and sulfate species in the temperature of the rotary kiln for the calcined Figure 4-25: Thermodynamic results for the alkali, chloride and sulfate species in the temperature of the rotary kiln for the calcined
raw material in oxidizing conditions. raw material in oxidizing conditions.
Through the thermodynamic software, the presence of sodium species, such as NaOH and Na2SO4 in gas phase Through the thermodynamic software, the presence of sodium species, such as NaOH and Na2SO4 in gas phase
-2
has been observed. However, the concentrations are in the order of 10 mol/kg clinker, or lower, and can has been observed. However, the concentrations are in the order of 10-2 mol/kg clinker, or lower, and can
therefore not be noticed in Figure 4-25. therefore not be noticed in Figure 4-25.
4.4.2.4 Effect of Higher Concentration of Alkali than Sulfur 4.4.2.4 Effect of Higher Concentration of Alkali than Sulfur
The effect of higher concentration of alkali than sulfur is investigated in this section. A hypothetical The effect of higher concentration of alkali than sulfur is investigated in this section. A hypothetical
composition of the hot meal is specified in Table 4-9. This composition would also contain Mn2O3, TiO2, SrO, composition of the hot meal is specified in Table 4-9. This composition would also contain Mn2O3, TiO2, SrO,
MgO and P2O5 but are not considered in the calculations and therefore not specified. It needs to be noticed that MgO and P2O5 but are not considered in the calculations and therefore not specified. It needs to be noticed that
this composition may not be realistic, because it is not desired to have excess of alkali content in the clinker this composition may not be realistic, because it is not desired to have excess of alkali content in the clinker
due to its negative effect on the cement mechanical properties. This hot meal is exposed to the flue gas in due to its negative effect on the cement mechanical properties. This hot meal is exposed to the flue gas in
oxidizing conditions. oxidizing conditions.
76 76
90 90
Table 4-9: Hypothetical composition of hot meal used in the equilibrium calculations in section 4.4.2.4, when the concentration of Table 4-9: Hypothetical composition of hot meal used in the equilibrium calculations in section 4.4.2.4, when the concentration of
alkali is higher than the sulfur concentration. This composition would also contain Mn 2O3, TiO2, SrO, MgO and P2O5 but are not alkali is higher than the sulfur concentration. This composition would also contain Mn 2O3, TiO2, SrO, MgO and P2O5 but are not
considered in the calculations and therefore not specified. considered in the calculations and therefore not specified.
Concentration Concentration
Hot meal composition Hot meal composition
[wt. %] [mol/kg clinker] [wt. %] [mol/kg clinker]
SiO2 18.00 3.000 SiO2 18.00 3.000
Al2O3 4.76 0.467 Al2O3 4.76 0.467
Fe2O3 2.30 0.144 Fe2O3 2.30 0.144
CaO 56.80 10.128 CaO 56.80 10.128
K 2O 2.25 0.240 K 2O 2.25 0.240
Na2O 1.67 0.269 Na2O 1.67 0.269
SO3 3.4 0.425 SO3 3.4 0.425
Cl 1.17 0.330 Cl 1.17 0.330
Based on moles of K, Na, S, and Ca from the hypothetical composition of hot meal, the Na2SO4, K2SO4, Based on moles of K, Na, S, and Ca from the hypothetical composition of hot meal, the Na2SO4, K2SO4,
CaSO4, and CaO concentrations in mol/kg clinker are specified in Table 4-10. CaSO4, and CaO concentrations in mol/kg clinker are specified in Table 4-10.
Table 4-10: Specific concentration of Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in the hot meal. Table 4-10: Specific concentration of Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, and CaO in the hot meal.
Na2SO4 0.269 Na2SO4 0.269
K2SO4 0.240 K2SO4 0.240
CaSO4 0.000 CaSO4 0.000
CaO 10.128 CaO 10.128
The results of the thermodynamic calculation for this system are shown in Figure 4-26. It should be noticed The results of the thermodynamic calculation for this system are shown in Figure 4-26. It should be noticed
that the y-axis scale of this figure is different from the previous graphs in this section. The SO2 in equilibrium that the y-axis scale of this figure is different from the previous graphs in this section. The SO2 in equilibrium
concentration is much lower than in the previous calculations. Calcium sulfate is not present in the system, concentration is much lower than in the previous calculations. Calcium sulfate is not present in the system,
instead calcium sulfate is bound with alkali as calcium langbeinite, K 2Ca2(SO4)3, which is stable until 1300 instead calcium sulfate is bound with alkali as calcium langbeinite, K 2Ca2(SO4)3, which is stable until 1300
°C. Double alkali sulfate, K3Na(SO4)2 is stable at the inlet of the rotary kiln. Sodium and potassium sulfate are °C. Double alkali sulfate, K3Na(SO4)2 is stable at the inlet of the rotary kiln. Sodium and potassium sulfate are
mainly thermodynamic stable in liquid phase, from 900 to 1200 °C and thereafter their equilibrium mainly thermodynamic stable in liquid phase, from 900 to 1200 °C and thereafter their equilibrium
concentrations decrease. In the burning zone, potassium hydroxide is the main alkali gas species, followed by concentrations decrease. In the burning zone, potassium hydroxide is the main alkali gas species, followed by
potassium sulfate and sodium hydroxide, which are stable in low concentrations. potassium sulfate and sodium hydroxide, which are stable in low concentrations.
77 77
91 91
0.3 0.3
0.25 K2SO4 (s) K2SO4 (l) 0.25 K2SO4 (s) K2SO4 (l)

0.2 KOH (g) 0.2 KOH (g)
SO2 (g) SO2 (g)

0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
K2SO4 (g) K2SO4 (g)

0.05 K3Na(SO4)3 (s) 0.05 K3Na(SO4)3 (s)
K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) NaOH (g) K2Ca2(SO4)3 (s) NaOH (g)

0 0
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Figure 4-26: Thermodynamic results for the alkali and sulfate species when the content of alkalis is higher than sulfur in the Figure 4-26: Thermodynamic results for the alkali and sulfate species when the content of alkalis is higher than sulfur in the
temperature of the rotary kiln. temperature of the rotary kiln.
The inorganic chemistry is significantly changed when higher alkali concentrations than sulfur are present in The inorganic chemistry is significantly changed when higher alkali concentrations than sulfur are present in
the system. Even though an acceptable clinker quality might be obtained, the liquid phases may disturb the the system. Even though an acceptable clinker quality might be obtained, the liquid phases may disturb the
operation process by, for example, rings in the kiln. The SO2 concentration in the gas phase is lower than in operation process by, for example, rings in the kiln. The SO2 concentration in the gas phase is lower than in
previous cases, but there is a higher concentrations of alkali species in the gas phase, which may cause previous cases, but there is a higher concentrations of alkali species in the gas phase, which may cause
operational problems. For that reason, a balance between sulfur and alkalis is needed in order to avoid high operational problems. For that reason, a balance between sulfur and alkalis is needed in order to avoid high
amounts of volatiles species. amounts of volatiles species.
4.4.3 Concluding Remarks about Thermodynamic Equilibrium Calculations 4.4.3 Concluding Remarks about Thermodynamic Equilibrium Calculations
Comparing the thermodynamics results and the behavior of the circulation of volatiles explained in section Comparing the thermodynamics results and the behavior of the circulation of volatiles explained in section
4.1, it can be seen that the behavior of the system including sulfates and chlorides (Figure 4-25) is in a good 4.1, it can be seen that the behavior of the system including sulfates and chlorides (Figure 4-25) is in a good
agreement with the reaction affinity between the volatiles elements (section 4.1.1) and with the description of agreement with the reaction affinity between the volatiles elements (section 4.1.1) and with the description of
stability of the sulfates in the kiln inlet of the rotary kiln. However, the thermodynamic calculations do not stability of the sulfates in the kiln inlet of the rotary kiln. However, the thermodynamic calculations do not
simulate the behavior of the sulfate species in the transition and hot zone of the kiln. The sulfate melt is not simulate the behavior of the sulfate species in the transition and hot zone of the kiln. The sulfate melt is not
predicted in the calculations and the concentrations in the gas species are overestimated because these species predicted in the calculations and the concentrations in the gas species are overestimated because these species
are not retained in the solid phase (clinker). The deviations may be due to the model limitations about perfect are not retained in the solid phase (clinker). The deviations may be due to the model limitations about perfect
mixing, mass transfer and kinetics. mixing, mass transfer and kinetics.
Under reducing atmospheres, the thermodynamics results showed that the stability of sulfates in the inlet of Under reducing atmospheres, the thermodynamics results showed that the stability of sulfates in the inlet of
the rotary kiln is strongly affected by the gas atmosphere and become more sensitive. The reducing gas also the rotary kiln is strongly affected by the gas atmosphere and become more sensitive. The reducing gas also
78 78
92 92
affects to the stability of SO2, which starts to be stable already at 900 °C. Therefore, the reducing conditions affects to the stability of SO2, which starts to be stable already at 900 °C. Therefore, the reducing conditions
in the kiln inlet will be the focus of this thesis in the following chapters. in the kiln inlet will be the focus of this thesis in the following chapters.
The volatility of the chlorine is not affected by the gas atmosphere, but is very sensitive to the temperature. The volatility of the chlorine is not affected by the gas atmosphere, but is very sensitive to the temperature.
Higher levels of alkali compared sulfur reduces the sulfur release in gas phase, but increases the liquid Higher levels of alkali compared sulfur reduces the sulfur release in gas phase, but increases the liquid
formation in the kiln and the alkali species in the gas phase. This might lead to unacceptable clinker quality formation in the kiln and the alkali species in the gas phase. This might lead to unacceptable clinker quality
and an increase of volatile compounds in the gas phase which could probably cause an increase of blockages and an increase of volatile compounds in the gas phase which could probably cause an increase of blockages
when these species condense in cooler part of the kiln system. when these species condense in cooler part of the kiln system.
Volatiles elements, such S, Cl, K, and Na, form a high degree of internal circulation in the rotary kiln, calciner Volatiles elements, such S, Cl, K, and Na, form a high degree of internal circulation in the rotary kiln, calciner
and preheater, by repetitive evaporation and condensation at different temperatures. The volatilization of sulfur and preheater, by repetitive evaporation and condensation at different temperatures. The volatilization of sulfur
depends on the alkali-sulfur ratio, and on the operating conditions, while the volatilization of Cl depends only depends on the alkali-sulfur ratio, and on the operating conditions, while the volatilization of Cl depends only
on the burning zone temperature. The high internal circulation of S and Cl may cause formation of build-ups on the burning zone temperature. The high internal circulation of S and Cl may cause formation of build-ups
in the lower cyclones and the riser pipe. In order to avoid this tendency, the hot meal content of SO3 should be in the lower cyclones and the riser pipe. In order to avoid this tendency, the hot meal content of SO3 should be
maintained below 6 wt. %, and the Cl content below 2 wt. %. maintained below 6 wt. %, and the Cl content below 2 wt. %.
The process stability of the kiln system can be affected by introduction or an increase of the elements involved The process stability of the kiln system can be affected by introduction or an increase of the elements involved
in the cement chemistry, reducing conditions, increase in the circulation phenomena in the kiln system, build- in the cement chemistry, reducing conditions, increase in the circulation phenomena in the kiln system, build-
ups formation and shell corrosion. ups formation and shell corrosion.
The sulfur and chlorine circulation may increase when alternative fuels are combusted. Sulfur circulation is The sulfur and chlorine circulation may increase when alternative fuels are combusted. Sulfur circulation is
provoked by the reducing agents released during the combustion of alternative fuels. provoked by the reducing agents released during the combustion of alternative fuels.
Coatings from different cement plants have been characterized analytically. Spurrite and KCl have been found Coatings from different cement plants have been characterized analytically. Spurrite and KCl have been found
to be responsible for the tendency of build-ups and the crystallization of KCl has been postulated to take place to be responsible for the tendency of build-ups and the crystallization of KCl has been postulated to take place
by a vapor-liquid-solid mechanism. The risk of formation of buildups can be evaluated by the sulfur and by a vapor-liquid-solid mechanism. The risk of formation of buildups can be evaluated by the sulfur and
chlorine content in the raw meal. chlorine content in the raw meal.
The high concentrations of SO2 and HCl in presence of moisture makes the kiln gas very corrosive atmosphere The high concentrations of SO2 and HCl in presence of moisture makes the kiln gas very corrosive atmosphere
and can lead to corrosion of rotary kiln shells and calciner shells. and can lead to corrosion of rotary kiln shells and calciner shells.
The thermodynamic calculations have further investigated the inorganic chemistry of sulfur, chlorine, and The thermodynamic calculations have further investigated the inorganic chemistry of sulfur, chlorine, and
alkali compounds. In a system containing sulfur, chlorine and alkalis, the stability of the sulfate species in the alkali compounds. In a system containing sulfur, chlorine and alkalis, the stability of the sulfate species in the
kiln inlet is in good agreement with the real behavior observed in the cement plants. The reducing agents in kiln inlet is in good agreement with the real behavior observed in the cement plants. The reducing agents in
the gas phase affect significantly the stability of CaSO4 and SO2 in the kiln inlet, which decreases for CaSO4 the gas phase affect significantly the stability of CaSO4 and SO2 in the kiln inlet, which decreases for CaSO4
o
and increases for SO2 already at temperatures between 900 to 1100 C. Thereby the focus of the following and increases for SO2 already at temperatures between 900 to 1100 oC. Thereby the focus of the following
chapters will be on the effect of reducing conditions on calcium sulfate in the kiln inlet. chapters will be on the effect of reducing conditions on calcium sulfate in the kiln inlet.
79 79
93 93
Allen, D., and Hayhurst, A. N.; Kinetics of the reaction between gaseous sulfur trioxide and solid calcium Allen, D., and Hayhurst, A. N.; Kinetics of the reaction between gaseous sulfur trioxide and solid calcium
oxide. Journal of the Chemical Society-Faraday Transactions, 92, 1239-42, 1996. oxide. Journal of the Chemical Society-Faraday Transactions, 92, 1239-42, 1996.
Bale, C. W., et al.; FactSage thermochemical software and databases - recent developments. Calphad- Bale, C. W., et al.; FactSage thermochemical software and databases - recent developments. Calphad-
Computer Coupling of Phase Diagrams and Thermochemistry, 33, 295-311, 2009. Computer Coupling of Phase Diagrams and Thermochemistry, 33, 295-311, 2009.
Bech, C., and Gundtoft, L.; Study of NOx, SOx, and CO mechanisms based on actual plant data. IEEE/PCA Bech, C., and Gundtoft, L.; Study of NOx, SOx, and CO mechanisms based on actual plant data. IEEE/PCA
Cement Industry Technical Conference: XI Conference Record, 141-154, 1998. Cement Industry Technical Conference: XI Conference Record, 141-154, 1998.
Bhatty, J. I.; Role of minor elements in cement manufacture and use. Research and Development Bulletin Bhatty, J. I.; Role of minor elements in cement manufacture and use. Research and Development Bulletin
RD109T. Portland Cement Association, USA. 1995. ISBN: 0-89312-131-2. RD109T. Portland Cement Association, USA. 1995. ISBN: 0-89312-131-2.
USA. 2011. ISBN: 978-0893122713. USA. 2011. ISBN: 978-0893122713.
British ecological survey; Mineral profile. Cement raw materials. 2005. Available at British ecological survey; Mineral profile. Cement raw materials. 2005. Available at
www.britishecologicalsociety.org/. www.britishecologicalsociety.org/.
Bucchi, R.; Feature on the role of minor compounds in cement clinker - part l. World Cement Technology, Bucchi, R.; Feature on the role of minor compounds in cement clinker - part l. World Cement Technology,
210-231, 1981. 210-231, 1981.
Burdett, N. A.; The mechanism of the sulphation of limestone during fluidised bed desulphurisation. Institute Burdett, N. A.; The mechanism of the sulphation of limestone during fluidised bed desulphurisation. Institute
of Energy, London, Fluidized Combustion: Systems and Applications, p. V1-1–V1-7, 1980. of Energy, London, Fluidized Combustion: Systems and Applications, p. V1-1–V1-7, 1980.
Cemnet; Technical cement forum: Maximum SO3 permissible, 2013. Available at Cemnet; Technical cement forum: Maximum SO3 permissible, 2013. Available at
http://www.cemnet.com/Forum/thread/108042/re-re-maximum-so3-permissible.html http://www.cemnet.com/Forum/thread/108042/re-re-maximum-so3-permissible.html
Cemnet; Technical cement forum: Effect of reducing raw meal SO3 in clinker alkali, 2012. Available at Cemnet; Technical cement forum: Effect of reducing raw meal SO3 in clinker alkali, 2012. Available at
http://cemnet.com/Forum/thread/109139/effect-of-reducing-raw-meal-so3-in clinker-alkalis.htlm http://cemnet.com/Forum/thread/109139/effect-of-reducing-raw-meal-so3-in clinker-alkalis.htlm
Cemnet; Technical cement forum: Akl/ SO3 ratio, 2004. Available at Cemnet; Technical cement forum: Akl/ SO3 ratio, 2004. Available at
http://www.cemnet.com/Forum/thread/108410/re-alk-so3-ratio.html. Accessed in 26/4/2013. http://www.cemnet.com/Forum/thread/108410/re-alk-so3-ratio.html. Accessed in 26/4/2013.
Chinyama, M. P. M.; Alternative fuels in cement manufacturing. InTech, 2011. ISBN: 978-953-307-372-9. Chinyama, M. P. M.; Alternative fuels in cement manufacturing. InTech, 2011. ISBN: 978-953-307-372-9.
Available at http://www.intechopen.com/ Available at http://www.intechopen.com/
Christensens, N. H., and Johansen, V.; Role of liquid phase and mineralizers. Conference Cement Production Christensens, N. H., and Johansen, V.; Role of liquid phase and mineralizers. Conference Cement Production
and Use, USA, 1979. and Use, USA, 1979.
Choi, G. S., and Glasser, F. P.; The sulfur cycle in cement kilns - vapor-pressures and solid-phase stability of Choi, G. S., and Glasser, F. P.; The sulfur cycle in cement kilns - vapor-pressures and solid-phase stability of
the sulfate phases. Cement and Concrete Research, 18, 367-74, 1988. the sulfate phases. Cement and Concrete Research, 18, 367-74, 1988.
Clark, M.; Coating, Rings and balls. International Cement Review, October, 60-63, 2011. Clark, M.; Coating, Rings and balls. International Cement Review, October, 60-63, 2011.
Conesa, J. A., Galvez, A., Mateos, F., Martin-Gullon, I., and Font, R.; Organic and inorganic pollutants from Conesa, J. A., Galvez, A., Mateos, F., Martin-Gullon, I., and Font, R.; Organic and inorganic pollutants from
cement kiln stack feeding alternative fuels. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 158, 585-92, 2008. cement kiln stack feeding alternative fuels. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 158, 585-92, 2008.
80 80
94 94
Dalton, J. L., Gardner, K. H., Seager, T. P., Weimer, M. L., Spear, J. C. M., and Magee, B. J.; Properties of Dalton, J. L., Gardner, K. H., Seager, T. P., Weimer, M. L., Spear, J. C. M., and Magee, B. J.; Properties of
Portland cement made from contaminated sediments. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 41, 227- Portland cement made from contaminated sediments. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 41, 227-
41, 2004. 41, 2004.
Dam-Johansen, K., and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide and limestone - IV. Dam-Johansen, K., and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide and limestone - IV.
A discussion of chemical reaction mechanisms and kinetics. Chemical Engineering Science, 46, 855-9, A discussion of chemical reaction mechanisms and kinetics. Chemical Engineering Science, 46, 855-9,
1991. 1991.
de la Torre, A. G., Morsli, K., Zahir, M., and Aranda, M. A. G.; In situ synchrotron powder diffraction study de la Torre, A. G., Morsli, K., Zahir, M., and Aranda, M. A. G.; In situ synchrotron powder diffraction study
of active belite clinkers. Journal of Applied Crystallography, 40, 999-1007, 2007. of active belite clinkers. Journal of Applied Crystallography, 40, 999-1007, 2007.
Enders, M.; Reactions of alkalis, chlorine and sulfur during clinker production. Cement International, 9, 38- Enders, M.; Reactions of alkalis, chlorine and sulfur during clinker production. Cement International, 9, 38-
53, 2011. 53, 2011.
Farag, L. M., and Kamel, H. M.; Effect of high intakes of chlorine, sulfur and alkalis on cement kiln operation. Farag, L. M., and Kamel, H. M.; Effect of high intakes of chlorine, sulfur and alkalis on cement kiln operation.
Zement-Kalk-Gips, 47, 586-90, 1994. Zement-Kalk-Gips, 47, 586-90, 1994.
Fortsch, D. S., and Smidth, F. L.; The effects of excess sulfur on clinker properties. IEEE-IAS/PCA 2004 Fortsch, D. S., and Smidth, F. L.; The effects of excess sulfur on clinker properties. IEEE-IAS/PCA 2004
Cement Industry Technical Conference, Conference Record, 103-9, 2004. Cement Industry Technical Conference, Conference Record, 103-9, 2004.
Ghosh, S. N.; Cement and concrete science and technology. Vol 1, part 1. New Delhi. 1991. ISBN: 978-81- Ghosh, S. N.; Cement and concrete science and technology. Vol 1, part 1. New Delhi. 1991. ISBN: 978-81-
81479-85-3. 81479-85-3.
Gineys, N., Aouad, G., Sorrentino, F., and Damidot, D.; Incorporation of trace elements in Portland cement Gineys, N., Aouad, G., Sorrentino, F., and Damidot, D.; Incorporation of trace elements in Portland cement
clinker: Thresholds limits for Cu, Ni, Sn or Zn. Cement and Concrete Research, 41, 1177-84, 2011. clinker: Thresholds limits for Cu, Ni, Sn or Zn. Cement and Concrete Research, 41, 1177-84, 2011.
Glasser, F. P.; Advances in cement clinkering. In Innovations in Portland cement manufacturing. J. I. Bhatty, Glasser, F. P.; Advances in cement clinkering. In Innovations in Portland cement manufacturing. J. I. Bhatty,
F. M. Miller and S. K. Kosmathka. Portland Cement Association (PCA), Illinois, USA. 2011. F. M. Miller and S. K. Kosmathka. Portland Cement Association (PCA), Illinois, USA. 2011.
Hamilton, F. C.; Rings and build-ups in cement kilns. International Cement Review. December, 54-62, 1997. Hamilton, F. C.; Rings and build-ups in cement kilns. International Cement Review. December, 54-62, 1997.
Hansen, J.P.; SO2 Emissions from Cement Production. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Hansen, J.P.; SO2 Emissions from Cement Production. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Denmark,
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2003. ISBN: 87-90142-96-9. Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2003. ISBN: 87-90142-96-9.
Harrison, A.; Alkalis in cement. International Cement Review, 80-82, 2009. Harrison, A.; Alkalis in cement. International Cement Review, 80-82, 2009.
Herfort, D., Moir, G. K., Johansen, V., Sorrentino, F., and Arceo, H. Bolio; The chemistry of Portland cement Herfort, D., Moir, G. K., Johansen, V., Sorrentino, F., and Arceo, H. Bolio; The chemistry of Portland cement
clinker. Advances in Cement Research, 22, 187-94, 2010. clinker. Advances in Cement Research, 22, 187-94, 2010.
Hewlett, P. C.; Lea's chemistry of cement and concrete. Fourth edition. New York. 1998. ISBN: 978-0-7506- Hewlett, P. C.; Lea's chemistry of cement and concrete. Fourth edition. New York. 1998. ISBN: 978-0-7506-
6256-7. 6256-7.
Holtemann, J.; Korrosion indvendigt i ovnrør. Internal FLSmidth memo (in Danish). 1995. Holtemann, J.; Korrosion indvendigt i ovnrør. Internal FLSmidth memo (in Danish). 1995.
Hu, G., Dam-Johansen, K., Wedel, S. and Hansen, J.P.; Decomposition and oxidation of pyrite. Progress in Hu, G., Dam-Johansen, K., Wedel, S. and Hansen, J.P.; Decomposition and oxidation of pyrite. Progress in
Energy and Combustion Science, 32, 3, 295-314, 2006a. Energy and Combustion Science, 32, 3, 295-314, 2006a.
81 81
95 95
Hu, G., Dam-Johansen, K., Wedel, S. and Hansen, J.P.; Review of the direct sulfation reaction of limestone. Hu, G., Dam-Johansen, K., Wedel, S. and Hansen, J.P.; Review of the direct sulfation reaction of limestone.
Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 32, 386-407, 2006b. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 32, 386-407, 2006b.
Jawed, I., and Skalny, J.; Alkalies in cement - review 1. Forms of alkalis and their effect on clinker formation. Jawed, I., and Skalny, J.; Alkalies in cement - review 1. Forms of alkalis and their effect on clinker formation.
Cement and Concrete Research, 7, 719-29, 1977. Cement and Concrete Research, 7, 719-29, 1977.
Jensen, L.K.; Personal communication about high temperature splits in the calciners, August 27, 2014. Jensen, L.K.; Personal communication about high temperature splits in the calciners, August 27, 2014.
Johansen, J. M., Aho, M., Paakkinen, K., Taipale, R., Egsgaard, H., Jakobsen, J. G., Frandsen, F. J., and Johansen, J. M., Aho, M., Paakkinen, K., Taipale, R., Egsgaard, H., Jakobsen, J. G., Frandsen, F. J., and
Glarborg, P.; Release of K, Cl, and S during combustion and co-combustion with wood of high-chlorine Glarborg, P.; Release of K, Cl, and S during combustion and co-combustion with wood of high-chlorine
biomass in bench and pilot scale fuel beds. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 34, 2363-72, 2013. biomass in bench and pilot scale fuel beds. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 34, 2363-72, 2013.
Jøns, E.; Managing volatile components in kiln and preheater, IPSC lecture nr: 05-02. The International Jøns, E.; Managing volatile components in kiln and preheater, IPSC lecture nr: 05-02. The International
Cement Production Seminar. FLSmidth Institute, Valby, Denmark, 2013. Cement Production Seminar. FLSmidth Institute, Valby, Denmark, 2013.
Jøns, E., and Østergaard, M. J.; Kiln shell corrosion. IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference, Jøns, E., and Østergaard, M. J.; Kiln shell corrosion. IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference,
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 343-359, 2001. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 343-359, 2001.
Jøns, E., Hundebol, S., and Clausen, K.; New reasons for installing a chloride by-pass. Interaction between Jøns, E., Hundebol, S., and Clausen, K.; New reasons for installing a chloride by-pass. Interaction between
chloride and sulphur. IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference Record, 178-92, 2008. chloride and sulphur. IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference Record, 178-92, 2008.
Karagiannis, J., Ftikos, C., and Nikojopouios, P.; The use of wastes as alternative fuels in cement production. Karagiannis, J., Ftikos, C., and Nikojopouios, P.; The use of wastes as alternative fuels in cement production.
Waste Management and the Environment, 109, 105-14, 2008. Waste Management and the Environment, 109, 105-14, 2008.
Karlsson, A., Personal communication about an acceptable level corrosion rate in kiln shell, November 22, Karlsson, A., Personal communication about an acceptable level corrosion rate in kiln shell, November 22,
2013. 2013.
Klauss, J.; Burning cement clinker under reducing conditions in a rotary kiln. ZKG International, 53, 132-144, Klauss, J.; Burning cement clinker under reducing conditions in a rotary kiln. ZKG International, 53, 132-144,
2000. 2000.
Klemm, W. A., Jawed, I., and Holub, K. J.; Effects of calcium-fluoride mineralization on silicates and melt Klemm, W. A., Jawed, I., and Holub, K. J.; Effects of calcium-fluoride mineralization on silicates and melt
formation in Portland-cement clinker. Cement and Concrete Research, 9, 489-96, 1979. formation in Portland-cement clinker. Cement and Concrete Research, 9, 489-96, 1979.
Klotz, B.; New developments in precalciners and preheaters. 1997 IEEE Cement Industry Technical Klotz, B.; New developments in precalciners and preheaters. 1997 IEEE Cement Industry Technical
Conference Record XXXVIII, 255-280, 1997. Conference Record XXXVIII, 255-280, 1997.
Kötter, E. and Bartha, P.; Investigations into the problem of kiln shell corrosion (in German). ZKG, 40, 157- Kötter, E. and Bartha, P.; Investigations into the problem of kiln shell corrosion (in German). ZKG, 40, 157-
161, 1987. 161, 1987.
Kurdowski, W., and Sobon, M.; Mineral composition of build-up in cement kiln preheater. Journal of Thermal Kurdowski, W., and Sobon, M.; Mineral composition of build-up in cement kiln preheater. Journal of Thermal
Analysis and Calorimetry, 55, 1021-9, 1999. Analysis and Calorimetry, 55, 1021-9, 1999.
Lai, G. Y.; High Temperature Corrosion of Engineering Alloys. ASM International, 1990. ISBN: 978- Lai, G. Y.; High Temperature Corrosion of Engineering Alloys. ASM International, 1990. ISBN: 978-
0871704115. 0871704115.
Lea, F. M., and Parker, T. W.; Investigations on a portion of quaternary system CaO-A12O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 - the Lea, F. M., and Parker, T. W.; Investigations on a portion of quaternary system CaO-A12O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 - the
quaternary system CaO-2CaO·SiO2-5CaO 3A12O3-4CaO A12O3 Fe2O3. Philosophical Transactions of the quaternary system CaO-2CaO·SiO2-5CaO 3A12O3-4CaO A12O3 Fe2O3. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London Series A-Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 234, 1-U6, 1935. Royal Society of London Series A-Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 234, 1-U6, 1935.
Lechtenberg, D., and Diller, H.; Alternative fuels and raw materials handbook for the cement and lime industry. Lechtenberg, D., and Diller, H.; Alternative fuels and raw materials handbook for the cement and lime industry.
MVW Lechtenberg & Partner, Düsseldorf, Germany. 2012. ISBN: 978-3-7640-0550-4. MVW Lechtenberg & Partner, Düsseldorf, Germany. 2012. ISBN: 978-3-7640-0550-4.
82 82
96 96
Lin, W.; Interactions between SO2 and NOx emissions in fluidized bed combustion of coal. Ph.D. Thesis, Lin, W.; Interactions between SO2 and NOx emissions in fluidized bed combustion of coal. Ph.D. Thesis,
Technical University of Delft, Netherlands. 1988. ISBN: 90-9006861-9. Technical University of Delft, Netherlands. 1988. ISBN: 90-9006861-9.
Midgley, H. G.; Measurement of high-alumina cement - calcium carbonate reactions using DTA. Clays Midgley, H. G.; Measurement of high-alumina cement - calcium carbonate reactions using DTA. Clays
Minerals, 19, 857-864, 1984. Minerals, 19, 857-864, 1984.
Mortensen, A. H., Hintsteiner, E. A., and Rosholm, P.; Converting two kiln lines to 100% high sulphur Mortensen, A. H., Hintsteiner, E. A., and Rosholm, P.; Converting two kiln lines to 100% high sulphur
petroleum coke firing. ZKG International, 51, 84, 1998. petroleum coke firing. ZKG International, 51, 84, 1998.
Moss, G.; The fluidized desulphation gasifier. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Moss, G.; The fluidized desulphation gasifier. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on
Fluidized Bed, II-6, 1-7, 1970. Fluidized Bed, II-6, 1-7, 1970.
Newkirk, T. F.; Effect of SO3 on the alkali compounds of Portland cement clinker. Journal of Research of the Newkirk, T. F.; Effect of SO3 on the alkali compounds of Portland cement clinker. Journal of Research of the
National Bureau of Standards, Research paper 2261, 1951. National Bureau of Standards, Research paper 2261, 1951.
Nielsen, P. B., and Jepsen, O. L.; An overview of the formation of SOx and NOx in various pyroprocessing Nielsen, P. B., and Jepsen, O. L.; An overview of the formation of SOx and NOx in various pyroprocessing
systems. IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference XXXII, 255-76, 1990. systems. IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference XXXII, 255-76, 1990.
Nievoll, J., Jörg, S., Dösinger, K., and Corpus, J.; Studying ring formation. World Cement, 78-83, 2009. Nievoll, J., Jörg, S., Dösinger, K., and Corpus, J.; Studying ring formation. World Cement, 78-83, 2009.
Norbom, H.R.; Application of Suspension Preheater Kilns versus Other Kilns in North America, Proceedings Norbom, H.R.; Application of Suspension Preheater Kilns versus Other Kilns in North America, Proceedings
of the IEEE, Cement Industry Technical Conference, Miami, USA, 1973. of the IEEE, Cement Industry Technical Conference, Miami, USA, 1973.
92481-98-6. 92481-98-6.
Palmer, G.; Ring formations in cement kilns. World Cement, 538-543, December 1990. Palmer, G.; Ring formations in cement kilns. World Cement, 538-543, December 1990.
Partanen, J.; Chemistry of HCl and Limestone in Fluidized Bed combustion. Ph.D. thesis, Åbo Akademi, Partanen, J.; Chemistry of HCl and Limestone in Fluidized Bed combustion. Ph.D. thesis, Åbo Akademi,
Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Finland, 2004. ISNB: 952-12-1287-X. Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Finland, 2004. ISNB: 952-12-1287-X.
Partanen, J., Backman, P., Backman, R., and Hupa, M.; Absorption of HCl by limestone in hot flue gases. Part Partanen, J., Backman, P., Backman, R., and Hupa, M.; Absorption of HCl by limestone in hot flue gases. Part
I: The effects of temperature, gas atmosphere and absorbent quality. Fuel, 84, 1664-73, 2005a. I: The effects of temperature, gas atmosphere and absorbent quality. Fuel, 84, 1664-73, 2005a.
II: Importance of calcium hydroxychloride. Fuel, 84, 1674-84, 2005b. II: Importance of calcium hydroxychloride. Fuel, 84, 1674-84, 2005b.
III: Simultaneous absorption with SO2. Fuel, 84, 1685-94, 2005c. III: Simultaneous absorption with SO2. Fuel, 84, 1685-94, 2005c.
Peray, K. E., and Waddell, J. J.; The rotary cement kiln. Chemical Publishing Co., New York. 1972. ISBN: Peray, K. E., and Waddell, J. J.; The rotary cement kiln. Chemical Publishing Co., New York. 1972. ISBN:
978-08-20603-67-4. 978-08-20603-67-4.
Pipilikaki, P., Katsioti, M., Papageorgiou, D., Fragoulis, D., and Chaniotakis, E.; Use of tire derived fuel in Pipilikaki, P., Katsioti, M., Papageorgiou, D., Fragoulis, D., and Chaniotakis, E.; Use of tire derived fuel in
clinker burning. Cement & Concrete Composites, 27, 843-7, 2005. clinker burning. Cement & Concrete Composites, 27, 843-7, 2005.
83 83
97 97
Plang-ngern, S., and Rattanussorn, M.; The effect of sulfur to alkali ratio on clinker properties. The Siam Plang-ngern, S., and Rattanussorn, M.; The effect of sulfur to alkali ratio on clinker properties. The Siam
Research and Development Co., Ltd, Bangsue, Bangkok, Thailand, 2003. Research and Development Co., Ltd, Bangsue, Bangkok, Thailand, 2003.
Pollitt, H. W. W., and Brown, A. W.; The distribution of alkalis in Portland cement clinker. Proceedings of the Pollitt, H. W. W., and Brown, A. W.; The distribution of alkalis in Portland cement clinker. Proceedings of the
5th International Symposium on the Chemistry of Cement, 1, 322-333, 1969. 5th International Symposium on the Chemistry of Cement, 1, 322-333, 1969.
Qin, Z.; Thermogravimetric studies of the reaction of CaO with SO2. Journal of Thermal Analysis, 45, 211-9, Qin, Z.; Thermogravimetric studies of the reaction of CaO with SO2. Journal of Thermal Analysis, 45, 211-9,
1995. 1995.
Rahman, H., and Krapkat, T.; Discussion about “Ideally the value alkali to sulphate ratio should be as close Rahman, H., and Krapkat, T.; Discussion about “Ideally the value alkali to sulphate ratio should be as close
to 1 as possible, i.e. the alkali and sulphate should be in molar balance” in Cement Industry Expert group to 1 as possible, i.e. the alkali and sulphate should be in molar balance” in Cement Industry Expert group
in www.linkedin.com, 2012. Accessed in 10/3/2013. in www.linkedin.com, 2012. Accessed in 10/3/2013.
Recio Dominguez, I., Gomez-Millan, J., Alvarez, M., De Aza, S., Contreras, L., and De Aza, A. H.; Build-up Recio Dominguez, I., Gomez-Millan, J., Alvarez, M., De Aza, S., Contreras, L., and De Aza, A. H.; Build-up
formation and corrosion of monolithic refractories in cement kiln preheaters. Journal of the European formation and corrosion of monolithic refractories in cement kiln preheaters. Journal of the European
Ceramic Society, 30, 1879-85, 2010. Ceramic Society, 30, 1879-85, 2010.
Rowe, J. J., Morey, G. W., and Zen, C. S.; The quinary reciprocal salt system Na, K, Mg, Ca/Cl, SO4--A Rowe, J. J., Morey, G. W., and Zen, C. S.; The quinary reciprocal salt system Na, K, Mg, Ca/Cl, SO4--A
review of the literature with new data. Geololical Survey Professional Paper. (U.S.), No 741, 1-37, 1972. review of the literature with new data. Geololical Survey Professional Paper. (U.S.), No 741, 1-37, 1972.
Saint-Jean, S. J.; Crystallographic studies of chlorellestadite, an intermediate compound in the production of Saint-Jean, S. J.; Crystallographic studies of chlorellestadite, an intermediate compound in the production of
Portland cement. Licentiate thesis, Material Chemistry, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden, Portland cement. Licentiate thesis, Material Chemistry, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden,
2003. ISBN: 91-628-5731-2. 2003. ISBN: 91-628-5731-2.
Saint-Jean, S. J., Jøns, E., Lundgaard, N., and Hansen, S.; Chlorellestadite in the preheater system of cement Saint-Jean, S. J., Jøns, E., Lundgaard, N., and Hansen, S.; Chlorellestadite in the preheater system of cement
kilns as an indicator of HCl formation. Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 431-7, 2005. kilns as an indicator of HCl formation. Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 431-7, 2005.
Saleh, S.B., Flensborg, J. P., Shoulaifar,T. K., Sarossy, Z., Hansen, B. B., Egsgaard, H., DeMartini, N., Jensen, Saleh, S.B., Flensborg, J. P., Shoulaifar,T. K., Sarossy, Z., Hansen, B. B., Egsgaard, H., DeMartini, N., Jensen,
P. A., Glarborg, P., and Dam-Johansen, K.; Release of chlorine and sulfur during biomass torrefaction P. A., Glarborg, P., and Dam-Johansen, K.; Release of chlorine and sulfur during biomass torrefaction
and pyrolysis. Energy & Fuels, 28, 3738-46, 2014. and pyrolysis. Energy & Fuels, 28, 3738-46, 2014.
Salmento, J. S., and Shenk, R. E.; Accurately predicting cement plant emissions. IEEE-IAS/PCA 2004 Cement Salmento, J. S., and Shenk, R. E.; Accurately predicting cement plant emissions. IEEE-IAS/PCA 2004 Cement
Industry Technical Conference, 333-43, 2004. Industry Technical Conference, 333-43, 2004.
Samet, B., and Sarkar, S. L.; Influence of kiln atmosphere on development of clinker phases and distribution Samet, B., and Sarkar, S. L.; Influence of kiln atmosphere on development of clinker phases and distribution
of alkalis. World Cement Research and Development, 77-82, 1997. of alkalis. World Cement Research and Development, 77-82, 1997.
Smaoui, N., Berube, M. A., Fournier, B., Bissonnette, B., and Durand, B.; Effects of alkali addition on the Smaoui, N., Berube, M. A., Fournier, B., Bissonnette, B., and Durand, B.; Effects of alkali addition on the
mechanical properties and durability of concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 203-12, 2005. mechanical properties and durability of concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 203-12, 2005.
Smith, L.; Volatile matter, IPSC lecture nr: 05-02. The International Cement Production Seminar. FLSmidth Smith, L.; Volatile matter, IPSC lecture nr: 05-02. The International Cement Production Seminar. FLSmidth
Institute, Valby, Denmark, 2012. Institute, Valby, Denmark, 2012.
Steuch, H. E., and Johansen, V.; Sulfur dioxide emission from cement kilns. Rock Product International Steuch, H. E., and Johansen, V.; Sulfur dioxide emission from cement kilns. Rock Product International
Seminar, USA, December, 1990. Seminar, USA, December, 1990.
Sturz, A., Itoh, M., and Smith, S.; Mineralogy and chemical composition of clay minerals, tag hydrothermal Sturz, A., Itoh, M., and Smith, S.; Mineralogy and chemical composition of clay minerals, tag hydrothermal
mound. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, Vol. 158, 1998. mound. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, Vol. 158, 1998.
Sutou, K., Harada, H., and Ueno, N.; Chlorine bypass system for stable kiln operation and the recycling of Sutou, K., Harada, H., and Ueno, N.; Chlorine bypass system for stable kiln operation and the recycling of
waste. IEEE/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference, Virginia, 179-193, 1999. waste. IEEE/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference, Virginia, 179-193, 1999.
84 84
98 98
Szczerba, J.; Changes in basic bricks from preheater cement kilns using secondary fuels. Industrial Ceramics, Szczerba, J.; Changes in basic bricks from preheater cement kilns using secondary fuels. Industrial Ceramics,
29, 19, 2009. 29, 19, 2009.
Telschow, S., Frandsen, F. J., Theisen, K., and Dam-Johansen, K.; Cement formation: A success story in a Telschow, S., Frandsen, F. J., Theisen, K., and Dam-Johansen, K.; Cement formation: A success story in a
black box: High temperature phase formation of Portland cement clinker. Industrial & Engineering black box: High temperature phase formation of Portland cement clinker. Industrial & Engineering
Chemistry Research, 51, 10983-11004, 2012. Chemistry Research, 51, 10983-11004, 2012.
Trezza, M. A., and Scian, A. N.; Scrap tire ashes in Portland cement production. Materials Research-Ibero- Trezza, M. A., and Scian, A. N.; Scrap tire ashes in Portland cement production. Materials Research-Ibero-
American Journal of Materials, 12, 489-494, 2009. American Journal of Materials, 12, 489-494, 2009.
Trezza, M. A., and Scian, A. N.; Waste fuels: Their effect on Portland cement clinker. Cement and Concrete Trezza, M. A., and Scian, A. N.; Waste fuels: Their effect on Portland cement clinker. Cement and Concrete
Research, 35, 438-444, 2005. Research, 35, 438-444, 2005.
Trezza, M. A., and Scian, A. N.; Burning wastes as an industrial resource - their effect on Portland cement Trezza, M. A., and Scian, A. N.; Burning wastes as an industrial resource - their effect on Portland cement
clinker. Cement and Concrete Research, 30, 137-144, 2000. clinker. Cement and Concrete Research, 30, 137-144, 2000.
Twomey, C., Birkinshaw, C., and Breen, S.; The identity of the sulfur-containing phases present in cement Twomey, C., Birkinshaw, C., and Breen, S.; The identity of the sulfur-containing phases present in cement
clinker manufactured using a high sulfur petroleum coke fuel. Journal of Chemical Technology and clinker manufactured using a high sulfur petroleum coke fuel. Journal of Chemical Technology and
Biotechnology, 79, 486-490, 2004. Biotechnology, 79, 486-490, 2004.
Uda, S., Asakura, E., and Nagashima, M.; Influence of SO3 on the phase relationship in the system CaO-SiO2- Uda, S., Asakura, E., and Nagashima, M.; Influence of SO3 on the phase relationship in the system CaO-SiO2-
Al2O3-Fe2O3. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 81, 725-729, 1998. Al2O3-Fe2O3. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 81, 725-729, 1998.
Vadász, P., Kamoda, I., and Strigác, J.; Influence of alternative fuels on the corrosion of basic refractory lining. Vadász, P., Kamoda, I., and Strigác, J.; Influence of alternative fuels on the corrosion of basic refractory lining.
Interceram, 58, 130-135, 2009. Interceram, 58, 130-135, 2009.
Vassilev, S. V., and Vassileva, C. G.; A new approach for the combined chemical and mineral classification Vassilev, S. V., and Vassileva, C. G.; A new approach for the combined chemical and mineral classification
of the inorganic matter in coal. 1. Chemical and mineral classification systems. Fuel, 88, 235-245, 2009. of the inorganic matter in coal. 1. Chemical and mineral classification systems. Fuel, 88, 235-245, 2009.
Whitehopleman; Sulphur-to-alkali ratio- Home cement industry expertise. 2011. Available at Whitehopleman; Sulphur-to-alkali ratio- Home cement industry expertise. 2011. Available at
http://whitehopleman.com/node/300. Accessed in 26/4/2013. http://whitehopleman.com/node/300. Accessed in 26/4/2013.
85 85
99 99
86 86
100 100
Chapter 5: Sulfur Release during Combustion of Alternative Fuels Particles Chapter 5: Sulfur Release during Combustion of Alternative Fuels Particles
5. Sulfur Release during Combustion of Alternative Fuels Particles 5. Sulfur Release during Combustion of Alternative Fuels Particles
This chapter seeks to extend the knowledge of the sulfur release from hot meal during combustion of solid This chapter seeks to extend the knowledge of the sulfur release from hot meal during combustion of solid
alternative fuel particles in the kiln inlet of a rotary kiln. alternative fuel particles in the kiln inlet of a rotary kiln.
Section 5.1 covers the literature study about the sulfur release during combustion of solid fuels, which will be Section 5.1 covers the literature study about the sulfur release during combustion of solid fuels, which will be
the starting point for the experimental investigations. The experimental part, section 5.2, describes the pilot the starting point for the experimental investigations. The experimental part, section 5.2, describes the pilot
scale equipment used for simulating the process conditions at the material inlet end of industrial rotary kilns. scale equipment used for simulating the process conditions at the material inlet end of industrial rotary kilns.
The solid fuels used for the experiments, tire derived fuels and wood, and their preparation are also introduced The solid fuels used for the experiments, tire derived fuels and wood, and their preparation are also introduced
in the experimental section. Section 5.3 presents a parametric study of the effect on the release of sulfur; in the experimental section. Section 5.3 presents a parametric study of the effect on the release of sulfur;
parameters such as particle size of different fuel types, fuel conversion degree, sulfur load in the bed and parameters such as particle size of different fuel types, fuel conversion degree, sulfur load in the bed and
moisture content of the fuel are modified. moisture content of the fuel are modified.
5.1 Literature Study on Sulfur Release in the Kiln System 5.1 Literature Study on Sulfur Release in the Kiln System
5.1.1 Phase Diagrams for CaSO4-CaO-CaS system 5.1.1 Phase Diagrams for CaSO4-CaO-CaS system
The high temperature reactions of SO2 absorption and release under fluidized bed and entrained flow conditions The high temperature reactions of SO2 absorption and release under fluidized bed and entrained flow conditions
have been studied extensively (Dam-Johansen and Østergaard, 1991a; Dam-Johansen and Østergaard, 1991b; have been studied extensively (Dam-Johansen and Østergaard, 1991a; Dam-Johansen and Østergaard, 1991b;
Hansen et al., 1993; Lyngfelt and Eckner, 1993; Barletta et al., 2002). However, these investigations cannot Hansen et al., 1993; Lyngfelt and Eckner, 1993; Barletta et al., 2002). However, these investigations cannot
be used directly to describe the conditions at the kiln inlet, because the Ca/S molar ratio studied under fluidized be used directly to describe the conditions at the kiln inlet, because the Ca/S molar ratio studied under fluidized
bed conditions were typically in the rage of 1:1 to 4:1, which differs from the conditions in cement rotary kilns bed conditions were typically in the rage of 1:1 to 4:1, which differs from the conditions in cement rotary kilns
where Ca/S molar ratio is typically higher than 10:1 (Hewlett, 1998). The descriptions of the mechanism for where Ca/S molar ratio is typically higher than 10:1 (Hewlett, 1998). The descriptions of the mechanism for
sulfur release and capture will be discussed further in Chapter 6. sulfur release and capture will be discussed further in Chapter 6.
In Hansen’s investigations, it was proposed that in a system consisting of CaSO4, CaO, CaS, SO2, CO, and In Hansen’s investigations, it was proposed that in a system consisting of CaSO4, CaO, CaS, SO2, CO, and
CO2, sulfur is captured as CaSO4 under oxidizing conditions, and as CaS under reducing conditions, i.e. in the CO2, sulfur is captured as CaSO4 under oxidizing conditions, and as CaS under reducing conditions, i.e. in the
presence of CO (Hansen et al., 1993). Any transformation of CaSO4 to CaS and vice versa appears to proceed presence of CO (Hansen et al., 1993). Any transformation of CaSO4 to CaS and vice versa appears to proceed
via CaO, as illustrated in Figure 5-1. Equilibrium phase diagrams for this system show that the transformation via CaO, as illustrated in Figure 5-1. Equilibrium phase diagrams for this system show that the transformation
cycle depends on the partial pressures of SO2, CO and CO2 and the temperature (Hansen et al., 1993), as cycle depends on the partial pressures of SO2, CO and CO2 and the temperature (Hansen et al., 1993), as
87 87
101 101
1.0E+00 1.0E+00
Partial pressure of SO2 [atm]

CaSO4 CaSO4
CaS CaS
1.0E-01 1.0E-01
800 °C 800 °C
1.0E-02 900 °C 1.0E-02 900 °C
1000 °C 1000 °C
1.0E-03 1100 °C 1.0E-03 1100 °C
1200 °C 1200 °C
1.0E-04 CaO 1.0E-04 CaO
1.0E-05 1.0E-05
1.0E-04 1.0E-02 1.0E+00 1.0E-04 1.0E-02 1.0E+00
Reducing potential (PCO/PCO2) Reducing potential (PCO/PCO2)
Figure 5-1: Transformation cycle of limestone Figure 5-1: Transformation cycle of limestone
Figure 5-2: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-CO-CO2 system at Figure 5-2: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-CO-CO2 system at
exposed to alternating oxidizing and reducing exposed to alternating oxidizing and reducing
800, 900, 1000, 1100 and 1200 °C (thermodynamic data from Barin, 1995) . 800, 900, 1000, 1100 and 1200 °C (thermodynamic data from Barin, 1995) .
conditions (Hansen et al., 1993). conditions (Hansen et al., 1993).
Figure 5-2 shows three regions, corresponding to the stability of CaSO4, CaO and CaS. Moving from left to Figure 5-2 shows three regions, corresponding to the stability of CaSO4, CaO and CaS. Moving from left to
right in this figure indicates a shift from oxidizing to reducing conditions. It is seen that CaSO4 is stable under right in this figure indicates a shift from oxidizing to reducing conditions. It is seen that CaSO4 is stable under
oxidizing conditions, whereas CaS is stable at higher reducing potentials. An increase in temperature rapidly oxidizing conditions, whereas CaS is stable at higher reducing potentials. An increase in temperature rapidly
shifts the phase limits upwards, where the stability regions of CaSO4 and CaS decreases and the stability region shifts the phase limits upwards, where the stability regions of CaSO4 and CaS decreases and the stability region
of CaO increases. For low SO2 partial pressures, the transition from CaSO4 to CaS passes through CaO and of CaO increases. For low SO2 partial pressures, the transition from CaSO4 to CaS passes through CaO and
this transition is favored by increasing temperature. However, this contradicts Figure 5-1 and the mechanism this transition is favored by increasing temperature. However, this contradicts Figure 5-1 and the mechanism
of sulfur release and capture proposed by Hansen et al. (1993). of sulfur release and capture proposed by Hansen et al. (1993).
Similar phase diagrams for the equilibrium system consisting of CaSO4, CaO, CaS, SO2, H2, and H2O are Similar phase diagrams for the equilibrium system consisting of CaSO4, CaO, CaS, SO2, H2, and H2O are
shown in Figure 5-3 and Figure 5-4. The H2O partial pressures are 0.6 and 0.2 atm, respectively. The effect of shown in Figure 5-3 and Figure 5-4. The H2O partial pressures are 0.6 and 0.2 atm, respectively. The effect of
temperature on the stability regions is similar to the observed effect on the CaSO 4, CaO, CaS, SO2, CO, and temperature on the stability regions is similar to the observed effect on the CaSO 4, CaO, CaS, SO2, CO, and
CO2 system. Increasing the H2O partial pressure (the moisture content in the system), the stability region for CO2 system. Increasing the H2O partial pressure (the moisture content in the system), the stability region for
CaSO4 is increased and therefore favoring the oxidizing conditions. CaSO4 is increased and therefore favoring the oxidizing conditions.
88 88
102 102
1.0E+00 1.0E+00 1.0E+00 1.0E+00


CaSO4 CaSO4

CaSO4 CaS CaSO4 CaS
1.0E-01 800 °C 1.0E-01 800 °C
CaS 1.0E-01
900 °C
CaS 1.0E-01
900 °C
1000 °C 1000 °C
1.0E-02 1.0E-02 1100 °C 1.0E-02 1.0E-02 1100 °C
1200 °C 1200 °C
1.0E-03 1.0E-03 1.0E-03 1.0E-03
1.0E-04 CaO 1.0E-04 CaO 1.0E-04 CaO 1.0E-04 CaO
1.0E-05 1.0E-05 1.0E-05 1.0E-05

1.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.0E-01 1.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.0E-01 1.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.0E-01 1.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.0E-01
PH2 [atm] PH2 [atm] PH2 [atm] PH2 [atm]
Figure 5-3: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS- Figure 5-4: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS- H2-H2O Figure 5-3: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS- Figure 5-4: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS- H2-H2O
H2-H2O system at 800, 900, 1000, 1100 and 1200 °C. Total system at 800, 900, 1000, 1100 and 1200 °C. Total pressure 1 atm H2-H2O system at 800, 900, 1000, 1100 and 1200 °C. Total system at 800, 900, 1000, 1100 and 1200 °C. Total pressure 1 atm
pressure 1 atm and 6 vol. % H2O giving PH2O=0.06 atm and 20 vol. % H2O giving PH2O=0.2 atm (thermodynamic data from pressure 1 atm and 6 vol. % H2O giving PH2O=0.06 atm and 20 vol. % H2O giving PH2O=0.2 atm (thermodynamic data from
(thermodynamic data from Barin, 1995). Barin, 1995). (thermodynamic data from Barin, 1995). Barin, 1995).
Phase diagram for the system containing CaSO4, CaO, CaS, and SO2 as function of the partial pressure of O2 Phase diagram for the system containing CaSO4, CaO, CaS, and SO2 as function of the partial pressure of O2
in the temperature range 800 to 1200 °C is illustrated Figure 5-5. The phase diagram shows that the CaSO4 in the temperature range 800 to 1200 °C is illustrated Figure 5-5. The phase diagram shows that the CaSO4
stability decreases with decreasing partial pressure of oxygen, passing to CaS or CaO, depending on the partial stability decreases with decreasing partial pressure of oxygen, passing to CaS or CaO, depending on the partial
pressure of SO2 and the temperature (Hansen et al., 1993). pressure of SO2 and the temperature (Hansen et al., 1993).
1.0E+02 1.0E+02

1.0E+01 1.0E+01
800 °C 800 °C
1.0E+00 CaS CaSO4 1.0E+00 CaS CaSO4
900 °C 900 °C
1000 °C 1000 °C
1.0E-01 1.0E-01
1100 °C 1100 °C
1.0E-02 1.0E-02
1.0E-03 1.0E-03
CaO CaO
1.0E-04 1.0E-04
1.0E-07 1.0E-04 1.0E-01 1.0E+02 1.0E-07 1.0E-04 1.0E-01 1.0E+02
PO2 [atm] PO2 [atm]
Figure 5-5: Phase diagram for the CaSO4-CaO-CaS- SO2-O2 system at 800, 900, 1000 and 1100 °C. Pressure 1 atm (thermodynamic Figure 5-5: Phase diagram for the CaSO4-CaO-CaS- SO2-O2 system at 800, 900, 1000 and 1100 °C. Pressure 1 atm (thermodynamic
data from Barin, 1995). data from Barin, 1995).
5.1.2 Sulfur Release during Combustion of Solid Fuels 5.1.2 Sulfur Release during Combustion of Solid Fuels
Sulfur release from the cement raw materials during combustion of solid fuels has been studied scarcely. Sulfur release from the cement raw materials during combustion of solid fuels has been studied scarcely.
Nielsen (2012) studied sulfur release from model raw materials consisting of a mixture of CaSO4 and quartz Nielsen (2012) studied sulfur release from model raw materials consisting of a mixture of CaSO4 and quartz
sand in a rotary drum in the temperature range between 700 to 1000 °C. The alternative fuels used were sand in a rotary drum in the temperature range between 700 to 1000 °C. The alternative fuels used were
89 89
103 103
polypropylene, petcoke, wood, saw dust, tire, and sewage sludge. Table 5-1 specifies the fuel analysis, where polypropylene, petcoke, wood, saw dust, tire, and sewage sludge. Table 5-1 specifies the fuel analysis, where
a.r. denotes as received, and the lower heating values, and Table 5-2, their shape and dimensions. The effects a.r. denotes as received, and the lower heating values, and Table 5-2, their shape and dimensions. The effects
of energy input, fuel type, temperature, and bulk oxygen concentration were studied. of energy input, fuel type, temperature, and bulk oxygen concentration were studied.
Table 5-1: Fuel analyses and lower heating values (LHV) for solid fuels used in the experiments of used in Figure 5-6, Figure 5-7, Table 5-1: Fuel analyses and lower heating values (LHV) for solid fuels used in the experiments of used in Figure 5-6, Figure 5-7,
and Figure 5-8. and Figure 5-8.
Proximate analysis [wt. %] Ultimate analysis [wt. %] LHV Proximate analysis [wt. %] Ultimate analysis [wt. %] LHV
Fuel Fuel
VM FC Ash C H N S [MJ/kg] VM FC Ash C H N S [MJ/kg]
Tire rubber 64.6 32.6 2.8 87.4 7.1 0.3 1.2 36.9 Tire rubber 64.6 32.6 2.8 87.4 7.1 0.3 1.2 36.9
Pine wood 75.3 24.5 0.2 38.9 5.2 0.1 - 16.2 Pine wood 75.3 24.5 0.2 38.9 5.2 0.1 - 16.2
Poly propylene 97.5 0.0 2.5 83.0 14.0 0.0 - 44.5 Poly propylene 97.5 0.0 2.5 83.0 14.0 0.0 - 44.5
Petcoke 13.4 85.1 1.5 87.3 3.7 1.5 4.7 34.0 Petcoke 13.4 85.1 1.5 87.3 3.7 1.5 4.7 34.0
Table 5-2: Approximate shapes and dimensions of the fuels used in Figure 5-6, Figure 5-7, and Figure 5-8 (Nielsen, 2012). Length Table 5-2: Approximate shapes and dimensions of the fuels used in Figure 5-6, Figure 5-7, and Figure 5-8 (Nielsen, 2012). Length
(L) and diameter (ø). (L) and diameter (ø).
Fuel Shape Dimensions Fuel Shape Dimensions

Tire rubber granulate Irregular ø ≈ 2 mm Tire rubber granulate Irregular ø ≈ 2 mm
Tire rubber cylinders Cylindrical L = 12 mm, ø= 9 mm Tire rubber cylinders Cylindrical L = 12 mm, ø= 9 mm
Pine wood cubes Rectangular 30x15x10 mm Pine wood cubes Rectangular 30x15x10 mm
Pine wood saw dust Needles L= 1 mm Pine wood saw dust Needles L= 1 mm
Poly propylene flakes Rectangular 20x10x1 mm Poly propylene flakes Rectangular 20x10x1 mm
Petcoke Spherical ø≈ 1 mm Petcoke Spherical ø≈ 1 mm
Sewage sludge granulate Spherical ø ≈ 0.5 mm Sewage sludge granulate Spherical ø ≈ 0.5 mm
The sulfur release was corrected by subtracting the sulfur release coming from the fuel sulfur content and from The sulfur release was corrected by subtracting the sulfur release coming from the fuel sulfur content and from
the thermal decomposition of the calcium sulfate. Figure 5-6 shows the total sulfur release as a function of the the thermal decomposition of the calcium sulfate. Figure 5-6 shows the total sulfur release as a function of the
energy input from different fuels at 900 °C. Increasing energy input led to a higher degree of reducing energy input from different fuels at 900 °C. Increasing energy input led to a higher degree of reducing
conditions near the raw materials bed and more sulfur was therefore released. Figure 5-7 shows the results of conditions near the raw materials bed and more sulfur was therefore released. Figure 5-7 shows the results of
the sulfur release from raw materials in the temperature range 700 to 1000 °C for different fuels with different the sulfur release from raw materials in the temperature range 700 to 1000 °C for different fuels with different
dimensions, specified in Table 5-2. The uncertainties of the results have been added in both graphs. The relative dimensions, specified in Table 5-2. The uncertainties of the results have been added in both graphs. The relative
uncertainty of the experimental data in Figure 5-6 is greater when using high energy input, i.e. for the uncertainty of the experimental data in Figure 5-6 is greater when using high energy input, i.e. for the
experiments using 15 kJ, the relative uncertainty varies between 10 to 19 %, and 27 to 42 % using 50 kJ. experiments using 15 kJ, the relative uncertainty varies between 10 to 19 %, and 27 to 42 % using 50 kJ.
90 90
104 104
600 600
250 Tire granulate 250 Tire granulate
Tire granulate Saw dust Tire granulate Saw dust
Sewage sludge Sewage sludge
Total sulfur release [mg]

Tyre particle Tyre particle

200 Saw dust Pet coke 200 Saw dust Pet coke
Pet coke 400 wood particle Pet coke 400 wood particle
Poly propylene Poly propylene
150 Poly propylene 150 Poly propylene
100 100
200 200
50 50
0 0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 700 800 900 1000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 700 800 900 1000
Temperature [°C] Temperature [°C]
Energy input [kJ] Energy input [kJ]
Figure 5-7: Effect of temperature and particle size on total sulfur Figure 5-7: Effect of temperature and particle size on total sulfur
Figure 5-6: Effect of energy input from different fuels on total Figure 5-6: Effect of energy input from different fuels on total
release. Conditions: 5 % fill degree, 5 wt. % CaSO4, 10 vol. % release. Conditions: 5 % fill degree, 5 wt. % CaSO4, 10 vol. %
sulfur release. Conditions: 900 °C, 10 vol. % O2, 5 % fill, 5 wt. % sulfur release. Conditions: 900 °C, 10 vol. % O2, 5 % fill, 5 wt. %
O2, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. Energy input in each experiment: 30 kJ. O2, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. Energy input in each experiment: 30 kJ.
CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. Modified from (Nielsen et al., 2011). CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. Modified from (Nielsen et al., 2011).
Modified from (Nielsen et al., 2011). Modified from (Nielsen et al., 2011).
The fuel particle size had an insignificant influence on sulfur release at 700 and 800 °C, where there were The fuel particle size had an insignificant influence on sulfur release at 700 and 800 °C, where there were
almost no sulfur release for any fuels. The influence of particle size became more evident at 900 and 1000 °C almost no sulfur release for any fuels. The influence of particle size became more evident at 900 and 1000 °C
for the different fuels. Comparing the tire rubber and wood particles, the tire granulate and saw dust gave rise for the different fuels. Comparing the tire rubber and wood particles, the tire granulate and saw dust gave rise
to higher sulfur release while the sulfur release was much less for the tire and wood particles. The sulfur to higher sulfur release while the sulfur release was much less for the tire and wood particles. The sulfur
releases from the tire granulate and the saw dust in Figure 5-7, was estimated by extrapolation since the SO2 releases from the tire granulate and the saw dust in Figure 5-7, was estimated by extrapolation since the SO2
concentration exceeded the range of the analyzer. The relative uncertainty of the results at different concentration exceeded the range of the analyzer. The relative uncertainty of the results at different
temperatures is normally higher at 700 °C and lower at 1000 °C, but does not follow any trend and varies from temperatures is normally higher at 700 °C and lower at 1000 °C, but does not follow any trend and varies from
3 to 83 %. 3 to 83 %.
The effect of oxygen concentration on sulfur release is shown in Figure 5-8. The total sulfur release increased The effect of oxygen concentration on sulfur release is shown in Figure 5-8. The total sulfur release increased
with decreasing oxygen concentration. This is in a good agreement with the phase diagram of Figure 5-5, with decreasing oxygen concentration. This is in a good agreement with the phase diagram of Figure 5-5,
because CaSO4 is more stable at higher O2 concentrations and will need stronger reducing conditions to be because CaSO4 is more stable at higher O2 concentrations and will need stronger reducing conditions to be
transformed to CaS and/or CaO. The relative uncertainties are greatest at 5 and 10 vol. % O2, which are around transformed to CaS and/or CaO. The relative uncertainties are greatest at 5 and 10 vol. % O2, which are around
20 % for tire granulate and polypropylene, and 72 and 51 %, for petcoke and wood at 10 vol. % O2, 20 % for tire granulate and polypropylene, and 72 and 51 %, for petcoke and wood at 10 vol. % O2,
respectively. This may be due to incomplete combustion, creating significant amount of soot, and how the respectively. This may be due to incomplete combustion, creating significant amount of soot, and how the
particles were mixed with the bed, which could have been very different from experiment to experiment. At particles were mixed with the bed, which could have been very different from experiment to experiment. At
higher O2 content, the relative uncertainties are 10 % or below. higher O2 content, the relative uncertainties are 10 % or below.
91 91
105 105
250 250
Tyre granulate Tyre granulate

200 Pet coke 200 Pet coke
Pine wood particle Pine wood particle
Poly propylene Poly propylene
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Oxygen concentration [Vol. %] Oxygen concentration [Vol. %]
Figure 5-8: Effect of oxygen concentration on total sulfur for different fuels. Conditions: 5 % fill degree, 5 wt. % CaSO4, 900 °C, Figure 5-8: Effect of oxygen concentration on total sulfur for different fuels. Conditions: 5 % fill degree, 5 wt. % CaSO4, 900 °C,
100 NL/min, 6 rpm. Energy input in each experiment: 30 kJ. Modified from (Nielsen et al., 2011). 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. Energy input in each experiment: 30 kJ. Modified from (Nielsen et al., 2011).
5.1.2.1 Pre-experimental Considerations 5.1.2.1 Pre-experimental Considerations
In previous experiments, it has been observed that the fuel particle size is of high importance for the sulfur In previous experiments, it has been observed that the fuel particle size is of high importance for the sulfur
release, but it is not clear why. Further experiments with different particle sizes will be done in order to clarify release, but it is not clear why. Further experiments with different particle sizes will be done in order to clarify
whether this is due to fuel composition, the conversion pathway, or the number of particles. whether this is due to fuel composition, the conversion pathway, or the number of particles.
Furthermore, the effect of fuel devolatilization degree would represent the sulfur release of partly unburned Furthermore, the effect of fuel devolatilization degree would represent the sulfur release of partly unburned
alternative fuel and give an idea of the sulfur release from calcined raw meal when partly unburned solid alternative fuel and give an idea of the sulfur release from calcined raw meal when partly unburned solid
alternative fuels from the calciner fuel fall into the kiln inlet directly or after being carried upwards with the alternative fuels from the calciner fuel fall into the kiln inlet directly or after being carried upwards with the
gas flow in the calciner and transported into the bottom stage cyclone to the kiln inlet. It is well known that gas flow in the calciner and transported into the bottom stage cyclone to the kiln inlet. It is well known that
the reducing gases such as CO, H2, and CH4, which can be released from the fuel particle, cause reductive the reducing gases such as CO, H2, and CH4, which can be released from the fuel particle, cause reductive
decomposition of CaSO4 (Swift and Wheelock, 1975; Wheelock and Boylan, 1960; Oh and Wheelock, 1990; decomposition of CaSO4 (Swift and Wheelock, 1975; Wheelock and Boylan, 1960; Oh and Wheelock, 1990;
Nielsen, 2012) but the effect of the fuel char or partly converted fuel has been not investigated in the literature. Nielsen, 2012) but the effect of the fuel char or partly converted fuel has been not investigated in the literature.
In all the experiments performed by Nielsen (2012), the alternative fuel was dried. In reality, most of the In all the experiments performed by Nielsen (2012), the alternative fuel was dried. In reality, most of the
alternative fuels contain a high degree of moisture, which could affect the sulfur release, and this will also be alternative fuels contain a high degree of moisture, which could affect the sulfur release, and this will also be
investigated in section 5.3. investigated in section 5.3.
Nielsen (2012) did not use cement raw materials based on clay and limestone because it adhered to the rotary Nielsen (2012) did not use cement raw materials based on clay and limestone because it adhered to the rotary
drum inner walls and formed nodules during the experiments. In addition, the raw meal did not roll in the drum drum inner walls and formed nodules during the experiments. In addition, the raw meal did not roll in the drum
but moved in a slumping motion. It has been noticed that the uncertainties of Nielsen’s experiments are large. but moved in a slumping motion. It has been noticed that the uncertainties of Nielsen’s experiments are large.
The used quartz sand had a particle size range between 0.4 to 1 mm with average size of 0.6 mm (Nielsen, The used quartz sand had a particle size range between 0.4 to 1 mm with average size of 0.6 mm (Nielsen,
2012). The actual particle size distribution of the quartz sand is shown in Figure 5-9. Pre-experiments were 2012). The actual particle size distribution of the quartz sand is shown in Figure 5-9. Pre-experiments were
92 92
106 106
done to improve the repeatability. Differences in the distribution of the quartz particles in the experimental done to improve the repeatability. Differences in the distribution of the quartz particles in the experimental
setup prior to and after an experimental serie was noticed. Prior to experiments the particles were setup prior to and after an experimental serie was noticed. Prior to experiments the particles were
homogenously distributed in the setup whereas after experiments the smaller particles were placed on the sides homogenously distributed in the setup whereas after experiments the smaller particles were placed on the sides
of the reactor and the bigger particles in the middle. of the reactor and the bigger particles in the middle.
60 54.95 60 54.95
Weight percentage [%]
Weight percentage [%]

50 50
42.65 42.65
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0.000 0.02 0.14 0.47 1.57 0.20 0.000 0.02 0.14 0.47 1.57 0.20
0 0
Size [mm] Size [mm]
Figure 5-9: Particle size distribution for the quartz sand. Figure 5-9: Particle size distribution for the quartz sand.
The particle size distribution of the quartz sand clearly affected the calcium sulfate added in the mixture The particle size distribution of the quartz sand clearly affected the calcium sulfate added in the mixture
because it was moving in the axial direction, which means that the sulfur content was not homogeneous along because it was moving in the axial direction, which means that the sulfur content was not homogeneous along
the bed. Therefore, it was decided to narrow the particle size distribution of the quartz sand, which improved the bed. Therefore, it was decided to narrow the particle size distribution of the quartz sand, which improved
the experimental repeatability significantly from 16-28 % to 1-5 % in relative uncertainty. Quart sand with a the experimental repeatability significantly from 16-28 % to 1-5 % in relative uncertainty. Quart sand with a
particle size range from 0.4 to 0.8 mm are used in the experiments of this thesis. particle size range from 0.4 to 0.8 mm are used in the experiments of this thesis.
5.2 Experimental 5.2 Experimental
The aim of the experimental section is to investigate the effect of particle size of different fuels, degree of fuel The aim of the experimental section is to investigate the effect of particle size of different fuels, degree of fuel
devolatilization, sulfur content in the bed, and moisture content on release of sulfur from cement raw materials. devolatilization, sulfur content in the bed, and moisture content on release of sulfur from cement raw materials.
5.2.1 Experimental Set-up 5.2.1 Experimental Set-up
The experiments are performed in a high temperature rotary drum (Nielsen, 2012). This equipment is able to The experiments are performed in a high temperature rotary drum (Nielsen, 2012). This equipment is able to
simulate the process conditions at the material inlet end of an industrial rotary kiln. The rotary drum is simulate the process conditions at the material inlet end of an industrial rotary kiln. The rotary drum is
electrically heated by a furnace. Gas can be introduced into the chamber furnace through a hole in the roof in electrically heated by a furnace. Gas can be introduced into the chamber furnace through a hole in the roof in
order to have a controlled atmosphere. The gas is transported into the rotating drum by an externally placed order to have a controlled atmosphere. The gas is transported into the rotating drum by an externally placed
gas pump that pumps the gas through the rotating drum and the steel tube where after the gas exiting the reactor gas pump that pumps the gas through the rotating drum and the steel tube where after the gas exiting the reactor
93 93
107 107
is cooled and analyzed. The exit concentrations of SO2, CO, CO2, and O2 in the gas are analyzed and logged is cooled and analyzed. The exit concentrations of SO2, CO, CO2, and O2 in the gas are analyzed and logged
during the fuel combustion. The chamber furnace door is equipped with a window for visual inspection, two during the fuel combustion. The chamber furnace door is equipped with a window for visual inspection, two
holes for thermocouples, and a centrally placed water cooled tube for introduction of solid fuel. The solid fuels holes for thermocouples, and a centrally placed water cooled tube for introduction of solid fuel. The solid fuels
are placed in a sample container which can be pushed into the hot rotary drum or pulled out to the water cooled are placed in a sample container which can be pushed into the hot rotary drum or pulled out to the water cooled
tube. Figure 5-10 shows a side and top view of the high temperature rotary drum and its dimensions in mm. tube. Figure 5-10 shows a side and top view of the high temperature rotary drum and its dimensions in mm.
Gas inlet Gas inlet

Door Door
Ø60 window Support and Ø60 window Support and

485 sealing 485 sealing
Water in Water in Water in Water in
T3 T3
440 Position: Lower corner 440 Position: Lower corner
T2 T2
Ø165 300 Position: 35 mm of furnace rear wall Ø165 300 Position: 35 mm of furnace rear wall
from drum rear wall from drum rear wall
655 Water out 655 Water out
Water out Ø80 Water out Ø80
Flue gas outlet Flue gas outlet
Fuel sample boat 500 Fuel sample boat 500

T1 T1
Position: 10 mm Position: 10 mm
Motor from drum opening Motor from drum opening
Fuel sample boat: L = 200, Ø60 Fuel sample boat: L = 200, Ø60
Figure 5-10: High temperature rotary drum. Left: Side view. Right: Top view (Nielsen, 2012). Note: T1, T2 and T3 refer Figure 5-10: High temperature rotary drum. Left: Side view. Right: Top view (Nielsen, 2012). Note: T1, T2 and T3 refer
thermocouples, L refers to length and ø to diameter in mm. thermocouples, L refers to length and ø to diameter in mm.
Figure 5-11 shows the piping and instrumentation diagram of the high temperature rotary drum. The nitrogen Figure 5-11 shows the piping and instrumentation diagram of the high temperature rotary drum. The nitrogen
and air can be sent into the furnace but can also be bypassed during calibration of flow meter controllers and and air can be sent into the furnace but can also be bypassed during calibration of flow meter controllers and
leakage tests. The gas temperature is measured at three different positions in the rotary drum reactor: at the leakage tests. The gas temperature is measured at three different positions in the rotary drum reactor: at the
rear wall in the chamber furnace (T1), which is regulated by a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), at the rear wall in the chamber furnace (T1), which is regulated by a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), at the
center of the rotary drum (T2) and at the door just in front of the rotary drum (T3). The rotation of the rotary center of the rotary drum (T2) and at the door just in front of the rotary drum (T3). The rotation of the rotary
drum is regulated by a speed controller (S1), which controls the motor (M1). drum is regulated by a speed controller (S1), which controls the motor (M1).
Gas bypass Gas bypass

V3 V3
V1 Filter F1 V1 Filter F1
N2 N2
V4 V4
Calibration gas Calibration gas

Air V10 Air V10
Cold water Cold water
V2 Filter F2 Gas V2 Filter F2 Gas
V7 F4 V7 F4
PLC PLC
V8 V8
T2 Heat exchanger Aerosol V5 T2 Heat exchanger Aerosol V5

F3 Filter F3 Filter
Flue gas filter Flue gas filter
T T
Sample Sample
T
T Filter Pump gas Pump V6
T
T Filter Pump gas Pump V6
T3 Rotary drum T1 V9 T3 Rotary drum T1 V9
T
T4 Exhaust Exhaust O2 T
T4 Exhaust Exhaust O2
S1 M1 S1 M1
Gas cooler CO Gas cooler CO
Hot water Hot water
Signal to computer CO2 Signal to computer CO2
SO2 SO2
Signals to computer Signals to computer Signals to computer Signals to computer
NO NO
Data Data
Exhaust Exhaust
acquisition acquisition
Figure 5-11: P&I diagram of the high temperature rotary drum (Nielsen, 2012). Figure 5-11: P&I diagram of the high temperature rotary drum (Nielsen, 2012).
94 94
108 108
A pump transports the flue gas out of the rotary drum reactor. Before passing the pump, the flue gas is cooled A pump transports the flue gas out of the rotary drum reactor. Before passing the pump, the flue gas is cooled
in a heat exchanger and soot particles are captured in a filter. After having passed the pump, the flue gas is in a heat exchanger and soot particles are captured in a filter. After having passed the pump, the flue gas is
either sent directly to the stack, or to the gas analyzers for measurement of O 2, CO, CO2, SO2, and NO. The either sent directly to the stack, or to the gas analyzers for measurement of O 2, CO, CO2, SO2, and NO. The
fraction of the flue gas which is sent to the analyzers will pass additional two filters, a gas cooler for fraction of the flue gas which is sent to the analyzers will pass additional two filters, a gas cooler for
condensation of water and a sample gas pump before reaching the gas analyzers. IR analyzers are used for CO condensation of water and a sample gas pump before reaching the gas analyzers. IR analyzers are used for CO
and CO2, an UV analyzer is used for NO and SO2, and a paramagnetic analyzer is used for O2. and CO2, an UV analyzer is used for NO and SO2, and a paramagnetic analyzer is used for O2.
The operational limits of the experimental set-up are described in Table 5-3. The operational limits of the experimental set-up are described in Table 5-3.
Table 5-3: Key specifications for high temperature drum experimental setup (Nielsen, 2012). Table 5-3: Key specifications for high temperature drum experimental setup (Nielsen, 2012).
Parameter Specification Parameter Specification

Operating temperature ≤ 1000 °C Operating temperature ≤ 1000 °C
Rotational speed 0-20 rpm Rotational speed 0-20 rpm
Gas flow ≤ 500 NL/min Gas flow ≤ 500 NL/min
Oxygen concentration 2-21 vol. % Oxygen concentration 2-21 vol. %
Load capacity ≤6L Load capacity ≤6L
Fill degree ≤ 17 % Fill degree ≤ 17 %
5.2.2 Experimental Method 5.2.2 Experimental Method
As stated in the pre-experimental considerations, a model mixture of raw materials is used in the experiments As stated in the pre-experimental considerations, a model mixture of raw materials is used in the experiments
of this project. The mixture is based on inert quartz sand with a particle size ranging from 0.5 to 0.71 mm, and of this project. The mixture is based on inert quartz sand with a particle size ranging from 0.5 to 0.71 mm, and
CaSO4, as source of sulfur. CaSO4, as source of sulfur.
The synthetic mixture is placed in the rotary drum in the desired volumetric filling degree, typically 5 %. The The synthetic mixture is placed in the rotary drum in the desired volumetric filling degree, typically 5 %. The
furnace door is closed and the reactor heated to the desired temperature. The drum is rotating with 6 rotations furnace door is closed and the reactor heated to the desired temperature. The drum is rotating with 6 rotations
per minute, which keeps the raw materials in a rolling motion with an angle of repose of approximately 30- per minute, which keeps the raw materials in a rolling motion with an angle of repose of approximately 30-
40°. A constant flow of 100 NL/min of gas with the desired O2 concentration in N2 is sent through the rotary 40°. A constant flow of 100 NL/min of gas with the desired O2 concentration in N2 is sent through the rotary
drum. drum.
At a desired temperature, controlled by T2, and oxygen concentration monitored by the gas analyzer, the fuel At a desired temperature, controlled by T2, and oxygen concentration monitored by the gas analyzer, the fuel
sample is placed in the sample boat, which is then positioned in the water cooled tube. The water cooled tube sample is placed in the sample boat, which is then positioned in the water cooled tube. The water cooled tube
is closed in the end, in order to obtain a controlled atmosphere inside the rotary drum reactor. When the is closed in the end, in order to obtain a controlled atmosphere inside the rotary drum reactor. When the
temperature measured by T2 and oxygen concentration are stable inside the reactor, the fuel sample boat is temperature measured by T2 and oxygen concentration are stable inside the reactor, the fuel sample boat is
pushed into the rotary drum, turned 180° and pulled out in the water cooled tube again. Thereby, the fuel pushed into the rotary drum, turned 180° and pulled out in the water cooled tube again. Thereby, the fuel
sample will drop on the synthetic bed material and immediately be heated and start combustion. sample will drop on the synthetic bed material and immediately be heated and start combustion.
95 95
109 109
The filters in the experimental set-up are changed regularly in order to avoid significant pressure drop over the The filters in the experimental set-up are changed regularly in order to avoid significant pressure drop over the
system because this creates an unstable gas flow, which will affect the repeatability of the individual system because this creates an unstable gas flow, which will affect the repeatability of the individual
experiments. experiments.
The release of sulfur during the experiments is quantified by integration of the gas concentration of SO2 over The release of sulfur during the experiments is quantified by integration of the gas concentration of SO2 over
the relevant time interval, which mathematically is expressed by equation 5.1. The SO2 release during thermal the relevant time interval, which mathematically is expressed by equation 5.1. The SO2 release during thermal
decomposition of CaSO4 (when no experiments are conducted) must be subtracted from the actual decomposition of CaSO4 (when no experiments are conducted) must be subtracted from the actual
measurements in order to quantify only the release caused by the fuel combustion. measurements in order to quantify only the release caused by the fuel combustion.
t P Q t P Q
nS release ³y
0 SO2 dt 106
R T
[5.1] nS release ³y
0 SO2 dt 106
R T
[5.1]
where ySO2 is the SO2 concentration in ppm, R the gas ideal constant (8.314 m3·Pa/mol·K), P the atmospheric where ySO2 is the SO2 concentration in ppm, R the gas ideal constant (8.314 m3·Pa/mol·K), P the atmospheric
pressure in Pa, T the temperature in K, and Q the volumetric gas flow in m3/s. pressure in Pa, T the temperature in K, and Q the volumetric gas flow in m3/s.
Assuming that the fuel conversion is proportional to the carbon conversion, the degree of fuel conversion, X, Assuming that the fuel conversion is proportional to the carbon conversion, the degree of fuel conversion, X,
can be calculated by integration of the concentrations profiles of CO2 and CO (yCO2 and yCO), as described by can be calculated by integration of the concentrations profiles of CO2 and CO (yCO2 and yCO), as described by
equation 5.2. equation 5.2.
t t
X (t )
³
0
yCO yCO2 dt
[5.2] X (t )
³
0
yCO yCO2 dt
[5.2]
f f
³
0
yCO yCO2 dt ³
0
yCO yCO2 dt
5.2.3 Fuel Samples 5.2.3 Fuel Samples
Pine wood and tire rubber cylinders are used as fuels. Their proximate and ultimate analyses as received and Pine wood and tire rubber cylinders are used as fuels. Their proximate and ultimate analyses as received and
the lower heating values are shown in Table 5-4. the lower heating values are shown in Table 5-4.
Table 5-4: Pine wood and tire rubber proximate and ultimate analyses and their lower heating values (LHV). Notes: 1 Volatile Table 5-4: Pine wood and tire rubber proximate and ultimate analyses and their lower heating values (LHV). Notes: 1 Volatile
matter, 2 Fixed carbon. matter, 2 Fixed carbon.
Moisture Proximate analysis [wt. %] Ultimate analysis [wt. %] LHV Moisture Proximate analysis [wt. %] Ultimate analysis [wt. %] LHV
Fuel Fuel
[wt. %] VM1 FC2 Ash C H N S [MJ/kg] [wt. %] VM1 FC2 Ash C H N S [MJ/kg]
Pine Wood 11.4 76.8 11.3 0.5 44.7 5.54 0.04 - 15.97 Pine Wood 11.4 76.8 11.3 0.5 44.7 5.54 0.04 - 15.97
Tire rubber - 64.4 32.6 2.8 87.4 7.1 0.3 1.2 36.9 Tire rubber - 64.4 32.6 2.8 87.4 7.1 0.3 1.2 36.9
96 96
110 110
Three types of particle size of pine wood and tire rubber are chosen in order to investigate the effect of particle Three types of particle size of pine wood and tire rubber are chosen in order to investigate the effect of particle
size. The cylinder dimensions of pine wood and tire rubber are specified in Table 5-5. It was not possible to size. The cylinder dimensions of pine wood and tire rubber are specified in Table 5-5. It was not possible to
use identical dimensions of wood and tire cylinders due to the high energy input of tire. use identical dimensions of wood and tire cylinders due to the high energy input of tire.
Table 5-5: Cylinders dimensions of pine wood and tire rubber. Length (L) and diameter (ø).Note:* Granulate. Table 5-5: Cylinders dimensions of pine wood and tire rubber. Length (L) and diameter (ø).Note:* Granulate.
Fuel Particle size [mm] Fuel Particle size [mm]

Pine wood ø19 , L= 25 ø=13 , L=25 ø=8 , L=25 Pine wood ø19 , L= 25 ø=13 , L=25 ø=8 , L=25
Tire rubber ø13, L=12 ø=9 , L=12 ø≈ 2* Tire rubber ø13, L=12 ø=9 , L=12 ø≈ 2*
5.2.4 Wood Char Preparation 5.2.4 Wood Char Preparation
The wood char is made by introducing the wood cylinders into a horizontal tube reactor under a nitrogen The wood char is made by introducing the wood cylinders into a horizontal tube reactor under a nitrogen
atmosphere for 20 minutes at a specific temperature. The horizontal tube reactor is an Entech two-zone atmosphere for 20 minutes at a specific temperature. The horizontal tube reactor is an Entech two-zone
electrically heated furnace consisting of a ceramic pipe, which is heated by three electrical heaters, and water electrically heated furnace consisting of a ceramic pipe, which is heated by three electrical heaters, and water
cooled flanges at both ends. The length of the ceramic pipe is 1150 mm and the inner and outer diameters are cooled flanges at both ends. The length of the ceramic pipe is 1150 mm and the inner and outer diameters are
50 and 60 mm, respectively. The reactor has also a gas panel, which allows using the desired gas and flow. 50 and 60 mm, respectively. The reactor has also a gas panel, which allows using the desired gas and flow.
The outlet gas can be filtrated and analyzed or send it directly to ventilation. Figure 5-12 shows a schematic The outlet gas can be filtrated and analyzed or send it directly to ventilation. Figure 5-12 shows a schematic
view of the different parts of the horizontal tube reactor. view of the different parts of the horizontal tube reactor.
Heating element Heating element

To stack To stack
Gas inlet Gas inlet
Crucible Crucible
Water cooled Water cooled

Heating element flange Heating element flange
Water cooled chamber Furnace Water cooled chamber Furnace
Figure 5-12: Sketch of the horizontal tube reactor. Figure 5-12: Sketch of the horizontal tube reactor.
The wood cylinders are placed in a porcelain crucible with dimensions of HxWxL=17x35x90 cm. The The wood cylinders are placed in a porcelain crucible with dimensions of HxWxL=17x35x90 cm. The
porcelain crucible is placed in the water cooled chamber, which makes it possible to remove and insert the porcelain crucible is placed in the water cooled chamber, which makes it possible to remove and insert the
wood cylinder while the oven is hot and while maintaining the gas composition. For all the wood char wood cylinder while the oven is hot and while maintaining the gas composition. For all the wood char
preparation, a minimum time of 5 minutes after sealing of the oven is kept to ensure that no oxygen is inside preparation, a minimum time of 5 minutes after sealing of the oven is kept to ensure that no oxygen is inside
the system after the pipe has been open. The sealing is done with a stainless steel plate which contains an the system after the pipe has been open. The sealing is done with a stainless steel plate which contains an
opening for the gas inlet. The crucible is pushed into the center of the ceramic tube using a metal stick. After opening for the gas inlet. The crucible is pushed into the center of the ceramic tube using a metal stick. After
20 minutes, the crucible is pushed fast to the water cooled chamber with a metal tube from the back end in 20 minutes, the crucible is pushed fast to the water cooled chamber with a metal tube from the back end in
order to minimize the entrance of oxygen into the reactor. In the water cooled chamber the crucible and the order to minimize the entrance of oxygen into the reactor. In the water cooled chamber the crucible and the
samples are cooled down in nitrogen during 10 minutes. samples are cooled down in nitrogen during 10 minutes.
97 97
111 111
Wood char is produced at temperatures of 300, 500, 700 and 900 °C with a constant N2 flow of 5 NL/min in Wood char is produced at temperatures of 300, 500, 700 and 900 °C with a constant N2 flow of 5 NL/min in
all the experiments. The used nitrogen has a purity of 99.999 %. The mass before and after the pyrolysis of all the experiments. The used nitrogen has a purity of 99.999 %. The mass before and after the pyrolysis of
each cylinder are measured. It should be noticed that the cylinders shrink during pyrolysis. Table 5-6 shows each cylinder are measured. It should be noticed that the cylinders shrink during pyrolysis. Table 5-6 shows
the average dimensions of the wood cylinders after the pyrolysis at different temperatures. The degree of the average dimensions of the wood cylinders after the pyrolysis at different temperatures. The degree of
devolatilization for the three different wood cylinders and the average at different temperatures are also devolatilization for the three different wood cylinders and the average at different temperatures are also
specified in Table 5-6. specified in Table 5-6.
Table 5-6: Average dimensions and degree of devolatilization for the wood cylinders after the 20 min of pyrolysis at different Table 5-6: Average dimensions and degree of devolatilization for the wood cylinders after the 20 min of pyrolysis at different
temperatures. Length (L) and diameter (ø). Note: AAverage, BDegree of devolatilization above 100 %, which means that the particle temperatures. Length (L) and diameter (ø). Note: AAverage, BDegree of devolatilization above 100 %, which means that the particle
does not contain volatiles and have experience char degradation. does not contain volatiles and have experience char degradation.
Particle size after pyrolysis [mm] Degree of devolatilization [%] Particle size after pyrolysis [mm] Degree of devolatilization [%]
T [°C] T [°C]
ø 8, L= 25 ø 13, L= 25 ø 19, L= 25 ø 8, L= 25 ø 13, L= 25 ø 19, L=25 AvgA ø 8, L= 25 ø 13, L= 25 ø 19, L= 25 ø 8, L= 25 ø 13, L= 25 ø 19, L=25 AvgA
300 ø 7, L= 24 ø 11-12, L=24 ø 17-18, L= 24 25.68 ± 2.4 26.33 ± 4.3 21.67 ± 3.7 24.5 300 ø 7, L= 24 ø 11-12, L=24 ø 17-18, L= 24 25.68 ± 2.4 26.33 ± 4.3 21.67 ± 3.7 24.5
500 ø 5-6, L= 21 ø 8-9, L= 21 ø 12-14, L= 22 98.57 ± 2.0 99.79 ± 0.4 101.55 ± 0.6 99.9 500 ø 5-6, L= 21 ø 8-9, L= 21 ø 12-14, L= 22 98.57 ± 2.0 99.79 ± 0.4 101.55 ± 0.6 99.9
B
700 ø 4-5,L= 20 ø 8-9, L= 20 ø 12-10, L= 21 107.5 ± 0.6 108.2 ±1.1 109.19 ± 0.3 107.9 700 ø 4-5,L= 20 ø 8-9, L= 20 ø 12-10, L= 21 107.5 ± 0.6 108.2 ±1.1 109.19 ± 0.3 107.9B
900 ø 4-6, L= 20 ø 9, L=20 ø 10-12, L= 20 110.8 ± 0.8 110.6 ±0.9 110.3 ± 0.02 110.6B 900 ø 4-6, L= 20 ø 9, L=20 ø 10-12, L= 20 110.8 ± 0.8 110.6 ±0.9 110.3 ± 0.02 110.6B
The degree of devolatilization is calculated on basis of the content of volatiles before and after pyrolysis. The The degree of devolatilization is calculated on basis of the content of volatiles before and after pyrolysis. The
o
analysis of the volatiles content of the non-pyrolized wood was determined at 900 C during 7 minutes analysis of the volatiles content of the non-pyrolized wood was determined at 900 oC during 7 minutes
(FLSmidth A/S, 2007). It can be seen that the degrees of devolatilization for the wood particles at 700 and 900 (FLSmidth A/S, 2007). It can be seen that the degrees of devolatilization for the wood particles at 700 and 900
°C are above 100 %, which naturally does not have physical meaning. These numbers occur because the release °C are above 100 %, which naturally does not have physical meaning. These numbers occur because the release
of volatiles has been completed and decomposition of the char residue starts to occur due to the increased of volatiles has been completed and decomposition of the char residue starts to occur due to the increased
pyrolysis temperature (Koufopanos et al., 1989; Di Blasi, 2009). The degrees of devolatilization of the three pyrolysis temperature (Koufopanos et al., 1989; Di Blasi, 2009). The degrees of devolatilization of the three
different diameters at the same temperature differ slightly due to the internal heat transfer limitations where different diameters at the same temperature differ slightly due to the internal heat transfer limitations where
internal temperature gradients in the fuel particle occur during heating. The boundary between internal and internal temperature gradients in the fuel particle occur during heating. The boundary between internal and
external heat transfer limitations is defined by the Biot number (Bi), which depends on the thermal conductivity external heat transfer limitations is defined by the Biot number (Bi), which depends on the thermal conductivity
and particle size of the fuel. For the particle sizes used, the internal heating rate is more important than the and particle size of the fuel. For the particle sizes used, the internal heating rate is more important than the
external heating rate (Bi > 0.2). external heating rate (Bi > 0.2).
5.3 Results and Discussion 5.3 Results and Discussion
5.3.1 General Observations 5.3.1 General Observations
Figure 5-13 and Figure 5-14 show an example of the flue gas concentrations (O2, CO, CO2 and SO2) from a Figure 5-13 and Figure 5-14 show an example of the flue gas concentrations (O2, CO, CO2 and SO2) from a
typical experiment with combustion of a single wood cylinder with a diameter of 19 mm performed at 900 °C typical experiment with combustion of a single wood cylinder with a diameter of 19 mm performed at 900 °C
and 5 vol. % O2, and a bed material of 5 % fill degree with 2 wt. % CaSO4. When the devolatilization starts, and 5 vol. % O2, and a bed material of 5 % fill degree with 2 wt. % CaSO4. When the devolatilization starts,
the oxygen concentrations drops to approximately 2 vol. % and the CO and CO2 concentrations increases. The the oxygen concentrations drops to approximately 2 vol. % and the CO and CO2 concentrations increases. The
98 98
112 112
SO2 concentration increases rapidly from 0 to almost 300 ppm and gradually decreases towards 0 ppm again SO2 concentration increases rapidly from 0 to almost 300 ppm and gradually decreases towards 0 ppm again
while the CO2 concentration also decreases. while the CO2 concentration also decreases.
6 6000 350 6 6000 350

O2 and CO2 concentration [vol.%]
O2 and CO2 concentration [vol.%]

5 5000 300 5 5000 300
CO concentration [ppm]
CO concentration [ppm]
SO2 concentration [ppm]

250 250
4 4000 4 4000
200 200
3 3000 3 3000
150 150
2 2000 2 2000
100 100
1 1000 1 1000
50 50
0 0 0 0
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time [s] 0 50 100 150 Time [s] 0 50 100 150
Time [s] Time [s]
O΍ CO΍ CO O΍ CO΍ CO
Figure 5-13: O2, CO, and CO2 concentrations in the flue gas Figure 5-14: SO2 concentration in the flue gas which is release Figure 5-13: O2, CO, and CO2 concentrations in the flue gas Figure 5-14: SO2 concentration in the flue gas which is release
during the combustion of due to combustion of one ø 19 mm pine from the raw materials due to combustion of one ø 19 mm pine during the combustion of due to combustion of one ø 19 mm pine from the raw materials due to combustion of one ø 19 mm pine
wood cylinder. 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 5 vol. % wood cylinder. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill wood cylinder. 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 5 vol. % wood cylinder. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill
O2, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 5 vol. % O2, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. O2, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 5 vol. % O2, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm.
The normalized carbon conversion curve for the wood cylinder of 19 mm diameter is shown in Figure 5-15 The normalized carbon conversion curve for the wood cylinder of 19 mm diameter is shown in Figure 5-15
from which the devolatilization and char oxidation times can be determined as indicated. The devolatilization from which the devolatilization and char oxidation times can be determined as indicated. The devolatilization
period ends when the slope of the conversion curve decreases significantly, indicating the start of the slower period ends when the slope of the conversion curve decreases significantly, indicating the start of the slower
char oxidation period. The char oxidation is assumed to be finished when the CO2 concentration reaches the char oxidation period. The char oxidation is assumed to be finished when the CO2 concentration reaches the
same value as the CO2 concentration in 5 vol. % O2 in the mixture nitrogen and air, which is 0.03 vol. % CO2. same value as the CO2 concentration in 5 vol. % O2 in the mixture nitrogen and air, which is 0.03 vol. % CO2.
This assumption is in good agreement with the visual observations during the experiment where red-glowing This assumption is in good agreement with the visual observations during the experiment where red-glowing
char particles can be observed in the bed until the CO2 concentration reaches values below 0.03 vol. % CO2. char particles can be observed in the bed until the CO2 concentration reaches values below 0.03 vol. % CO2.
99 99
113 113
1 1
Normalized carbon conversion

Char oxidation stops Char oxidation stops
0.8 0.8
Devolatilization stops Devolatilization stops
0.6 Char oxidation starts 0.6 Char oxidation starts
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
Devolatilization starts Devolatilization starts
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 5-15: Normalized carbon conversion for ø 19 mm pine wood cylinder. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 Figure 5-15: Normalized carbon conversion for ø 19 mm pine wood cylinder. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2
wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 5 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 5 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm.
5.3.2 Effect of Particle Size of Different Fuel Types 5.3.2 Effect of Particle Size of Different Fuel Types
The influence of particle size on sulfur release from the synthetic raw materials at conditions corresponding to The influence of particle size on sulfur release from the synthetic raw materials at conditions corresponding to
the kiln inlet is illustrated in Figure 5-16 and in Figure 5-17, respectively for tire rubber and pine wood. The the kiln inlet is illustrated in Figure 5-16 and in Figure 5-17, respectively for tire rubber and pine wood. The
experiments are performed in a quartz sand bed of 5 % fill degree with 2 wt. % CaSO4 at 900 °C and oxygen experiments are performed in a quartz sand bed of 5 % fill degree with 2 wt. % CaSO4 at 900 °C and oxygen
concentrations of 5 and 10 vol. % in N2. All experiments use an identical energy input of 55 kJ in order to concentrations of 5 and 10 vol. % in N2. All experiments use an identical energy input of 55 kJ in order to
compare the effect of particle size. This means the mass of the wood cylinders and the mass of tire rubber are compare the effect of particle size. This means the mass of the wood cylinders and the mass of tire rubber are
kept constant, therefore 5 cylinders of 8 mm diameter, 2 cylinders of 13 mm diameter and 1 cylinder of 19 mm kept constant, therefore 5 cylinders of 8 mm diameter, 2 cylinders of 13 mm diameter and 1 cylinder of 19 mm
are used, while for the tire rubber, a single cylinder of 13 mm diameter, and two cylinders of 9 mm diameter are used, while for the tire rubber, a single cylinder of 13 mm diameter, and two cylinders of 9 mm diameter
are used. It was not possible to use identical dimensions of wood and tire cylinders due to the high energy are used. It was not possible to use identical dimensions of wood and tire cylinders due to the high energy
input of tire. input of tire.
When combusting tire particles, sulfur is emitted due to the chemical composition of the particles. The sulfur When combusting tire particles, sulfur is emitted due to the chemical composition of the particles. The sulfur
emission originating from the tire particles is quantified by measuring the SO2 release in a bed consisting of emission originating from the tire particles is quantified by measuring the SO2 release in a bed consisting of
quartz sand without CaSO4, and the displayed figure shows the corrected SO2 release from the simulated raw quartz sand without CaSO4, and the displayed figure shows the corrected SO2 release from the simulated raw
materials after subtraction of the SO2 release from the fuels. materials after subtraction of the SO2 release from the fuels.
100 100
114 114
400 400 400 400
Total SO2 release [mg]


300 300 300 300
200 200 200 200
100 100 100 100
0 0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Particle diameter [mm] Particle diameter [mm] Particle diameter [mm] Particle diameter [mm]
5 vol.% O΍ 10 vol.% O΍ 5 vol.% O΍ 10 vol.% O΍
5 vol.% O΍ 10 vol.% O΍ 5 vol.% O΍ 10 vol.% O΍
Figure 5-16: Effect of particle diameter of tire rubber cylinders Figure 5-17: Effect of particle diameter of pine wood Figure 5-16: Effect of particle diameter of tire rubber cylinders Figure 5-17: Effect of particle diameter of pine wood
(ø 9 mm and ø 13 mm) and granulate (~ø 2 mm) on corrected cylinders on sulfur release from the raw materials due to (ø 9 mm and ø 13 mm) and granulate (~ø 2 mm) on corrected cylinders on sulfur release from the raw materials due to
sulfur release from the raw materials due to combustion. Energy combustion. Energy input of 55 kJ in each experiment. sulfur release from the raw materials due to combustion. Energy combustion. Energy input of 55 kJ in each experiment.
input of 55 kJ in each experiment. Experimental conditions: 900 Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % input of 55 kJ in each experiment. Experimental conditions: 900 Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. %
°C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm.
For all particles sizes and both fuels, the SO2 release decreases with increasing oxygen concentration. This For all particles sizes and both fuels, the SO2 release decreases with increasing oxygen concentration. This
effect is also observed by Nielsen (2012) but current results have a better repeatability, an average relative effect is also observed by Nielsen (2012) but current results have a better repeatability, an average relative
uncertainty of 22 versus 3 %. The high concentration of oxygen in the freeboard atmosphere may react with uncertainty of 22 versus 3 %. The high concentration of oxygen in the freeboard atmosphere may react with
the reducing agent and thereby lower the concentration of the reducing agent, which react with CaSO4. Another the reducing agent and thereby lower the concentration of the reducing agent, which react with CaSO4. Another
possibility is that the oxygen may influence the reductive decomposition reactions. possibility is that the oxygen may influence the reductive decomposition reactions.
The total SO2 release increases with decreasing particle size of tire rubber and pine wood, as shown in Figure The total SO2 release increases with decreasing particle size of tire rubber and pine wood, as shown in Figure
5-16 and Figure 5-17, respectively. This is also reflected in the magnitude of SO2 concentration peak measured 5-16 and Figure 5-17, respectively. This is also reflected in the magnitude of SO2 concentration peak measured
in the analyzers, which is higher for the smallest particles than for the larger particle dimensions. For example, in the analyzers, which is higher for the smallest particles than for the larger particle dimensions. For example,
the SO2 concentration peak reaches a maximum of 1413 ppm for the ø 8 mm pine wood particles while 213 the SO2 concentration peak reaches a maximum of 1413 ppm for the ø 8 mm pine wood particles while 213
and 198 ppm SO2 are measured for wood particles of 13 and 19 mm diameter, under the same conditions, as and 198 ppm SO2 are measured for wood particles of 13 and 19 mm diameter, under the same conditions, as
101 101
115 115
1600 1600
1400 1400
1200 1200

1000 1000
ø19 mm- 1 particle ø19 mm- 1 particle
800 ø13 mm- 2 particles 800 ø13 mm- 2 particles
ø8 mm- 5 particles ø8 mm- 5 particles
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 5-18: SO2 concentrations from the raw materials due to combustion of the different dimensions of pine wood cylinders. Figure 5-18: SO2 concentrations from the raw materials due to combustion of the different dimensions of pine wood cylinders.
Energy input of 55 kJ in each experiment. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 5 vol. % O2 in N2. 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 Energy input of 55 kJ in each experiment. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 5 vol. % O2 in N2. 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100
NL/min, 6 rpm. NL/min, 6 rpm.
Figure 5-16 shows that tire rubber tends to release more sulfur than pine wood, even though identical energy Figure 5-16 shows that tire rubber tends to release more sulfur than pine wood, even though identical energy
input is used in the experiments. It is known that the tire rubber follows the conversion pathway I in Figure 3- input is used in the experiments. It is known that the tire rubber follows the conversion pathway I in Figure 3-
1 (Larsen, 2007) and experience cracking. It is therefore possible that the tire particle cracks into smaller 1 (Larsen, 2007) and experience cracking. It is therefore possible that the tire particle cracks into smaller
particles, whereby the tire particle would be in contact with larger surface area of the bed and therefore cause particles, whereby the tire particle would be in contact with larger surface area of the bed and therefore cause
more sulfur release than wood particles, which follows the conversion pathway G in Figure 3-1, in which the more sulfur release than wood particles, which follows the conversion pathway G in Figure 3-1, in which the
char experiences a decrease of particle size. char experiences a decrease of particle size.
Thee wood particles were observed to be situated on the top of the bed surface during devolatilization due to Thee wood particles were observed to be situated on the top of the bed surface during devolatilization due to
the flame front surrounding the fuels particle, which seems to avoid the coverage of the particle under the bed. the flame front surrounding the fuels particle, which seems to avoid the coverage of the particle under the bed.
The particles kept their shape during the devolatilization process and during char oxidation the particle got The particles kept their shape during the devolatilization process and during char oxidation the particle got
fragmented due to the mechanical action of the bed. A sketch of the observation is illustrated schematically in fragmented due to the mechanical action of the bed. A sketch of the observation is illustrated schematically in
Figure 5-19. Figure 5-19.
ω ω ω ω ω ω ω ω
CO, CO2, H2, CH4, CO, CO2, H2, CH4,

SO2 SO2
Sand+ Sand+
CaSO4 CaSO4
1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4)
Figure 5-19: Sketch of the conversion a wood particle in the high temperature rotary drum. Figure 5-19: Sketch of the conversion a wood particle in the high temperature rotary drum.
102 102
116 116
The tire rubber particles were also observed to be on top of the bed surface, keeping the particle shape under The tire rubber particles were also observed to be on top of the bed surface, keeping the particle shape under
devolatilization (scenario 1) and char oxidation with some fragmentation (scenario 2, 3 and 4). It was however devolatilization (scenario 1) and char oxidation with some fragmentation (scenario 2, 3 and 4). It was however
difficult to visualize the fragmentation due to the angle of visibility from the window. During char combustion, difficult to visualize the fragmentation due to the angle of visibility from the window. During char combustion,
the tire fragmented into several smaller char particles. This is in good agreement with the observations of the tire fragmented into several smaller char particles. This is in good agreement with the observations of
Nielsen (2012) and Hansens (2011), who observed that tire rubber swells during devolatilization and after gets Nielsen (2012) and Hansens (2011), who observed that tire rubber swells during devolatilization and after gets
fragmented. fragmented.
The carbon conversion for the different dimensions of tire rubber and pine wood are presented in Figure 5-20 The carbon conversion for the different dimensions of tire rubber and pine wood are presented in Figure 5-20
and Figure 5-21, respectively. The carbon conversion is much faster for tire rubber than for pine wood and the and Figure 5-21, respectively. The carbon conversion is much faster for tire rubber than for pine wood and the
devolatilization period is not as clear as for pine wood, which may be due to fragmentation. The total devolatilization period is not as clear as for pine wood, which may be due to fragmentation. The total
conversion time is shorter for the small particles than for the bigger particles for a fixed energy input. This is conversion time is shorter for the small particles than for the bigger particles for a fixed energy input. This is
related to the internal heating up, because the smallest particles are heated faster and releases the volatiles related to the internal heating up, because the smallest particles are heated faster and releases the volatiles
gases faster and with higher concentrations. Consequently, stronger local reducing conditions are formed. gases faster and with higher concentrations. Consequently, stronger local reducing conditions are formed.
1 1 1 1
Normilized Carbon Conversion
Normilized Carbon Conversion


0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
granulate granulate
0.2 0.2 1x ø19 mm virgin wood 0.2 0.2 1x ø19 mm virgin wood
2x ø9 mm 2x ø13 mm virgin wood 2x ø9 mm 2x ø13 mm virgin wood
1x ø13 mm 5x ø8 mm virgin wood 1x ø13 mm 5x ø8 mm virgin wood
0 0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 50 100 150 200 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time [s] Time [s] Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 5-21: Normalized carbon conversion curves for the Figure 5-21: Normalized carbon conversion curves for the
Figure 5-20: Normalized carbon conversion curves for the tire Figure 5-20: Normalized carbon conversion curves for the tire
pine wood particles. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill pine wood particles. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill
rubber particles. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill rubber particles. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill
degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6
degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm.
rpm. rpm.
5.3.3 Effect of Degree of Devolatilization of Wood Particles 5.3.3 Effect of Degree of Devolatilization of Wood Particles
The pine wood cylinders are pyrolized at different temperatures in order to obtain wood char with different The pine wood cylinders are pyrolized at different temperatures in order to obtain wood char with different
degree of volatiles, as explained in section 5.2.4. All the experiments are performed with the same initial degree of volatiles, as explained in section 5.2.4. All the experiments are performed with the same initial
103 103
117 117
energy input, 55 kJ, from the virgin wood, which is the non-pyrolized wood, in order to enable a direct energy input, 55 kJ, from the virgin wood, which is the non-pyrolized wood, in order to enable a direct
comparison. comparison.
The normalized carbon conversion curves versus time for the different particle sizes are shown from Figure 5- The normalized carbon conversion curves versus time for the different particle sizes are shown from Figure 5-
22 to Figure 5-25 for wood char made at 300, 500, 700 and 900 °C, respectively. These curves can be compared 22 to Figure 5-25 for wood char made at 300, 500, 700 and 900 °C, respectively. These curves can be compared
to the carbon conversion for the virgin wood at the same conditions, which was presented in Figure 5-21. to the carbon conversion for the virgin wood at the same conditions, which was presented in Figure 5-21.
For the virgin wood and the wood chars made at different temperatures, the time required for the complete For the virgin wood and the wood chars made at different temperatures, the time required for the complete
combustion is decreasing in the sequence of one cylinder of 19 mm diameter > 2 cylinders of 13 mm diameter combustion is decreasing in the sequence of one cylinder of 19 mm diameter > 2 cylinders of 13 mm diameter
> 5 cylinders of 8 mm diameter. This is the consequence of smaller particles being heated up faster than larger > 5 cylinders of 8 mm diameter. This is the consequence of smaller particles being heated up faster than larger
particles due to the internal heat transfer limitations. particles due to the internal heat transfer limitations.
1 1 1 1
Normalized Carbon conversion


0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
1x ø19mm (char at 300 ᵒC) 1x ø19mm (char at 500 ᵒC) 1x ø19mm (char at 300 ᵒC) 1x ø19mm (char at 500 ᵒC)
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
5x ø8mm (char at 300 ᵒC) 5x ø8mm (char at 500ᵒ C) 5x ø8mm (char at 300 ᵒC) 5x ø8mm (char at 500ᵒ C)
0 0
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Figure 5-22: Normalized carbon conversion curves for different Figure 5-23: Normalized carbon conversion for different wood Figure 5-22: Normalized carbon conversion curves for different Figure 5-23: Normalized carbon conversion for different wood
wood char particles (with the same initial mass) made at 300 °C. char particles (with the same initial mass) made at 500 °C. wood char particles (with the same initial mass) made at 300 °C. char particles (with the same initial mass) made at 500 °C.
Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. %
100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm.
104 104
118 118
1 1 1 1


0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
0.2 1x ø19mm (char at 700 ᵒC) 0.2 1x ø19mm (char at 900 ᵒC) 0.2 1x ø19mm (char at 700 ᵒC) 0.2 1x ø19mm (char at 900 ᵒC)
0 0 0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Figure 5-24: Normalized carbon conversion for different wood Figure 5-25: Normalized carbon conversion curves for Figure 5-24: Normalized carbon conversion for different wood Figure 5-25: Normalized carbon conversion curves for
char particles (with the same initial mass) made at 700 °C. different wood char particles (with the same initial mass) made char particles (with the same initial mass) made at 700 °C. different wood char particles (with the same initial mass) made
Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2
100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm.
The devolatilization period is observed for the virgin wood, and wood chars made at 300 and 500 °C, according The devolatilization period is observed for the virgin wood, and wood chars made at 300 and 500 °C, according
to the definition given in the general observations. The average time for complete devolatilization and the char to the definition given in the general observations. The average time for complete devolatilization and the char
oxidation for virgin wood and the different wood chars of 19, 13, and 8 mm diameters are summarized with oxidation for virgin wood and the different wood chars of 19, 13, and 8 mm diameters are summarized with
the corresponding uncertainties in Figure 5-26 and Figure 5-27, respectively. It should be noted that the virgin the corresponding uncertainties in Figure 5-26 and Figure 5-27, respectively. It should be noted that the virgin
wood is considered as being pretreated at 25 °C. wood is considered as being pretreated at 25 °C.
2.5 35 2.5 35
Time of devolatilization [min]
Time of devolatilization [min]

Time of char oxidation [min]
Time of char oxidation [min]

30 30
2 2
25 25
1.5 1.5
20 20
1 15 1 15
10 10
0.5 0.5
5 5
0 0 0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature of pre-treatment fuel [°C] Temperature of pre-treatment fuel [°C]
Temperature of pre-treatment fuel [°C] Temperature of pre-treatment fuel [°C]
1x ø19mm 2x ø13 mm 5x ø8 mm 1x ø19mm 2x ø13 mm 5x ø8 mm
1x ø19 mm 2x ø13 mm 5x ø8 mm 1x ø19 mm 2x ø13 mm 5x ø8 mm
Figure 5-26: Effect of pre-treatment temperature on the Figure 5-27: Effect of pre-treatment temperature on the average Figure 5-26: Effect of pre-treatment temperature on the Figure 5-27: Effect of pre-treatment temperature on the average
average time of devolatilization for the different wood particle time of char oxidation for the different wood particle sizes. average time of devolatilization for the different wood particle time of char oxidation for the different wood particle sizes.
sizes. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % sizes. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. %
% CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2 in N2. CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2 in N2. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2 in N2. CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2 in N2.
105 105
119 119
The devolatilization period is shortened when the temperature of pre-treatment is increased, which can be The devolatilization period is shortened when the temperature of pre-treatment is increased, which can be
explained in terms of the reduced content of volatiles. While the required time to complete char oxidation explained in terms of the reduced content of volatiles. While the required time to complete char oxidation
increases with increasing the temperature of pre-treatment until 500 °C and decreasing from 500 to 900 °C. increases with increasing the temperature of pre-treatment until 500 °C and decreasing from 500 to 900 °C.
The same tendency is also seen in the total conversion time for wood char made at 700 and 900 °C, which are The same tendency is also seen in the total conversion time for wood char made at 700 and 900 °C, which are
shorter than for 500 °C. Monitoring the mass loss of the fuel particle after pyrolysis shows that the char residue shorter than for 500 °C. Monitoring the mass loss of the fuel particle after pyrolysis shows that the char residue
decreases for the wood chars made at 700 and 900 °C in comparison with wood char made at 500 °C. The decreases for the wood chars made at 700 and 900 °C in comparison with wood char made at 500 °C. The
decreased time of char oxidation for these wood chars may be due to their reactivity, which depends on the decreased time of char oxidation for these wood chars may be due to their reactivity, which depends on the
porosity and the chemical structure (Di Blasi, 2009; Laurendeau, 1978). However, the reactivity has not been porosity and the chemical structure (Di Blasi, 2009; Laurendeau, 1978). However, the reactivity has not been
further studied because it is considered outside of the scope of this project. further studied because it is considered outside of the scope of this project.
The SO2 concentration for the 5 cylinders of 8 mm diameter virgin wood and wood char made at 300, 500 and The SO2 concentration for the 5 cylinders of 8 mm diameter virgin wood and wood char made at 300, 500 and
700 °C experiments is plotted in Figure 5-28. The combustion of wood char made at 700 °C leads to SO2 700 °C experiments is plotted in Figure 5-28. The combustion of wood char made at 700 °C leads to SO2
concentration of 1-2 ppm, which is insignificant compared to the release of virgin wood and wood char at concentration of 1-2 ppm, which is insignificant compared to the release of virgin wood and wood char at
lower temperatures and the uncertainties related to the thermal decomposition of CaSO4 and the gas analyzers. lower temperatures and the uncertainties related to the thermal decomposition of CaSO4 and the gas analyzers.
800 800
700 700

600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
virgin wood- 5xø8mm virgin wood- 5xø8mm
200 char at 300 ͼC- 5xø8mm 200 char at 300 ͼC- 5xø8mm
char at 500 ͼC- 5xø8mm char at 500 ͼC- 5xø8mm
100 100
char at 700 ͼC- 5xø8mm char at 700 ͼC- 5xø8mm
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 5-28: Corrected SO2 concentration for 5 cylinders of ø 8 mm of virgin wood and char wood made at 300, 500 and 700 °C. Figure 5-28: Corrected SO2 concentration for 5 cylinders of ø 8 mm of virgin wood and char wood made at 300, 500 and 700 °C.
Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. Note: SO2 concentration Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. Note: SO2 concentration
from the char at 700 °C cannot be observed. from the char at 700 °C cannot be observed.
Hence, SO2 release is only observed in the cases where devolatilization takes place. During the time of char Hence, SO2 release is only observed in the cases where devolatilization takes place. During the time of char
oxidation there is almost no sulfur release, although the particle releases CO due to the conversion of the char oxidation there is almost no sulfur release, although the particle releases CO due to the conversion of the char
and the combustion is diffusion limited. It may be that the CO from the char oxidization is released in low and the combustion is diffusion limited. It may be that the CO from the char oxidization is released in low
concentrations, which do not provoke significant sulfur release. Moreover, the oxygen concentration during concentrations, which do not provoke significant sulfur release. Moreover, the oxygen concentration during
this period is higher than during devolatilization and the CO may thus be converted faster to CO2. this period is higher than during devolatilization and the CO may thus be converted faster to CO2.
106 106
120 120
Figure 5-29 shows the total SO2 release from the raw materials as a function of the particle size of the Figure 5-29 shows the total SO2 release from the raw materials as a function of the particle size of the
o
combusted virgin wood and wood char made at 300 and 500 C. The results show that the sulfur release combusted virgin wood and wood char made at 300 and 500 oC. The results show that the sulfur release
decreases with decreasing degree of conversion. However, it is not possible neither to identify nor quantify decreases with decreasing degree of conversion. However, it is not possible neither to identify nor quantify
which volatile gases that are released in each case because the CO is oxidized in the freeboard atmosphere and which volatile gases that are released in each case because the CO is oxidized in the freeboard atmosphere and
the analyzers do not give the possibility to detect other reducing agents. the analyzers do not give the possibility to detect other reducing agents.
160 160
140 140

120 120
100 100
80 Virgin wood 80 Virgin wood
60 Char at 300 ͼC 60 Char at 300 ͼC
40 Char at 500 ͼC 40 Char at 500 ͼC
20 20
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Particle diameter [mm] Particle diameter [mm]
Figure 5-29: Sulfur release from the raw materials due to combustion of the combustion of different particle size wood and wood Figure 5-29: Sulfur release from the raw materials due to combustion of the combustion of different particle size wood and wood
char at 300 and 500 oC. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm. char at 300 and 500 oC. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 10 vol. % O2 in N2, 6 rpm.
The total SO2 release increases, as previously discussed, with decreasing particle size of virgin wood and wood The total SO2 release increases, as previously discussed, with decreasing particle size of virgin wood and wood
char made at 300 °C. There is a big difference in the SO2 release for wood char made at 300 and 500 °C due char made at 300 °C. There is a big difference in the SO2 release for wood char made at 300 and 500 °C due
to the degree of fuel conversion at the different temperatures. The total sulfur release for the wood char made to the degree of fuel conversion at the different temperatures. The total sulfur release for the wood char made
at 500 °C is below 1 mg and had almost the same value for the different fuel particle sizes. This is due to the at 500 °C is below 1 mg and had almost the same value for the different fuel particle sizes. This is due to the
high degree of conversion, whereby few volatile gases are released. It should be remarked that the actual high degree of conversion, whereby few volatile gases are released. It should be remarked that the actual
energy input used in the experiments is not constant due to the different content of volatiles. energy input used in the experiments is not constant due to the different content of volatiles.
5.3.4 Effect of Sulfur Concentration in the Bed Material 5.3.4 Effect of Sulfur Concentration in the Bed Material
The effect of sulfur concentration in the bed material is investigated using two different concentration of CaSO4 The effect of sulfur concentration in the bed material is investigated using two different concentration of CaSO4
and three different particle diameters of pine wood, all with an energy input of 55 kJ. The experiments are and three different particle diameters of pine wood, all with an energy input of 55 kJ. The experiments are
performed at 950 °C using a bed material of 5 % filling degree with 5 wt. % and 2 wt. % CaSO4. performed at 950 °C using a bed material of 5 % filling degree with 5 wt. % and 2 wt. % CaSO4.
Figure 5-30 shows the sulfur release from the raw materials during combustion of pine wood cylinders of 8, Figure 5-30 shows the sulfur release from the raw materials during combustion of pine wood cylinders of 8,
13 and 19 mm diameter in beds containing 5 and 2 wt. % CaSO4 and a gas atmosphere with 5 vol. % O2. Figure 13 and 19 mm diameter in beds containing 5 and 2 wt. % CaSO4 and a gas atmosphere with 5 vol. % O2. Figure
5-31 shows the sulfur release for the same conditions for a gas atmosphere with 10 vol. % O2. 5-31 shows the sulfur release for the same conditions for a gas atmosphere with 10 vol. % O2.
107 107
121 121
300 300 300 300


250 250 250 250
200 200 200 200
150 150 150 150
100 100 100 100
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Particle diameter [mm] Particle diameter [mm] Particle diameter [mm] Particle diameter [mm]
5 wt.% CaSOΏ 2 wt.% CaSOΏ 5 wt.% CaSOΏ 2 wt.% CaSOΏ 5 wt.% CaSOΏ 2 wt.% CaSOΏ 5 wt.% CaSOΏ 2 wt.% CaSOΏ
Figure 5-30: Sulfur release from the raw materials due to Figure 5-31: Sulfur release from the raw materials due to Figure 5-30: Sulfur release from the raw materials due to Figure 5-31: Sulfur release from the raw materials due to
combustion of pine wood cylinders on a bed containing 5 and 2 wt. combustion of pine wood cylinders on a bed containing 5 and 2 combustion of pine wood cylinders on a bed containing 5 and 2 wt. combustion of pine wood cylinders on a bed containing 5 and 2
% of CaSO4. Experimental conditions: 950 °C, 5 % fill degree, 100 wt. % of CaSO4. Experimental conditions: 950 °C, 5 % fill % of CaSO4. Experimental conditions: 950 °C, 5 % fill degree, 100 wt. % of CaSO4. Experimental conditions: 950 °C, 5 % fill
NL/min, 6 rpm, 5 vol. % O2 in N2. degree, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2 in N2. NL/min, 6 rpm, 5 vol. % O2 in N2. degree, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2 in N2.
The graphs show that the sulfur release increases with increasing sulfur content in the bed. This may be because The graphs show that the sulfur release increases with increasing sulfur content in the bed. This may be because
the volatiles gases are more likely to get in contact with more CaSO4 in the bed and therefore more SO2 is the volatiles gases are more likely to get in contact with more CaSO4 in the bed and therefore more SO2 is
released. The SO2 release decreases with increasing oxygen content for 2 wt. % CaSO4 in the bed because the released. The SO2 release decreases with increasing oxygen content for 2 wt. % CaSO4 in the bed because the
reducing conditions become less prominent at higher concentrations of O2, but this tendency is less clear for 5 reducing conditions become less prominent at higher concentrations of O2, but this tendency is less clear for 5
wt. % CaSO4. wt. % CaSO4.
5.3.5 Effect of Moisture Content 5.3.5 Effect of Moisture Content
The effect of moisture content of the wood is studied using wood cylinders of 8 mm diameter with different The effect of moisture content of the wood is studied using wood cylinders of 8 mm diameter with different
moisture content. The 30 and 60 wt. % water content is obtained by submerging the wood cylinders in water moisture content. The 30 and 60 wt. % water content is obtained by submerging the wood cylinders in water
for different periods. The water content is determined by weighing the wood particles prior and after for different periods. The water content is determined by weighing the wood particles prior and after
submersion in water. submersion in water.
Figure 5-32 shows the carbon conversion curves for the dried wood cylinder and wet cylinders with 30 and 60 Figure 5-32 shows the carbon conversion curves for the dried wood cylinder and wet cylinders with 30 and 60
wt. % of water content. Figure 5-33 shows the sulfur release from the raw materials during the combustion at wt. % of water content. Figure 5-33 shows the sulfur release from the raw materials during the combustion at
900 °C and 10 vol. % O2 of a dry wood cylinder and humidified wood cylinders with 30 and 60 wt. % water 900 °C and 10 vol. % O2 of a dry wood cylinder and humidified wood cylinders with 30 and 60 wt. % water
content. content.
108 108
122 122
45 45
1 40 1 40


35 35
0.8 0.8
30 dried 30 dried
dried 25 dried 25
0.6 30 wt.% H΍O 0.6 30 wt.% H΍O
30 wt.% H΍O 30 wt.% H΍O
20 60 wt.% H΍O 20 60 wt.% H΍O
60 wt.% H΍O 60 wt.% H΍O
0.4 15 0.4 15
10 10
0.2 0.2
5 5
0 0 0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300
Time [s] Time [s]
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 5-32: Normalized carbon conversion for a single ø 8 Figure 5-33: SO2 release from the raw materials due to Figure 5-32: Normalized carbon conversion for a single ø 8 Figure 5-33: SO2 release from the raw materials due to
mm wood cylinder dried and with 30 and 60 wt. % water combustion of single ø 8 mm wood cylinder dried and with 30 mm wood cylinder dried and with 30 and 60 wt. % water combustion of single ø 8 mm wood cylinder dried and with 30
contents. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 and 60 wt. % water contents. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, contents. Experimental conditions: 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 and 60 wt. % water contents. Experimental conditions: 900 °C,
wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2. 5 % fill, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2. wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2. 5 % fill, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm, 10 vol. % O2.
When the moisture content of the wood particles increases, more water must be evaporated and therefore the When the moisture content of the wood particles increases, more water must be evaporated and therefore the
devolatilization rate decreases. This has also been observed using non-spherical pine wood containing 0, 22 devolatilization rate decreases. This has also been observed using non-spherical pine wood containing 0, 22
and 40 wt. % moisture in fluidized bed experiments (de Diego et al., 2002). Even though the devolatilization and 40 wt. % moisture in fluidized bed experiments (de Diego et al., 2002). Even though the devolatilization
period is prolonged with increasing water content, the full conversion ends at a similar time. period is prolonged with increasing water content, the full conversion ends at a similar time.
The magnitude of the SO2 peaks in Figure 5-33 are influenced by the water content. The dry wood cylinder The magnitude of the SO2 peaks in Figure 5-33 are influenced by the water content. The dry wood cylinder
has the highest SO2 peak, while the SO2 peaks for the cylinders with a water content of 30 and 60 wt. % have has the highest SO2 peak, while the SO2 peaks for the cylinders with a water content of 30 and 60 wt. % have
lower values and are wider than the one obtained for the dry wood. The tendency observed is that increasing lower values and are wider than the one obtained for the dry wood. The tendency observed is that increasing
water content lowers the SO2 concentration level. This may be due to a delayed devolatilization and the reduced water content lowers the SO2 concentration level. This may be due to a delayed devolatilization and the reduced
rate of conversion because the volatiles are released at lower concentrations for longer periods, giving rise to rate of conversion because the volatiles are released at lower concentrations for longer periods, giving rise to
lower SO2 release for a longer time period. lower SO2 release for a longer time period.
Table 5-7 summarizes the total SO2 release calculated by equation 5.1 for each case. Table 5-7 summarizes the total SO2 release calculated by equation 5.1 for each case.
Table 5-7: Total SO2 release from the combustion experiments of the single ø 8 mm wood cylinder dried and with 30 and 60 wt. % Table 5-7: Total SO2 release from the combustion experiments of the single ø 8 mm wood cylinder dried and with 30 and 60 wt. %
water content. water content.
Dried wood Wood with 30 wt. % H2O Wood with 60 wt. % H2O Dried wood Wood with 30 wt. % H2O Wood with 60 wt. % H2O
Total SO2 release [mg] 5.77 3.68 3.41 Total SO2 release [mg] 5.77 3.68 3.41
The total SO2 release differs between the dry wood cylinder and the wet wood cylinders, but the total sulfur The total SO2 release differs between the dry wood cylinder and the wet wood cylinders, but the total sulfur
release is quite similar for cylinders containing 30 and 60 wt. % water. The release takes more time when the release is quite similar for cylinders containing 30 and 60 wt. % water. The release takes more time when the
water content is increased from 30 to 60 %, but total amount release is almost the same. water content is increased from 30 to 60 %, but total amount release is almost the same.
109 109
123 123
5.3.6 Discussion 5.3.6 Discussion
The importance of particle size of the fuel has been investigated using pine wood and tire rubber. The results The importance of particle size of the fuel has been investigated using pine wood and tire rubber. The results
showed that smaller particle sizes gives more SO2 release due to the faster internal heating up while larger showed that smaller particle sizes gives more SO2 release due to the faster internal heating up while larger
particles present more pronounced internal temperature gradients, resulting in a slower heating up. The release particles present more pronounced internal temperature gradients, resulting in a slower heating up. The release
and concentration of volatile gases is related to the heating up of the particle. Therefore, higher concentrations and concentration of volatile gases is related to the heating up of the particle. Therefore, higher concentrations
of volatiles are released during a shorter period for smaller particles, giving higher concentrations of SO2 of volatiles are released during a shorter period for smaller particles, giving higher concentrations of SO2
release and total SO2 release. Larger particles will release the volatile gases during longer periods, giving lower release and total SO2 release. Larger particles will release the volatile gases during longer periods, giving lower
SO2 concentrations and total SO2 release. Furthermore, the conversion pathway that a fuel type follows and SO2 concentrations and total SO2 release. Furthermore, the conversion pathway that a fuel type follows and
the fragmentation also influence the SO2 release. the fragmentation also influence the SO2 release.
The oxygen content in the freeboard atmosphere influences the sulfur release from the bed material. The phase The oxygen content in the freeboard atmosphere influences the sulfur release from the bed material. The phase
diagram of the sulfur species with oxygen shows that the stability of CaSO4 increases with higher oxygen diagram of the sulfur species with oxygen shows that the stability of CaSO4 increases with higher oxygen
partial pressure. It may be possible that oxygen influences the reductive decomposition reactions or that the partial pressure. It may be possible that oxygen influences the reductive decomposition reactions or that the
excess oxygen from the freeboard atmosphere oxidizes the reducing agents released from the fuel particle. excess oxygen from the freeboard atmosphere oxidizes the reducing agents released from the fuel particle.
This influence needs further investigation, which will be conducted in the next chapter. This influence needs further investigation, which will be conducted in the next chapter.
The effect of particle size on SO2 release is also observed when wood char made at different temperatures are The effect of particle size on SO2 release is also observed when wood char made at different temperatures are
used. SO2 release is only observed for the wood chars containing volatiles and not during char oxidation. This used. SO2 release is only observed for the wood chars containing volatiles and not during char oxidation. This
is contradictory to the general experience if coal or petcoke combustion in the calciner is incomplete and is is contradictory to the general experience if coal or petcoke combustion in the calciner is incomplete and is
admitted to the industrial kiln inlet causing a dramatically increase of sulfur circulation (Nielsen and Jepsen, admitted to the industrial kiln inlet causing a dramatically increase of sulfur circulation (Nielsen and Jepsen,
1990). Additional experiments using few grams of granulate wood char (approx. 1 mm diameter) made at 900 1990). Additional experiments using few grams of granulate wood char (approx. 1 mm diameter) made at 900
o o
C in the rotary drum provoked a significant SO2 release from the raw materials and the particles following the C in the rotary drum provoked a significant SO2 release from the raw materials and the particles following the
rolling mode of the material. This shows that the SO2 release is not associated just to devolatilization and is rolling mode of the material. This shows that the SO2 release is not associated just to devolatilization and is
depending on the concentration of the gas released. The CO released during char combustion using wood char depending on the concentration of the gas released. The CO released during char combustion using wood char
o
made at 700 and 900 C in the experiments where the degree of devolatilization were investigated, may have made at 700 and 900 oC in the experiments where the degree of devolatilization were investigated, may have
not been high enough to provoke SO2 release. Furthermore, the experiments using char wood did not have an not been high enough to provoke SO2 release. Furthermore, the experiments using char wood did not have an
actual constant thermal input, only the initial energy input before pyrolysis was constant. Hence, less fuel was actual constant thermal input, only the initial energy input before pyrolysis was constant. Hence, less fuel was
introduced when the devolatilization degree was increased. However, in the next chapter this will be further introduced when the devolatilization degree was increased. However, in the next chapter this will be further
investigated by introduction of the same total amount of gas with different concentrations and time of exposure. investigated by introduction of the same total amount of gas with different concentrations and time of exposure.
Different phenomena occur simultaneously during the experiments, such as mixing of the fuel with the bed Different phenomena occur simultaneously during the experiments, such as mixing of the fuel with the bed
material, heating up of a particle and release of volatiles gases, char combustion, reaction of the reducing material, heating up of a particle and release of volatiles gases, char combustion, reaction of the reducing
agents with CaSO4, and release of SO2. It is not possible to control all of these processes and the current agents with CaSO4, and release of SO2. It is not possible to control all of these processes and the current
equipment cannot identify and/or quantify the reducing agents released from fuel particles during equipment cannot identify and/or quantify the reducing agents released from fuel particles during
devolatilization and/or char oxidation. For that reason, the effect of the concentration of different reducing devolatilization and/or char oxidation. For that reason, the effect of the concentration of different reducing
agent in the high temperature rotary drum will be investigated in Chapter 6. agent in the high temperature rotary drum will be investigated in Chapter 6.
110 110
124 124
The effect of the fuel moisture content affects the concentration of the reducing agents by delaying heating up The effect of the fuel moisture content affects the concentration of the reducing agents by delaying heating up
of the particle and by means of dilution by the moisture vapor. The phenomenon may be explained by of the particle and by means of dilution by the moisture vapor. The phenomenon may be explained by
understanding the effect of the concentration of the reducing agent and this will be further investigated in understanding the effect of the concentration of the reducing agent and this will be further investigated in
Chapter 6, however, without addition of H2O (g). Chapter 6, however, without addition of H2O (g).
A literature study of sulfur release during combustion of alternative fuel particles showed that reducing gases A literature study of sulfur release during combustion of alternative fuel particles showed that reducing gases
from the fuel devolatilization cause reductive decomposition of CaSO4 and indicated that fuel particle size is from the fuel devolatilization cause reductive decomposition of CaSO4 and indicated that fuel particle size is
of high importance for the degree of sulfur release. of high importance for the degree of sulfur release.
The sulfur release from raw materials during combustion of tire rubber and pine wood in this chapter was The sulfur release from raw materials during combustion of tire rubber and pine wood in this chapter was
studied using three different particle sizes and the identical energy inputs. The sulfur release from the raw studied using three different particle sizes and the identical energy inputs. The sulfur release from the raw
materials increased with decreasing particle size. Tire rubber released more sulfur than pine wood. This may materials increased with decreasing particle size. Tire rubber released more sulfur than pine wood. This may
be explained by the conversion pathway of fuel and the mixing of the fuel and raw materials. be explained by the conversion pathway of fuel and the mixing of the fuel and raw materials.
The effect of wood cylinders with different degree of volatiles showed that the sulfur release mainly took place The effect of wood cylinders with different degree of volatiles showed that the sulfur release mainly took place
during devolatilization, corresponding to the cases with virgin wood and wood chars made at 300 and 500 °C, during devolatilization, corresponding to the cases with virgin wood and wood chars made at 300 and 500 °C,
which contained volatiles. The sulfur release decreased with decreasing degree of conversion. which contained volatiles. The sulfur release decreased with decreasing degree of conversion.
The sulfur release obtained during the combustion of pine wood increased when the sulfur load in the bed The sulfur release obtained during the combustion of pine wood increased when the sulfur load in the bed
material was increased from 2 to 5 wt. % CaSO4. material was increased from 2 to 5 wt. % CaSO4.
In all the experimental series the SO2 release decreases with increasing oxygen concentration due to less In all the experimental series the SO2 release decreases with increasing oxygen concentration due to less
prominent reducing conditions at higher O2 concentrations. prominent reducing conditions at higher O2 concentrations.
The effect of water content was investigated with single wood cylinders with a diameter of 8 mm. The results The effect of water content was investigated with single wood cylinders with a diameter of 8 mm. The results
showed the SO2 peak reaches lower values and the release occurs in a longer time period with increasing water showed the SO2 peak reaches lower values and the release occurs in a longer time period with increasing water
content in a sample, the total amount of sulfur released is however similar for the wet wood cylinder and is content in a sample, the total amount of sulfur released is however similar for the wet wood cylinder and is
less than the dry wood. less than the dry wood.
Barin, I.; Thermochemical data of pure substances. Third Edition. VCH, Germany. 1995. ISBN: 3-527-28745- Barin, I.; Thermochemical data of pure substances. Third Edition. VCH, Germany. 1995. ISBN: 3-527-28745-
0. 0.
Barletta, D., Marzocchella, A., and Salatino, P.; Modelling the SO2–limestone reaction under periodically Barletta, D., Marzocchella, A., and Salatino, P.; Modelling the SO2–limestone reaction under periodically
changing oxidizing/reducing conditions: The influence of cycle time on reaction rate. Chemical changing oxidizing/reducing conditions: The influence of cycle time on reaction rate. Chemical
Engineering Science, 57, 631-41, 2002. Engineering Science, 57, 631-41, 2002.
111 111
125 125
Dam-Johansen, K., and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide and limestone - II. Dam-Johansen, K., and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide and limestone - II.
An improved experimental basis for a mathematical model. Chemical Engineering Science, 46, 839-45, An improved experimental basis for a mathematical model. Chemical Engineering Science, 46, 839-45,
1991a. 1991a.
Dam-Johansen, K., and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide and limestone - IV. Dam-Johansen, K., and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide and limestone - IV.
A discussion of chemical reaction mechanisms and kinetics. Chemical Engineering Science, 46, 855-9, A discussion of chemical reaction mechanisms and kinetics. Chemical Engineering Science, 46, 855-9,
1991b. 1991b.
de Diego, L. F., Garcia-Labiano, F., Abad, A., Gayan, P., and Adanez, J.; Coupled drying and devolatilisation de Diego, L. F., Garcia-Labiano, F., Abad, A., Gayan, P., and Adanez, J.; Coupled drying and devolatilisation
of non-spherical wet pine wood particles in fluidised beds. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, of non-spherical wet pine wood particles in fluidised beds. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis,
65, 173-84, 2002. 65, 173-84, 2002.
Di Blasi, C.; Combustion and gasification rates of lignocellulosic chars. Progress in Energy and Combustion Di Blasi, C.; Combustion and gasification rates of lignocellulosic chars. Progress in Energy and Combustion
Science, 35, 121-40, 2009. Science, 35, 121-40, 2009.
FLSmidth A/S, Determination of volatile matter content, Internal report. 2007. FLSmidth A/S, Determination of volatile matter content, Internal report. 2007.
Hansen, P. F. B., Johansen, K. Dam, and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide Hansen, P. F. B., Johansen, K. Dam, and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide
and limestone. V. the effect of periodically changing oxidizing and reducing conditions. Chemical and limestone. V. the effect of periodically changing oxidizing and reducing conditions. Chemical
Hansens, T.B.; Combustion characterization of alternative fuels. Master thesis (in Danish). Technical Hansens, T.B.; Combustion characterization of alternative fuels. Master thesis (in Danish). Technical
University of Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2001. University of Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2001.
6256-7. 6256-7.
Koufopanos, C. A., Maschio, G., and Lucchesi, A.; Kinetic modeling of the pyrolysis of biomass and biomass Koufopanos, C. A., Maschio, G., and Lucchesi, A.; Kinetic modeling of the pyrolysis of biomass and biomass
components. Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 67, 75-84, 1989. components. Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 67, 75-84, 1989.
Larsen, M. B.; Alternative fuels in cement production. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Larsen, M. B.; Alternative fuels in cement production. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Denmark,
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2007. ISBN: 978-87-91435-49-8. Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 2007. ISBN: 978-87-91435-49-8.
Laurendeau, N. M.; Heterogeneous kinetics of coal char gasification and combustion. Progress in Energy and Laurendeau, N. M.; Heterogeneous kinetics of coal char gasification and combustion. Progress in Energy and
Combustion Science, 4, 221-70, 1978. Combustion Science, 4, 221-70, 1978.
Lyngfelt, A., and Eckner, B.; Model of sulfur capture in fluidized-bed boilers under conditions changing Lyngfelt, A., and Eckner, B.; Model of sulfur capture in fluidized-bed boilers under conditions changing
between oxidizing and reducing. Chemical Engineering Science, 48, 1131-41, 1993. between oxidizing and reducing. Chemical Engineering Science, 48, 1131-41, 1993.
Nielsen, A. R., Larsen, M. B., Glarborg, P., and Dam-Johansen, K.; Sulfur release from cement raw materials Nielsen, A. R., Larsen, M. B., Glarborg, P., and Dam-Johansen, K.; Sulfur release from cement raw materials
during solid fuel combustion. Energy & Fuels, 25, 3917-24, 2011. during solid fuel combustion. Energy & Fuels, 25, 3917-24, 2011.
Nielsen, P. B. and Jepsen, O. L.; An overview of the formation of SOx and NOx in various pyroporcessing Nielsen, P. B. and Jepsen, O. L.; An overview of the formation of SOx and NOx in various pyroporcessing
systems. IEEE cement industrial Technical Conference, 1990. systems. IEEE cement industrial Technical Conference, 1990.
Oh, J. S., and Wheelock, T. D.; Reductive decomposition of calcium-sulfate with carbon-monoxide - reaction- Oh, J. S., and Wheelock, T. D.; Reductive decomposition of calcium-sulfate with carbon-monoxide - reaction-
mechanism. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 29, 544-50, 1990. mechanism. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 29, 544-50, 1990.
112 112
126 126
Swift, W. M., and Wheelock, T. D.; Decomposition of calcium sulfate in a two-zone reactor. Industrial & Swift, W. M., and Wheelock, T. D.; Decomposition of calcium sulfate in a two-zone reactor. Industrial &
Engineering Chemistry Process Design and Development, 14, 323-7, 1975. Engineering Chemistry Process Design and Development, 14, 323-7, 1975.
Wheelock, T. D., and Boylan, D. R.; Reductive decomposition of gypsum by carbon monoxide. Industrial & Wheelock, T. D., and Boylan, D. R.; Reductive decomposition of gypsum by carbon monoxide. Industrial &
Engineering Chemistry Research, 52, 215-8, 1960. Engineering Chemistry Research, 52, 215-8, 1960.
113 113
127 127
114 114
128 128
Chapter 6: Effect of Different Pyrolysis Gases on Sulfur Release Chapter 6: Effect of Different Pyrolysis Gases on Sulfur Release
6. Effect of Different Pyrolysis Gases on Sulfur Release 6. Effect of Different Pyrolysis Gases on Sulfur Release
As mentioned in previous chapters, the main reducing agents (CO, CH4, and H2) released from fuel particles As mentioned in previous chapters, the main reducing agents (CO, CH4, and H2) released from fuel particles
under local reducing conditions react with CaSO4, releasing SO2. This chapter investigates the effect of the under local reducing conditions react with CaSO4, releasing SO2. This chapter investigates the effect of the
single pyrolized gases and their mixtures on sulfur release under the conditions at the inlet of the rotary kiln. single pyrolized gases and their mixtures on sulfur release under the conditions at the inlet of the rotary kiln.
The chapter covers a literature study about the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by the main reducing agents The chapter covers a literature study about the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by the main reducing agents
released by the fuels. The experimental part describes the modification of the high temperature rotary drum, released by the fuels. The experimental part describes the modification of the high temperature rotary drum,
which allows introduction of reducing agents through a steel tube under the bed material. The experimental which allows introduction of reducing agents through a steel tube under the bed material. The experimental
results using single reducing agents and binary mixtures are presented in section 6.3. results using single reducing agents and binary mixtures are presented in section 6.3.
6.1 Literature Study of the CaSO4 Reductive Decomposition 6.1 Literature Study of the CaSO4 Reductive Decomposition
The fundamentals of the CaSO4 reductive decomposition in a wide range of conditions have been studied in The fundamentals of the CaSO4 reductive decomposition in a wide range of conditions have been studied in
relation to chemical-looping combustion, which is a combustion technology for controlling the greenhouse gas relation to chemical-looping combustion, which is a combustion technology for controlling the greenhouse gas
emission. Normally, these studies consider CaSO4 as an oxygen carrier and use two reactors; the first reactor, emission. Normally, these studies consider CaSO4 as an oxygen carrier and use two reactors; the first reactor,
to reduce CaSO4 to CaS by a reducing gas, and the second to oxidize CaS by O2 to CaSO4. However, side to reduce CaSO4 to CaS by a reducing gas, and the second to oxidize CaS by O2 to CaSO4. However, side
reactions, which reduce CaSO4 to CaO, exist. reactions, which reduce CaSO4 to CaO, exist.
Investigations about sulfur release and capture by limestone at high temperature under fluidized bed (Dam- Investigations about sulfur release and capture by limestone at high temperature under fluidized bed (Dam-
Johansen and Østergaard, 1991; Hansen et al., 1993) have also suggested the mechanism for sulfur release Johansen and Østergaard, 1991; Hansen et al., 1993) have also suggested the mechanism for sulfur release
(reductive decomposition of CaSO4 on limestone) and capture. (reductive decomposition of CaSO4 on limestone) and capture.
6.1.1 Carbon Monoxide 6.1.1 Carbon Monoxide
The reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO has been investigated by many authors (Diaz-Bossio et al., The reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO has been investigated by many authors (Diaz-Bossio et al.,
1985; Kuusik et al., 1985; Oh and Wheelock, 1990; Okumura et al., 2003; Tian and Guo, 2009; Xiao and Song, 1985; Kuusik et al., 1985; Oh and Wheelock, 1990; Okumura et al., 2003; Tian and Guo, 2009; Xiao and Song,
2011; Zheng et al., 2011) and can be described by reactions (6-1) and (6-2). 2011; Zheng et al., 2011) and can be described by reactions (6-1) and (6-2).
CaSO4 (s) CO ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) CO2 ( g ) ΔH298°= 220.0 kJ/mol (6-1) CaSO4 (s) CO ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) CO2 ( g ) ΔH298°= 220.0 kJ/mol (6-1)
CaSO4 (s) 4 CO ( g ) o CaS (s) 4CO2 ( g ) ΔH298°= -171 kJ/mol (6-2) CaSO4 (s) 4 CO ( g ) o CaS (s) 4CO2 ( g ) ΔH298°= -171 kJ/mol (6-2)
Different studies (Kuusik et al., 1985; Oh and Wheelock, 1990; Xiao and Song, 2011) have stated that reaction Different studies (Kuusik et al., 1985; Oh and Wheelock, 1990; Xiao and Song, 2011) have stated that reaction
6-1 is thermodynamically favored at a high reaction temperatures and a low reductive potential of the gas 6-1 is thermodynamically favored at a high reaction temperatures and a low reductive potential of the gas
phase, as represented by the ratio of the partial pressures PCO/PCO2. When the CO concentration increases, the phase, as represented by the ratio of the partial pressures PCO/PCO2. When the CO concentration increases, the
yield of CaO decreases because the formation of CaS (reaction (6-2)) becomes predominant within the yield of CaO decreases because the formation of CaS (reaction (6-2)) becomes predominant within the
temperature of 800-1000 °C (Xiao and Song, 2011). Increasing reaction temperature inhibits the exothermic temperature of 800-1000 °C (Xiao and Song, 2011). Increasing reaction temperature inhibits the exothermic
reaction, reaction (6-2), while greatly promoting the endothermic reaction, reaction (6-1) (Tian and Guo, 2009). reaction, reaction (6-2), while greatly promoting the endothermic reaction, reaction (6-1) (Tian and Guo, 2009).
115 115
129 129
The chemical stability of CaSO4/CaS/CaO species is dependent on three factors: temperature, SO2 partial The chemical stability of CaSO4/CaS/CaO species is dependent on three factors: temperature, SO2 partial
pressure and reductive potential of the gas phase (Shen et al., 2008). The reactivity of the reduction reaction pressure and reductive potential of the gas phase (Shen et al., 2008). The reactivity of the reduction reaction
of CaSO4 by CO has been studied varying these three factors, using isothermal gas (Oh and Wheelock, 1990; of CaSO4 by CO has been studied varying these three factors, using isothermal gas (Oh and Wheelock, 1990;
Talukdar et al., 1996; Shen et al., 2008) and non-isothermal methods (Tian et al., 2008; Tian and Guo, 2009), Talukdar et al., 1996; Shen et al., 2008) and non-isothermal methods (Tian et al., 2008; Tian and Guo, 2009),
and introducing pure CO or in combination with CO2, which makes more difficult to compare the results. The and introducing pure CO or in combination with CO2, which makes more difficult to compare the results. The
majority of the investigations has been carried out in a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) or in a fluidized majority of the investigations has been carried out in a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) or in a fluidized
reactor, which is a challenge for the quantitative measurement of the products. reactor, which is a challenge for the quantitative measurement of the products.
The formation of CaS and CaO with reaction time cannot be clearly distinguished from the overlapped TGA The formation of CaS and CaO with reaction time cannot be clearly distinguished from the overlapped TGA
curves due to the simultaneous formation of the two solid compounds. A solution was to connect a FTIR to curves due to the simultaneous formation of the two solid compounds. A solution was to connect a FTIR to
identify the solid products to the TGA (Shen et al., 2008; Zheng et al., 2011). Using 10 vol. % CO in N2 at the identify the solid products to the TGA (Shen et al., 2008; Zheng et al., 2011). Using 10 vol. % CO in N2 at the
temperature range between 850-1050 °C, the reaction rate of CaSO4 reduction was found to increase temperature range between 850-1050 °C, the reaction rate of CaSO4 reduction was found to increase
remarkably with increasing temperature. At 900 °C, no CaO or CaSO4 were found, only CaS was the reduction remarkably with increasing temperature. At 900 °C, no CaO or CaSO4 were found, only CaS was the reduction
product and there was no SO2 in the flue gas (Shen et al., 2008; Zheng et al., 2011). From 950 °C, no CaSO4 product and there was no SO2 in the flue gas (Shen et al., 2008; Zheng et al., 2011). From 950 °C, no CaSO4
was found and a small amount of CaO was found. Increasing the reaction temperature, more CaO in the residue was found and a small amount of CaO was found. Increasing the reaction temperature, more CaO in the residue
product was found. This indicated that the reduction of CaSO4 with CO predominately occurs via reaction (6- product was found. This indicated that the reduction of CaSO4 with CO predominately occurs via reaction (6-
2) in conjunction with reaction (6-1) in the temperature range from 950-1050 °C (Shen et al., 2008) and sulfur 2) in conjunction with reaction (6-1) in the temperature range from 950-1050 °C (Shen et al., 2008) and sulfur
emission from the parallel reactions rose (Zheng et al., 2011) . emission from the parallel reactions rose (Zheng et al., 2011) .
The decomposition of CaSO4 using a non-isothermal method was studied by Tian and Guo (2009) using five The decomposition of CaSO4 using a non-isothermal method was studied by Tian and Guo (2009) using five
different heating rates (5 to 20 °C/min from 20 to 1200 °C). It was observed that the CaO mole fraction in the different heating rates (5 to 20 °C/min from 20 to 1200 °C). It was observed that the CaO mole fraction in the
products increased with increasing heating rate, which greatly promoted reaction (6-1) and also the side products increased with increasing heating rate, which greatly promoted reaction (6-1) and also the side
reaction (6-3) (Tian and Guo, 2009). reaction (6-3) (Tian and Guo, 2009).
CaS (s) 3 CaSO4 (s) o 4 CaO (s) 4 SO2 ( g ) ΔH298°= 1047.9 kJ/mol (6-3) CaS (s) 3 CaSO4 (s) o 4 CaO (s) 4 SO2 ( g ) ΔH298°= 1047.9 kJ/mol (6-3)
Reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO, in presence of CO2 has also been studied by Oh and Weelock Reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO, in presence of CO2 has also been studied by Oh and Weelock
(1990) and Okumura et al. (2003), varying CO concentration, CO/CO2 ratio and the temperature. It was found (1990) and Okumura et al. (2003), varying CO concentration, CO/CO2 ratio and the temperature. It was found
that the proportion of CaO in the products increased as the CO/CO2 ratio decreased (Oh and Wheelock, 1990; that the proportion of CaO in the products increased as the CO/CO2 ratio decreased (Oh and Wheelock, 1990;
Okumura et al., 2003). The SO2 concentration profile was largely dependent on the reaction temperature and Okumura et al., 2003). The SO2 concentration profile was largely dependent on the reaction temperature and
CO and CO2 concentrations. It was suggested that higher CO2 concentration may suppress reaction (6-2) more CO and CO2 concentrations. It was suggested that higher CO2 concentration may suppress reaction (6-2) more
than reaction (6-1) from the viewpoint of stoichiometry because the CO2 concentration has more influence on than reaction (6-1) from the viewpoint of stoichiometry because the CO2 concentration has more influence on
reaction (6-2). Consequently, reaction (6-1), which forms CaO and SO2, proceeds more favorably than reaction reaction (6-2). Consequently, reaction (6-1), which forms CaO and SO2, proceeds more favorably than reaction
(6-2) (Okumura et al., 2003). In agreement, several authors (Wheelock and Boylan, 1960; Kuusik et al., 1985; (6-2) (Okumura et al., 2003). In agreement, several authors (Wheelock and Boylan, 1960; Kuusik et al., 1985;
Hayhurst and Tucker, 1992) mentioned that an increase in the reaction temperature and the addition of either Hayhurst and Tucker, 1992) mentioned that an increase in the reaction temperature and the addition of either
CO2 or O2 into the system, would promote the decomposition of CaSO4 to CaO, while an increase of CO CO2 or O2 into the system, would promote the decomposition of CaSO4 to CaO, while an increase of CO
116 116
130 130
concentration promotes the production of CaS. In presence of oxygen, CaS is rapidly oxidized to CaO (Hansen, concentration promotes the production of CaS. In presence of oxygen, CaS is rapidly oxidized to CaO (Hansen,
1991). 1991).
In addition, the presence of O2 showed to inhibit the decomposition of CaSO4 as well as the conversion and In addition, the presence of O2 showed to inhibit the decomposition of CaSO4 as well as the conversion and
the reaction rate, depending on the O2 molar percentage (Tian et al., 2008). The stability of CaSO4 decreases the reaction rate, depending on the O2 molar percentage (Tian et al., 2008). The stability of CaSO4 decreases
with increasing temperatures and CO content in the gas phase (Tian and Guo, 2009). This is in a good with increasing temperatures and CO content in the gas phase (Tian and Guo, 2009). This is in a good
agreement with the phase diagram shown in Figure 5-2. The performance of a cycle test alternating reducing agreement with the phase diagram shown in Figure 5-2. The performance of a cycle test alternating reducing
and oxidizing condition at 950 °C in a fluidized bed reactor (Song et al., 2008) discovered the formation of and oxidizing condition at 950 °C in a fluidized bed reactor (Song et al., 2008) discovered the formation of
large amounts of SO2 and H2S during the reduction process. large amounts of SO2 and H2S during the reduction process.
The reaction mechanisms of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 proposed, based on experimental studies, The reaction mechanisms of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 proposed, based on experimental studies,
by Robbins (1966), which has not been available, however it is described by Swift et al. (1976), Oh and by Robbins (1966), which has not been available, however it is described by Swift et al. (1976), Oh and
Wheelock (1990), and Hansen (1991) with good agreement. First, CO forms an unstable intermediate at the Wheelock (1990), and Hansen (1991) with good agreement. First, CO forms an unstable intermediate at the
CaSO4 surface, according to reaction (6-4) and desorbs rapidly by the reaction (6-5). The final step in the CaSO4 surface, according to reaction (6-4) and desorbs rapidly by the reaction (6-5). The final step in the
formation of CaO involves desorption of SO2 (reaction 6-6)). formation of CaO involves desorption of SO2 (reaction 6-6)).

o CaO SO2 CO2
CaSO4 CO m
(6-4)
o CaO SO2 CO2
CaSO4 CO m
(6-4)

o CaO SO2 CO2
CaO SO2 CO2 m
(6-5)
o CaO SO2 CO2
CaO SO2 CO2 m
(6-5)

CaO SO2 m o CaO SO2
(6-6)
CaO SO2 m o CaO SO2
(6-6)
A similar mechanism for CaO formation was suggested by Pechkovskii and Ketvo (1961), elaborated by Swift A similar mechanism for CaO formation was suggested by Pechkovskii and Ketvo (1961), elaborated by Swift
et al. (1976). The reactions from (6-4) to (6-6) are similar to reactions (6-7) and (6-8) with CaO· SO2 written et al. (1976). The reactions from (6-4) to (6-6) are similar to reactions (6-7) and (6-8) with CaO· SO2 written
as CaSO3, and based on experimental investigations CaSO3 has been suggested as an important intermediate as CaSO3, and based on experimental investigations CaSO3 has been suggested as an important intermediate
(Oh and Wheelock, 1990), however its existence is not favored thermodynamically (Hayhurst and Tucker, (Oh and Wheelock, 1990), however its existence is not favored thermodynamically (Hayhurst and Tucker,
1992). 1992).

o CaSO3 CO2
CaSO4 CO m
(6-7)
o CaSO3 CO2
CaSO4 CO m
(6-7)

o CaO SO2
CaSO3 m
(6-8)
o CaO SO2
CaSO3 m
(6-8)
It has been suggested that the formation of CaS from CaSO4 proceeds via CaO as intermediate and nothing It has been suggested that the formation of CaS from CaSO4 proceeds via CaO as intermediate and nothing
indicated that CaS is an intermediate when CaSO4 is converted to CaO (Oh and Wheelock, 1990; Hansen, indicated that CaS is an intermediate when CaSO4 is converted to CaO (Oh and Wheelock, 1990; Hansen,
1991). However, Oh and Wheelock (1990) do not exclude that some CaSO4 may be converted directly to CaS. 1991). However, Oh and Wheelock (1990) do not exclude that some CaSO4 may be converted directly to CaS.
The mechanism of CaS formation (suggested by Robbins in 1966) proceeds by reaction (6-9), where adsorbed The mechanism of CaS formation (suggested by Robbins in 1966) proceeds by reaction (6-9), where adsorbed
SO2 on CaO is reduced to elemental sulfur, and the sulfur can then be further reduced to CaS by reaction (6- SO2 on CaO is reduced to elemental sulfur, and the sulfur can then be further reduced to CaS by reaction (6-
10) (Swift et al., 1976). Pechkovskii and Ketvo (1961) also proposed a mechanism for CaS formation involving 10) (Swift et al., 1976). Pechkovskii and Ketvo (1961) also proposed a mechanism for CaS formation involving
S2, however the reactions were mechanistically unrealistic (Swift et al., 1976). S2, however the reactions were mechanistically unrealistic (Swift et al., 1976).
117 117
131 131

o CaO S 2CO2
CaO SO2 2CO m
(6-9)
o CaO S 2CO2
CaO SO2 2CO m
(6-9)

o CaS CO2
CaO S CO m
(6-10)
o CaS CO2
CaO S CO m
(6-10)
6.1.2 Hydrogen 6.1.2 Hydrogen
The reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with H2 has not been studied extensively. The kinetic investigation of The reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with H2 has not been studied extensively. The kinetic investigation of
Kim and Sohn (2002) identified reactions (6-11), (6-12) and (6-13) in the temperature range 700-800 °C. Kim and Sohn (2002) identified reactions (6-11), (6-12) and (6-13) in the temperature range 700-800 °C.
Reactions (6-12) and (6-13) are favored at low reducing concentrations, while reaction (6-11) is favored at Reactions (6-12) and (6-13) are favored at low reducing concentrations, while reaction (6-11) is favored at
3 2
high concentration of reducing gas (PH2/PH2O between 10 and 10 ) within the temperature 600-950 °C (Xiao high concentration of reducing gas (PH2/PH2O between 103 and 102) within the temperature 600-950 °C (Xiao
and Song, 2011; Kim and Sohn, 2002; Shen et al., 2008). and Song, 2011; Kim and Sohn, 2002; Shen et al., 2008).
CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= -64 kJ/mol (6-11) CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= -64 kJ/mol (6-11)
CaSO4 (s) H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= 260.4 kJ/mol (6-12) CaSO4 (s) H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= 260.4 kJ/mol (6-12)
CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) H 2 S ( g ) 3 H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= 53.0 kJ/mol (6-13) CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) H 2 S ( g ) 3 H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= 53.0 kJ/mol (6-13)
The reduction of CaSO4 by 5 vol. % H2 and 95 vol. % N2 in the temperature range 870- 970 °C was investigated The reduction of CaSO4 by 5 vol. % H2 and 95 vol. % N2 in the temperature range 870- 970 °C was investigated
by Shen et al. (2008). It was observed that the rate of reduction of CaSO4 by H2 increases remarkably with by Shen et al. (2008). It was observed that the rate of reduction of CaSO4 by H2 increases remarkably with
increasing temperature. increasing temperature.
The reductive decomposition of calcium sulfate using CO and H2 in a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) has The reductive decomposition of calcium sulfate using CO and H2 in a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) has
been studied by Diaz-Bossio et al. (1985), who found that the direct reductive products of CaSO4 were pure been studied by Diaz-Bossio et al. (1985), who found that the direct reductive products of CaSO4 were pure
CaO from 900 to 1180 °C and that the reaction was first order with respect to the concentration both of CaO from 900 to 1180 °C and that the reaction was first order with respect to the concentration both of
hydrogen and carbon monoxide. In the temperature range 700-800 °C, the reaction between CaSO4 and H2 was hydrogen and carbon monoxide. In the temperature range 700-800 °C, the reaction between CaSO4 and H2 was
found also to be a first order respect to the H2 concentration (Kim and Sohn, 2002). However, several studies found also to be a first order respect to the H2 concentration (Kim and Sohn, 2002). However, several studies
(Diaz-Bossio et al., 1985; Hansen et al., 1993) state that the rate of reductive decomposition is higher for H2 (Diaz-Bossio et al., 1985; Hansen et al., 1993) state that the rate of reductive decomposition is higher for H2
than for CO. than for CO.
The equilibrium phase diagrams of CaSO4, CaO and CaS influenced by H2 and H2O, presented in Chapter 5, The equilibrium phase diagrams of CaSO4, CaO and CaS influenced by H2 and H2O, presented in Chapter 5,
showed that the partial pressure of H2O was influencing the stability zones of CaSO4, CaO and CaS. However, showed that the partial pressure of H2O was influencing the stability zones of CaSO4, CaO and CaS. However,
studies of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with H2 introducing H2O vapor has not been reported in studies of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with H2 introducing H2O vapor has not been reported in
literature. literature.
6.1.3 Methane 6.1.3 Methane
The reactivity of methane with calcium sulfate has been studied scarcely (Song et al., 2008; Song et al., 2009). The reactivity of methane with calcium sulfate has been studied scarcely (Song et al., 2008; Song et al., 2009).
The reactivity of CaSO4 as oxygen carrier using CH4 was investigated by Song et al. (2009) where the The reactivity of CaSO4 as oxygen carrier using CH4 was investigated by Song et al. (2009) where the
experiments consisted of six cycles of alternating reducing and oxidizing conditions, in a fixed bed at 950 °C experiments consisted of six cycles of alternating reducing and oxidizing conditions, in a fixed bed at 950 °C
118 118
132 132
for the reducing period and 850 °C for the oxidizing period. The majority of inlet methane reacted with the for the reducing period and 850 °C for the oxidizing period. The majority of inlet methane reacted with the
CaSO4, forming CO2 and H2O according to reaction (6-14). Slight amounts of SO2 were also observed during CaSO4, forming CO2 and H2O according to reaction (6-14). Slight amounts of SO2 were also observed during
the reducing period and the formation was stated to be mainly due to the solid-solid reaction (6-3). A side the reducing period and the formation was stated to be mainly due to the solid-solid reaction (6-3). A side
reaction during the reduction period was also a possibility according to reaction (6-15). The contact between reaction during the reduction period was also a possibility according to reaction (6-15). The contact between
CaS and CaSO4 was enhanced and consequently SO2 release increased during the initial cycles. H2S was not CaS and CaSO4 was enhanced and consequently SO2 release increased during the initial cycles. H2S was not
observed, which indicated that reaction (6-16) did not take place. XRD analysis revealed that CaS was the observed, which indicated that reaction (6-16) did not take place. XRD analysis revealed that CaS was the
main reduction product, and small amounts of CaO were also formed in the cyclic test. main reduction product, and small amounts of CaO were also formed in the cyclic test.
CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o CaS (s) CO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= 159.6 kJ/mol (6-14) CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o CaS (s) CO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= 159.6 kJ/mol (6-14)
4 CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o 4 CaO (s) CO2 ( g ) 4 SO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= 1220.8 kJ/mol (6-15) 4 CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o 4 CaO (s) CO2 ( g ) 4 SO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) ΔH298°= 1220.8 kJ/mol (6-15)
CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o CaO (s) CO2 ( g ) H 2S ( g ) 3 H 2O ( g ) (6-16) CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o CaO (s) CO2 ( g ) H 2S ( g ) 3 H 2O ( g ) (6-16)
The effects of reaction temperature, gas flow rate, sample mass, and particle size on reduction reactions were The effects of reaction temperature, gas flow rate, sample mass, and particle size on reduction reactions were
investigated. The conversion of CH4 increases with high temperature, smaller gas flow rate, larger sample mass investigated. The conversion of CH4 increases with high temperature, smaller gas flow rate, larger sample mass
and smaller particle size (Song et al., 2008). and smaller particle size (Song et al., 2008).
6.1.4 Alternating Oxidizing and Reducing conditions 6.1.4 Alternating Oxidizing and Reducing conditions
In a laboratory scale horizontal tube reactor the release of SO2 from a synthetic cement calcined raw material In a laboratory scale horizontal tube reactor the release of SO2 from a synthetic cement calcined raw material
containing CaSO4 as sulfur source was quantified as a function of gas atmosphere, alternating oxidizing and containing CaSO4 as sulfur source was quantified as a function of gas atmosphere, alternating oxidizing and
o
reducing conditions with CO, H2 and CH4 in the temperature range from 900 to 1100 C (Nielsen, 2012). The reducing conditions with CO, H2 and CH4 in the temperature range from 900 to 1100 oC (Nielsen, 2012). The
alternating oxidizing and reducing conditions were applied in intervals of 2 minutes and were repeated over alternating oxidizing and reducing conditions were applied in intervals of 2 minutes and were repeated over
20 minutes. Figure 6-1 shows the results of sulfur release under the alternating oxidizing and reducing 20 minutes. Figure 6-1 shows the results of sulfur release under the alternating oxidizing and reducing
conditions using different reducing agents. conditions using different reducing agents.
119 119
133 133
70 70
5 vol.% O΍ / 5 vol.% CO 5 vol.% O΍ / 5 vol.% CO
60 5 vol.% O΍ / 2 vol.% CHΏ 60 5 vol.% O΍ / 2 vol.% CHΏ
5 vol.% O΍ / 2 vol.% H΍ 5 vol.% O΍ / 2 vol.% H΍
50 50
S release [%]
S release [%]
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150
Figure 6-1: Effect of reducing agents on sulfur release from calcined raw material under alternating oxidizing and reducing Figure 6-1: Effect of reducing agents on sulfur release from calcined raw material under alternating oxidizing and reducing
conditions. Sulfur release evaluated after 20 minutes of reaction time, modified from (Nielsen, 2012). conditions. Sulfur release evaluated after 20 minutes of reaction time, modified from (Nielsen, 2012).
The results with CO showed an increase in sulfur release with increasing temperature. The sulfur release due The results with CO showed an increase in sulfur release with increasing temperature. The sulfur release due
o o
to reaction with H2 or CH4 increased from 900 to 1000 C but decreased at 1100 C. However, the experiments to reaction with H2 or CH4 increased from 900 to 1000 oC but decreased at 1100 oC. However, the experiments
suffered from mass transfer limitations between the solid material and gas, and the gas analysis system failed suffered from mass transfer limitations between the solid material and gas, and the gas analysis system failed
to detect H2S, which most probably was formed under the reducing conditions with H2 and CH4. Sulfur mass to detect H2S, which most probably was formed under the reducing conditions with H2 and CH4. Sulfur mass
balances for the experiments were not checked and therefore the effect of the reducing agent on sulfur release balances for the experiments were not checked and therefore the effect of the reducing agent on sulfur release
was not quantified. A direct comparison between these results and Hansen’s finding, without reductive was not quantified. A direct comparison between these results and Hansen’s finding, without reductive
decomposition (Hansen, 1991), is not possible due to the different conditions of the experiments. decomposition (Hansen, 1991), is not possible due to the different conditions of the experiments.
6.1.5 Pre-experimental Considerations 6.1.5 Pre-experimental Considerations
From chemical-looping combustion studies of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4, it can be concluded that From chemical-looping combustion studies of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4, it can be concluded that
depending on the temperature and the reducing agent concentration the reduction of CaSO4 can proceed depending on the temperature and the reducing agent concentration the reduction of CaSO4 can proceed
forming CaO, or CaS, or a mixture of both products. However, it is difficult to link these studies with the forming CaO, or CaS, or a mixture of both products. However, it is difficult to link these studies with the
conditions of the rotary kiln because the reducing gases in the kiln will be in contact with the bed material, conditions of the rotary kiln because the reducing gases in the kiln will be in contact with the bed material,
producing local reducing conditions but the flue gas will not experience the reducing conditions because it is producing local reducing conditions but the flue gas will not experience the reducing conditions because it is
rich in oxygen. For that reason, it is experimentally desired to introduce the reductive gases under a rolling bed rich in oxygen. For that reason, it is experimentally desired to introduce the reductive gases under a rolling bed
material and have an oxidizing atmosphere in the freeboard. In this manner, the H2S or other reduced sulfur material and have an oxidizing atmosphere in the freeboard. In this manner, the H2S or other reduced sulfur
species will be oxidized to SO2. In the current facilities and also in the cement plants, there are no analyzers to species will be oxidized to SO2. In the current facilities and also in the cement plants, there are no analyzers to
measure H2S or other reduced sulfur species in the flue gas if these are not oxidized. Furthermore, without an measure H2S or other reduced sulfur species in the flue gas if these are not oxidized. Furthermore, without an
oxidizing atmosphere the reduced sulfur species may react with SO2 which give a wrong measured oxidizing atmosphere the reduced sulfur species may react with SO2 which give a wrong measured
concentration. concentration.
120 120
134 134
Moreover, it was observed during the experiments in Chapter 5 that the fuel particles were on top of the bed Moreover, it was observed during the experiments in Chapter 5 that the fuel particles were on top of the bed
during devolatilization. The worst scenario for the sulfur release is when the reducing gases are in contact with during devolatilization. The worst scenario for the sulfur release is when the reducing gases are in contact with
the whole bed material. In the high temperature rotary drum it is not possible to force a fuel particle to be the whole bed material. In the high temperature rotary drum it is not possible to force a fuel particle to be
converted under the bed. This is another reason for introducing the gases through a steel tube under the bed converted under the bed. This is another reason for introducing the gases through a steel tube under the bed
material. material.
The reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with a mixture of two reducing gases have not been investigated The reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with a mixture of two reducing gases have not been investigated
previously. So, the main reducing gases released from fuel particles will be first studied individually and then previously. So, the main reducing gases released from fuel particles will be first studied individually and then
mixtures of them will be used. mixtures of them will be used.
6.2 Experimental 6.2 Experimental
The high temperature rotary drum setup has already been presented in section 5.2.1. The setup has been slightly The high temperature rotary drum setup has already been presented in section 5.2.1. The setup has been slightly
modified for the purpose of the new experiments. The modification consists of removing a thermocouple from modified for the purpose of the new experiments. The modification consists of removing a thermocouple from
the door and through the vacant hole a steel tube in L-shape is inserted in order to introduce reducing agents the door and through the vacant hole a steel tube in L-shape is inserted in order to introduce reducing agents
at the bottom of the material bed. Figure 6-2 shows a schematic 3D view of the modification of the setup. The at the bottom of the material bed. Figure 6-2 shows a schematic 3D view of the modification of the setup. The
steel tube is an alloy 600 (75 Ni/16 Cr) which can resist high temperatures. It is bent in an L-shape and the tip steel tube is an alloy 600 (75 Ni/16 Cr) which can resist high temperatures. It is bent in an L-shape and the tip
is fixed at a distance of 0.5 cm from the bottom of the rotary drum. is fixed at a distance of 0.5 cm from the bottom of the rotary drum.
Figure 6-2: Schematic 3D view of the modified high temperature rotary drum. Figure 6-2: Schematic 3D view of the modified high temperature rotary drum.
Figure 6-3 illustrates the piping and instrumentation diagram of the modified setup. The tube is connected to Figure 6-3 illustrates the piping and instrumentation diagram of the modified setup. The tube is connected to
a flow line which mixes the nitrogen and two reducing agents. The flowmeters used for the nitrogen and the a flow line which mixes the nitrogen and two reducing agents. The flowmeters used for the nitrogen and the
reducing agents have the capacity of 2 NL/min and 1 NL/min, respectively, and the mixture flow has been set reducing agents have the capacity of 2 NL/min and 1 NL/min, respectively, and the mixture flow has been set
to 1 NL/min, which does not fluidize the bed material. The tube has an internal radius of 1.7 mm, giving a to 1 NL/min, which does not fluidize the bed material. The tube has an internal radius of 1.7 mm, giving a
cross-section of 9.08 ·10-6 m2. Thereby, the velocity of the gas introduced under the bed material is 7.22 m/s cross-section of 9.08 ·10-6 m2. Thereby, the velocity of the gas introduced under the bed material is 7.22 m/s
o
at 900 C. at 900 oC.
121 121
135 135
Gas bypass Gas bypass

V3 V3
V1 Filter F1 V1 Filter F1
N2 N2
V4 V4
Calibration gas Calibration gas

Air V10 Air V10
Cold water Cold water
V2 Filter F2 Gas V2 Filter F2 Gas
V7 F4 V7 F4
PLC PLC
V8 V8
T2 T2
Heat exchanger Filter Aerosol filter V5 Heat exchanger Filter Aerosol filter V5
V16 F3 V16 F3
T
Flue gas T
Flue gas
To ventilation To ventilation
T Filter Pump Sample gas Pump T Filter Pump Sample gas Pump
F5 V6 F5 V6
V10 V12 Rotary drum T1 V9 V10 V12 Rotary drum T1 V9
N2 T4 Exhaust Exhaust O2 N2 T4 Exhaust Exhaust O2
T T
S1 M1 S1 M1
F6 Gas cooler CO F6 Gas cooler CO
Reductive Hot water Reductive Hot water
agent Signal to computer agent Signal to computer
V11 V13 CO2 V11 V13 CO2
F7 F7
Reductive Reductive
agent SO2 agent SO2
V14 V15 Signals to computer Signals to computer V14 V15 Signals to computer Signals to computer
NO NO
Data Data
Exhaust Exhaust
acquisition acquisition
Figure 6-3: P&I diagram of the modified high temperature rotary drum setup. Figure 6-3: P&I diagram of the modified high temperature rotary drum setup.
The synthetic mixture of coarse quartz sand and 2 wt. % calcium sulfate is used for a 5 % volumetric filling The synthetic mixture of coarse quartz sand and 2 wt. % calcium sulfate is used for a 5 % volumetric filling
degree, which corresponds to a bed high of 3 cm. Therefore, the release of the reducing agent takes place 2.5 degree, which corresponds to a bed high of 3 cm. Therefore, the release of the reducing agent takes place 2.5
cm from the top of the bed. cm from the top of the bed.
The CO, CH4 and H2 are supplied by pressurized 50 L gas bottles with a purity of 99.97 % CO, 99.5 % CH4 The CO, CH4 and H2 are supplied by pressurized 50 L gas bottles with a purity of 99.97 % CO, 99.5 % CH4
and 50 mol. % H2 in N2, respectively. The reducing agents are mixed with nitrogen in order to vary their and 50 mol. % H2 in N2, respectively. The reducing agents are mixed with nitrogen in order to vary their
concentration from 5 vol. % to 40 vol. % and the nitrogen had a purity of 99.999 %. concentration from 5 vol. % to 40 vol. % and the nitrogen had a purity of 99.999 %.
The procedure followed during these experiments is first to set the flow of N2 and the flow of the reducing The procedure followed during these experiments is first to set the flow of N2 and the flow of the reducing
agent sending the mixture to ventilation. When the flow is stable and well mixed, the 3 way valve V16 is turned agent sending the mixture to ventilation. When the flow is stable and well mixed, the 3 way valve V16 is turned
and the mixture is sent to the high temperature rotary drum and the timer is started for controlling the time of and the mixture is sent to the high temperature rotary drum and the timer is started for controlling the time of
introduction of the reducing agent. When the desired time is reached, the flowmeter of the reducing agent is introduction of the reducing agent. When the desired time is reached, the flowmeter of the reducing agent is
set to zero and the valve of the reducing agent and the nitrogen are closed. A new experiment is started when set to zero and the valve of the reducing agent and the nitrogen are closed. A new experiment is started when
the SO2 and CO2 concentrations had reached their initial values. Each measurement is repeated 2-3 times to the SO2 and CO2 concentrations had reached their initial values. Each measurement is repeated 2-3 times to
ensure repeatability. ensure repeatability.
6.3 Results and Discussion 6.3 Results and Discussion
The effect of the single reducing agents on sulfur release is first investigated by varying the concentration The effect of the single reducing agents on sulfur release is first investigated by varying the concentration
introduced, the oxygen content of the freeboard atmosphere and the temperature. It must be emphasized that introduced, the oxygen content of the freeboard atmosphere and the temperature. It must be emphasized that
the SO2 concentrations plotted in the following graphs do not take into account the thermal decomposition of the SO2 concentrations plotted in the following graphs do not take into account the thermal decomposition of
CaSO4, i.e. the SO2 originating from thermal decomposition is set as the baseline. In addition, to resemble a CaSO4, i.e. the SO2 originating from thermal decomposition is set as the baseline. In addition, to resemble a
mixture of volatile release from fuels the effect of binary mixtures amongst CO, CH4 and H2 on SO2 release is mixture of volatile release from fuels the effect of binary mixtures amongst CO, CH4 and H2 on SO2 release is
investigated. investigated.
122 122
136 136
6.3.1 Carbon Monoxide 6.3.1 Carbon Monoxide
6.3.1.1 Effect of the Oxygen Content 6.3.1.1 Effect of the Oxygen Content
The effect of different concentrations of carbon monoxide, from 5 to 20 vol. % CO, on SO2 release is The effect of different concentrations of carbon monoxide, from 5 to 20 vol. % CO, on SO2 release is
o
investigated at 900 C and at two different oxygen concentrations, 5 and 10 vol. % O2. The duration of the investigated at 900 oC and at two different oxygen concentrations, 5 and 10 vol. % O2. The duration of the
period where CO is introduced under the bed material for each concentration is 4 or 5 min in order to reach a period where CO is introduced under the bed material for each concentration is 4 or 5 min in order to reach a
steady-state and have a constant SO2 concentration. An example of the constant SO2 concentration is illustrated steady-state and have a constant SO2 concentration. An example of the constant SO2 concentration is illustrated
in Figure C-1 in Appendix C. The averages of the constant SO2 concentrations and the standard deviations of in Figure C-1 in Appendix C. The averages of the constant SO2 concentrations and the standard deviations of
results obtained are presented in Figure 6-4. Lower concentrations than 5 vol. % CO, for example 2 vol. % results obtained are presented in Figure 6-4. Lower concentrations than 5 vol. % CO, for example 2 vol. %
CO, are tested at 5 vol. % O2, releasing less than 1 ppm SO2, which is insignificant compared to the release of CO, are tested at 5 vol. % O2, releasing less than 1 ppm SO2, which is insignificant compared to the release of
10 ppm SO2 when 5 vol. % CO is introduced under the bed. 10 ppm SO2 when 5 vol. % CO is introduced under the bed.
500 500
SO2 concentration in outlet [ppm]

400 400
300 300
10 vol.% O΍ 10 vol.% O΍
200 5 vol.% O΍ 200 5 vol.% O΍
100 100
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
CO concentration in bed [vol. %] CO concentration in bed [vol. %]
Figure 6-4: Effect of different CO concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration with 5 and 10 vol. % O2 in Figure 6-4: Effect of different CO concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration with 5 and 10 vol. % O2 in
the freeboard gas. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. the freeboard gas. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm.
The SO2 release at 5 vol. % O2 is not proportional to the CO concentration introduced. For example, using 10 The SO2 release at 5 vol. % O2 is not proportional to the CO concentration introduced. For example, using 10
vol. % CO the release of SO2 is around 70 ppm, while using 15 vol. % CO the SO2 concentration is 200 ppm, vol. % CO the release of SO2 is around 70 ppm, while using 15 vol. % CO the SO2 concentration is 200 ppm,
which is more than the double. Comparing the results at 10 vol. % O2, SO2 is released below 100 ppm up to which is more than the double. Comparing the results at 10 vol. % O2, SO2 is released below 100 ppm up to
20 vol. % CO, while at 5 vol. % O2 the SO2 release is above 300 ppm SO2 for 20 vol. % CO. Therefore, it can 20 vol. % CO, while at 5 vol. % O2 the SO2 release is above 300 ppm SO2 for 20 vol. % CO. Therefore, it can
be seen the sulfur release is reduced when the oxygen content is increased. The corresponding CO2 be seen the sulfur release is reduced when the oxygen content is increased. The corresponding CO2
concentrations measured for each experiment are plotted in Figure C-2 in Appendix C. concentrations measured for each experiment are plotted in Figure C-2 in Appendix C.
The carbon mass balance of the experiments performed using CO as reducing agent is checked considering the The carbon mass balance of the experiments performed using CO as reducing agent is checked considering the
molar mass flow rate of CO introduced and CO2 measured by the gas analyzer. The results for the experiments molar mass flow rate of CO introduced and CO2 measured by the gas analyzer. The results for the experiments
o o
performed at 900 C with 5 vol. % and 10 vol. % O2 and at 1000 C are shown in Appendix C (Table C-1, performed at 900 oC with 5 vol. % and 10 vol. % O2 and at 1000 oC are shown in Appendix C (Table C-1,
123 123
137 137
Table C-2, and Table C-3). In the calculations, the CO2 in the atmospheric air (base line) has been removed Table C-2, and Table C-3). In the calculations, the CO2 in the atmospheric air (base line) has been removed
from the total CO2 measured in the outlet. The deviations are within 0.2 and 8 %. from the total CO2 measured in the outlet. The deviations are within 0.2 and 8 %.
6.3.1.2 Effect of the Temperature 6.3.1.2 Effect of the Temperature
The effect of the temperature on sulfur release using CO is also investigated. The previous experiments are The effect of the temperature on sulfur release using CO is also investigated. The previous experiments are
o
performed at 5 vol. % O2 and at 900 and 1000 C. Figure 6-5 shows the average SO2 concentrations with their performed at 5 vol. % O2 and at 900 and 1000 oC. Figure 6-5 shows the average SO2 concentrations with their
standard deviation obtained by introducing the different CO concentrations. It can be seen that at 1000 oC the standard deviation obtained by introducing the different CO concentrations. It can be seen that at 1000 oC the
SO2 release is higher for the same CO concentration, for example, 10 vol. % CO yields an average of 66 ppm SO2 release is higher for the same CO concentration, for example, 10 vol. % CO yields an average of 66 ppm
o o
SO2 at 900 C and 148 ppm SO2 at 1000 C. The corresponding CO2 concentrations measured for each SO2 at 900 oC and 148 ppm SO2 at 1000 oC. The corresponding CO2 concentrations measured for each
experiment are plotted in Figure C-3 in Appendix C. experiment are plotted in Figure C-3 in Appendix C.
500 500

400 400
300 300
1000 ͼC 1000 ͼC
200 200
900 ͼC 900 ͼC
100 100
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 6-5: Effect of different CO concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration at 900 and 1000 °C. Figure 6-5: Effect of different CO concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration at 900 and 1000 °C.
Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2 in the freeboard gas Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2 in the freeboard gas
atmosphere, 6 rpm. atmosphere, 6 rpm.
Concentrations of 30 vol. % and 40 vol. % CO are also tested at both temperatures. At 900 oC, different SO2 Concentrations of 30 vol. % and 40 vol. % CO are also tested at both temperatures. At 900 oC, different SO2
concentration results were obtained in each repetition, while at 1000 oC the SO2 release reached concentrations concentration results were obtained in each repetition, while at 1000 oC the SO2 release reached concentrations
higher than 500 ppm but decreased with time, without reaching a stable concentration and the repeatability of higher than 500 ppm but decreased with time, without reaching a stable concentration and the repeatability of
the results were not achieved. The strong reducing conditions may indicate the formation of CaS because after the results were not achieved. The strong reducing conditions may indicate the formation of CaS because after
stopping the injection of CO, a SO2 peak was measured corresponding to CaS oxidation. It was noticed after stopping the injection of CO, a SO2 peak was measured corresponding to CaS oxidation. It was noticed after
cooling down the equipment, that the tube outlet was blocked. At these high CO concentrations, CO can react cooling down the equipment, that the tube outlet was blocked. At these high CO concentrations, CO can react
with a steel tube causing carbon deposition, which could be the reason why different SO2 concentrations were with a steel tube causing carbon deposition, which could be the reason why different SO2 concentrations were
obtained. obtained.
124 124
138 138
6.3.1.3 Effect of the Exposure Time 6.3.1.3 Effect of the Exposure Time
Since the release of reducing agents from a fuel particle can be very rapid with high concentrations, i.e. during Since the release of reducing agents from a fuel particle can be very rapid with high concentrations, i.e. during
the devolatilization period, or very slow with low concentrations, i.e. during the char oxidation, depending on the devolatilization period, or very slow with low concentrations, i.e. during the char oxidation, depending on
the volatile and char content, the exposure time of the hot meal to the reducing agents may also vary. Therefore, the volatile and char content, the exposure time of the hot meal to the reducing agents may also vary. Therefore,
the time of exposure is investigated by exposing the bed material to the same total amount of CO introduced the time of exposure is investigated by exposing the bed material to the same total amount of CO introduced
varying the CO concentration and the injection time. varying the CO concentration and the injection time.
A total amount of 0.4 L CO is introduced under the bed material using CO concentrations from 5 to 20 vol. % A total amount of 0.4 L CO is introduced under the bed material using CO concentrations from 5 to 20 vol. %
o
at 900 and 1000 C. The time required to introduce a total of 0.4 L CO at 5, 7, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % CO is 8 at 900 and 1000 oC. The time required to introduce a total of 0.4 L CO at 5, 7, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % CO is 8
min, 5 min 43 s, 4 min, 2 min 40 s, and 2 min, respectively. Figure 6-6 and Figure 6-7 show the SO2 min, 5 min 43 s, 4 min, 2 min 40 s, and 2 min, respectively. Figure 6-6 and Figure 6-7 show the SO2
o
concentration profiles for the different CO concentrations at 900 and 1000 C, respectively. As explained in concentration profiles for the different CO concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC, respectively. As explained in
6.3.1.2, the SO2 release increases with increasing temperature for the same applied CO concentration. The 6.3.1.2, the SO2 release increases with increasing temperature for the same applied CO concentration. The
results shows that introducing high CO concentrations for a short time gives high concentrations of SO2 but results shows that introducing high CO concentrations for a short time gives high concentrations of SO2 but
without reaching a stable level such as in the case of 20 vol. % CO. The corresponding CO 2 concentration without reaching a stable level such as in the case of 20 vol. % CO. The corresponding CO 2 concentration
profiles to these experiments are plotted in Figure C-4 and Figure C-5 in Appendix C. profiles to these experiments are plotted in Figure C-4 and Figure C-5 in Appendix C.
500 500
500 500

20 vol.%CO 20 vol.%CO

15 vol.%CO 400 15 vol.%CO 400
400 15 vol.%CO 400 15 vol.%CO
300 7 vol.%CO 300 300 7 vol.%CO 300
5 vol.%CO 5 vol.%CO
5 vol.%CO 5 vol.%CO
200 200 200 200
100 100 100 100
0 0 0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Figure 6-6: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CO is Figure 6-7: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CO is Figure 6-6: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CO is Figure 6-7: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CO is
introduced under the bed material with 5, 7, 10, 15 and 20 vol. introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % introduced under the bed material with 5, 7, 10, 15 and 20 vol. introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. %
% CO at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, CO at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, % CO at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, CO at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min,
5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2,
rpm. 6 rpm. rpm. 6 rpm.
In order to illustrate the influence of the exposure time, the total sulfur release which corresponds to the total In order to illustrate the influence of the exposure time, the total sulfur release which corresponds to the total
integration of the SO2 curves is calculated. Figure 6-8 shows the total SO2 release for the CO concentrations integration of the SO2 curves is calculated. Figure 6-8 shows the total SO2 release for the CO concentrations
between 5 and 20 vol. % at both temperatures. between 5 and 20 vol. % at both temperatures.
125 125
139 139
250 250

200 200
150 150
1000 ᵒC 1000 ᵒC
100 900 ᵒC 100 900 ᵒC
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 6-8: Total SO2 release from the raw material when a total of 0.4 L of CO is introduced under the bed material with different Figure 6-8: Total SO2 release from the raw material when a total of 0.4 L of CO is introduced under the bed material with different
CO concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min CO concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min
with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm. with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm.
Introducing the same total amount of CO, the total SO2 release is different for each CO concentration. For a Introducing the same total amount of CO, the total SO2 release is different for each CO concentration. For a
long exposure of low CO concentrations, the total SO2 release is low compared to the total SO2 release obtained long exposure of low CO concentrations, the total SO2 release is low compared to the total SO2 release obtained
for a short exposure of high CO concentrations. The total SO2 release increases with increasing temperature. for a short exposure of high CO concentrations. The total SO2 release increases with increasing temperature.
o
At 1000 C, the main increase in the total SO2 takes place when CO is increased from 5 to 10 vol. %, while at At 1000 oC, the main increase in the total SO2 takes place when CO is increased from 5 to 10 vol. %, while at
900 oC, this occurs when CO is increased from 10 to 15 vol. %. 900 oC, this occurs when CO is increased from 10 to 15 vol. %.
6.3.1.4 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams 6.3.1.4 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams
The results obtained using CO at 900 oC and 5 vol. % O2 are further used to evaluate the stable phase by using The results obtained using CO at 900 oC and 5 vol. % O2 are further used to evaluate the stable phase by using
the equilibrium phase diagrams for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-CO-CO2 system. Figure 6-9 shows the equilibrium phase diagrams for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-CO-CO2 system. Figure 6-9 shows
schematically the chemical species of the system. CO is introduced in the bed and forms CO2 and SO2 by schematically the chemical species of the system. CO is introduced in the bed and forms CO2 and SO2 by
reaction with CaSO4, the non-reacted CO is further oxidized to CO2 in the freeboard atmosphere. reaction with CaSO4, the non-reacted CO is further oxidized to CO2 in the freeboard atmosphere.
CO2,oxid CO2,out CO2,oxid CO2,out

COnon-reac CO2,react SO2 SO2 out COnon-reac CO2,react SO2 SO2 out
COin Sand + CaSO4 COin Sand + CaSO4
Figure 6-9: Sketch of the chemical species in the system. Figure 6-9: Sketch of the chemical species in the system.
In the system, it cannot be distinguished whether the CO2 is formed by the reaction with CaSO4 or by oxidation In the system, it cannot be distinguished whether the CO2 is formed by the reaction with CaSO4 or by oxidation
of CO. Since there are two competing reactions, the experimental reducing potentials, P CO/PCO2, for the of CO. Since there are two competing reactions, the experimental reducing potentials, P CO/PCO2, for the
equilibrium phase diagram are calculated by two different cases: 1) assuming that CO reacts with CaSO4 only equilibrium phase diagram are calculated by two different cases: 1) assuming that CO reacts with CaSO4 only
2)
according to reaction (6-1), and CO reacts only according to reaction (6-2). according to reaction (6-1), and 2) CO reacts only according to reaction (6-2).
126 126
140 140
For the first case, the calculations are done considering only reaction (6-1). The partial pressure of the CO2 For the first case, the calculations are done considering only reaction (6-1). The partial pressure of the CO2
formed by the reaction, PCO2 react, is equal to the partial pressure of the formed, PSO2 out, defined by equation 6.1. formed by the reaction, PCO2 react, is equal to the partial pressure of the formed, PSO2 out, defined by equation 6.1.
The partial pressure of the reacted CO, PCO react, is the difference between the initial CO partial pressure, PCO,in, The partial pressure of the reacted CO, PCO react, is the difference between the initial CO partial pressure, PCO,in,
and the partial pressure of SO2, as defined by equation 6.2. and the partial pressure of SO2, as defined by equation 6.2.
PCO2 react PSO2 out [6.1] PCO2 react PSO2 out [6.1]
PCO react PCO,in PSO2 ,out [6.2] PCO react PCO,in PSO2 ,out [6.2]
Thereby, the reducing potential at equilibrium is defined by equation 6.3. Thereby, the reducing potential at equilibrium is defined by equation 6.3.
PCO PCO ,in PSO2 ,out PCO PCO ,in PSO2 ,out
[6.3] [6.3]
PCO2 PSO2 ,out PCO2 PSO2 ,out
For each concentration of CO introduced, the CO2 and SO2 concentration are measured. The reducing potential For each concentration of CO introduced, the CO2 and SO2 concentration are measured. The reducing potential
at equilibrium is calculated for each experiment and the results are shown in Figure 6-10. For all CO at equilibrium is calculated for each experiment and the results are shown in Figure 6-10. For all CO
concentrations, the stable phase is CaS. concentrations, the stable phase is CaS.
1.00E+00 1.00E+00

1.00E-01 1.00E-01
CaSO4 CaS CaSO4 CaS
900 °C 900 °C
1.00E-02 1.00E-02
5 vol% CO 5 vol% CO
1.00E-03 7 vol.% CO 1.00E-03 7 vol.% CO
1.00E-04 10 vol% CO 1.00E-04 10 vol% CO
15 vol% CO 15 vol% CO
1.00E-05 CaO 1.00E-05 CaO
1.00E-06 1.00E-06
1.00E-07 1.00E-07
1.00E-04 1.00E-02 1.00E+00 1.00E+02 1.00E-04 1.00E-02 1.00E+00 1.00E+02
Figure 6-10: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-CO-CO2 system at 900 °C and 5 vol. % O2. Considering assumption 1, the Figure 6-10: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-CO-CO2 system at 900 °C and 5 vol. % O2. Considering assumption 1, the
experimental data obtained in the pilot plant setup introducing different CO concentrations under the bed material is used to show the experimental data obtained in the pilot plant setup introducing different CO concentrations under the bed material is used to show the
stable phase in each case. stable phase in each case.
For the second case, the CO is assumed to react only according to reaction (6-2) and CaS is subsequently For the second case, the CO is assumed to react only according to reaction (6-2) and CaS is subsequently
oxidized by reaction (6-17). oxidized by reaction (6-17).
CaSO4 (s) 4 CO ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 CO2 ( g ) (6-2) CaSO4 (s) 4 CO ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 CO2 ( g ) (6-2)
3 3
CaS (s) O2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) (6-17) CaS (s) O2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) (6-17)
2 2
127 127
141 141
The stoichiometry of reaction (6-2) shows that 4 moles of CO react to give 1 mol of SO2. Therefore, the partial The stoichiometry of reaction (6-2) shows that 4 moles of CO react to give 1 mol of SO2. Therefore, the partial
pressure of CO2 and CO from the reaction can be calculated according to equation 6.4 and equation 6.5, pressure of CO2 and CO from the reaction can be calculated according to equation 6.4 and equation 6.5,
respectively. respectively.
PCO2 ,react 4 PSO2 ,out [6.4] PCO2 ,react 4 PSO2 ,out [6.4]
PCO react PCO,in 4 PSO2 ,out [6.5] PCO react PCO,in 4 PSO2 ,out [6.5]
With the new definitions, the reducing potential at equilibrium can be calculated for each experiment and the With the new definitions, the reducing potential at equilibrium can be calculated for each experiment and the
results are shown in Figure 6-11. The results are in the stable area of CaS for all CO concentrations. Comparing results are shown in Figure 6-11. The results are in the stable area of CaS for all CO concentrations. Comparing
Figure 6-10 and Figure 6-11, the reducing potential is lower for case 2, where it is assumed that CO reacts by Figure 6-10 and Figure 6-11, the reducing potential is lower for case 2, where it is assumed that CO reacts by
reaction (6-2). reaction (6-2).
1.00E+00 1.00E+00

1.00E-01 1.00E-01
CaSO4 CaS 900 °C CaSO4 CaS 900 °C
1.00E-02 1.00E-02
5 vol% CO 5 vol% CO
1.00E-03 7 vol% CO 1.00E-03 7 vol% CO
1.00E-04 1.00E-04
1.00E-05 20 vol% CO 1.00E-05 20 vol% CO
CaO CaO
1.00E-06 1.00E-06
1.00E-07 1.00E-07
1.00E-04 1.00E-02 1.00E+00 1.00E+02 1.00E-04 1.00E-02 1.00E+00 1.00E+02
Figure 6-11: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-CO-CO2 system at 900 °C and 5 vol. % O2. Considering assumption 2, the Figure 6-11: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-CO-CO2 system at 900 °C and 5 vol. % O2. Considering assumption 2, the
experimental data obtained in the pilot plant setup introducing different CO concentrations under the bed material is used to show the experimental data obtained in the pilot plant setup introducing different CO concentrations under the bed material is used to show the
6.3.1.5 Effect of the Rotational Speed 6.3.1.5 Effect of the Rotational Speed
The effect of the rotational speed of the rotary drum, varying from 4 to 20 rpm, has been investigating by The effect of the rotational speed of the rotary drum, varying from 4 to 20 rpm, has been investigating by
o
injecting 5 vol. % CO at 900 C and 5 vol. % O2. Figure 6-12 shows the SO2 concentration obtained in each injecting 5 vol. % CO at 900 oC and 5 vol. % O2. Figure 6-12 shows the SO2 concentration obtained in each
case. It seems that the SO2 release increases with increasing rotational speed, except for the cases of 4 and 6 case. It seems that the SO2 release increases with increasing rotational speed, except for the cases of 4 and 6
rpm, however, the difference are few ppm. rpm, however, the difference are few ppm.
128 128
142 142
20 20

15 15
6 rpm 6 rpm
10 10
4 rpm 4 rpm
5 5
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 6-12: Effect of the rotational speed on SO2 concentration when 5 vol. % CO is introduced under the bed material at 900 °C Figure 6-12: Effect of the rotational speed on SO2 concentration when 5 vol. % CO is introduced under the bed material at 900 °C
and at 5 vol. % O2. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min. and at 5 vol. % O2. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min.
6.3.1.6 Discussion 6.3.1.6 Discussion
The investigation of the influence of CO on SO2 release has shown that CO concentrations lower than 5 vol. The investigation of the influence of CO on SO2 release has shown that CO concentrations lower than 5 vol.
% does not provoke significant SO2 release, only a few ppm which is insignificant in comparison with the SO2 % does not provoke significant SO2 release, only a few ppm which is insignificant in comparison with the SO2
concentration from the thermal decomposition of CaSO4. It seems that there is a minimum concentration below concentration from the thermal decomposition of CaSO4. It seems that there is a minimum concentration below
which SO2 release does not occur and it can be suggested that the SO2 rate of formation could follow the a first which SO2 release does not occur and it can be suggested that the SO2 rate of formation could follow the a first
order expression, rSO2= k (CCO- CCO,t), where CCO, t is the threshold CO concentration below which no SO2 is order expression, rSO2= k (CCO- CCO,t), where CCO, t is the threshold CO concentration below which no SO2 is
released. Kinetic studies of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with CO, summarized in Appendix D, have released. Kinetic studies of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with CO, summarized in Appendix D, have
been performed at different concentrations and temperature ranges by many authors (Diaz-Bossio et al., 1985; been performed at different concentrations and temperature ranges by many authors (Diaz-Bossio et al., 1985;
Xiao and Song, 2011; Zheng et al., 2011; Kim and Sohn, 2002; Talukdar et al., 1996), however a threshold Xiao and Song, 2011; Zheng et al., 2011; Kim and Sohn, 2002; Talukdar et al., 1996), however a threshold
CO concentration has not been observed. CO concentration has not been observed.
The effect of the CO concentration can be related to the effect of gases released from alternative fuels. During The effect of the CO concentration can be related to the effect of gases released from alternative fuels. During
char combustion, the CO concentration may be quite low, even below 5 vol. % CO, for a long period, and for char combustion, the CO concentration may be quite low, even below 5 vol. % CO, for a long period, and for
that reason SO2 release is not measured. It could be that this minimum CO concentration is dependent on the that reason SO2 release is not measured. It could be that this minimum CO concentration is dependent on the
sulfur content of the bed material. However, this has not been investigated. sulfur content of the bed material. However, this has not been investigated.
The increase of the oxygen concentration resulted in a decrease in SO2 concentration. This is in agreement The increase of the oxygen concentration resulted in a decrease in SO2 concentration. This is in agreement
with Tian et al. (2008) who stated that the presence of oxygen in the system inhibited the decomposition of with Tian et al. (2008) who stated that the presence of oxygen in the system inhibited the decomposition of
CaSO4 by reducing the reaction rate. In Chapter 5, it was also found that the sulfur release caused by the CaSO4 by reducing the reaction rate. In Chapter 5, it was also found that the sulfur release caused by the
combustion of pine wood and tire rubber decreased with increasing O2 content in the gas phase. During combustion of pine wood and tire rubber decreased with increasing O2 content in the gas phase. During
devolatilization of the solid fuels, the particles were placed on top of the bed and the gases released will be devolatilization of the solid fuels, the particles were placed on top of the bed and the gases released will be
thus oxidized in the proximity of the particle by oxygen because the gas-gas reaction is faster than a gas-solid thus oxidized in the proximity of the particle by oxygen because the gas-gas reaction is faster than a gas-solid
reaction. Thereby, some of the gases released will not be in contact with the bed material. This means that reaction. Thereby, some of the gases released will not be in contact with the bed material. This means that
129 129
143 143
more CO is able to react with CaSO4 in the experiments when the gas is introduced under the bed material. more CO is able to react with CaSO4 in the experiments when the gas is introduced under the bed material.
Hence, the oxygen concentration influences the SO2 release both when the gases are released under the bed Hence, the oxygen concentration influences the SO2 release both when the gases are released under the bed
material and in the proximity of the bed material. It is possible that the oxygen diffuses into the bed, oxidizing material and in the proximity of the bed material. It is possible that the oxygen diffuses into the bed, oxidizing
the reducing agent and consequently influences the SO2 release. The oxygen concentration next to the bed the reducing agent and consequently influences the SO2 release. The oxygen concentration next to the bed
surface or inside the bed has not been measured; however this would help understanding the conditions that surface or inside the bed has not been measured; however this would help understanding the conditions that
the bed material experiences. In addition, the real cement raw material in the kiln inlet has a lower porosity the bed material experiences. In addition, the real cement raw material in the kiln inlet has a lower porosity
and higher fill degree than the quartz sand used in these experiments and this can reduce the diffusion of and higher fill degree than the quartz sand used in these experiments and this can reduce the diffusion of
oxygen from the freeboard to the bed. oxygen from the freeboard to the bed.
The percentage of CO introduced that has reacted to SO2 for each experiment has been calculated by dividing The percentage of CO introduced that has reacted to SO2 for each experiment has been calculated by dividing
the SO2 release by the CO injected in molar basis. This ratio has calculated assuming that the reaction is 1:1, the SO2 release by the CO injected in molar basis. This ratio has calculated assuming that the reaction is 1:1,
following reaction (6-1), due to simplicity and further comparison with the model in Chapter 7. This ratio may following reaction (6-1), due to simplicity and further comparison with the model in Chapter 7. This ratio may
however be smaller because the reaction may also take place according to reaction (6-2). Table 6-1 summaries however be smaller because the reaction may also take place according to reaction (6-2). Table 6-1 summaries
the SO2/CO percentage for the different CO concentrations, varying the temperature and the O2 concentration. the SO2/CO percentage for the different CO concentrations, varying the temperature and the O2 concentration.
A minor fraction of CO has reacted to form SO2, while most of the CO may diffuse to the freeboard atmosphere A minor fraction of CO has reacted to form SO2, while most of the CO may diffuse to the freeboard atmosphere
or may be oxidized to CO2. The percentage of CO reacted increases with increasing injected CO concentration, or may be oxidized to CO2. The percentage of CO reacted increases with increasing injected CO concentration,
temperature and decreasing oxygen concentration. temperature and decreasing oxygen concentration.
Table 6-1: Percentage of SO2 release relative to CO injected for different CO concentrations varying temperature and O2 content. Table 6-1: Percentage of SO2 release relative to CO injected for different CO concentrations varying temperature and O2 content.
SO2/CO ratio [%] SO2/CO ratio [%]

CO conc. [vol. %] CO conc. [vol. %]
900 oC, 5 vol. % O2 900 oC, 10 vol. % O2 1000 oC, 5 vol. % O2 900 oC, 5 vol. % O2 900 oC, 10 vol. % O2 1000 oC, 5 vol. % O2
5 2.02 0.98 4.44 5 2.02 0.98 4.44
7 2.74 0.93 - 7 2.74 0.93 -
10 6.67 1.90 15.7 10 6.67 1.90 15.7
15 13.2 2.54 19.5 15 13.2 2.54 19.5
20 16.1 2.85 22.4 20 16.1 2.85 22.4
The phase diagram results indicate that CaS is the stable phase for the different CO concentrations used in the The phase diagram results indicate that CaS is the stable phase for the different CO concentrations used in the
present experiment, both when considering reaction (6-1) or reaction (6-2). This is in agreement with the present experiment, both when considering reaction (6-1) or reaction (6-2). This is in agreement with the
findings of Shen et al. (2008) and Zheng et al. (2011), who found that CaS was the only reduction product at findings of Shen et al. (2008) and Zheng et al. (2011), who found that CaS was the only reduction product at
900 °C, while CaO or CaSO4 were not found. This may indicate that CO preferentially reacts via reaction (6- 900 °C, while CaO or CaSO4 were not found. This may indicate that CO preferentially reacts via reaction (6-
2) and CaS is fast oxidized to CaO in contact with the oxygen of the freeboard atmosphere releasing SO 2. At 2) and CaS is fast oxidized to CaO in contact with the oxygen of the freeboard atmosphere releasing SO 2. At
higher temperatures, reaction (6-1) may also contribute to the emissions of SO2. However, in the high higher temperatures, reaction (6-1) may also contribute to the emissions of SO2. However, in the high
temperature rotary drum the composition of the sulfur products in the bed material for each experiment cannot temperature rotary drum the composition of the sulfur products in the bed material for each experiment cannot
be determined and these products may not be significantly important at the kiln inlet conditions for the cement be determined and these products may not be significantly important at the kiln inlet conditions for the cement
industry. industry.
130 130
144 144
CaSO4 (s) 4 CO ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 CO2 ( g ) (6-2) CaSO4 (s) 4 CO ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 CO2 ( g ) (6-2)
The results of the investigation regarding the effect of exposure time support the results of the different degrees The results of the investigation regarding the effect of exposure time support the results of the different degrees
of devolatilization from Chapter 5. The volatile gases from a fuel particle are released in high concentrations of devolatilization from Chapter 5. The volatile gases from a fuel particle are released in high concentrations
during a short period, while lower CO concentrations for longer time are released during char oxidation or during a short period, while lower CO concentrations for longer time are released during char oxidation or
devolatilization of large particles. Keeping the total amount of CO introduced constant, showed that 20 vol. % devolatilization of large particles. Keeping the total amount of CO introduced constant, showed that 20 vol. %
CO concentration introduced during 2 minutes (representing devolatilization) released a higher total SO2 CO concentration introduced during 2 minutes (representing devolatilization) released a higher total SO2
release compared to 5 vol. % CO concentration during 8 minutes (representing char combustion or release compared to 5 vol. % CO concentration during 8 minutes (representing char combustion or
devolatilization of large fuel particles). Thus, the CO concentration and the time of exposure are of high devolatilization of large fuel particles). Thus, the CO concentration and the time of exposure are of high
importance for SO2 release. importance for SO2 release.
An increase of SO2 release was observed by varying the rotation speed of the rotary drum. The increase of the An increase of SO2 release was observed by varying the rotation speed of the rotary drum. The increase of the
speed may improve the net contact time of the gas–solid, in other words, the residence time of the gas in the speed may improve the net contact time of the gas–solid, in other words, the residence time of the gas in the
bed increases. Thereby, the CaSO4 particles may be in more frequent contact with the reducing agent promoting bed increases. Thereby, the CaSO4 particles may be in more frequent contact with the reducing agent promoting
the release of SO2. the release of SO2.
From the observations of the experiments and the literature review, it is suggested that the conversion of CaSO4 From the observations of the experiments and the literature review, it is suggested that the conversion of CaSO4
can give CaS and CaO under reducing conditions and CaS is oxidized to CaO under oxidizing conditions, as can give CaS and CaO under reducing conditions and CaS is oxidized to CaO under oxidizing conditions, as
illustrated in Figure 6-13. According to Robbins’ reaction mechanism (Swift et al., 1976), the intermediate illustrated in Figure 6-13. According to Robbins’ reaction mechanism (Swift et al., 1976), the intermediate
CaO·SO2 is responsible for producing either CaO (by reaction (6-6)) or CaS (by reaction (6-9) and (6-10)). CaO·SO2 is responsible for producing either CaO (by reaction (6-6)) or CaS (by reaction (6-9) and (6-10)).
Firstly, CaO may be produced but then CaO·SO2 can react with CO in excess forming directly CaS. The Firstly, CaO may be produced but then CaO·SO2 can react with CO in excess forming directly CaS. The
stability of this intermediate may be affected by the temperature, since the CaO, CaS or mixtures of both have stability of this intermediate may be affected by the temperature, since the CaO, CaS or mixtures of both have
been identified in different studies (Shen et al., 2008; Zheng et al., 2011). However, the products were not been identified in different studies (Shen et al., 2008; Zheng et al., 2011). However, the products were not
analyzed in the current study. analyzed in the current study.
CO
CaSO4 CO Reducing conditions CO
CaSO4 CO Reducing conditions
SO2 SO2
CO2 CO2 CO2 CO2
CaS CaO CaS CaO
Oxidizing conditions Oxidizing conditions
O2 SO2 O2 SO2
Figure 6-13: Scheme of the conversion paths of CaSO4 under reducing and oxidizing conditions. Figure 6-13: Scheme of the conversion paths of CaSO4 under reducing and oxidizing conditions.
131 131
145 145
6.3.2 Methane 6.3.2 Methane
The effect of different concentrations of methane at different oxygen content is investigated. Figure 6-14 shows The effect of different concentrations of methane at different oxygen content is investigated. Figure 6-14 shows
the SO2 concentration yielded by the introduction of CH4 concentrations varying from 5 to 40 vol. % at 5 and the SO2 concentration yielded by the introduction of CH4 concentrations varying from 5 to 40 vol. % at 5 and
10 vol. % O2 of the gas atmosphere and 900 oC. 10 vol. % O2 of the gas atmosphere and 900 oC.

700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
10 vol.% O΍ 10 vol.% O΍
300 300
5 vol.% O΍ 5 vol.% O΍
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
CH4 concentration in tube [vol. %] CH4 concentration in tube [vol. %]
Figure 6-14: Effect of different CH4 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration with 5 and 10 vol. % O2. Figure 6-14: Effect of different CH4 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration with 5 and 10 vol. % O2.
Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm.
At 5 vol. % O2, the results at shows that 5 and 10 vol. % CH4 yield a SO2 concentrations below 100 ppm. When At 5 vol. % O2, the results at shows that 5 and 10 vol. % CH4 yield a SO2 concentrations below 100 ppm. When
using 15 and 20 vol. % CH4, the SO2 concentration is between 100 and 200 ppm, and the introduction of 30 using 15 and 20 vol. % CH4, the SO2 concentration is between 100 and 200 ppm, and the introduction of 30
and 40 vol. % CH4 yield a SO2 concentrations above 400 ppm, which is the highest SO2 release from the and 40 vol. % CH4 yield a SO2 concentrations above 400 ppm, which is the highest SO2 release from the
experiments performed with the single reducing agents. When the CH4 concentration is increased from 20 to experiments performed with the single reducing agents. When the CH4 concentration is increased from 20 to
30 vol. %, the measured SO2 release increases more than the double. 30 vol. %, the measured SO2 release increases more than the double.
At 10 vol. % O2, the results show that the SO2 release is lower than 50 ppm when CH4 is introduced under the At 10 vol. % O2, the results show that the SO2 release is lower than 50 ppm when CH4 is introduced under the
bed material up to a concentration of 30 vol. %. It can be also seen that when 40 vol. % CH 4 is introduced bed material up to a concentration of 30 vol. %. It can be also seen that when 40 vol. % CH 4 is introduced
under the bed material, a big increase on the SO2 concentration is observed but the SO2 concentration is in a under the bed material, a big increase on the SO2 concentration is observed but the SO2 concentration is in a
similar level when 30 vol. % CH4 is introduced at 5 vol. % O2. The corresponding CO2 concentrations measured similar level when 30 vol. % CH4 is introduced at 5 vol. % O2. The corresponding CO2 concentrations measured
in the flue gas for each experiment are plotted in Figure C-6 of Appendix C. in the flue gas for each experiment are plotted in Figure C-6 of Appendix C.
The results of SO2 release of the experiments performed at 1000 °C are shown in Figure 6-15. The SO2 release The results of SO2 release of the experiments performed at 1000 °C are shown in Figure 6-15. The SO2 release
increases with increasing temperature and is more than doubled when the applied CH4 is doubled. The increases with increasing temperature and is more than doubled when the applied CH4 is doubled. The
measured CO2 concentration for each experiment is plotted in Figure C-7 of Appendix C. measured CO2 concentration for each experiment is plotted in Figure C-7 of Appendix C.
132 132
146 146

700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 1000 ͼC 300 1000 ͼC

900 ͼC 900 ͼC
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
CH4 concentration in bed [vol. %] CH4 concentration in bed [vol. %]
Figure 6-15: Effect of different CH4 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration at 900 and 1000 °C. Figure 6-15: Effect of different CH4 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration at 900 and 1000 °C.
Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm.
The time of exposure is also investigated using CH4 as a reducing agent. A total of 0.4 L of CH4 is introduced The time of exposure is also investigated using CH4 as a reducing agent. A total of 0.4 L of CH4 is introduced
under the bed material with CH4 concentrations varying from 5 to 20 vol. %. These experiments are performed under the bed material with CH4 concentrations varying from 5 to 20 vol. %. These experiments are performed
o
with an oxygen content of 5 vol. % and both at 900 and 1000 C. Figure 6-16 and Figure 6-17 show the SO2 with an oxygen content of 5 vol. % and both at 900 and 1000 oC. Figure 6-16 and Figure 6-17 show the SO2
concentrations obtained with identical total amount of CH4 is introduced under the bed material by different concentrations obtained with identical total amount of CH4 is introduced under the bed material by different
CH4 concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC, respectively. The corresponding CO2 concentrations for each CH4 concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC, respectively. The corresponding CO2 concentrations for each
o
experiment at 900 and 1000 C, are shown in Figure C-8 and Figure C-9 in Appendix C, respectively. experiment at 900 and 1000 oC, are shown in Figure C-8 and Figure C-9 in Appendix C, respectively.
160 700 160 700

Outlet SO2 concentration [ppm]


20 vol.%CHΏ 20 vol.%CHΏ
140 20 vol.% CHΏ 600 140 20 vol.% CHΏ 600
120 500 10 vol.%CHΏ 120 500 10 vol.%CHΏ
100 5 vol.%CHΏ 100 5 vol.%CHΏ
5 vol.%CHΏ 400 5 vol.%CHΏ 400
80 80
300 300
60 60
200 200
40 40
20 100 20 100
0 0 0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Figure 6-16: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L CH4 is Figure 6-17: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L CH4 is Figure 6-16: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L CH4 is Figure 6-17: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L CH4 is
introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. %
CH4 at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, 5 CH4 at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, CH4 at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, 5 CH4 at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min,
% fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2,
133 133
147 147
Figure 6-18 illustrates the total SO2 release of the experiments shown in Figure 6-16 and in Figure 6-17 for the Figure 6-18 illustrates the total SO2 release of the experiments shown in Figure 6-16 and in Figure 6-17 for the
different CH4 concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC. The total SO2 release increases almost linearly with different CH4 concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC. The total SO2 release increases almost linearly with
o o
increasing CH4 concentration at 1000 C. On the other hand, at 900 C the total SO2 release increases when the increasing CH4 concentration at 1000 oC. On the other hand, at 900 oC the total SO2 release increases when the
CH4 concentration is increased from 5 to 10 vol. % and for higher concentrations the total SO2 release remains CH4 concentration is increased from 5 to 10 vol. % and for higher concentrations the total SO2 release remains
around the same level. around the same level.
350 350
300 300

250 250
200 200
150 1000 ͼC 150 1000 ͼC
100 900 ͼC 100 900 ͼC
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
CH4 concentration in bed [vol. %] CH4 concentration in bed [vol. %]
Figure 6-18: Total SO2 release from the raw material when a total of 0.4 L of CH4 is introduced under the bed material with different Figure 6-18: Total SO2 release from the raw material when a total of 0.4 L of CH4 is introduced under the bed material with different
CH4 concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min CH4 concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min
with 5 vol. % O2 in the freeboard gas, 6 rpm. with 5 vol. % O2 in the freeboard gas, 6 rpm.
In the literature, the decomposition of CaSO4 has been studied using pure CH4. In good agreement with Song In the literature, the decomposition of CaSO4 has been studied using pure CH4. In good agreement with Song
et al. (2008), the reaction rate of CH4 increases with increasing temperature. However, it is not possible to et al. (2008), the reaction rate of CH4 increases with increasing temperature. However, it is not possible to
compare the effect of CH4 concentration and the effect of oxygen content on sulfur release with previous compare the effect of CH4 concentration and the effect of oxygen content on sulfur release with previous
studies. The SO2 release increases with increasing CH4 concentration, which is the same trend as with studies. The SO2 release increases with increasing CH4 concentration, which is the same trend as with
introducing CO. The partial pressure of CH4 increases when higher concentrations of CH4 are introduced and introducing CO. The partial pressure of CH4 increases when higher concentrations of CH4 are introduced and
this may have a positive effect on the reaction rate of the reactions (6-14) and (6-15). this may have a positive effect on the reaction rate of the reactions (6-14) and (6-15).
CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o CaS (s) CO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) (6-14) CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o CaS (s) CO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) (6-14)
4 CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o 4 CaO (s) CO2 ( g ) 4 SO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) (6-15) 4 CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o 4 CaO (s) CO2 ( g ) 4 SO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) (6-15)
CaS was the main product together with small amounts of CaO when using 100 % CH 4 (Song et al., 2008), CaS was the main product together with small amounts of CaO when using 100 % CH 4 (Song et al., 2008),
but it may be that lower CH4 concentrations will result in a mixture of CaO and CaS, instead of mainly CaS. but it may be that lower CH4 concentrations will result in a mixture of CaO and CaS, instead of mainly CaS.
The same discussion about concentration and oxygen, when CO was introduced, may also be valid for CH4 The same discussion about concentration and oxygen, when CO was introduced, may also be valid for CH4
since the same tendencies are observed. since the same tendencies are observed.
134 134
148 148
Song et al. (2009) conducted their investigations in a fixed bed reactor and stated that SO2 formation is mainly Song et al. (2009) conducted their investigations in a fixed bed reactor and stated that SO2 formation is mainly
due to solid-solid reaction (6-3) due to a good contact between CaS and CaSO4 (Song et al., 2009). However, due to solid-solid reaction (6-3) due to a good contact between CaS and CaSO4 (Song et al., 2009). However,
a solid-solid reaction is normally quite slow and in a fixed bed reactor there is no mixing enhancing the contact. a solid-solid reaction is normally quite slow and in a fixed bed reactor there is no mixing enhancing the contact.
For that reason, it is not viable that the main SO2 formation is via reaction (6-3). Therefore, the SO2 formation For that reason, it is not viable that the main SO2 formation is via reaction (6-3). Therefore, the SO2 formation
may be mainly due to the formation and oxidation of CaS in contact with the freeboard atmosphere. may be mainly due to the formation and oxidation of CaS in contact with the freeboard atmosphere.
CaS (s) 3 CaSO4 (s) o 4 CaO (s) 4 SO2 ( g ) (6-3) CaS (s) 3 CaSO4 (s) o 4 CaO (s) 4 SO2 ( g ) (6-3)
Formation of H2S was not observed by Song et al. (2009), and in the high rotary drum is not possible to analyze Formation of H2S was not observed by Song et al. (2009), and in the high rotary drum is not possible to analyze
this compound. However, the oxidation of H2S to SO2 would be favored in the rotary drum due to the presence this compound. However, the oxidation of H2S to SO2 would be favored in the rotary drum due to the presence
of oxygen and high temperature, but it is still not possible to determine if reaction (6-16) occurred. of oxygen and high temperature, but it is still not possible to determine if reaction (6-16) occurred.
CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o CaO (s) CO2 ( g ) H 2 S ( g ) 3 H 2O ( g ) (6-16) CaSO4 (s) CH 4 ( g ) o CaO (s) CO2 ( g ) H 2 S ( g ) 3 H 2O ( g ) (6-16)
For each experiment of CH4, the percentage of SO2 release relative to the CH4 introduced was calculated in For each experiment of CH4, the percentage of SO2 release relative to the CH4 introduced was calculated in
the same way as for CO. The percentage of CH4 reacted may be even smaller if other reactions take place in the same way as for CO. The percentage of CH4 reacted may be even smaller if other reactions take place in
parallel. Table 6-2 summaries the SO2/CH4 percentage for the different CH4 concentrations, varying the parallel. Table 6-2 summaries the SO2/CH4 percentage for the different CH4 concentrations, varying the
temperature and the O2 concentration. The results show that a maximum of almost 30 % of CH4 reacted to temperature and the O2 concentration. The results show that a maximum of almost 30 % of CH4 reacted to
form SO2. Methane in comparison with CO reacts less to form SO2. The percentage of CH4 reacted, which form SO2. Methane in comparison with CO reacts less to form SO2. The percentage of CH4 reacted, which
follows the same tendency observed in Table 6-1, increases with increasing injected CH4 concentration, follows the same tendency observed in Table 6-1, increases with increasing injected CH4 concentration,
temperature and decreasing oxygen concentration. temperature and decreasing oxygen concentration.
Table 6-2: Percentage of SO2 release relative to CH4 injected for different CH4 concentrations varying temperature and O2 content. Table 6-2: Percentage of SO2 release relative to CH4 injected for different CH4 concentrations varying temperature and O2 content.
SO2/CH4 ratio [%]: SO2/CH4 ratio [%]:

CH4 conc. [vol. %] CH4 conc. [vol. %]
5 2.75 0.43 6.49 5 2.75 0.43 6.49
10 6.38 0.62 18.6 10 6.38 0.62 18.6
15 6.21 0.54 24.4 15 6.21 0.54 24.4
20 7.02 0.71 29.2 20 7.02 0.71 29.2
30 13.9 0.76 - 30 13.9 0.76 -
40 14.8 3.75 - 40 14.8 3.75 -
6.3.3 Hydrogen 6.3.3 Hydrogen
The effect of different concentrations of H2, from 5 to 40 vol. %, on SO2 release has been investigated at 900 The effect of different concentrations of H2, from 5 to 40 vol. %, on SO2 release has been investigated at 900
o o
C and 5 vol. % O2, as illustrated in Figure 6-19. C and 5 vol. % O2, as illustrated in Figure 6-19.
135 135
149 149
500 500

400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
H2 concentration in bed [vol. %] H2 concentration in bed [vol. %]
Figure 6-19: Effect of different H2 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration. Experimental conditions: Figure 6-19: Effect of different H2 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration. Experimental conditions:
flow tube 1 NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2 in the freeboard, 6 rpm. flow tube 1 NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2 in the freeboard, 6 rpm.
The results show that SO2 concentration increases with increasing H2 concentration, except from 30 to 40 vol. The results show that SO2 concentration increases with increasing H2 concentration, except from 30 to 40 vol.
% H2 where the SO2 concentration decreases. The SO2 concentrations measured are higher than the ones % H2 where the SO2 concentration decreases. The SO2 concentrations measured are higher than the ones
obtained using CO with the same concentration of reducing agent. obtained using CO with the same concentration of reducing agent.
In a similar experimental series with an oxygen concentration of 10 vol. %, SO2 release is only observed from In a similar experimental series with an oxygen concentration of 10 vol. %, SO2 release is only observed from
15 vol. % to 30 vol. % H2, as shown in Figure 6-20. Higher concentrations than of 30 vol. % H2 are not tested. 15 vol. % to 30 vol. % H2, as shown in Figure 6-20. Higher concentrations than of 30 vol. % H2 are not tested.
During the experiments where 5 and 10 vol. % H2 are introduced under the bed material, no SO2 is measured During the experiments where 5 and 10 vol. % H2 are introduced under the bed material, no SO2 is measured
and it is observed that the oxygen concentration decreased slightly, meaning that the H2 is combusted. and it is observed that the oxygen concentration decreased slightly, meaning that the H2 is combusted.
Comparing Figure 6-19 and Figure 6-20, the SO2 release has decreased more than half when the oxygen Comparing Figure 6-19 and Figure 6-20, the SO2 release has decreased more than half when the oxygen
concentration has doubled. concentration has doubled.
50 50
SO2 concentration in outlet
SO2 concentration in outlet

40 40
30 30
[ppm]
[ppm]
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6-20: Effect of different H2 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration with 10 vol. % O2. Figure 6-20: Effect of different H2 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration with 10 vol. % O2.
Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm.
136 136
150 150
Figure 6-21 compares the SO2 concentration measured for the different applied H2 concentration at Figure 6-21 compares the SO2 concentration measured for the different applied H2 concentration at
temperatures of 900 and 1000 oC. The sulfur release decreases with increasing temperature, which is not the temperatures of 900 and 1000 oC. The sulfur release decreases with increasing temperature, which is not the
same trend as observed when introducing CO and CH4. same trend as observed when introducing CO and CH4.
500 500

400 400
300 300
1000 ͼC 1000 ͼC
200 200
900 ͼC 900 ͼC
100 100
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6-21: Effect of different H2 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration at 900 and 1000 °C. Figure 6-21: Effect of different H2 concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration at 900 and 1000 °C.
Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 vol. % O2, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 vol. % O2, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min, 6 rpm.
In Chapter 3, it is mentioned that the hydrogen content released during pyrolysis of biomass increases as the In Chapter 3, it is mentioned that the hydrogen content released during pyrolysis of biomass increases as the
temperature rises (Wu et al., 2009) but on the other hand less SO2 is released when increasing temperature, temperature rises (Wu et al., 2009) but on the other hand less SO2 is released when increasing temperature,
even at high H2 concentrations. even at high H2 concentrations.
The time of exposure is also investigated using H2 as a reducing agent. At the same conditions as CO and CH4, The time of exposure is also investigated using H2 as a reducing agent. At the same conditions as CO and CH4,
a total of 0.4 L of H2 is introduced under the bed material with a H2 concentration varying from 5 to 20 vol. a total of 0.4 L of H2 is introduced under the bed material with a H2 concentration varying from 5 to 20 vol.
o o
%, at 5 vol. % O2 and at temperatures of 900 and 1000 C. The results at 900 and 1000 C are shown in Figure %, at 5 vol. % O2 and at temperatures of 900 and 1000 oC. The results at 900 and 1000 oC are shown in Figure
6-22 and in Figure 6-23, respectively. The results shows that the SO2 release at 1000 oC is lower than for at 6-22 and in Figure 6-23, respectively. The results shows that the SO2 release at 1000 oC is lower than for at
o
900 C for the same applied H2 concentration, as also showed in Figure 6-21. 900 oC for the same applied H2 concentration, as also showed in Figure 6-21.
137 137
151 151
350 350 350 350


20 vol.%H΍ 20 vol.%H΍ 20 vol.%H΍ 20 vol.%H΍
300 15 vol.%H΍ 300 300 15 vol.%H΍ 300
15 vol.%H΍ 15 vol.%H΍
250 10 vol.%H΍ 250 10 vol.%H΍ 250 10 vol.%H΍ 250 10 vol.%H΍
5 vol.%H΍ 5 vol.%H΍ 5 vol.%H΍ 5 vol.%H΍
200 200 200 200
150 150 150 150
100 100 100 100
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Figure 6-22: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of H2 is Figure 6-23: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of H2 is Figure 6-22: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of H2 is Figure 6-23: SO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of H2 is
introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. %
H2 at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 H2 at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, H2 at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 H2 at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min,
% fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2,
Figure 6-24 summarizes the total sulfur release for each H2 concentration at both temperatures. There is a big Figure 6-24 summarizes the total sulfur release for each H2 concentration at both temperatures. There is a big
o
increase in the total SO2 release from 5 to 10 vol. % H2 at 900 C and the total SO2 release is lower for all H2 increase in the total SO2 release from 5 to 10 vol. % H2 at 900 oC and the total SO2 release is lower for all H2
concentrations at 1000 oC compared to 900 oC. Short pulses with a high concentration yield higher SO2 release concentrations at 1000 oC compared to 900 oC. Short pulses with a high concentration yield higher SO2 release
than long pulses with low concentrations. than long pulses with low concentrations.
160 160

120 120
1000 ͼC 1000 ͼC
80 900 ͼC 80 900 ͼC
40 40
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 6-24: Total SO2 release from the raw material when a total of 0.4 L of H2 is introduced under the bed material with different Figure 6-24: Total SO2 release from the raw material when a total of 0.4 L of H2 is introduced under the bed material with different
H2 concentrations at 900 °C and 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 H2 concentrations at 900 °C and 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100
NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm. NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm.
138 138
152 152
6.3.3.4 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams 6.3.3.4 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams
The results obtained using H2 at 900 oC and 5 vol. % O2 are used to evaluate the stable phase of the equilibrium The results obtained using H2 at 900 oC and 5 vol. % O2 are used to evaluate the stable phase of the equilibrium
phase diagrams for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-H2-H2O system. In the same way as for CO, H2 is introduced in phase diagrams for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-H2-H2O system. In the same way as for CO, H2 is introduced in
the bed and by reaction with CaSO4 forms H2O and SO2. the bed and by reaction with CaSO4 forms H2O and SO2.
Since there are competing reactions and it cannot be distinguished which reactions take place, the experimental Since there are competing reactions and it cannot be distinguished which reactions take place, the experimental
reducing potentials, PH2/PH2O, for the equilibrium phase diagram are calculated considering two different reducing potentials, PH2/PH2O, for the equilibrium phase diagram are calculated considering two different
1) 2) 1) 2)
approached: assuming that H2 reacts with CaSO4 only according to reaction (6-11), and H2 reacts only approached: assuming that H2 reacts with CaSO4 only according to reaction (6-11), and H2 reacts only
according to reaction (6-12). according to reaction (6-12).
CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 H 2O ( g ) (6-11) CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 H 2O ( g ) (6-11)
CaSO4 (s) H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) (6-12) CaSO4 (s) H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) (6-12)
For the first case, CaS is subsequently oxidized by reaction (6-17). For the first case, CaS is subsequently oxidized by reaction (6-17).
3 3
CaS (s) O2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) (6-17) CaS (s) O2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) (6-17)
2 2
The partial pressure of H2O and H2 for the reaction (6-11) can be calculated according to equation 6.6 and The partial pressure of H2O and H2 for the reaction (6-11) can be calculated according to equation 6.6 and
equation 6.7, respectively. The reducing potential is therefore expressed mathematically by equation 6.8. equation 6.7, respectively. The reducing potential is therefore expressed mathematically by equation 6.8.
PH2O,react 4 PSO2 ,out [6.6] PH2O,react 4 PSO2 ,out [6.6]
PH2 react PH2 ,in 4 PSO2 ,out [6.7] PH2 react PH2 ,in 4 PSO2 ,out [6.7]
PH 2 PH 2 ,in 4 PSO2 ,out PH 2 PH 2 ,in 4 PSO2 ,out

[6.8] [6.8]
PH 2O 4 PSO2 ,out PH 2O 4 PSO2 ,out
For the second scenario, the reducing potential is defined by equation 6.9. For the second scenario, the reducing potential is defined by equation 6.9.
PH 2 PH 2 ,in PSO2 ,out PH 2 PH 2 ,in PSO2 ,out

[6.9] [6.9]
PH 2O PSO2 ,out PH 2O PSO2 ,out
The reducing potentials at equilibrium are calculated for each experiment considering either reaction (6-11) or The reducing potentials at equilibrium are calculated for each experiment considering either reaction (6-11) or
reaction (6-12), respectively. The corresponding results are shown in Figure 6-25 and Figure 6-26, reaction (6-12), respectively. The corresponding results are shown in Figure 6-25 and Figure 6-26,
respectively. The experimental points are in the stable area of CaS for all H2 concentrations, in the same way respectively. The experimental points are in the stable area of CaS for all H2 concentrations, in the same way
as the results with CO. Comparing Figure 6-25 and Figure 6-26, the reducing potentials are slightly lower for as the results with CO. Comparing Figure 6-25 and Figure 6-26, the reducing potentials are slightly lower for
case 1, when assuming that H2 reacts with CaSO4 forming CaS. case 1, when assuming that H2 reacts with CaSO4 forming CaS.
139 139
153 153
1E-01 1.E-01 1E-01 1.E-01


CaSO4 CaSO4 CaSO4 CaSO4
1E-02 CaS 1.E-02 CaS 5 vol.% H΍ 1E-02 CaS 1.E-02 CaS 5 vol.% H΍
10 vol.% H΍ 10 vol.% H΍
1E-03 1.E-03 15 vol.% H΍ 1E-03 1.E-03 15 vol.% H΍

20 vol.% H΍ 20 vol.% H΍
CaO CaO
1E-04 CaO 1.E-04 1E-04 CaO 1.E-04
1E-05 1.E-05 1E-05 1.E-05

0.00001 0.001 0.1 10 0.00001 0.01 10 0.00001 0.001 0.1 10 0.00001 0.01 10
PH2 /PH2O PH2 /PH2O PH2 /PH2O PH2 /PH2O
Figure 6-25 Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4- Figure 6-25 Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-
Figure 6-26: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-H2-H2O Figure 6-26: Phase diagram for the SO2-CaO-CaSO4-CaS-H2-H2O
CaS-H2-H2O system at 900 °C and 5 vol. % O2. CaS-H2-H2O system at 900 °C and 5 vol. % O2.
system at 900 °C and 5 vol. % O2. Considering case 2, the system at 900 °C and 5 vol. % O2. Considering case 2, the
Considering case 1, the experimental data obtained in the Considering case 1, the experimental data obtained in the
experimental data obtained in the pilot plant setup introducing experimental data obtained in the pilot plant setup introducing
pilot plant setup introducing different H2 concentrations pilot plant setup introducing different H2 concentrations
different H2 concentrations under the bed material is used to show the different H2 concentrations under the bed material is used to show the
under the bed material is used to show the stable phase in under the bed material is used to show the stable phase in
each case. each case.
The results obtained introducing H2 under the bed showed that the SO2 release increases with increasing H2 The results obtained introducing H2 under the bed showed that the SO2 release increases with increasing H2
concentration. In the literature it is mentioned that reaction (6-11) is favored at reducing potentials (PH2/PH2O) concentration. In the literature it is mentioned that reaction (6-11) is favored at reducing potentials (PH2/PH2O)
3 2
between 10 and 10 within the temperature 600-950 °C, while reactions (6-12) and (6-13) are favored at lower between 103 and 102 within the temperature 600-950 °C, while reactions (6-12) and (6-13) are favored at lower
reducing potentials (Xiao and Song, 2011; Kim and Sohn, 2002; Shen et al., 2008). On the other hand, reducing potentials (Xiao and Song, 2011; Kim and Sohn, 2002; Shen et al., 2008). On the other hand,
according to the equilibrium phase diagrams, the stable phase under the experimental conditions is CaS, which according to the equilibrium phase diagrams, the stable phase under the experimental conditions is CaS, which
is formed by reaction (6-11) and the subsequent oxidation releases SO2. is formed by reaction (6-11) and the subsequent oxidation releases SO2.
CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 H 2O ( g ) (6-11) CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaS (s) 4 H 2O ( g ) (6-11)
CaSO4 (s) H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) (6-12) CaSO4 (s) H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) (6-12)
CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) H 2 S ( g ) 3 H 2O ( g ) (6-13) CaSO4 (s) 4 H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) H 2 S ( g ) 3 H 2O ( g ) (6-13)
The formation of H2S via reaction (6-13) may take place, but cannot be detected by the analyzers and the H2S The formation of H2S via reaction (6-13) may take place, but cannot be detected by the analyzers and the H2S
may interact with SO2. However, in an excess of oxygen and at high temperature H2S will oxidize rapidly to may interact with SO2. However, in an excess of oxygen and at high temperature H2S will oxidize rapidly to
SO2 (Montoya et al., 2005). SO2 (Montoya et al., 2005).
The experiments investigating the effect of the temperature showed that less SO2 was released at 1000 oC in The experiments investigating the effect of the temperature showed that less SO2 was released at 1000 oC in
comparison with the same experiments performed at 900 oC. This is contradictory to the observations of Shen comparison with the same experiments performed at 900 oC. This is contradictory to the observations of Shen
et al. (2008), who stated that the rate of reduction of CaSO4 with H2 increases remarkably with the temperature et al. (2008), who stated that the rate of reduction of CaSO4 with H2 increases remarkably with the temperature
(Shen et al., 2008). However, this study only investigated the rate of CaSO4 reduction with 5 vol. % H2 and 95 (Shen et al., 2008). However, this study only investigated the rate of CaSO4 reduction with 5 vol. % H2 and 95
140 140
154 154
vol. % N2 in the temperature range 870- 970 °C in a TGA. Therefore, it could be that at temperatures above vol. % N2 in the temperature range 870- 970 °C in a TGA. Therefore, it could be that at temperatures above
970 °C, the rate of CaSO4 reduction decreases. However, no plausible explanation may be offered based on 970 °C, the rate of CaSO4 reduction decreases. However, no plausible explanation may be offered based on
the present investigations. the present investigations.
The percentage of SO2 release relative to the H2 introduced has been calculated as previously described with The percentage of SO2 release relative to the H2 introduced has been calculated as previously described with
the other reducing agents. Table 6-3 summaries the SO2/H2 percentage for the different H2 concentrations, the other reducing agents. Table 6-3 summaries the SO2/H2 percentage for the different H2 concentrations,
o
varying the temperature and the O2 concentration. The maximum percentage of H2 reacted is 15 % at 900 C varying the temperature and the O2 concentration. The maximum percentage of H2 reacted is 15 % at 900 oC
and 20 vol. % H2. In agreement with the graphs, the SO2 release relative to H2 injected is below 2 % for the and 20 vol. % H2. In agreement with the graphs, the SO2 release relative to H2 injected is below 2 % for the
o
tested H2 concentrations and decreases when the temperature is increased to 1000 C. tested H2 concentrations and decreases when the temperature is increased to 1000 oC.
Table 6-3: Percentage of SO2 release relative to H2 injected for different H2 concentrations varying temperature and O2 content. Table 6-3: Percentage of SO2 release relative to H2 injected for different H2 concentrations varying temperature and O2 content.
SO2/H2 ratio [%] SO2/H2 ratio [%]

H2 conc. [vol. %] H2 conc. [vol. %]
5 3.03 0.00 0.67 5 3.03 0.00 0.67
10 12.34 0.00 0.52 10 12.34 0.00 0.52
15 14.26 0.09 2.49 15 14.26 0.09 2.49
20 15.46 0.53 6.08 20 15.46 0.53 6.08
30 12.8 1.54 - 30 12.8 1.54 -
40 9.02 - - 40 9.02 - -
6.3.4 Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Methane Comparison 6.3.4 Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Methane Comparison
6.3.4.1 Effect of the Concentrations 6.3.4.1 Effect of the Concentrations
In the previous section, the effect of the reducing agents on SO2 release is discussed individually. Comparing In the previous section, the effect of the reducing agents on SO2 release is discussed individually. Comparing
the three reducing gases together, the total SO2 release when a total of 0.4 L of either CO, H2 or CH4 using the three reducing gases together, the total SO2 release when a total of 0.4 L of either CO, H2 or CH4 using
o
different concentrations is introduced under the bed material at 900 C and 5 vol. % O2 is plotted in Figure different concentrations is introduced under the bed material at 900 oC and 5 vol. % O2 is plotted in Figure
6-27. Using the same concentration of reducing agent during the same time, it can be seen that the total SO 2 6-27. Using the same concentration of reducing agent during the same time, it can be seen that the total SO 2
release is different. The total SO2 release is around the same level for 5 vol. % CH4 and 5 vol. % H2 and a bit release is different. The total SO2 release is around the same level for 5 vol. % CH4 and 5 vol. % H2 and a bit
lower for 5 vol. %. CO. Increasing reducing agent concentration to 10 vol. %, the total SO2 release yielded by lower for 5 vol. %. CO. Increasing reducing agent concentration to 10 vol. %, the total SO2 release yielded by
CH4 and CO is similar and much higher for H2. At higher reducing agent concentrations, the total SO2 release CH4 and CO is similar and much higher for H2. At higher reducing agent concentrations, the total SO2 release
is higher when using CO and H2 and is almost double the total SO2 for CH4. So, the introduction of high is higher when using CO and H2 and is almost double the total SO2 for CH4. So, the introduction of high
concentrations of CO and H2 during a short time leads to high SO2 release in comparison with the introduction concentrations of CO and H2 during a short time leads to high SO2 release in comparison with the introduction
of low concentration of reducing agents for a long time for all these reducing agents. of low concentration of reducing agents for a long time for all these reducing agents.
141 141
155 155
180 180
160 160

140 140
120 120
100 H΍ 100 H΍
80 CO 80 CO
60 CHΏ 60 CHΏ
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Reducing agent concentration in bed [vol. %] Reducing agent concentration in bed [vol. %]
Figure 6-27: Total SO2 release from the raw material when a total of 0.4 L of reducing agent is introduced under the bed material Figure 6-27: Total SO2 release from the raw material when a total of 0.4 L of reducing agent is introduced under the bed material
with different concentrations of CO, H2 and CH4 . Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % with different concentrations of CO, H2 and CH4 . Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. %
CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm. CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm.
6.3.4.2 Effect of Heat of Combustion 6.3.4.2 Effect of Heat of Combustion
The reducing agents used are having different heat of combustion. Reactions (6-18), (6-19) and (6-20) show The reducing agents used are having different heat of combustion. Reactions (6-18), (6-19) and (6-20) show
the combustion reaction and the corresponding heat of combustion. It can be seen that 1 mol of CH 4 gives the combustion reaction and the corresponding heat of combustion. It can be seen that 1 mol of CH 4 gives
more than the triple energy than combusting 1 mol of CO or H2. Therefore, it is desired to investigate how more than the triple energy than combusting 1 mol of CO or H2. Therefore, it is desired to investigate how
sulfur release is affected by the reducing gases when the same heat of combustion is introduced. sulfur release is affected by the reducing gases when the same heat of combustion is introduced.
CH 4 ( g ) 2 O2 ( g ) o CO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) ΔHc = -890 kJ/mol (6-18) CH 4 ( g ) 2 O2 ( g ) o CO2 ( g ) 2 H 2O ( g ) ΔHc = -890 kJ/mol (6-18)
CO ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o CO2 ( g ) ΔHc = -283 kJ/mol (6-19) CO ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o CO2 ( g ) ΔHc = -283 kJ/mol (6-19)
H 2 ( g ) ½ O 2 ( g ) o H 2O ( g ) ΔHc = -286 kJ/mol (6-20) H 2 ( g ) ½ O 2 ( g ) o H 2O ( g ) ΔHc = -286 kJ/mol (6-20)
Experiments introducing 20 vol. % CO, 18 vol. % CH4, and 6 vol. % H2 under the bed material have been Experiments introducing 20 vol. % CO, 18 vol. % CH4, and 6 vol. % H2 under the bed material have been
performed supplying the energy 0.039 kJ/s and the SO2 release from these experiments are shown in Figure performed supplying the energy 0.039 kJ/s and the SO2 release from these experiments are shown in Figure
6-28. It can be seen proving the same energy, CO gives most sulfur release, 325 ppm, followed by H2 where 6-28. It can be seen proving the same energy, CO gives most sulfur release, 325 ppm, followed by H2 where
the SO2 release is 120 ppm and the SO2 release by the injection of CH4 is around 15 ppm SO2. the SO2 release is 120 ppm and the SO2 release by the injection of CH4 is around 15 ppm SO2.
142 142
156 156
400 400

300 300
20 vol.% CO 20 vol.% CO
200 200
18 vol.% H΍ 18 vol.% H΍
6 vol.% CHΏ 6 vol.% CHΏ
100 100
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 6-28: SO2 concentrations when 0.039 kJ/s is provided by CO, H2 and CH4 under the bed material. Experimental conditions: Figure 6-28: SO2 concentrations when 0.039 kJ/s is provided by CO, H2 and CH4 under the bed material. Experimental conditions:
flow tube 1NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 900 °C, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm flow tube 1NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 900 °C, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm
6.3.5 Binary Mixtures 6.3.5 Binary Mixtures
The volatiles gas released during devolatilization of a solid fuel consist of many different gases and the The volatiles gas released during devolatilization of a solid fuel consist of many different gases and the
reducing gases are not released only as a single component. The behavior of binary mixtures of CO, CH4 and reducing gases are not released only as a single component. The behavior of binary mixtures of CO, CH4 and
H2 on sulfur release has been investigated. H2 on sulfur release has been investigated.
The binary mixtures with different concentrations of CO, from 0 to 20 vol. %, combined with H2 and CH4 in The binary mixtures with different concentrations of CO, from 0 to 20 vol. %, combined with H2 and CH4 in
80 vol. % N2 have been investigated at the same conditions as in the previous section. The average steady state 80 vol. % N2 have been investigated at the same conditions as in the previous section. The average steady state
SO2 concentration for the different mixture combinations are shown in Figure 6-29. The SO2 release increases SO2 concentration for the different mixture combinations are shown in Figure 6-29. The SO2 release increases
with decreasing CO content in the mixture CO/H2 but the concentrations are lower than using only 20 vol. % with decreasing CO content in the mixture CO/H2 but the concentrations are lower than using only 20 vol. %
CO or 20 vol. % H2. For the CO/CH4 mixture, the highest and the lowest SO2 concentration are obtained CO or 20 vol. % H2. For the CO/CH4 mixture, the highest and the lowest SO2 concentration are obtained
applying 20 vol. % CO in N2 and 20 vol. % CH4 in N2, respectively. The SO2 concentration increases with applying 20 vol. % CO in N2 and 20 vol. % CH4 in N2, respectively. The SO2 concentration increases with
increasing CO concentration in the mixture and with decreasing CH4 concentration. However, the increase is increasing CO concentration in the mixture and with decreasing CH4 concentration. However, the increase is
not significant between the intermediate mixtures. not significant between the intermediate mixtures.
In Appendix C, the average CO2 concentration profiles for each experiment for both CO/H2 and CO/CH4 In Appendix C, the average CO2 concentration profiles for each experiment for both CO/H2 and CO/CH4
mixtures are plotted in Figure C-10. The tendency observed is that the CO2 concentration increases with mixtures are plotted in Figure C-10. The tendency observed is that the CO2 concentration increases with
increasing injected CO concentration. increasing injected CO concentration.
143 143
157 157
350 350

300 300
250 250
200 200
150 150
CO / H΍ CO / H΍
100 100
CO / CHΏ CO / CHΏ
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
CO concentration [vol. %] CO concentration [vol. %]
H2/CH4 concentration [vol. %] H2/CH4 concentration [vol. %]

Figure 6-29: SO2 concentrations when mixtures of CO/H2 and CO/CH4 are introduced under the bed material at 900 °C. Figure 6-29: SO2 concentrations when mixtures of CO/H2 and CO/CH4 are introduced under the bed material at 900 °C.
Binary mixtures of different concentrations of CH4, from 0 to 20 vol. %, combined with H2 in 80 vol. % N2 Binary mixtures of different concentrations of CH4, from 0 to 20 vol. %, combined with H2 in 80 vol. % N2
are also investigated. Figure 6-30 shows the average SO2 concentrations released for the mixtures containing are also investigated. Figure 6-30 shows the average SO2 concentrations released for the mixtures containing
CH4. For the CH4/H2 mixture, the highest and the lowest SO2 release concentration are obtained applying 20 CH4. For the CH4/H2 mixture, the highest and the lowest SO2 release concentration are obtained applying 20
vol. % H2 in N2 and 20 vol. % CH4 in N2, respectively. However, the SO2 release is similar for the three vol. % H2 in N2 and 20 vol. % CH4 in N2, respectively. However, the SO2 release is similar for the three
mixtures containing 15, 10 and 5 vol. % CH4 and 5, 10 and 15 vol. % H2, respectively. The differences in the mixtures containing 15, 10 and 5 vol. % CH4 and 5, 10 and 15 vol. % H2, respectively. The differences in the
SO2 levels between the three intermediate mixtures are so small that no clear tendency can be concluded. SO2 levels between the three intermediate mixtures are so small that no clear tendency can be concluded.
Therefore, the SO2 release does not vary significantly with changing the concentration of CH4/H2 mixture. Therefore, the SO2 release does not vary significantly with changing the concentration of CH4/H2 mixture.
The measured CO2 concentrations from the binary mixtures containing CH4 are plotted in Figure C-11 in The measured CO2 concentrations from the binary mixtures containing CH4 are plotted in Figure C-11 in
Appendix C. Appendix C.
144 144
158 158
350 350
300 300

250 250
200 CHΏ / CO 200 CHΏ / CO
150
CHΏ / H΍ 150
CHΏ / H΍
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
CH4 concentration [vol. %] CH4 concentration [vol. %]
CO/H2 concentration [vol. %] CO/H2 concentration [vol. %]
Figure 6-30: SO2 concentrations when mixtures of CH4/CO and CH4/H2 are introduced under the bed material at 900 °C. Figure 6-30: SO2 concentrations when mixtures of CH4/CO and CH4/H2 are introduced under the bed material at 900 °C.
From the previous results, SO2 concentrations from the binary mixtures containing H2 are plotted in Figure From the previous results, SO2 concentrations from the binary mixtures containing H2 are plotted in Figure
6-31. The SO2 release increases with increasing H2 concentration when it is mixed with CO, while the SO2 6-31. The SO2 release increases with increasing H2 concentration when it is mixed with CO, while the SO2
concentration is similar for different mixtures of H2 and CH4. concentration is similar for different mixtures of H2 and CH4.
350 350
300 300

250 250
200 200
150 H΍ / CO 150 H΍ / CO
100 H΍ / CHΏ 100 H΍ / CHΏ
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
H2 concentration [vol. %] H2 concentration [vol. %]
CO/CH4 concentration [vol. %] CO/CH4 concentration [vol. %]

Figure 6-31: SO2 concentrations when mixtures of H2/CO and H2/CH4 are introduced under the bed material at 900 °C. Experimental Figure 6-31: SO2 concentrations when mixtures of H2/CO and H2/CH4 are introduced under the bed material at 900 °C. Experimental
conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm. conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm.
145 145
159 159
6.3.6 Thermal Decomposition of CaSO4 6.3.6 Thermal Decomposition of CaSO4
During and in between all the experiments, decomposition of CaSO4 is taking place due to the high operational During and in between all the experiments, decomposition of CaSO4 is taking place due to the high operational
temperature of the rotary drum. Table 6-4 summarizes the intervals of the SO2 concentration measured in the temperature of the rotary drum. Table 6-4 summarizes the intervals of the SO2 concentration measured in the
analyzers when no reducing gas is introduced at different conditions. The thermal decomposition increases analyzers when no reducing gas is introduced at different conditions. The thermal decomposition increases
with temperature and decreases with increasing oxygen concentration. The most influencing parameter is the with temperature and decreases with increasing oxygen concentration. The most influencing parameter is the
temperature followed by the oxygen content. The rotational speed has a very little influence and the variation temperature followed by the oxygen content. The rotational speed has a very little influence and the variation
is only 1 to 3 ppm, which is insignificant compared to the other parameters. is only 1 to 3 ppm, which is insignificant compared to the other parameters.
Table 6-4: SO2 concentration from thermal decomposition changing temperature, O2 concentration and rotational speed. Note: A Table 6-4: SO2 concentration from thermal decomposition changing temperature, O2 concentration and rotational speed. Note: A
Experiments performed at 5 vol. % O2 and 6 rpm, B Experiments performed at 900 oC and 6 rpm, C Experiments performed at 5 vol. Experiments performed at 5 vol. % O2 and 6 rpm, B Experiments performed at 900 oC and 6 rpm, C Experiments performed at 5 vol.
% O2 and 900 oC. % O2 and 900 oC.
Temperature A [oC] O2 conc. B [vol. %] Rotational speed C [rpm] Temperature A [oC] O2 conc. B [vol. %] Rotational speed C [rpm]
900 1000 5 10 4 6 10 20 900 1000 5 10 4 6 10 20
SO2 conc. [ppm] 50-40 100-130 50-40 20-30 46 45 46 48 SO2 conc. [ppm] 50-40 100-130 50-40 20-30 46 45 46 48
The SO2 concentration from the thermal decomposition has been subtracted in the previous results shown. The SO2 concentration from the thermal decomposition has been subtracted in the previous results shown.
However, this concentration contributes significant when the sulfur release by reducing agent is low at higher However, this concentration contributes significant when the sulfur release by reducing agent is low at higher
temperatures. temperatures.
Investigations and kinetic studies of reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO, and to less extent H2 and CH4 Investigations and kinetic studies of reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO, and to less extent H2 and CH4
in relation to chemical-looping combustion have reported that CaO, CaS or mixtures of both products are in relation to chemical-looping combustion have reported that CaO, CaS or mixtures of both products are
favored, depending on the temperature and the concentration of the reducing gas. The most influencing favored, depending on the temperature and the concentration of the reducing gas. The most influencing
parameter to the reaction rate of CaSO4 reduction is the partial pressure of the gaseous reductive agent. parameter to the reaction rate of CaSO4 reduction is the partial pressure of the gaseous reductive agent.
The high temperature rotary drum has been modified in order to introduce reducing gases under the bed The high temperature rotary drum has been modified in order to introduce reducing gases under the bed
material. The effect of different concentrations of CO, H2, and CH4 on sulfur release has been experimentally material. The effect of different concentrations of CO, H2, and CH4 on sulfur release has been experimentally
investigated modifying temperature, oxygen content and time of exposure. investigated modifying temperature, oxygen content and time of exposure.
Introducing the same total amount with different concentrations has a significant influence. Short pulses with Introducing the same total amount with different concentrations has a significant influence. Short pulses with
high reducing gas concentrations of reducing as yielded higher concentrations of SO2 and higher total SO2 high reducing gas concentrations of reducing as yielded higher concentrations of SO2 and higher total SO2
release than long pulses with low reducing gas concentrations. release than long pulses with low reducing gas concentrations.
The experiments using different concentrations of reducing agent, especially CO, indicated that a threshold The experiments using different concentrations of reducing agent, especially CO, indicated that a threshold
concentration, below which SO2 release does not occur, exists. concentration, below which SO2 release does not occur, exists.
146 146
160 160
The SO2 release increased significantly with increasing temperature, except when H2 was injected under the The SO2 release increased significantly with increasing temperature, except when H2 was injected under the
o o
bed material. Here the SO2 release was lower at 1000 C than at 900 C. bed material. Here the SO2 release was lower at 1000 oC than at 900 oC.
The percentage of reducing agent that reacted was calculated for each experiment. For CO and CH 4, the The percentage of reducing agent that reacted was calculated for each experiment. For CO and CH 4, the
SO2/CO increases with increasing injected concentration of CO or CH4, temperature and decreasing oxygen SO2/CO increases with increasing injected concentration of CO or CH4, temperature and decreasing oxygen
concentration. The maximum percentage reached was nearly 30 % when 20 vol. % CH4 was introduced at concentration. The maximum percentage reached was nearly 30 % when 20 vol. % CH4 was introduced at
o
1000 C and 5 vol. % O2. For H2, the SO2 release relative to H2 injected is below 2 % for the tested H2 1000 oC and 5 vol. % O2. For H2, the SO2 release relative to H2 injected is below 2 % for the tested H2
concentrations and decreases when the temperature is increased from 900 to 1000 oC. concentrations and decreases when the temperature is increased from 900 to 1000 oC.
Comparing the total SO2 release using the same concentrations for the three reducing agents, the highest total Comparing the total SO2 release using the same concentrations for the three reducing agents, the highest total
SO2 release was obtained using CO at higher concentrations that 10 vol. %, followed by H2, while at low SO2 release was obtained using CO at higher concentrations that 10 vol. %, followed by H2, while at low
concentrations CH4 and H2 seem to give higher total SO2 release than CO. When the same heat of combustion concentrations CH4 and H2 seem to give higher total SO2 release than CO. When the same heat of combustion
is introduced, the sulfur release is higher using CO and followed by H2 and CH4. is introduced, the sulfur release is higher using CO and followed by H2 and CH4.
The equilibrium phase diagrams for CO and H2 were used to evaluate the stable phase using the experimental The equilibrium phase diagrams for CO and H2 were used to evaluate the stable phase using the experimental
results and with both reducing agents, CaS was indicated to be the stable phase for the different concentrations. results and with both reducing agents, CaS was indicated to be the stable phase for the different concentrations.
The experimental results of binary mixtures when CO was present showed that SO2 increases with increasing The experimental results of binary mixtures when CO was present showed that SO2 increases with increasing
CO concentration in the mixture. Similar SO2 release was obtained for the different mixtures of CH4 and H2. CO concentration in the mixture. Similar SO2 release was obtained for the different mixtures of CH4 and H2.
Diaz-Bossio, L. M., Squier, S. E., and Pulsifer, A. H.; Reductive decomposition of calcium sulfate utilizing Diaz-Bossio, L. M., Squier, S. E., and Pulsifer, A. H.; Reductive decomposition of calcium sulfate utilizing
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Chemical Engineering Science, 40, 319-24, 1985. carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Chemical Engineering Science, 40, 319-24, 1985.
Hansen, P. F. B.; Sulphur Capture in Fluidized Bed Combusters, Ph.D. thesis. Technical University of Hansen, P. F. B.; Sulphur Capture in Fluidized Bed Combusters, Ph.D. thesis. Technical University of
Denmark. 1991. ISBN: 87-983894-2-4. Denmark. 1991. ISBN: 87-983894-2-4.
Hansen, P. F. B., Johansen, K. Dam, and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide Hansen, P. F. B., Johansen, K. Dam, and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide
and limestone. V. the effect of periodically changing oxidizing and reducing conditions. Chemical and limestone. V. the effect of periodically changing oxidizing and reducing conditions. Chemical
Dam-Johansen, K., and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide and limestone - II. Dam-Johansen, K., and Østergaard, K.; High-temperature reaction between sulfur dioxide and limestone - II.
an improved experimental basis for a mathematical model. Chemical Engineering Science, 46, 839-45, an improved experimental basis for a mathematical model. Chemical Engineering Science, 46, 839-45,
1991. 1991.
Kim, B., and Sohn, H. Y.; A novel cyclic reaction system involving CaS and CaSO4 for converting sulfur Kim, B., and Sohn, H. Y.; A novel cyclic reaction system involving CaS and CaSO4 for converting sulfur
dioxide to elemental sulfur without generating secondary pollutants. 3. Kinetics of the hydrogen reduction dioxide to elemental sulfur without generating secondary pollutants. 3. Kinetics of the hydrogen reduction
of the calcium sulfate powder to calcium sulfide. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 41, 3092- of the calcium sulfate powder to calcium sulfide. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 41, 3092-
6, 2002. 6, 2002.
Kuusik, R., Sikkonen, P., and Niinistö, L.; Thermal decomposition of calcium sulfate in carbon monoxide. Kuusik, R., Sikkonen, P., and Niinistö, L.; Thermal decomposition of calcium sulfate in carbon monoxide.
Journal of Thermal Analysis, 30, 187-193, 1985. Journal of Thermal Analysis, 30, 187-193, 1985.
147 147
161 161
Hayhurst, N. and Tucker, R.F.; The reductive regeneration of sulphated limestone for flue gas Hayhurst, N. and Tucker, R.F.; The reductive regeneration of sulphated limestone for flue gas
desulphurization: X-ray diffraction studies. Journal of the institute of Energy, 65, 166-176, 1992. desulphurization: X-ray diffraction studies. Journal of the institute of Energy, 65, 166-176, 1992.
Montoya, A., Sendt, K., and Haynes, B.R.; Gas phase interaction of H2S with O2: A kinetic and Quantum Montoya, A., Sendt, K., and Haynes, B.R.; Gas phase interaction of H2S with O2: A kinetic and Quantum
Chemistry Study of the Potential Energy Surface. Journal of Physical Chemistry A, 109, 1057-1062, Chemistry Study of the Potential Energy Surface. Journal of Physical Chemistry A, 109, 1057-1062,
2005. 2005.
Oh, J. S., and Wheelock, T. D.; Reductive decomposition of calcium-sulfate with carbon-monoxide - reaction- Oh, J. S., and Wheelock, T. D.; Reductive decomposition of calcium-sulfate with carbon-monoxide - reaction-
mechanism. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 29, 544-50, 1990. mechanism. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 29, 544-50, 1990.
Okumura, S., Mihara, N., Kamiya, K., Ozawa, S., Onyango, MS, Kojima, Y., and Matsuda, H.; Recovery of Okumura, S., Mihara, N., Kamiya, K., Ozawa, S., Onyango, MS, Kojima, Y., and Matsuda, H.; Recovery of
CaO by reductive decomposition of spent gypsum in a CO-CO2-N2 atmosphere. Industrial & Engineering CaO by reductive decomposition of spent gypsum in a CO-CO2-N2 atmosphere. Industrial & Engineering
Shen, L., Zheng, M., Xiao, J., and Xiao, R.; A mechanistic investigation of a calcium-based oxygen carrier for Shen, L., Zheng, M., Xiao, J., and Xiao, R.; A mechanistic investigation of a calcium-based oxygen carrier for
chemical looping combustion. Combustion and Flame, 154, 489-506, 2008. chemical looping combustion. Combustion and Flame, 154, 489-506, 2008.
Song, Q., Xiao, R., Deng, Z., Zhang, H., Shen, L., Xiao, J., and Zhang, M.; Chemical-looping combustion of Song, Q., Xiao, R., Deng, Z., Zhang, H., Shen, L., Xiao, J., and Zhang, M.; Chemical-looping combustion of
methane with CaSO4 oxygen carrier in a fixed bed reactor. Energy Conversion and Management, 49, methane with CaSO4 oxygen carrier in a fixed bed reactor. Energy Conversion and Management, 49,
3178-87, 2008. 3178-87, 2008.
Song, Q., Xiao, R., Deng, Z., Zhang, M.; Reactivity of a CaSO4-oxygen carrier in chemical –looping Song, Q., Xiao, R., Deng, Z., Zhang, M.; Reactivity of a CaSO4-oxygen carrier in chemical –looping
combustion of methane in a fixed bed reaction, Korean. Journal of Chemical Engineering. 26, 2, 592-602, combustion of methane in a fixed bed reaction, Korean. Journal of Chemical Engineering. 26, 2, 592-602,
2009. 2009.
Swift, W.M., Panec, A.F., Smith, G.W., Vogel, G.J., and Jonke, A. A.; Decomposition of Calcium Sulphate. Swift, W.M., Panec, A.F., Smith, G.W., Vogel, G.J., and Jonke, A. A.; Decomposition of Calcium Sulphate.
A Review of Literature. Argonne National Laboratory ANL-76-122. Chemical Engineering Divisions, A Review of Literature. Argonne National Laboratory ANL-76-122. Chemical Engineering Divisions,
1976. 1976.
Talukdar, J., Basu, P., and Greenblatt, J. H.; Reduction of calcium sulfate in a coal-fired circulating fluidized Talukdar, J., Basu, P., and Greenblatt, J. H.; Reduction of calcium sulfate in a coal-fired circulating fluidized
bed furnace. Fuel, 75, 1115-23, 1996. bed furnace. Fuel, 75, 1115-23, 1996.
Tian, H., Guo, Q., and Chang, J.; Investigation into decomposition behavior of CaSO4 in chemical-looping Tian, H., Guo, Q., and Chang, J.; Investigation into decomposition behavior of CaSO4 in chemical-looping
combustion. Energy Fuels, 22, 3915-21, 2008. combustion. Energy Fuels, 22, 3915-21, 2008.
Tian, H., and Guo, Q.; Investigation into the behavior of reductive decomposition of calcium sulfate by carbon Tian, H., and Guo, Q.; Investigation into the behavior of reductive decomposition of calcium sulfate by carbon
monoxide in chemical-looping combustion. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 48, 5624-32, monoxide in chemical-looping combustion. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 48, 5624-32,
2009. 2009.
Wheelock, T.D. and Boyland, D.R.; Reductive decomposition of Gypsum by Carbon monoxide, Industrial and Wheelock, T.D. and Boyland, D.R.; Reductive decomposition of Gypsum by Carbon monoxide, Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry Research, 52, 3, 215-218, 1960. Engineering Chemistry Research, 52, 3, 215-218, 1960.
Wu, W., Chen, Y., Hu, L., and Luo, Y.; Isothermal pyrolysis of biomass by macro-TG. Power and Energy Wu, W., Chen, Y., Hu, L., and Luo, Y.; Isothermal pyrolysis of biomass by macro-TG. Power and Energy
Engineering Conference, 2009. APPEEC 2009. Asia-Pacific, 2009. Engineering Conference, 2009. APPEEC 2009. Asia-Pacific, 2009.
Xiao, R., and Song, Q.; Characterization and kinetics of reduction of CaSO4 with carbon monoxide for Xiao, R., and Song, Q.; Characterization and kinetics of reduction of CaSO4 with carbon monoxide for
chemical-looping combustion. Combustion and Flame, 158, 2524-39, 2011. chemical-looping combustion. Combustion and Flame, 158, 2524-39, 2011.
148 148
162 162
Zheng, M., Shen, L., Feng, X., and Xiao, J.; Kinetic model for parallel reactions of CaSO4 with CO in chemical- Zheng, M., Shen, L., Feng, X., and Xiao, J.; Kinetic model for parallel reactions of CaSO4 with CO in chemical-
looping combustion. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 50, 5414-27, 2011. looping combustion. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 50, 5414-27, 2011.
149 149
163 163
150 150
164 164
Chapter 7: Modeling the Sulfur Release in the Inlet of the Rotary Kiln Chapter 7: Modeling the Sulfur Release in the Inlet of the Rotary Kiln
7. Modeling the Sulfur Release in the Inlet of the Rotary Kiln 7. Modeling the Sulfur Release in the Inlet of the Rotary Kiln
The rotary kiln is one of the key components, often referred to as the heart of the cement plant, in the cement The rotary kiln is one of the key components, often referred to as the heart of the cement plant, in the cement
industry for converting raw meal to cement clinker. It is the appropriate reactor for manufacturing cement industry for converting raw meal to cement clinker. It is the appropriate reactor for manufacturing cement
clinker because it has the ability to provide a high temperature environment, appropriate residence time for the clinker because it has the ability to provide a high temperature environment, appropriate residence time for the
clinker reactions and ability to handle solids with a large size distribution. A variety of processes are taking clinker reactions and ability to handle solids with a large size distribution. A variety of processes are taking
place simultaneously in the rotary kilns, such as particulate mixing, gas-solid and solid phase reactions with place simultaneously in the rotary kilns, such as particulate mixing, gas-solid and solid phase reactions with
intensive heat and mass transfer. The behavior of the rotary kiln is highly nonlinear and very difficult to analyze intensive heat and mass transfer. The behavior of the rotary kiln is highly nonlinear and very difficult to analyze
and control. Measurements are difficult to perform on industrial rotary kilns due to its size and inaccessible and control. Measurements are difficult to perform on industrial rotary kilns due to its size and inaccessible
design, and theoretical models have been developed for simulating such processes. design, and theoretical models have been developed for simulating such processes.
This chapter focuses on modeling the sulfur release from the bed material due to combustion of alternative This chapter focuses on modeling the sulfur release from the bed material due to combustion of alternative
fuels in the inlet of the rotary kiln. First, a review of rotary kilns models for the cement industry is described. fuels in the inlet of the rotary kiln. First, a review of rotary kilns models for the cement industry is described.
In sections 7.2, 7.3, and 7.4, the chosen model approach, the assumptions considered and the model In sections 7.2, 7.3, and 7.4, the chosen model approach, the assumptions considered and the model
development are explained. The results from the model considering wood as fuel varying different parameters development are explained. The results from the model considering wood as fuel varying different parameters
and applying sensitivity analysis are shown and discussed in section 7.5. and applying sensitivity analysis are shown and discussed in section 7.5.
7.1 Literature Study on Rotary Kiln Models for the Cement Industry 7.1 Literature Study on Rotary Kiln Models for the Cement Industry
7.1.1 Review of Rotary Kilns Models 7.1.1 Review of Rotary Kilns Models
The rotary kiln models based on a reaction engineering approach are typically formulated as a counter-current The rotary kiln models based on a reaction engineering approach are typically formulated as a counter-current
plug flow reactor with two phases: solid and gas (Levenspiel, 1999). Different dynamic models for the behavior plug flow reactor with two phases: solid and gas (Levenspiel, 1999). Different dynamic models for the behavior
of a cement kiln have been developed and can vary from simple descriptive black box models (Sullivan et al., of a cement kiln have been developed and can vary from simple descriptive black box models (Sullivan et al.,
1927) and one-dimensional models (Spang, 1972; Witsel et al., 2005; Locher, 2009; Sadighi et al., 2011) to 1927) and one-dimensional models (Spang, 1972; Witsel et al., 2005; Locher, 2009; Sadighi et al., 2011) to
more sophisticated physical three-dimensional models based on computational fluid dynamics, CFD, (Wang more sophisticated physical three-dimensional models based on computational fluid dynamics, CFD, (Wang
et al., 2006; Ma et al., 2006; Ranade and Mujumdar, 2006; Akhtar et al., 2008; Mujumdar and Ranade, 2008; et al., 2006; Ma et al., 2006; Ranade and Mujumdar, 2006; Akhtar et al., 2008; Mujumdar and Ranade, 2008;
Svedin et al., 2009). Svedin et al., 2009).
Several modeling studies of the rotary kiln solid can be found in the literature, including models of particle Several modeling studies of the rotary kiln solid can be found in the literature, including models of particle
transport and mixing (Ferron and Singh, 1991; Boateng and Barr, 1996a; Boateng, 2008; Mujumdar and transport and mixing (Ferron and Singh, 1991; Boateng and Barr, 1996a; Boateng, 2008; Mujumdar and
Ranade, 2009), clinker reactions (Spang, 1972; Mastorakos et al., 1999; Mujumdar and Ranade, 2009), and Ranade, 2009), clinker reactions (Spang, 1972; Mastorakos et al., 1999; Mujumdar and Ranade, 2009), and
heat transfer phenomena, focusing in radiation heat transfer (Barr et al., 1989; Boateng and Barr, 1996b; heat transfer phenomena, focusing in radiation heat transfer (Barr et al., 1989; Boateng and Barr, 1996b;
Dhanjal et al., 2004; Agustini et al., 2008). In one-dimensional models, the changes in the heat transfer and Dhanjal et al., 2004; Agustini et al., 2008). In one-dimensional models, the changes in the heat transfer and
reaction kinetics for different bed heights are neglected, while the CFD models are limited in their ability to reaction kinetics for different bed heights are neglected, while the CFD models are limited in their ability to
model the clinker chemistry, bed motion, and thermodynamics (Kaantee et al., 2004). model the clinker chemistry, bed motion, and thermodynamics (Kaantee et al., 2004).
151 151
165 165
In order to overcome modelling limitations, coupled models, consisting of a one-dimensional model for In order to overcome modelling limitations, coupled models, consisting of a one-dimensional model for
simulation of the reactions in the bed region and a CFD model for the free board region, have been developed simulation of the reactions in the bed region and a CFD model for the free board region, have been developed
in the last decade (Mastorakos et al., 1999; Lu et al., 2004; Küssel et al., 2009). Advanced simulators programs in the last decade (Mastorakos et al., 1999; Lu et al., 2004; Küssel et al., 2009). Advanced simulators programs
have also been developed (Mujumdar et al., 2007; Stadler et al., 2011). For example, the Rotary Cement Kiln have also been developed (Mujumdar et al., 2007; Stadler et al., 2011). For example, the Rotary Cement Kiln
Simulator software is an integrated reaction engineering based mathematical model for clinker formation and Simulator software is an integrated reaction engineering based mathematical model for clinker formation and
was built by combining separate models for preheater, calciner, rotary kiln and cooler previously developed was built by combining separate models for preheater, calciner, rotary kiln and cooler previously developed
(Mujumdar et al., 2007). (Mujumdar et al., 2007).
7.1.2 Kiln System Models including Alternative Fuels Usage 7.1.2 Kiln System Models including Alternative Fuels Usage
The different combustion behavior of alternative fuels has promoted the development of new models for The different combustion behavior of alternative fuels has promoted the development of new models for
predicting the influence of alternative fuels in kiln system. predicting the influence of alternative fuels in kiln system.
The initial rotary kilns models with alternative fuels were developed by the lime industry (Eriksson et al., 1991; The initial rotary kilns models with alternative fuels were developed by the lime industry (Eriksson et al., 1991;
Ivarsson and Svedin, 2007; Adams and Svedin, 2008; Svedin et al., 2009) investigating the effect of firing a Ivarsson and Svedin, 2007; Adams and Svedin, 2008; Svedin et al., 2009) investigating the effect of firing a
range of biofuels on the lime kiln performance. range of biofuels on the lime kiln performance.
A one-dimensional mathematical model firing full scrap tires dropped into a dry long kiln has been developed A one-dimensional mathematical model firing full scrap tires dropped into a dry long kiln has been developed
(Darabi et al., 2008). The tire combustion model considered that tires were continuously fed into the kiln and (Darabi et al., 2008). The tire combustion model considered that tires were continuously fed into the kiln and
absorbed heat through radiation. The different steps of combustion were also taken into account, considering absorbed heat through radiation. The different steps of combustion were also taken into account, considering
that devolatilization was controlled by external heat transfer and chemical reaction kinetics and char that devolatilization was controlled by external heat transfer and chemical reaction kinetics and char
combustion only by oxygen diffusion. This model was incorporated in a CFD cement kiln model, where the combustion only by oxygen diffusion. This model was incorporated in a CFD cement kiln model, where the
calcination process took place in the kiln and reached the calcination temperature in the middle of the kiln. calcination process took place in the kiln and reached the calcination temperature in the middle of the kiln.
The cement kiln model consisted of different sub-models, such as fluid flow, gas and coal combustion, The cement kiln model consisted of different sub-models, such as fluid flow, gas and coal combustion,
radiation heat transfer, clinker formation, refractory heat transfer, and NOx formation. The kiln simulation radiation heat transfer, clinker formation, refractory heat transfer, and NOx formation. The kiln simulation
predicted the gas temperature, velocity and species concentration inside the kiln, the clinker temperature and predicted the gas temperature, velocity and species concentration inside the kiln, the clinker temperature and
composition along the kiln, and the refractory and shell temperatures. The simulation without tire combustion composition along the kiln, and the refractory and shell temperatures. The simulation without tire combustion
showed a high flame temperature, high NOx emissions, and good quality product. Replacing 20 % of the total showed a high flame temperature, high NOx emissions, and good quality product. Replacing 20 % of the total
kiln heat with tires as fuel resulted in a reduced flame temperature, a 33 % reduction of NO x emission and kiln heat with tires as fuel resulted in a reduced flame temperature, a 33 % reduction of NO x emission and
good clinker quality. The drop-in location of the tires was a critical factor in mid-kiln tire combustion. The good clinker quality. The drop-in location of the tires was a critical factor in mid-kiln tire combustion. The
simulation results showed that the drop-in location should be within the calcination zone so that the tire simulation results showed that the drop-in location should be within the calcination zone so that the tire
combustion can provide enough energy for the calcination reaction. Further downstream dropping of tires combustion can provide enough energy for the calcination reaction. Further downstream dropping of tires
worsened the clinker quality and reduced the kiln efficiency. worsened the clinker quality and reduced the kiln efficiency.
The combustion of solid fuels, such as tire rubber and pine wood, fired directly into the material inlet of the The combustion of solid fuels, such as tire rubber and pine wood, fired directly into the material inlet of the
industrial rotary kiln was modeled using a reaction engineering approach (Nielsen, 2012). The drying, industrial rotary kiln was modeled using a reaction engineering approach (Nielsen, 2012). The drying,
devolatilization and char oxidations models were combined to estimate conversion times, oxygen devolatilization and char oxidations models were combined to estimate conversion times, oxygen
consumption, and an approximate gas and bed temperature during fuel conversion. The models may be used consumption, and an approximate gas and bed temperature during fuel conversion. The models may be used
152 152
166 166
to estimate how far different fuel particles will be transported into the rotary kiln as a function of particle size to estimate how far different fuel particles will be transported into the rotary kiln as a function of particle size
and key process parameters. The individual models were validated in a pilot scale rotary drum, however and key process parameters. The individual models were validated in a pilot scale rotary drum, however
validation of the combined models on an industrial plant was not performed due to the extreme environment validation of the combined models on an industrial plant was not performed due to the extreme environment
and poor accessibility. and poor accessibility.
Rotary kiln flame models for combustion of alternative fuels through the kiln burner have also developed Rotary kiln flame models for combustion of alternative fuels through the kiln burner have also developed
(Svedin et al., 2009; Haas and Weber, 2010; Nørskov, 2012) using different modeling approaches such as well- (Svedin et al., 2009; Haas and Weber, 2010; Nørskov, 2012) using different modeling approaches such as well-
stirred reactor model (Haas and Weber, 2010) and as a plug flow reactor (Nørskov, 2012). Hass and Weber stirred reactor model (Haas and Weber, 2010) and as a plug flow reactor (Nørskov, 2012). Hass and Weber
focused on the impact of firing RDF on the cement production. The axial dispersion of heat and mass transfer focused on the impact of firing RDF on the cement production. The axial dispersion of heat and mass transfer
was considered to be controlled by the number of continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) in series and the was considered to be controlled by the number of continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) in series and the
effect of fuel calorific value and the adiabatic flame temperature was modeled as a well-stirred reactor model. effect of fuel calorific value and the adiabatic flame temperature was modeled as a well-stirred reactor model.
Therefore, it is reasonable that the well-stirred reactor model provided very simplified predictions of the energy Therefore, it is reasonable that the well-stirred reactor model provided very simplified predictions of the energy
requirements for varying degrees of RDF substitution. The model did not to take into account recirculation requirements for varying degrees of RDF substitution. The model did not to take into account recirculation
and aerodynamics in the kiln and changes in flame heat transfer when substitution fuels occurred. The model and aerodynamics in the kiln and changes in flame heat transfer when substitution fuels occurred. The model
calculations showed that with increasing RDF substitution the position of the flame maximum temperature calculations showed that with increasing RDF substitution the position of the flame maximum temperature
moved downstream and its value decreased. The influence of changing process parameters were evaluated; i.e. moved downstream and its value decreased. The influence of changing process parameters were evaluated; i.e.
decreasing RDF particle size, increasing the preheated combustion air temperature, using oxygen enrichment, decreasing RDF particle size, increasing the preheated combustion air temperature, using oxygen enrichment,
and changing the fuel heating value. and changing the fuel heating value.
A simplified one-dimensional rotary kiln flame model for combustion of alternative fuels, focusing on A simplified one-dimensional rotary kiln flame model for combustion of alternative fuels, focusing on
describing the flame temperature profile and the fuel combustion time was developed (Nørskov, 2012). The describing the flame temperature profile and the fuel combustion time was developed (Nørskov, 2012). The
fuel conversion was based on heating, moisture evaporation, devolatilization and char oxidation while was in fuel conversion was based on heating, moisture evaporation, devolatilization and char oxidation while was in
suspension. The fuel was heated by convection and radiation from the gas and hot kiln wall but the clinker bed suspension. The fuel was heated by convection and radiation from the gas and hot kiln wall but the clinker bed
was not included in the model. The model describing co-fired dried sewage sludge and petcoke was validated was not included in the model. The model describing co-fired dried sewage sludge and petcoke was validated
against experiments performed in a pilot-scale swirl-flow burner setup. Full-scale validation at an industrial against experiments performed in a pilot-scale swirl-flow burner setup. Full-scale validation at an industrial
cement kiln was not possible due to the inaccessibility of the combustion processes. cement kiln was not possible due to the inaccessibility of the combustion processes.
The clinker chemistry and thermodynamics in the rotary kiln and the effect of alternative fuels on full scale The clinker chemistry and thermodynamics in the rotary kiln and the effect of alternative fuels on full scale
cement plant was modeled using the commercial software Aspen Plus® (Kaantee et al., 2004). The goal of cement plant was modeled using the commercial software Aspen Plus® (Kaantee et al., 2004). The goal of
this model was to be able to select a suitable alternative fuel, optimize process control and alternative fuel this model was to be able to select a suitable alternative fuel, optimize process control and alternative fuel
consumption, while maintaining the quality of the clinker product. The model divided the full process into consumption, while maintaining the quality of the clinker product. The model divided the full process into
segments and determined the effect of alternative fuels on material flows, emissions, and product quality. The segments and determined the effect of alternative fuels on material flows, emissions, and product quality. The
calculations for the alternative fuels (meat and bone meal and sewage sludge) were compared to a reference calculations for the alternative fuels (meat and bone meal and sewage sludge) were compared to a reference
case, where petcoke was used as primary and secondary fuel. Higher amount of air and higher speed of kiln case, where petcoke was used as primary and secondary fuel. Higher amount of air and higher speed of kiln
fans were needed during operation with larger amounts of alternative fuels in order to maintain the product fans were needed during operation with larger amounts of alternative fuels in order to maintain the product
quality. quality.
153 153
167 167
Other models considering solid waste for other usages of rotary kilns, such as rotary kilns incinerators and iron Other models considering solid waste for other usages of rotary kilns, such as rotary kilns incinerators and iron
ore reduction process, have been developed (Silcox and Pershing, 1990; Pershing et al., 1993; Ramakrishnan ore reduction process, have been developed (Silcox and Pershing, 1990; Pershing et al., 1993; Ramakrishnan
and Sai, 1999; Yang et al., 2004). However, due to the differences of the design and operational system the and Sai, 1999; Yang et al., 2004). However, due to the differences of the design and operational system the
models cannot be compared with rotary kilns models for the cement industry. models cannot be compared with rotary kilns models for the cement industry.
In conclusion, combustion models for alternative fuels in the kiln have been developed in order to evaluate the In conclusion, combustion models for alternative fuels in the kiln have been developed in order to evaluate the
effect of fuel characteristics, such particle size, process variables, such oxygen content, and clinker quality. effect of fuel characteristics, such particle size, process variables, such oxygen content, and clinker quality.
However, a model which is able to predict sulfur release when alternative fuels are in contact with the kiln bed However, a model which is able to predict sulfur release when alternative fuels are in contact with the kiln bed
material has not been described in the literature. material has not been described in the literature.
7.2 System Description and Modeling approach 7.2 System Description and Modeling approach
The aim of the model is to predict sulfur release caused by volatiles from alternative fuels particles fired in the The aim of the model is to predict sulfur release caused by volatiles from alternative fuels particles fired in the
material kiln inlet. The modeling approach of this system consist of modeling the bed material as continuous material kiln inlet. The modeling approach of this system consist of modeling the bed material as continuous
stirred tank reactors in series where the alternative fuels particles, the volatile gases, and the bed material are stirred tank reactors in series where the alternative fuels particles, the volatile gases, and the bed material are
well mixed. well mixed.
In section 7.1, it has been described that well stirred reactors in series are considered for modeling the heat and In section 7.1, it has been described that well stirred reactors in series are considered for modeling the heat and
mass transfer in kiln flame models. This approach has been chosen because it is a simple and engineering mass transfer in kiln flame models. This approach has been chosen because it is a simple and engineering
approach to evaluate the progress of reactions based on kinetics. Furthermore, when a continuous stirred tank approach to evaluate the progress of reactions based on kinetics. Furthermore, when a continuous stirred tank
is considered, the rotational speed is taken into account in the model. A computational fluid dynamics approach is considered, the rotational speed is taken into account in the model. A computational fluid dynamics approach
was not chosen because the system is more complex to define and it has computational limitations with gas- was not chosen because the system is more complex to define and it has computational limitations with gas-
solid reactions together with the turbulent gas flow (Kuipers and van Swaaij, 1998; Paschedag, 2005). If the solid reactions together with the turbulent gas flow (Kuipers and van Swaaij, 1998; Paschedag, 2005). If the
focus of the model was the physical behavior of the kiln bed, the CFD approach would have been convenient. focus of the model was the physical behavior of the kiln bed, the CFD approach would have been convenient.
The rotary kiln is divided in slices, where each one will be modeled as a CSTR connected in series, as illustrated The rotary kiln is divided in slices, where each one will be modeled as a CSTR connected in series, as illustrated
in Figure 7-1. The initial and final bed temperature and the residence time for the material to go through the in Figure 7-1. The initial and final bed temperature and the residence time for the material to go through the
rotary kiln are specified in Figure 7-1. The fuel particles are continuously fired in the kiln inlet of the rotary rotary kiln are specified in Figure 7-1. The fuel particles are continuously fired in the kiln inlet of the rotary
kiln and transported through the different kiln slices. kiln and transported through the different kiln slices.
154 154
168 168
Fuel particles Gas Fuel particles Gas
900 oC 900 oC
Temperature Temperature
t=0 o t=0
1450 C 1450 oC
Residence Time Residence Time
τb =1800 s (30 min) τb =1800 s (30 min)
Figure 7-1: Rotary kiln divided in Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors. Figure 7-1: Rotary kiln divided in Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors.
The model has three steps, which are graphically summarized in Figure 7-2. First, the particle temperature The model has three steps, which are graphically summarized in Figure 7-2. First, the particle temperature
o
profile is calculated for a single fuel particle. The heating takes place from ambient temperature to 900 C, profile is calculated for a single fuel particle. The heating takes place from ambient temperature to 900 oC,
which is the temperature of the bed material in the kiln inlet. Secondly, the temperature profile is used to which is the temperature of the bed material in the kiln inlet. Secondly, the temperature profile is used to
determine the mass loss under pyrolysis corresponding to the volatiles release. Finally, the release of volatiles determine the mass loss under pyrolysis corresponding to the volatiles release. Finally, the release of volatiles
is used as input in the kiln model, which calculates the consumption of the volatiles, and the formation of the is used as input in the kiln model, which calculates the consumption of the volatiles, and the formation of the
SO2 that will be incorporated in the gas of the freeboard in counter-current. SO2 that will be incorporated in the gas of the freeboard in counter-current.
Calculation of temperature Calculation of temperature

fuel particle profiles fuel particle profiles
Calculation of pyrolysis Calculation of pyrolysis

Fuel mass loss Fuel mass loss
Kiln Model as CSTRs in Series Kiln Model as CSTRs in Series
Consumption Formation SO2 Consumption Formation SO2

Volatiles Volatiles
Figure 7-2: Scheme of the modeling steps for predicting sulfur release from the bed rotary kiln material. Figure 7-2: Scheme of the modeling steps for predicting sulfur release from the bed rotary kiln material.
155 155
169 169
7.3 Assumptions 7.3 Assumptions
The model of heating up and pyrolysis of a fuel particle have been formulated taking into account the following The model of heating up and pyrolysis of a fuel particle have been formulated taking into account the following
assumptions: assumptions:
- The fuel particles are spherical. - The fuel particles are spherical.
- The fuel particles are fired directly into the rotary kiln from the surroundings. This means that they are - The fuel particles are fired directly into the rotary kiln from the surroundings. This means that they are
not experiencing preheating. not experiencing preheating.
- The density, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity of the fuel particle are considered constants. - The density, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity of the fuel particle are considered constants.
- The fuel particles are converted under pyrolysis (with no oxygen present) in order to calculate the - The fuel particles are converted under pyrolysis (with no oxygen present) in order to calculate the
release rate of volatiles. release rate of volatiles.
- The release of volatiles for a single particle is assumed to be additive for the multiple particles. - The release of volatiles for a single particle is assumed to be additive for the multiple particles.
- The char combustion of the fuel particles is neglected. - The char combustion of the fuel particles is neglected.
- Energy contribution from the fuel particles to the bed material and to the freeboard gas from heating - Energy contribution from the fuel particles to the bed material and to the freeboard gas from heating
the particles and fuel combustion is neglected. the particles and fuel combustion is neglected.
The kiln model has been formulated taking into account the following assumptions: The kiln model has been formulated taking into account the following assumptions:
- The fuel particles are evenly distributed in the bed material and the release of the volatiles are perfectly - The fuel particles are evenly distributed in the bed material and the release of the volatiles are perfectly
mixed with the bed due to the rotation of the rotary kiln. Therefore, the bed material can be modeled mixed with the bed due to the rotation of the rotary kiln. Therefore, the bed material can be modeled
as a well-mixed reactor (CSTR), where all the particles in the bed material experience the same as a well-mixed reactor (CSTR), where all the particles in the bed material experience the same
conditions. conditions.
- Each CSTR is in a steady state, where the temperature and the concentration are homogenous in the - Each CSTR is in a steady state, where the temperature and the concentration are homogenous in the
whole bed. whole bed.
- The bed material consists only of CaO particles, which are identical with the same diameter. - The bed material consists only of CaO particles, which are identical with the same diameter.
- All the sulfur content is assumed to be CaSO4, which is distributed evenly between all the particles as - All the sulfur content is assumed to be CaSO4, which is distributed evenly between all the particles as
a shell surrounding the CaO particles. a shell surrounding the CaO particles.
- The surface area of CaSO4 does not change with the reaction. - The surface area of CaSO4 does not change with the reaction.
- There is no residence time distribution of the particles of bed material in each CSTR. The bed material - There is no residence time distribution of the particles of bed material in each CSTR. The bed material
is considered that moves from one CSTR to another CSTR. is considered that moves from one CSTR to another CSTR.
- A degree of coverage of the fuel is defined to describe the fraction of fuel that is covered by the bed, - A degree of coverage of the fuel is defined to describe the fraction of fuel that is covered by the bed,
hence how much of the volatiles is released in the bed and may react with CaSO4. hence how much of the volatiles is released in the bed and may react with CaSO4.
st
- The reaction of CaSO4 with CO or H2 follows a 1 order reaction and the kinetic constants have a form - The reaction of CaSO4 with CO or H2 follows a 1st order reaction and the kinetic constants have a form
of 1st order Arrhenius equation. Since most of the volatile composition is CO, it is assumed that the of 1st order Arrhenius equation. Since most of the volatile composition is CO, it is assumed that the
reaction of CaSO4 with the volatiles also follows a first order reaction and has a form of 1st order reaction of CaSO4 with the volatiles also follows a first order reaction and has a form of 1st order
Arrhenius equation. It is assumed that for 1 mol of volatiles consumed, 1 mol of SO2 is formed, as Arrhenius equation. It is assumed that for 1 mol of volatiles consumed, 1 mol of SO2 is formed, as
156 156
170 170
illustrated in reaction (7-1). The reaction may give a mixture of CaO and CaS as reviewed in Chapter illustrated in reaction (7-1). The reaction may give a mixture of CaO and CaS as reviewed in Chapter
6, but the oxidation of CaS releasing SO2 is not considered in the model. 6, but the oxidation of CaS releasing SO2 is not considered in the model.
CaSO4 (s) Vol ( g ) o CaO / CaS (s) SO2 (g) H 2O / CO2 (g) (7-1) CaSO4 (s) Vol ( g ) o CaO / CaS (s) SO2 (g) H 2O / CO2 (g) (7-1)
- The bed temperature increases linearly from the kiln inlet, 900 oC, to the hot end zone, 1450 oC. - The bed temperature increases linearly from the kiln inlet, 900 oC, to the hot end zone, 1450 oC.
- There is no heat exchange between the bed material and the gas phase and through the kiln shell to the - There is no heat exchange between the bed material and the gas phase and through the kiln shell to the
surroundings. surroundings.
- There is no SO2 in the gas phase coming from the kiln burner or the evaporation of sulfur in the hot - There is no SO2 in the gas phase coming from the kiln burner or the evaporation of sulfur in the hot
end of the rotary kiln. end of the rotary kiln.
- The SO2 formed in the bed is added to the gas phase. - The SO2 formed in the bed is added to the gas phase.
- The SO2 in the gas phase does not react either with any other gas species or is absorbed by dust. - The SO2 in the gas phase does not react either with any other gas species or is absorbed by dust.
- The gas flows of the non-reacted volatiles released and the combustion products to the freeboard gas - The gas flows of the non-reacted volatiles released and the combustion products to the freeboard gas
are neglected. are neglected.
7.4 Mathematical Development 7.4 Mathematical Development
7.4.1 Calculation of the Particle Temperature Profile 7.4.1 Calculation of the Particle Temperature Profile
The heat up of a large non-isothermal and spherical fuel particle is determined by solving numerically the The heat up of a large non-isothermal and spherical fuel particle is determined by solving numerically the
transient heat transfer differential equation (equation 7.1), because the fuel particles are too large to be transient heat transfer differential equation (equation 7.1), because the fuel particles are too large to be
considered isothermal. considered isothermal.
wT r , t 1 w § 2 k p wT (r, t) · wT r , t 1 w § 2 k p wT (r, t) ·
¨r ¸ [7.1] ¨r ¸ [7.1]
wt r 2 wr ¨© U p C p wr ¸¹ wt r 2 wr ¨© U p C p wr ¸¹
where ρp is the density of the fuel particle in kg/m3, Cp is the fuel particle heat capacity in J/(kg·K), T is the where ρp is the density of the fuel particle in kg/m3, Cp is the fuel particle heat capacity in J/(kg·K), T is the
temperature in K, r is the distance from the center in m, and kp is thermal conductivity of the fuel particle in temperature in K, r is the distance from the center in m, and kp is thermal conductivity of the fuel particle in
W/(m·K). W/(m·K).
The initial condition for the fuel particle is expressed by equation 7.2. The initial condition for the fuel particle is expressed by equation 7.2.
T (t 0, r ) Tp,0 293 K [7.2] T (t 0, r ) Tp,0 293 K [7.2]
The boundary conditions consist of: The boundary conditions consist of:
- No heat transfer at the center of the particle, which is mathematically expressed by equation 7.3. - No heat transfer at the center of the particle, which is mathematically expressed by equation 7.3.
wT (t , r R) wT (t , r R)
0 [7.3] 0 [7.3]
wr wr
157 157
171 171
- The temperature at the fuel particle surface is determined by the heat transfer by conduction with the - The temperature at the fuel particle surface is determined by the heat transfer by conduction with the
bed material. Mathematically expressed by equation 7.4. bed material. Mathematically expressed by equation 7.4.
wT (t , r R) wT (t , r R)
kp hcond (T Tb,0 ) [7.4] kp hcond (T Tb,0 ) [7.4]
wr wr
where Tb,0 is the initial bed temperature in K, which will be the final temperature of the fuel particle, where Tb,0 is the initial bed temperature in K, which will be the final temperature of the fuel particle,
and hcond is the heat transfer coefficient for conduction in W/(m2·K). There parameters are specified in and hcond is the heat transfer coefficient for conduction in W/(m2·K). There parameters are specified in
Table 7-1. Table 7-1.
7.4.2 Calculation of Pyrolysis 7.4.2 Calculation of Pyrolysis
The fuel used for this model is wood, so the decomposition of wood material under pyrolysis is described for The fuel used for this model is wood, so the decomposition of wood material under pyrolysis is described for
this material. For other fuels, the decomposition mechanism and the kinetic parameters should probably be this material. For other fuels, the decomposition mechanism and the kinetic parameters should probably be
changed. changed.
The temperature profiles for the wood particle are used to predict the release of volatiles as a result of the The temperature profiles for the wood particle are used to predict the release of volatiles as a result of the
ongoing pyrolysis. Di Blasi (2008) describes the decomposition of wood material to be first order regarding ongoing pyrolysis. Di Blasi (2008) describes the decomposition of wood material to be first order regarding
the decomposition of wood and formation of volatiles and char. The general one-component equation for the the decomposition of wood and formation of volatiles and char. The general one-component equation for the
disappearance of a component during the pyrolysis is presented as dimensionless model by equation 7.5 (Di disappearance of a component during the pyrolysis is presented as dimensionless model by equation 7.5 (Di
Blasi, 2008) and it is transformed into a model with dimensions (equation 7.6) to describe the measureable Blasi, 2008) and it is transformed into a model with dimensions (equation 7.6) to describe the measureable
release of volatiles. release of volatiles.
dX dX
k pyr ( X X f ) [7.5] k pyr ( X X f ) [7.5]
dt dt
mw mw,f mw mw,f
Substitution of X and X∞, defined as X 1 and X f 1 , yields to equation 7.6. Substitution of X and X∞, defined as X 1 and X f 1 , yields to equation 7.6.
mw,0 mw,0 mw,0 mw,0
dmw dmw
k pyr (mw mw, f ) [7.6] k pyr (mw mw, f ) [7.6]
dt dt
where X and mw denote the degree of conversion and the remaining mass of wood at time t in kg, X∞ and mw,∞ where X and mw denote the degree of conversion and the remaining mass of wood at time t in kg, X∞ and mw,∞
are the fraction and the mass which cannot be pyrolized, mw,0 is the initial mass in kg, and kpyr is kinetic constant are the fraction and the mass which cannot be pyrolized, mw,0 is the initial mass in kg, and kpyr is kinetic constant
st
for the pyrolysis, which has a form of 1 order Arrhenius equation. The difference between the initial mass for the pyrolysis, which has a form of 1st order Arrhenius equation. The difference between the initial mass
and the mass of the particle at any time is the cumulative amount of volatiles released. and the mass of the particle at any time is the cumulative amount of volatiles released.
7.4.3 Rotary Kiln Model 7.4.3 Rotary Kiln Model
The model development of the rotary kiln model as CSTR in series is based on a steady-state mass balance. The model development of the rotary kiln model as CSTR in series is based on a steady-state mass balance.
The general mass balance for the volatiles is presented in words by equation 7.7. The general mass balance for the volatiles is presented in words by equation 7.7.
Accumulation In Out Generation [7.7] Accumulation In Out Generation [7.7]
158 158
172 172
In = Volatiles from the fuel particle + Volatiles from the previous reactor In = Volatiles from the fuel particle + Volatiles from the previous reactor
Out = Volatiles transferred to next reactor + Volatiles diffusion to freeboard Out = Volatiles transferred to next reactor + Volatiles diffusion to freeboard
Generation = – Volatiles consumed by the reaction with CaSO4 Generation = – Volatiles consumed by the reaction with CaSO4
Accumulation = Zero due to the steady state assumption Accumulation = Zero due to the steady state assumption
Mathematically, equation 7.7 can be expressed in terms of molar flows, as shown in equation 7.8. Mathematically, equation 7.7 can be expressed in terms of molar flows, as shown in equation 7.8.
dn
n dn
n
dt
n in nVol , fuel nout ndiff nreac [7.8]
dt
n in nVol , fuel nout ndiff nreac [7.8]
where ṅin is the volatiles molar flow from the previous reactor in mol/s, ṅVol,fuel the molar flow of the volatiles where ṅin is the volatiles molar flow from the previous reactor in mol/s, ṅVol,fuel the molar flow of the volatiles
released from the fuel particle in mol/s, ṅout is the volatiles molar flow transferred to the next reactor in mol/s, released from the fuel particle in mol/s, ṅout is the volatiles molar flow transferred to the next reactor in mol/s,
ṅdiff is the molar flow of the volatiles that diffuses to the freeboard in mol/s, and ṅreac is the molar flow of the ṅdiff is the molar flow of the volatiles that diffuses to the freeboard in mol/s, and ṅreac is the molar flow of the
volatiles consumed by the reaction with CaSO4 in mol/s. By specifying the mol fluxes, the mol balance for a volatiles consumed by the reaction with CaSO4 in mol/s. By specifying the mol fluxes, the mol balance for a
CSTR i is expressed by equation 7.9. CSTR i is expressed by equation 7.9.
0 Q CVol i1 Q CVol fuel (t ) Q CVol i Ab,top kg 'CVol kVol oSO2 AS CVol i [7.9] 0 Q CVol i1 Q CVol fuel (t ) Q CVol i Ab,top kg 'CVol kVol oSO2 AS CVol i [7.9]
where CVol,i is the volatile concentration flux in the i CSTR in mol/m3, CVol,i-1 is the volatiles concentration flux where CVol,i is the volatile concentration flux in the i CSTR in mol/m3, CVol,i-1 is the volatiles concentration flux
coming from the previous CSTR in mol/m3 (this term will not exist for the first CSTR), CVol,fuel is the released coming from the previous CSTR in mol/m3 (this term will not exist for the first CSTR), CVol,fuel is the released
volatiles concentration from the fuel in mol/m3, Q is the volumetric flow rate of the volatiles m3/s, Ab,top is the volatiles concentration from the fuel in mol/m3, Q is the volumetric flow rate of the volatiles m3/s, Ab,top is the
bed area in contact with the freeboard area in m2, kg is the volatiles mass transfer coefficient in m/s, ΔCvol is bed area in contact with the freeboard area in m2, kg is the volatiles mass transfer coefficient in m/s, ΔCvol is
the difference volatile concentration in the bed (CVol,i) and in the freeboard (which is zero), AS is the total the difference volatile concentration in the bed (CVol,i) and in the freeboard (which is zero), AS is the total
2
surface area of sulfur in m , and kVolÆSO2 is the kinetic constant of the reaction between CaSO4 and the volatiles surface area of sulfur in m2, and kVolÆSO2 is the kinetic constant of the reaction between CaSO4 and the volatiles
in m/s. in m/s.
The mass transfer coefficient, kg, is found from a Sherwood correlation. For an industrial rotary kiln, this The mass transfer coefficient, kg, is found from a Sherwood correlation. For an industrial rotary kiln, this
correlation is used (Coulson and Richardson, 1999): correlation is used (Coulson and Richardson, 1999):
k g Lb, avg k g Lb, avg

Sh 2 0.552 Re1/ 2 Sc1/3 [7.10] Sh 2 0.552 Re1/ 2 Sc1/3 [7.10]
DVol , eff DVol , eff
where Lb,avg is the average depth of the bed in m, DVol,eff is the effective diffusion coefficient of the volatiles in where Lb,avg is the average depth of the bed in m, DVol,eff is the effective diffusion coefficient of the volatiles in
m/s, Re is the Reynolds number and Sc is the Schmidt number, which are calculated by the density, the m/s, Re is the Reynolds number and Sc is the Schmidt number, which are calculated by the density, the
viscosity, and the velocity of the volatile released. The parameters for the volatiles are assumed to be equal to viscosity, and the velocity of the volatile released. The parameters for the volatiles are assumed to be equal to
the CO parameters, because CO is the main contribution to the volatile gases. The effective diffusion the CO parameters, because CO is the main contribution to the volatile gases. The effective diffusion
coefficient of CO in atmospheric, DCO,eff, is therefore calculated by 7.11. coefficient of CO in atmospheric, DCO,eff, is therefore calculated by 7.11.
159 159
173 173
H H
DCO ,eff D [7.11] DCO ,eff D [7.11]
W CO W CO
where DCO is diffusion coefficient of CO in atmospheric air in m2/s, τ is the bed tortuosity, and ε is the bed where DCO is diffusion coefficient of CO in atmospheric air in m2/s, τ is the bed tortuosity, and ε is the bed
porosity. Dias et al. (2006) found that the tortuosity, τ, of a mixed bed of granular particles could be described porosity. Dias et al. (2006) found that the tortuosity, τ, of a mixed bed of granular particles could be described
n
as τ = 1/ε , where n depends on the particle packing but usually are in the range of 0.4-0.5. The diffusion as τ = 1/εn, where n depends on the particle packing but usually are in the range of 0.4-0.5. The diffusion
coefficient of CO in atmospheric air is defined by equation 7.12 (Fueller et al., 1966). coefficient of CO in atmospheric air is defined by equation 7.12 (Fueller et al., 1966).
103 T 1.75 M CO 103 T 1.75 M CO

1 1 1/2 1 1 1/2
M air M air
DCO DCO
ª 1 1
º
2 [7.12] ª 1 1
º
2 [7.12]
«¬ zCO zair »¼ «¬ zCO zair »¼
3 3 3 3
where Mi is the molar mass of compound i in g/mol, and zi is the special atomic diffusion volume of compound where Mi is the molar mass of compound i in g/mol, and zi is the special atomic diffusion volume of compound
i (dimensionless), which are 20.1 for air and 18.9 for CO (Fueller et al., 1966). i (dimensionless), which are 20.1 for air and 18.9 for CO (Fueller et al., 1966).
The kinetic constant for reaction (7-1) is defined by equation 7.13. Since most of the volatile composition is The kinetic constant for reaction (7-1) is defined by equation 7.13. Since most of the volatile composition is
CO and the model validation will be with CO, these parameters will are taken from reaction CaSO 4 with CO CO and the model validation will be with CO, these parameters will are taken from reaction CaSO 4 with CO
given by Xiao and Song (2011). These parameters have been chosen because the study of Xiao and Song given by Xiao and Song (2011). These parameters have been chosen because the study of Xiao and Song
o
(2011) was in a temperature range 880-950 C with high concentrations of CO but without introducing CO2 (2011) was in a temperature range 880-950 oC with high concentrations of CO but without introducing CO2
(see Appendix D). (see Appendix D).
§ E a ,VoloSO2 · § E a ,VoloSO2 ·
kVol oSO2 AVol o SO2 exp ¨ ¸ [7.13] kVol oSO2 AVol o SO2 exp ¨ ¸ [7.13]
© R Tb ¹ © R Tb ¹
where AVolÆSO2 is the pre-exponential factor in m/s, Ea,VolÆSO2 is the activation energy in J/mol, R is the ideal where AVolÆSO2 is the pre-exponential factor in m/s, Ea,VolÆSO2 is the activation energy in J/mol, R is the ideal
gas constant in J/(mol·K), and Tb is the bed temperature in K. gas constant in J/(mol·K), and Tb is the bed temperature in K.
For each CSTR, the bed temperature is calculated according to equation 7.14. For each CSTR, the bed temperature is calculated according to equation 7.14.
Tb, f Tb,0 Tb, f Tb,0

Tb (i) Tb,0 i for i=1 to NCSTR [7.14] Tb (i) Tb,0 i for i=1 to NCSTR [7.14]
Wb Wb
where Tb,f is the final bed temperature in K, i is the number of CSTRs which are defined for each second, NCSTR where Tb,f is the final bed temperature in K, i is the number of CSTRs which are defined for each second, NCSTR
is the total number of CSTR, and τb is the bed residence time of the kiln in s. is the total number of CSTR, and τb is the bed residence time of the kiln in s.
Since the fuel is converted under pyrolysis, it is assumed that the particle is fully covered by the bed material Since the fuel is converted under pyrolysis, it is assumed that the particle is fully covered by the bed material
and therefore the volatiles from the fuel are in contact with the entire bed in the cross-section. In order to and therefore the volatiles from the fuel are in contact with the entire bed in the cross-section. In order to
include scenarios where the fuel particle is partly covered, the fuel degree of coverage, ϕ, is defined from 0 to include scenarios where the fuel particle is partly covered, the fuel degree of coverage, ϕ, is defined from 0 to
1. When the fuel degree of coverage is 1, it means that the entire amount of volatiles released from the fuel 1. When the fuel degree of coverage is 1, it means that the entire amount of volatiles released from the fuel
160 160
174 174
will be in contact with the bed material, while 0 will mean that the volatiles release takes place on top of the will be in contact with the bed material, while 0 will mean that the volatiles release takes place on top of the
bed without reacting with the sulfur. The fuel degree of coverage affects the concentration of volatiles in bed without reacting with the sulfur. The fuel degree of coverage affects the concentration of volatiles in
contact with the bed material according to equation 7.15, giving the apparent volatile concentration from the contact with the bed material according to equation 7.15, giving the apparent volatile concentration from the
* *
fuel, CVol fuel . fuel, CVol fuel .
*
CVol fuel
(t) CVol fuel (t) CVol fuel (t) (1 I ) [7.15]
*
CVol fuel
(t) CVol fuel (t) CVol fuel (t) (1 I ) [7.15]
The volatile concentration at steady state for a CSTR i is found by rearranging equation 7.9 and is given by The volatile concentration at steady state for a CSTR i is found by rearranging equation 7.9 and is given by
equation 7.16. equation 7.16.
CVol i

Q(t ) CVol i1 CVol
*
fuel
(t ) for i=1 to NCSTR [7.16] CVol i

Q(t ) CVol i1 CVol
*
fuel
(t ) for i=1 to NCSTR [7.16]
Q(t ) k Vol o SO2 AS Atop k g Q(t ) k Vol o SO2 AS Atop k g
The number of moles of SO2 formed is calculated by the difference between the inlet and outlet volatile The number of moles of SO2 formed is calculated by the difference between the inlet and outlet volatile
concentrations in each CSTR, according to equation 7.17. The sulfur consumption is monitored along the kiln concentrations in each CSTR, according to equation 7.17. The sulfur consumption is monitored along the kiln
and compared to the initial moles of sulfur. The calculations are stopped if all the sulfur content in the bed has and compared to the initial moles of sulfur. The calculations are stopped if all the sulfur content in the bed has
been released. been released.
nSO2 ,i n Vol
V li1 nVol
*
V l ffuell n
in
Voli out for i=1 to NCSTR [7.17] nSO2 ,i n Vol
V li1 nVol
*
V l ffuell n
in
Voli out for i=1 to NCSTR [7.17]
In order to calculate the corresponding SO2 concentration in the flue gas from the release, the molar flow of In order to calculate the corresponding SO2 concentration in the flue gas from the release, the molar flow of
flue gas, ṅg in mol/s, is calculated according to equation 7.18. flue gas, ṅg in mol/s, is calculated according to equation 7.18.
mb ng , clikbas
clikbasis mb ng , clikbas
clikbasis
ng [7.18] ng [7.18]
Mg Mg
where ng,clikbasis is the flow of the gas in clinker basis in kg/kg clinker, M g is the molar mass of the flue gas in where ng,clikbasis is the flow of the gas in clinker basis in kg/kg clinker, M g is the molar mass of the flue gas in
kg/mol, and ṁb is the solid material flow in kg clinker/s, calculated based on the filling degree and bed velocity kg/mol, and ṁb is the solid material flow in kg clinker/s, calculated based on the filling degree and bed velocity
as shown by equation 7.19. as shown by equation 7.19.
2 2
§ø · §ø ·
mb S ¨ k ¸ F Q b Ub [7.19] mb S ¨ k ¸ F Q b Ub [7.19]
©2¹ ©2¹
where øk is the diameter of the kiln in m, F is the fill degree, ρb is the bed density in kg/m3, and vb is the velocity where øk is the diameter of the kiln in m, F is the fill degree, ρb is the bed density in kg/m3, and vb is the velocity
of the bed in m/s, which is calculated dividing the length of the kiln by the bed residence time required to pass of the bed in m/s, which is calculated dividing the length of the kiln by the bed residence time required to pass
through the entire kiln and. through the entire kiln and.
161 161
175 175
The molar fraction of SO2 in the flue gas in counter-current, ySO2, is calculated according to equation 7.20 and The molar fraction of SO2 in the flue gas in counter-current, ySO2, is calculated according to equation 7.20 and
the SO2 concentration in ppm is then determinedd by equation 7.21. the SO2 concentration in ppm is then determinedd by equation 7.21.
nSO2i nSO2i
ySO2 ,i for i= NCSTR, NCSTR -1, … to 1 ySO2 ,i for i= NCSTR, NCSTR -1, … to 1
i
[7.20] i
[7.20]
ng ¦ nSO2i ng ¦ nSO2i
N N
§ i · 6 § i · 6
CSO2 ,i ¨ ¦ ySO2 ,i ¸ 10 for i= NCSTR, NCSTR -1, … to 1 [7.21] CSO2 ,i ¨ ¦ ySO2 ,i ¸ 10 for i= NCSTR, NCSTR -1, … to 1 [7.21]
© N ¹ © N ¹
Figure 7-3 schematically illustrates the flows directions and concentrations of volatiles and SO2, previously Figure 7-3 schematically illustrates the flows directions and concentrations of volatiles and SO2, previously
described, for a general three CSTR in series. described, for a general three CSTR in series.
i-1 i i+1 i-1 i i+1

CSO2,i-1 CSO2,i CSO2,i+1 CSO2,i+2 CSO2,i-1 CSO2,i CSO2,i+1 CSO2,i+2
ySO2,i-1 ySO2,i ySO2,i+1 ySO2,i-1 ySO2,i ySO2,i+1
nSO2,i-1 nSO2,i nSO2,i+1 nSO2,i-1 nSO2,i nSO2,i+1
CVol,i-1 CVVol, i-1 CVol,i CVol, i+1 CVol,i-1 CVVol, i-1 CVol,i CVol, i+1
CVol, i-2 CVVol, i CVol, i+1 CVol, i-2 CVVol, i CVol, i+1
CVol,fuel* (t) CVol,fuel* (t)
CVol,fuel* (t-1)
1) CVVol,fuel* (t+1)
t+1) CVol,fuel* (t+2) CVol,fuel* (t-1)
1) CVVol,fuel* (t+1)
t+1) CVol,fuel* (t+2)
Figure 7-3: Drawing of three CSTR in series with the volatile and SO2 concentrations at different locations. Figure 7-3: Drawing of three CSTR in series with the volatile and SO2 concentrations at different locations.
The sulfur evaporation factor, εs, is defined by the SO3 concentrations in the hot meal and in the clinker. For The sulfur evaporation factor, εs, is defined by the SO3 concentrations in the hot meal and in the clinker. For
the model sulfur evaporation factor in the kiln inlet, this definition can be estimated in molar basis with the the model sulfur evaporation factor in the kiln inlet, this definition can be estimated in molar basis with the
total moles of sulfur released and the initial moles of sulfur that the bed material, as expressed in equation total moles of sulfur released and the initial moles of sulfur that the bed material, as expressed in equation
7.22. 7.22.
wSO3 , hot meal wSO3 , clinker in molar n0, S (n0, S ntotal S released ) wSO3 , hot meal wSO3 , clinker in molar n0, S (n0, S ntotal S released )
H S [%] | 100 [7.22] H S [%] | 100 [7.22]
wSO3 , hot meal n0, S wSO3 , hot meal n0, S
7.5 Results 7.5 Results
7.5.1 Substitution 10 % Energy with Alternative Fuels fired in the Kiln Inlet 7.5.1 Substitution 10 % Energy with Alternative Fuels fired in the Kiln Inlet
A cement plant with a clinker production of 3500 tons per day is considered. The kiln system is a typical ILC- A cement plant with a clinker production of 3500 tons per day is considered. The kiln system is a typical ILC-
configuration of a preheater kiln with 5 cyclones and uses 2.993 MJ/kg clinker of which 60 % is fired in the configuration of a preheater kiln with 5 cyclones and uses 2.993 MJ/kg clinker of which 60 % is fired in the
calciner and 40 % in the kiln burner. Ten percent of the energy in the kiln burner, which corresponds to 0.119 calciner and 40 % in the kiln burner. Ten percent of the energy in the kiln burner, which corresponds to 0.119
MJ/kg clinker, is substituted with fuel fired in the kiln inlet. MJ/kg clinker, is substituted with fuel fired in the kiln inlet.
162 162
176 176
The rotary kiln characteristics are 4.35 m of diameter and 51 m of length (FLSMIDTH A/S, 2011) with a fill The rotary kiln characteristics are 4.35 m of diameter and 51 m of length (FLSMIDTH A/S, 2011) with a fill
degree of 10 % and the bed material has a porosity of 0.4. The material residence time is assumed to be 30 degree of 10 % and the bed material has a porosity of 0.4. The material residence time is assumed to be 30
minutes, therefore, the corresponding bed velocity along the rotary kiln is 0.025 m/s. minutes, therefore, the corresponding bed velocity along the rotary kiln is 0.025 m/s.
The input parameters for the sub-models: heating up, pyrolysis, and kiln model are specified in Table 7-1. The The input parameters for the sub-models: heating up, pyrolysis, and kiln model are specified in Table 7-1. The
o
CO diffusion coefficient and the mass transfer coefficient calculated at 900 C are listed in order to show their CO diffusion coefficient and the mass transfer coefficient calculated at 900 oC are listed in order to show their
order of magnitude. order of magnitude.
Table 7-1: Input parameters for the, heating up a fuel particle, pyrolysis and kiln models. Table 7-1: Input parameters for the, heating up a fuel particle, pyrolysis and kiln models.
Input parameters Input parameters

Reference Reference
Parameter Symbol Value Parameter Symbol Value
Wood lower heating value [MJ/kg] LHVw 19.7 (Guo et al., 2013) Wood lower heating value [MJ/kg] LHVw 19.7 (Guo et al., 2013)
Heating up a fuel particle
Heating up a fuel particle

3 3
Density wood [kg/m ] ρw 330 (Guo et al., 2013) Density wood [kg/m ] ρw 330 (Guo et al., 2013)
Heat capacity [J/(kg·K)] Cp,w 1733 (Guo et al., 2013) Heat capacity [J/(kg·K)] Cp,w 1733 (Guo et al., 2013)
Thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)] ks,w 0.20 (Guo et al., 2013) Thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)] ks,w 0.20 (Guo et al., 2013)
o o
Initial bed temperature [ C] Tb,0 900 (Hewlett, 1998) Initial bed temperature [ C] Tb,0 900 (Hewlett, 1998)
Heat transfer coefficient Heat transfer coefficient
hcond 300 (Linjewile et al., 1993) hcond 300 (Linjewile et al., 1993)
for conduction [W/(m2·K)] for conduction [W/(m2·K)]
Initial temperature [oC] To 20 Assumed Initial temperature [oC] To 20 Assumed
Pyrolysis pre-exponential factor [s-1] Apyr 7.68·107 (Reina et al., 1998) Pyrolysis pre-exponential factor [s-1] Apyr 7.68·107 (Reina et al., 1998)
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis activation energy [J/mol] Ea, pyr 124.87·103 (Reina et al., 1998) Pyrolysis activation energy [J/mol] Ea, pyr 124.87·103 (Reina et al., 1998)
Wood volatiles content [wt. % wood] wvol 40 (Nunn et al.,1985) Wood volatiles content [wt. % wood] wvol 40 (Nunn et al.,1985)
Sulfur content [wt. %] wS,in 2 Assumed Sulfur content [wt. %] wS,in 2 Assumed
Porosity [-] α 0.4 Assumed Porosity [-] α 0.4 Assumed
Final bed temperature [oC] Tb,f 1450 (Hewlett, 1998) Final bed temperature [oC] Tb,f 1450 (Hewlett, 1998)
Kiln Model
Kiln Model
Density bed material [kg/m3] ρb 1650 (Nielsen, 2012) Density bed material [kg/m3] ρb 1650 (Nielsen, 2012)
Pre-exponential factor [m/s] AVolÆSO2 14280 (Xiao and Song, 2011) Pre-exponential factor [m/s] AVolÆSO2 14280 (Xiao and Song, 2011)
Activation energy [J/mol] Ea,VolÆSO2 1890 (Xiao and Song, 2011) Activation energy [J/mol] Ea,VolÆSO2 1890 (Xiao and Song, 2011)
CO diffusion coefficient at 900 oC [m2/s] DCO 2.15·10-4 Calculated CO diffusion coefficient at 900 oC [m2/s] DCO 2.15·10-4 Calculated
o -4 o -4
Mass transfer coefficient at 900 C [m/s ] kg 1.69·10 Calculated Mass transfer coefficient at 900 C [m/s ] kg 1.69·10 Calculated
The fuel used to fire in the kiln inlet is wood. The fuel flow required to cover the energy in the kiln inlet is The fuel used to fire in the kiln inlet is wood. The fuel flow required to cover the energy in the kiln inlet is
0.246 kg/s wood. Different particles are defined and their mass and dimension characteristics as well as the 0.246 kg/s wood. Different particles are defined and their mass and dimension characteristics as well as the
number of particles fired are specified in Table 7-2. number of particles fired are specified in Table 7-2.
163 163
177 177
Table 7-2: Mass and dimension characteristics of different fuel particles and number of particles fired per second. Table 7-2: Mass and dimension characteristics of different fuel particles and number of particles fired per second.
Particle mass [g] Particle diameter [mm] Number of particles /s Particle mass [g] Particle diameter [mm] Number of particles /s
30 27.9 8 30 27.9 8
15 22.1 16 15 22.1 16
10 19.3 25 10 19.3 25
5 15.4 49 5 15.4 49
1 9.00 246 1 9.00 246
The temperature profile and the pyrolysis calculation are performed for a single wood particle. The temperature The temperature profile and the pyrolysis calculation are performed for a single wood particle. The temperature
profiles from the center to the surface of a 30 g and 1 g spherical wood particles are plotted in Figure 7-4 and profiles from the center to the surface of a 30 g and 1 g spherical wood particles are plotted in Figure 7-4 and
Figure 7-5 at different times. The heating up of the particle of 30 g is quite slow in the center, after 200 seconds Figure 7-5 at different times. The heating up of the particle of 30 g is quite slow in the center, after 200 seconds
the surface temperature is almost 900 oC while the center is just 200 oC. On the contrary, the 1g wood particle the surface temperature is almost 900 oC while the center is just 200 oC. On the contrary, the 1g wood particle
o
reaches almost 900 C after 100 seconds. reaches almost 900 oC after 100 seconds.
Figure 7-4: Temperature profiles for a single wood particle of Figure 7-5: Temperature profiles for a single wood particle of 1 g Figure 7-4: Temperature profiles for a single wood particle of Figure 7-5: Temperature profiles for a single wood particle of 1 g
30 g at 50, 100, 200 and 400 seconds. at 20, 50 and 100 seconds. 30 g at 50, 100, 200 and 400 seconds. at 20, 50 and 100 seconds.
The degrees of devolatilization for the different wood particles, which is calculated based on the mass decrease The degrees of devolatilization for the different wood particles, which is calculated based on the mass decrease
due to the volatiles release under pyrolysis, are shown in Figure 7-6. The results show that the degree of due to the volatiles release under pyrolysis, are shown in Figure 7-6. The results show that the degree of
devolatilization requires longer time to achieve 100 % with increasing particle mass. Moreover, the rate of devolatilization requires longer time to achieve 100 % with increasing particle mass. Moreover, the rate of
volatiles release, illustrated in Figure 7-7, is faster and takes place in shorter time with decreasing particle volatiles release, illustrated in Figure 7-7, is faster and takes place in shorter time with decreasing particle
mass. mass.
164 164
178 178
Figure 7-6: Degree of devolatilization for a wood particle of 30, Figure 7-7: Rate of volatiles release for a single wood particle Figure 7-6: Degree of devolatilization for a wood particle of 30, Figure 7-7: Rate of volatiles release for a single wood particle
15, 10, 5, and 1 g. of 30, 15, 10, 5, and 1 g. 15, 10, 5, and 1 g. of 30, 15, 10, 5, and 1 g.
The SO2 release rate is calculated for each wood particle mass and the results are shown in Figure 7-8. For The SO2 release rate is calculated for each wood particle mass and the results are shown in Figure 7-8. For
these calculations, the fuel degree of coverage, ɸ, is considered to be 1, which means that all the volatiles these calculations, the fuel degree of coverage, ɸ, is considered to be 1, which means that all the volatiles
released from the fuel are in contact with the bed material, and this is the worst case scenario giving the highest released from the fuel are in contact with the bed material, and this is the worst case scenario giving the highest
SO2 release. The SO2 release rate is higher and last shorter time for smaller particles than larger particles. The SO2 release. The SO2 release rate is higher and last shorter time for smaller particles than larger particles. The
integration of the SO2 release rate gives the total SO2 release, which is illustrated in Figure 7-9, and determines integration of the SO2 release rate gives the total SO2 release, which is illustrated in Figure 7-9, and determines
that more SO2 is release decreasing particle size. This is in good agreement with the experimental results that more SO2 is release decreasing particle size. This is in good agreement with the experimental results
presented in Chapter 5. The particle size affects mainly the release rate but not so much the total release, presented in Chapter 5. The particle size affects mainly the release rate but not so much the total release,
because the total release is quite similar while the SO2 release rate increases with decreasing particle size. because the total release is quite similar while the SO2 release rate increases with decreasing particle size.
Figure 7-8: SO2 release rate for 8 wood particles of 30 g, 16 Figure 7-9: Total SO2 release in g for 8 wood particles of 30 g, Figure 7-8: SO2 release rate for 8 wood particles of 30 g, 16 Figure 7-9: Total SO2 release in g for 8 wood particles of 30 g,
wood particles of 15 g, 25 wood particles of 10 g, 49 wood 16 wood particles of 15 g, 25 wood particles of 10 g, 49 wood wood particles of 15 g, 25 wood particles of 10 g, 49 wood 16 wood particles of 15 g, 25 wood particles of 10 g, 49 wood
particles of 5 g, and 246 wood particles of 1 g. particles of 5 g, and 246 wood particles of 1 g. particles of 5 g, and 246 wood particles of 1 g. particles of 5 g, and 246 wood particles of 1 g.
165 165
179 179
The SO2 concentration accumulated in the gas phase in counter-current is calculated as function of the distance The SO2 concentration accumulated in the gas phase in counter-current is calculated as function of the distance
from the kiln inlet and the results are plotted in Figure 7-10. Higher SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet are from the kiln inlet and the results are plotted in Figure 7-10. Higher SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet are
obtained with decreasing the mass of the particle. Furthermore, the SO2 release takes place closer to the kiln obtained with decreasing the mass of the particle. Furthermore, the SO2 release takes place closer to the kiln
inlet with decreasing the wood mass particle. For example, firing 246 wood particles of 1 g the SO 2 release inlet with decreasing the wood mass particle. For example, firing 246 wood particles of 1 g the SO 2 release
stops before 2 m from the kiln inlet, while firing 8 wood particles of 30 g the sulfur release stops after 12 stops before 2 m from the kiln inlet, while firing 8 wood particles of 30 g the sulfur release stops after 12
meters. The different mass particles giving different sizes influence more the distance in the kiln where SO2 meters. The different mass particles giving different sizes influence more the distance in the kiln where SO2
release takes place than the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet. release takes place than the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet.
Figure 7-10: SO2 concentration as function of the distance from the kiln inlet for 8 wood particles of 30 g, 16 wood particles of 15 g, Figure 7-10: SO2 concentration as function of the distance from the kiln inlet for 8 wood particles of 30 g, 16 wood particles of 15 g,
25 wood particles of 10 g, 49 wood particles of 5 g, and 246 wood particles of 1 g. 25 wood particles of 10 g, 49 wood particles of 5 g, and 246 wood particles of 1 g.
Table 7-3 summarizes the time of devolatilization for the different wood particles supplying 10 % of the energy Table 7-3 summarizes the time of devolatilization for the different wood particles supplying 10 % of the energy
as well as the total SO2 release, the concentration of SO2 in the kiln inlet, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the as well as the total SO2 release, the concentration of SO2 in the kiln inlet, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the
percentage of SO2 release to CO injected. The time to complete devolatilization increases with increasing percentage of SO2 release to CO injected. The time to complete devolatilization increases with increasing
particle size, and it is in good agreement with the experimental results of Chapter 5, and the experimental and particle size, and it is in good agreement with the experimental results of Chapter 5, and the experimental and
predicted results of Nielsen (2012). The total SO2 release and the concentration of SO2 in the kiln inlet factor predicted results of Nielsen (2012). The total SO2 release and the concentration of SO2 in the kiln inlet factor
increase with decreasing particle mass, and the evaporation factor follows thereby the same tendency. The SO2 increase with decreasing particle mass, and the evaporation factor follows thereby the same tendency. The SO2
release relative to the CO injected is nearly 100 % indicating that almost all CO reacts with CaSO 4 for the release relative to the CO injected is nearly 100 % indicating that almost all CO reacts with CaSO 4 for the
different scenarios. different scenarios.
166 166
180 180
Table 7-3: Summary of the time of devolatilization, total SO2 release, SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation factor, Table 7-3: Summary of the time of devolatilization, total SO2 release, SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation factor,
and the percentage of SO2 release to CO injected for the different mass particles with the same energy input. and the percentage of SO2 release to CO injected for the different mass particles with the same energy input.
Particle Particle Time of Total SO2 Conc. SO2 in εs SO2/CO Particle Particle Time of Total SO2 Conc. SO2 in εs SO2/CO
mass [g] diameter [mm] devolatilization [s] release [g] kiln inlet [ppm] [%] ratio [%] mass [g] diameter [mm] devolatilization [s] release [g] kiln inlet [ppm] [%] ratio [%]
30 27.9 340 76.46 1072 3.27 99.9 30 27.9 340 76.46 1072 3.27 99.9
15 22.1 230 77.34 1087 3.77 99.9 15 22.1 230 77.34 1087 3.77 99.9
10 19.3 180 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9 10 19.3 180 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9
5 15.4 120 81.02 1141 3.96 99.9 5 15.4 120 81.02 1141 3.96 99.9
1 9.00 44.0 81.88 1181 4.10 99.9 1 9.00 44.0 81.88 1181 4.10 99.9
7.5.1.1 Effect of the Fuel Degree of Coverage 7.5.1.1 Effect of the Fuel Degree of Coverage
The effect of the fuel degree of coverage is investigated using 25 wood particles of 10 g corresponding to 10 The effect of the fuel degree of coverage is investigated using 25 wood particles of 10 g corresponding to 10
% energy input. This particle size is chosen because it is an intermediate size and it is reasonable to be used in % energy input. This particle size is chosen because it is an intermediate size and it is reasonable to be used in
the industry. Figure 7-11 and Figure 7-12 show the effect of the fuel degree of coverage on the SO2 release the industry. Figure 7-11 and Figure 7-12 show the effect of the fuel degree of coverage on the SO2 release
rate and the SO2 concentration as function of the distance from the kiln inlet, respectively. The SO2 release rate rate and the SO2 concentration as function of the distance from the kiln inlet, respectively. The SO2 release rate
and the SO2 concentration decrease with decreasing fuel degree of coverage because less volatiles are in contact and the SO2 concentration decrease with decreasing fuel degree of coverage because less volatiles are in contact
with the bed material and consequently less volatiles can react with CaSO4 releasing SO2. with the bed material and consequently less volatiles can react with CaSO4 releasing SO2.
Figure 7-12: Effect of the fuel degree of coverage (ɸ) of 25 Figure 7-12: Effect of the fuel degree of coverage (ɸ) of 25
Figure 7-11: Effect of the fuel degree of coverage (ɸ) of 25 Figure 7-11: Effect of the fuel degree of coverage (ɸ) of 25
wood particles of 10 g each on the SO2 concentration in the flue wood particles of 10 g each on the SO2 concentration in the flue
wood particles of 10 g each on the SO2 release rate. wood particles of 10 g each on the SO2 release rate.
gas as function of the distance from the kiln inlet. gas as function of the distance from the kiln inlet.
The total SO2 release, the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the percentage The total SO2 release, the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the percentage
of SO2 release to CO injected for the different degree of coverage are specified in Table 7-4. of SO2 release to CO injected for the different degree of coverage are specified in Table 7-4.
167 167
181 181
Table 7-4: Summary of the total SO2 release, SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation factor, and the percentage of SO2 Table 7-4: Summary of the total SO2 release, SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation factor, and the percentage of SO2
release to CO injected for the different fuel degree of coverage of 25 wood particles of 10 g. release to CO injected for the different fuel degree of coverage of 25 wood particles of 10 g.
Fuel degree of Fuel degree of

Total SO2 release [g] Conc. SO2 in kiln inlet [ppm] εs [%] SO2/CO ratio [%] Total SO2 release [g] Conc. SO2 in kiln inlet [ppm] εs [%] SO2/CO ratio [%]
coverage coverage
1 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9 1 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9
0.9 72.92 1027 3.56 90.0 0.9 72.92 1027 3.56 90.0
0.7 56.71 799.2 2.77 70.0 0.7 56.71 799.2 2.77 70.0
0.5 40.51 570.9 1.98 50.0 0.5 40.51 570.9 1.98 50.0
The three variables are highest when the fuel particle is fully covered by bed material (ϕ=1), because the The three variables are highest when the fuel particle is fully covered by bed material (ϕ=1), because the
contact between the CO concentration and the CaSO4 in the bed material is higher. The sulfur evaporation contact between the CO concentration and the CaSO4 in the bed material is higher. The sulfur evaporation
factor decreases linearly with decreasing the fuel degree of coverage. factor decreases linearly with decreasing the fuel degree of coverage.
The fuel degree of coverage is a parameter, which cannot be directly controlled, because it depends on the The fuel degree of coverage is a parameter, which cannot be directly controlled, because it depends on the
mixing between fuel particles with the bed material. Nielsen (2012) investigated experimentally the mixing of mixing between fuel particles with the bed material. Nielsen (2012) investigated experimentally the mixing of
large and small particles in rotary kilns and showed that the degree of visibility above the bed depends on the large and small particles in rotary kilns and showed that the degree of visibility above the bed depends on the
material fill degree, the dimensions and sphericity of the fuel particle, and the fuel density. A probability material fill degree, the dimensions and sphericity of the fuel particle, and the fuel density. A probability
correlation was derived dependent on the characteristics of the bed, the sphericity and the density of the fuel, correlation was derived dependent on the characteristics of the bed, the sphericity and the density of the fuel,
and fitting parameters from the conducted experiments at room temperature (Nielsen, 2012). The tendency at and fitting parameters from the conducted experiments at room temperature (Nielsen, 2012). The tendency at
room temperature was that large fuel particle were more visible than smaller fuel particles, however, this room temperature was that large fuel particle were more visible than smaller fuel particles, however, this
correlation has not been validated at temperatures relevant for the cement rotary kilns. correlation has not been validated at temperatures relevant for the cement rotary kilns.
7.5.1.2 Effect of the Fill Degree 7.5.1.2 Effect of the Fill Degree
The fill degree of the kiln bed has been modified in order to investigate its influence on SO2 release when The fill degree of the kiln bed has been modified in order to investigate its influence on SO2 release when
firing 25 wood particle of 10 g. Figure 7-13 shows the SO2 release rate, the total SO2 release, and the firing 25 wood particle of 10 g. Figure 7-13 shows the SO2 release rate, the total SO2 release, and the
concentration of SO2 when the bed material has a fill degree of 20, 10, and 5 % with the same sulfur concentration of SO2 when the bed material has a fill degree of 20, 10, and 5 % with the same sulfur
concentration, 2 wt. %, in each case. Graph a) shows that the SO2 release rate is the same for the different fill concentration, 2 wt. %, in each case. Graph a) shows that the SO2 release rate is the same for the different fill
degrees because nearly 100 % of volatiles gases reacted with the sulfur in the bed, which is in excess. The total degrees because nearly 100 % of volatiles gases reacted with the sulfur in the bed, which is in excess. The total
SO2 release, illustrated in graph b), is equal for the different fill degrees. The SO2 concentration as function of SO2 release, illustrated in graph b), is equal for the different fill degrees. The SO2 concentration as function of
the distance from the kiln inlet, graph c), increases with decreasing fill degree, this is because the material bed the distance from the kiln inlet, graph c), increases with decreasing fill degree, this is because the material bed
flow is decreased and consequently the gas flow also decreases, according to equations 7.16 and 7.17. flow is decreased and consequently the gas flow also decreases, according to equations 7.16 and 7.17.
168 168
182 182
a) a)
b) b)
c) c)
Figure 7-13: Effect of the fill degree on a) the SO2 release rate, b) total SO2 release and c) the SO2 concentration in the flue gas as Figure 7-13: Effect of the fill degree on a) the SO2 release rate, b) total SO2 release and c) the SO2 concentration in the flue gas as
function of the distance from the kiln inlet when 25 wood particles of 10 g each are fired. function of the distance from the kiln inlet when 25 wood particles of 10 g each are fired.
The summary of the SO2 release, the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the The summary of the SO2 release, the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the
percentage of SO2 release to CO injected for the scenarios varying the bed fill degree containing the same percentage of SO2 release to CO injected for the scenarios varying the bed fill degree containing the same
sulfur concentration is shown in Table 7-5. The total SO2 release is the same for the different bed fill degrees sulfur concentration is shown in Table 7-5. The total SO2 release is the same for the different bed fill degrees
as illustrated in Figure 7-13, because the CaSO4 is reactant in excess for the three cases. This means that the as illustrated in Figure 7-13, because the CaSO4 is reactant in excess for the three cases. This means that the
same volatile concentration gives the same SO2 release, but the concentration in the gas phase is different, same volatile concentration gives the same SO2 release, but the concentration in the gas phase is different,
because the gas flow depends on the solid material flow, which is a function of the fill degree. The highest SO2 because the gas flow depends on the solid material flow, which is a function of the fill degree. The highest SO2
concentration in the kiln inlet and the sulfur evaporation factor correspond to 5 % fill degree, while the lowest concentration in the kiln inlet and the sulfur evaporation factor correspond to 5 % fill degree, while the lowest
SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet and sulfur evaporation factor to 20 % fill degree. SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet and sulfur evaporation factor to 20 % fill degree.
Table 7-5: Summary of the SO2 release, SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation factor, and the percentage of SO2 Table 7-5: Summary of the SO2 release, SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation factor, and the percentage of SO2
release to CO injected for the scenarios varying the bed fill degree using 25 wood particles of 10 g. release to CO injected for the scenarios varying the bed fill degree using 25 wood particles of 10 g.
Fill degree [%] Total SO2 release [g] Conc. SO2 in kiln inlet [ppm] εs [%] SO2/CO ratio [%] Fill degree [%] Total SO2 release [g] Conc. SO2 in kiln inlet [ppm] εs [%] SO2/CO ratio [%]
5 80.13 2281 7.92 99.9 5 80.13 2281 7.92 99.9
10 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9 10 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9
20 80.13 570.9 1.98 99.9 20 80.13 570.9 1.98 99.9
169 169
183 183
7.5.1.3 Effect of CaSO4 Content in the Bed Material 7.5.1.3 Effect of CaSO4 Content in the Bed Material
The effect of sulfur content in the bed material on sulfur release is studied using 25 wood particles of 10 g. The effect of sulfur content in the bed material on sulfur release is studied using 25 wood particles of 10 g.
Figure 7-14 shows the results of the SO2 release rate, the total SO2 release, and the SO2 concentration in the Figure 7-14 shows the results of the SO2 release rate, the total SO2 release, and the SO2 concentration in the
gas phase, which are not modified by the variation of sulfur content. This can be explained by the reaction of gas phase, which are not modified by the variation of sulfur content. This can be explained by the reaction of
nearly 100 % of the volatiles with CaSO4 in excess. Furthermore, the variation of the surface area of sulfur for nearly 100 % of the volatiles with CaSO4 in excess. Furthermore, the variation of the surface area of sulfur for
each case is insignificant and not influences the output results. However, this is not in good agreement with each case is insignificant and not influences the output results. However, this is not in good agreement with
the experimental finding from Chapter 5 (Figure 5-30 and Figure 5-31). the experimental finding from Chapter 5 (Figure 5-30 and Figure 5-31).
a) a)
b) b)
c) c)
Figure 7-14: Effect of the sulfur input in the bed material on a) the SO2 release rate, b) total SO2 release and c) the SO2 concentration Figure 7-14: Effect of the sulfur input in the bed material on a) the SO2 release rate, b) total SO2 release and c) the SO2 concentration
in the flue gas as function of the distance from the kiln inlet when 25 wood particles of 10 g each are fired. in the flue gas as function of the distance from the kiln inlet when 25 wood particles of 10 g each are fired.
The sulfur evaporation factor is calculated in each case and significantly increases with decreasing sulfur The sulfur evaporation factor is calculated in each case and significantly increases with decreasing sulfur
content, as illustrated in Table 7-6. That is because the fraction gets larger if the initial sulfur amount is lower content, as illustrated in Table 7-6. That is because the fraction gets larger if the initial sulfur amount is lower
and the same amount of sulfur is released. and the same amount of sulfur is released.
release to CO injected for different sulfur bed content using 25 wood particles of 10 g. release to CO injected for different sulfur bed content using 25 wood particles of 10 g.
CaSO4 in bed material Conc. SO2 in kiln inlet SO2/CO CaSO4 in bed material Conc. SO2 in kiln inlet SO2/CO
Total SO2 release [g] εs [%] Total SO2 release [g] εs [%]
[wt. %] [ppm] ratio [%] [wt. %] [ppm] ratio [%]
0.2 80.13 1134 36.68 99.9 0.2 80.13 1134 36.68 99.9
2 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9 2 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9
5 80.13 1134 1.78 99.9 5 80.13 1134 1.78 99.9
170 170
184 184
7.5.2 Effect of Firing Degree in the Kiln Inlet 7.5.2 Effect of Firing Degree in the Kiln Inlet
The firing degree is the rate of energy substituted in the kiln inlet. The effect of the firing degree in the kiln The firing degree is the rate of energy substituted in the kiln inlet. The effect of the firing degree in the kiln
inlet on sulfur release is also investigated when wood particles of 10 g are fired under the bed material with 10 inlet on sulfur release is also investigated when wood particles of 10 g are fired under the bed material with 10
% fill degree and 2 wt. % CaSO4. The modification of the firing degree varies the number of wood particles % fill degree and 2 wt. % CaSO4. The modification of the firing degree varies the number of wood particles
used in order to satisfy the fuel flow required to cover the energy in the kiln inlet. Figure 7-15 shows the SO2 used in order to satisfy the fuel flow required to cover the energy in the kiln inlet. Figure 7-15 shows the SO2
release rate, the total SO2 release, and the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet for the scenarios of 5 and 15 % release rate, the total SO2 release, and the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet for the scenarios of 5 and 15 %
firing degree in the kiln inlet and compared to the 10 %. The numbers of wood particles of 10 g required are firing degree in the kiln inlet and compared to the 10 %. The numbers of wood particles of 10 g required are
12, 25, and 37 for 5, 10, and 15 % firing degree, respectively. The SO2 release rate, the total SO2 release, and 12, 25, and 37 for 5, 10, and 15 % firing degree, respectively. The SO2 release rate, the total SO2 release, and
the SO2 concentration increase with increasing substitution energy. This observation is in good agreement with the SO2 concentration increase with increasing substitution energy. This observation is in good agreement with
the experimental results of Nielsen (2012) investigating the energy input on sulfur release, which were the experimental results of Nielsen (2012) investigating the energy input on sulfur release, which were
presented in Figure 5-7. presented in Figure 5-7.
a) a)
b) b)
c) c)
Figure 7-15: Effect of the energy substitution in the kiln inlet using 10 g wood particles on a) the SO 2 release rate, b) total SO2 Figure 7-15: Effect of the energy substitution in the kiln inlet using 10 g wood particles on a) the SO 2 release rate, b) total SO2
release and c) the SO2 concentration in the flue gas as function of the distance from the kiln inlet. release and c) the SO2 concentration in the flue gas as function of the distance from the kiln inlet.
The corresponding total SO2 release, SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation factors and the The corresponding total SO2 release, SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation factors and the
percentages of SO2 release to CO injected in the kiln inlet for the different firing degree scenarios are listed in percentages of SO2 release to CO injected in the kiln inlet for the different firing degree scenarios are listed in
Table 7-7. The total SO2 release and the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet increase with increasing energy Table 7-7. The total SO2 release and the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet increase with increasing energy
171 171
185 185
substitution, because the volatiles gases in contact with the sulfur bed material also increases. Consequently, substitution, because the volatiles gases in contact with the sulfur bed material also increases. Consequently,
the sulfur evaporation factor increases. the sulfur evaporation factor increases.
release to CO injected for different firing degree scenarios using wood particles of 10 g. release to CO injected for different firing degree scenarios using wood particles of 10 g.
Firing degree in kiln SO2/CO Firing degree in kiln SO2/CO

Total SO2 release [g] Conc. SO2 in kiln inlet [ppm] εs [%] Total SO2 release [g] Conc. SO2 in kiln inlet [ppm] εs [%]
inlet [%] ratio [%] inlet [%] ratio [%]
5 38.89 548.1 1.90 99.9 5 38.89 548.1 1.90 99.9
10 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9 10 80.13 1134 3.93 99.9
15 119.9 1668 5.86 99.9 15 119.9 1668 5.86 99.9
7.5.3 Sensitivity analysis 7.5.3 Sensitivity analysis
A sensitivity analysis is performed to evaluate the importance of the input variables in the kiln model on the A sensitivity analysis is performed to evaluate the importance of the input variables in the kiln model on the
total SO2 release, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet. This method only total SO2 release, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the SO2 concentration in the kiln inlet. This method only
addresses sensitivity relative to the chosen reference case, but parameter interactions are not evaluated. The addresses sensitivity relative to the chosen reference case, but parameter interactions are not evaluated. The
input parameters for a chosen reference case are specified in Table 7-8 as well as the output results. input parameters for a chosen reference case are specified in Table 7-8 as well as the output results.
Table 7-8: Input parameters and output results for the reference case. Table 7-8: Input parameters and output results for the reference case.
Input parameter Symbol Reference value Input parameter Symbol Reference value
Mass particle [g] mp 10 Mass particle [g] mp 10
Sulfur input [wt. %] wS,in 2 Sulfur input [wt. %] wS,in 2
Fill degree [%] F 10 Fill degree [%] F 10
Bed porosity [-] α 0.4 Bed porosity [-] α 0.4
Degree of coverage [-] ф 0.7 Degree of coverage [-] ф 0.7
Activation energy [J/mol] Ea,VolÆSO2 14280 Activation energy [J/mol] Ea,VolÆSO2 14280
Pre-exponential factor [m/s] AVolÆSO2 1890 Pre-exponential factor [m/s] AVolÆSO2 1890
Firing degree [%] - 10 Firing degree [%] - 10
Output results Output results
Total SO2 release [g] 56.71 Total SO2 release [g] 56.71
Conc. SO2 kiln inlet [ppm] 799.2 Conc. SO2 kiln inlet [ppm] 799.2
εs [%] 2.77 εs [%] 2.77
Each input parameter is changed with +/- 25 % while keeping the remaining parameters constant. Table 7-9 Each input parameter is changed with +/- 25 % while keeping the remaining parameters constant. Table 7-9
summarizes the output results obtained for each case, and their percentage deviation from the output results summarizes the output results obtained for each case, and their percentage deviation from the output results
obtained to the reference case. The results show that the parameters with the largest influence on the three obtained to the reference case. The results show that the parameters with the largest influence on the three
output variables are the firing degree and the fuel degree of coverage. On the contrary, the activation energy output variables are the firing degree and the fuel degree of coverage. On the contrary, the activation energy
and the pre-exponential factor do not influence the output results. The variation of +/- 25 % of the sulfur bed and the pre-exponential factor do not influence the output results. The variation of +/- 25 % of the sulfur bed
content influences only the evaporation factor, because the variation of the initial bed properties affects the content influences only the evaporation factor, because the variation of the initial bed properties affects the
172 172
186 186
initial sulfur, but the sulfur released is the same since the volatiles are the limited reactant. The modification initial sulfur, but the sulfur released is the same since the volatiles are the limited reactant. The modification
of the fill degree does not influence the total SO2 release, as shown in Figure 7-13, graph b). It can be seen that of the fill degree does not influence the total SO2 release, as shown in Figure 7-13, graph b). It can be seen that
applying the same variation in an input parameter, the deviation is not the same for the positive and the negative applying the same variation in an input parameter, the deviation is not the same for the positive and the negative
variation, for example, a + 25 % variation on the mass particle deviates more from the reference results than variation, for example, a + 25 % variation on the mass particle deviates more from the reference results than
the same negative variation. the same negative variation.
Table 7-9: Sensitivity analysis of the kiln model on the total SO2 release, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the SO2 concentration in Table 7-9: Sensitivity analysis of the kiln model on the total SO2 release, the sulfur evaporation factor, and the SO2 concentration in
the kiln inlet. the kiln inlet.
Input parameters Change in output variables Deviation [%] Input parameters Change in output variables Deviation [%]
Variation Conc. SO2 kiln Total Conc. SO2 Variation Conc. SO2 kiln Total Conc. SO2
Total SO2 [g] εs [%] εs Total SO2 [g] εs [%] εs
+/- 25 % inlet [ppm] SO2 kiln inlet +/- 25 % inlet [ppm] SO2 kiln inlet
7.5 56.39 2.76 796.1 -0.56 -0.36 -0.39 7.5 56.39 2.76 796.1 -0.56 -0.36 -0.39
Mass particle [g] Mass particle [g]
12.5 59.88 2.89 835.8 5.59 4.33 4.58 12.5 59.88 2.89 835.8 5.59 4.33 4.58
Sulfur content 1.5 56.71 3.62 799.2 0.00 30.7 0.00 Sulfur content 1.5 56.71 3.62 799.2 0.00 30.7 0.00
[wt. %] 2.5 56.71 2.26 799.2 0.00 -18.4 0.00 [wt. %] 2.5 56.71 2.26 799.2 0.00 -18.4 0.00
7.5 56.71 3.69 1065 0.00 33.2 33.3 7.5 56.71 3.69 1065 0.00 33.2 33.3
Fill degree [%] Fill degree [%]
12.5 56.71 2.22 639.4 0.00 -19.9 -20.0 12.5 56.71 2.22 639.4 0.00 -19.9 -20.0
Degree of 0.525 42.54 2.07 599.5 -25.0 -25.3 -25.0 Degree of 0.525 42.54 2.07 599.5 -25.0 -25.3 -25.0
coverage [-] 0.875 70.89 3.46 998.9 25.0 24.9 25.0 coverage [-] 0.875 70.89 3.46 998.9 25.0 24.9 25.0
Activation energy 108960 56.71 2.77 799.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 Activation energy 108960 56.71 2.77 799.2 0.00 0.00 0.00
[J/mol] 181600 56.71 2.77 799.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 [J/mol] 181600 56.71 2.77 799.2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pre-exponential 1417.5 56.71 2.77 799.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 Pre-exponential 1417.5 56.71 2.77 799.2 0.00 0.00 0.00
factor [m/s] 2362.5 56.71 2.77 799.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 factor [m/s] 2362.5 56.71 2.77 799.2 0.00 0.00 0.00
7.5 40.83 1.99 575.5 -28.0 -28.2 -28.0 7.5 40.83 1.99 575.5 -28.0 -28.2 -28.0
Firing degree [%] Firing degree [%]
12.5 70.33 3.44 699.9 24.0 24.2 -12.4 12.5 70.33 3.44 699.9 24.0 24.2 -12.4
The actual uncertainty of the parameters may be higher than the +/- 25 % variation depending on the operation The actual uncertainty of the parameters may be higher than the +/- 25 % variation depending on the operation
control of a cement plant, for instance, the mass particle of fuels can have a wide range if the particle size is control of a cement plant, for instance, the mass particle of fuels can have a wide range if the particle size is
not screened, and the fuel degree of coverage will depend also on the mixing of the fuel with the raw materials. not screened, and the fuel degree of coverage will depend also on the mixing of the fuel with the raw materials.
Furthermore, the uncertainty of the sulfur content in the bed material may also be higher if there is a significant Furthermore, the uncertainty of the sulfur content in the bed material may also be higher if there is a significant
circulation of sulfur, or it may be affected if the raw materials present significant inhomogeneities. circulation of sulfur, or it may be affected if the raw materials present significant inhomogeneities.
7.6 Model Evaluation 7.6 Model Evaluation
The rotary kiln model has been adapted to the pilot scale dimensions of the high temperature rotary drum in The rotary kiln model has been adapted to the pilot scale dimensions of the high temperature rotary drum in
order to evaluate this model against the experimental data obtained in Chapter 6. order to evaluate this model against the experimental data obtained in Chapter 6.
The model development, presented in section 7.4.3, is used with the dimensions for the high temperature rotary The model development, presented in section 7.4.3, is used with the dimensions for the high temperature rotary
drum, which were specified in sections 5.2.1 and 6.2. The main difference between the rotary kiln model for drum, which were specified in sections 5.2.1 and 6.2. The main difference between the rotary kiln model for
173 173
187 187
an industrial case and the one adapted to the high temperature rotary drum is that the bed material consists of an industrial case and the one adapted to the high temperature rotary drum is that the bed material consists of
quartz sand and CaSO4 and not of CaO surrounded by CaSO4 as in the industrial case. The mean diameter of quartz sand and CaSO4 and not of CaO surrounded by CaSO4 as in the industrial case. The mean diameter of
the used CaSO4 is 6.49 μm with a specific surface area of 3.23 m2/g. The analysis of the particle size is shown the used CaSO4 is 6.49 μm with a specific surface area of 3.23 m2/g. The analysis of the particle size is shown
in Appendix E. in Appendix E.
The axial length of rotary drum is 44 cm. The experimental results have shown that only a minor amount of The axial length of rotary drum is 44 cm. The experimental results have shown that only a minor amount of
CaSO4 reacts, indicating that the reaction takes place in the proximity of the tube where the reducing agent is CaSO4 reacts, indicating that the reaction takes place in the proximity of the tube where the reducing agent is
released. A finite length of the bed for the CSTR system, x, needs therefore to be defined in the model, where released. A finite length of the bed for the CSTR system, x, needs therefore to be defined in the model, where
the reaction will take place only in this finite volume. Figure 7-16 illustrates the axial length rotary drum and the reaction will take place only in this finite volume. Figure 7-16 illustrates the axial length rotary drum and
for the CSTR. for the CSTR.
N2/O2 N2/O2
x x
CSTR CSTR
H2, or CH4 Flue gas H2, or CH4 Flue gas
or CO in N2 or CO in N2
44 cm 44 cm
Figure 7-16: Sketch of the rotary drum bed length and the defined bed length of the CSTR for the model validation. Figure 7-16: Sketch of the rotary drum bed length and the defined bed length of the CSTR for the model validation.
Using 10 vol. % CO, different lengths of the bed material are considered for the CSTR in the model to Using 10 vol. % CO, different lengths of the bed material are considered for the CSTR in the model to
investigate the effect of this parameter, as shown in Figure 7-17. The variation in the bed length affects the investigate the effect of this parameter, as shown in Figure 7-17. The variation in the bed length affects the
surface area of the CaSO4 involved in the reaction (As in equation 7.16), this means that not all CaSO4 present surface area of the CaSO4 involved in the reaction (As in equation 7.16), this means that not all CaSO4 present
in the bed material is accounted in the CSTR system. Consequently, the surface area needs to be scaled to the in the bed material is accounted in the CSTR system. Consequently, the surface area needs to be scaled to the
proportion of CaSO4 in length of the bed, considering that the CaSO4 is evenly distributed. proportion of CaSO4 in length of the bed, considering that the CaSO4 is evenly distributed.
Figure 7-17: SO2 concentrations using 10 vol. % CO concentration varying the length of the bed considered in the model. Figure 7-17: SO2 concentrations using 10 vol. % CO concentration varying the length of the bed considered in the model.
174 174
188 188
The predicted SO2 concentration decreases with increasing length of the bed, because the top area where the The predicted SO2 concentration decreases with increasing length of the bed, because the top area where the
CO can diffuse out of the bed also increases and more CO can diffuse out. It may not be realistic to assume CO can diffuse out of the bed also increases and more CO can diffuse out. It may not be realistic to assume
that the CO may diffuse in the axial direction and react with CaSO4 from a long distance of the injection. that the CO may diffuse in the axial direction and react with CaSO4 from a long distance of the injection.
Therefore, the bed length of the CSTR is assumed to be 10 cm where the reaction takes place (5 cm in each Therefore, the bed length of the CSTR is assumed to be 10 cm where the reaction takes place (5 cm in each
side of the location of the tube). The surface area is thereby scaled to the proportion of CaSO4 in 10 cm of the side of the location of the tube). The surface area is thereby scaled to the proportion of CaSO4 in 10 cm of the
bed. The model calculates the steady-state concentration of SO2 release when the CO is introduced. The bed. The model calculates the steady-state concentration of SO2 release when the CO is introduced. The
modelling results are shown in Figure 7-18 together with the experimental results of SO2 concentration using modelling results are shown in Figure 7-18 together with the experimental results of SO2 concentration using
different CO concentrations at 5 and 10 vol. % O2. different CO concentrations at 5 and 10 vol. % O2.
It can be seen that the modeling results follow the tendency of the experimental data, however the oxygen It can be seen that the modeling results follow the tendency of the experimental data, however the oxygen
content in the freeboard atmosphere is not included in the mathematical model and it is assumed that the CO content in the freeboard atmosphere is not included in the mathematical model and it is assumed that the CO
is well mixed. In the experiments, CO may not be a well-mixed in the bed and may be oxidized by the oxygen, is well mixed. In the experiments, CO may not be a well-mixed in the bed and may be oxidized by the oxygen,
which may diffuse to the bed, occupying the voids and causing a gradient of concentrations inside the bed. which may diffuse to the bed, occupying the voids and causing a gradient of concentrations inside the bed.
Furthermore, the adapted model has the uncertainty of the considered bed porosity and surface area of CaSO4, Furthermore, the adapted model has the uncertainty of the considered bed porosity and surface area of CaSO4,
which may be different in the experiments because agglomeration of particles may also take place. which may be different in the experiments because agglomeration of particles may also take place.
Figure 7-18: Comparison of the experimental results of SO2 concentration using different CO concentrations at 5 and 10 vol. % O2 Figure 7-18: Comparison of the experimental results of SO2 concentration using different CO concentrations at 5 and 10 vol. % O2
and the modeling results. and the modeling results.
The absolute level of the SO2 concentration cannot be predicted by the model since the bed length and the The absolute level of the SO2 concentration cannot be predicted by the model since the bed length and the
oxygen concentration are uncertain parameters. It can however be used for qualitative validation, i.e. to oxygen concentration are uncertain parameters. It can however be used for qualitative validation, i.e. to
evaluate how a relative change in an input parameter affects the sulfur release. The percentage of SO2 release evaluate how a relative change in an input parameter affects the sulfur release. The percentage of SO2 release
relative to the CO injected for the experimental data and for the modeling results are presented in Table 7-10 relative to the CO injected for the experimental data and for the modeling results are presented in Table 7-10
in order to compare how much CO has reacted. in order to compare how much CO has reacted.
175 175
189 189
Table 7-10: Percentage of SO2 release relative to CO injected for different CO concentrations for the experimental and modelling Table 7-10: Percentage of SO2 release relative to CO injected for different CO concentrations for the experimental and modelling
results. results.
SO2/CO ratio [%] SO2/CO ratio [%]

CO conc. [vol. %] CO conc. [vol. %]
900 oC, 5 vol. % O2 900 oC, 10 vol. % O2 Model 900 oC, 5 vol. % O2 900 oC, 10 vol. % O2 Model
5 2.02 0.98 6.07 5 2.02 0.98 6.07
7 2.74 0.93 6.07 7 2.74 0.93 6.07
10 6.67 1.90 6.07 10 6.67 1.90 6.07
15 13.2 2.54 6.07 15 13.2 2.54 6.07
20 16.1 2.85 6.07 20 16.1 2.85 6.07
The results for the model evaluation indicates that only a 6.07 % of CO reacts to form SO2, while for the rotary The results for the model evaluation indicates that only a 6.07 % of CO reacts to form SO2, while for the rotary
kiln model the CO was reacting almost 100 %. This is because in the rotary kiln model the CO that has not kiln model the CO was reacting almost 100 %. This is because in the rotary kiln model the CO that has not
reacted is transferred to the next reactor increasing the probability of CO to react. For the evaluation of the reacted is transferred to the next reactor increasing the probability of CO to react. For the evaluation of the
adapted model only one CSTR is considered to calculate the steady-state concentration of SO2 release, because adapted model only one CSTR is considered to calculate the steady-state concentration of SO2 release, because
bed material is not moving in the axial direction. bed material is not moving in the axial direction.
Furthermore, to investigate in which scenario the model can fit the experimental data obtained at 10 vol. % O2, Furthermore, to investigate in which scenario the model can fit the experimental data obtained at 10 vol. % O2,
the fitting of the model results is performed varying the bed length and the degree of coverage. The results are the fitting of the model results is performed varying the bed length and the degree of coverage. The results are
shown in Figure 7-19. In this case, since there is no particle in either the model or the experiments, the degree shown in Figure 7-19. In this case, since there is no particle in either the model or the experiments, the degree
of coverage influences the amount of CO that is in contact with the material bed. A length of 20 cm which is of coverage influences the amount of CO that is in contact with the material bed. A length of 20 cm which is
almost the half of the rotary drum is required. Varying the contact of CO with the material bed, the predicted almost the half of the rotary drum is required. Varying the contact of CO with the material bed, the predicted
SO2 concentration can be fitted at low concentrations of CO with 0.2 degree of coverage and at high CO SO2 concentration can be fitted at low concentrations of CO with 0.2 degree of coverage and at high CO
concentrations with a degree of coverage of 0.5. The model was not able to simulate the experimental data concentrations with a degree of coverage of 0.5. The model was not able to simulate the experimental data
obtained at 5 vol. % O2. obtained at 5 vol. % O2.
80 80
70 70
Concentration of SO2 [ppm]
Concentration of SO2 [ppm]

60 60
50 50
40
Exp.data-10 vol.% O΍ 40
Exp.data-10 vol.% O΍
Model- x=20cm, ф=0.2 Model- x=20cm, ф=0.2
30 30
Model- x=20cm, ф=0.5 Model- x=20cm, ф=0.5
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
CO concentration [vol. %] CO concentration [vol. %]
Figure 7-19: Model fitting to the experimental data obtained at 10 vol. % O2 varying the bed length and the degree of coverage. Figure 7-19: Model fitting to the experimental data obtained at 10 vol. % O2 varying the bed length and the degree of coverage.
176 176
190 190
In Chapter 6, it is mentioned that the SO2 rate of formation could follow a first order expression, rSO2= k (CCO- In Chapter 6, it is mentioned that the SO2 rate of formation could follow a first order expression, rSO2= k (CCO-
CCO,t), where CCO, t is the threshold CO concentration which below this concentration no SO2 is released. CCO,t), where CCO, t is the threshold CO concentration which below this concentration no SO2 is released.
However, this is not implemented in the model because the kinetic constants for the reaction are developed for However, this is not implemented in the model because the kinetic constants for the reaction are developed for
this case and it is believed that this threshold concentration may change depending on the sulfur content of the this case and it is believed that this threshold concentration may change depending on the sulfur content of the
bed. bed.
The validation of the kiln model is difficult to perform against industrial cement plant data because part of the The validation of the kiln model is difficult to perform against industrial cement plant data because part of the
SO2 release may get absorbed and the measurement of SO2 in the kiln inlet has some challenges, as will be SO2 release may get absorbed and the measurement of SO2 in the kiln inlet has some challenges, as will be
explained in Chapter 9. explained in Chapter 9.
Modeling the behavior of rotary kilns is a complicated task involving heat transfer, gas-solid and solid-solid Modeling the behavior of rotary kilns is a complicated task involving heat transfer, gas-solid and solid-solid
reactions, and particle mixing. In the literature, most of the models for rotary kilns are one-dimensional models reactions, and particle mixing. In the literature, most of the models for rotary kilns are one-dimensional models
for fossil fuels and are based on heat and mass transfer along the length of the kiln. More sophisticated physical for fossil fuels and are based on heat and mass transfer along the length of the kiln. More sophisticated physical
three-dimensional models based on computational fluid dynamics have been also developed but are limited in three-dimensional models based on computational fluid dynamics have been also developed but are limited in
their ability to model the clinker chemistry, bed motion, and thermodynamics. The different behavior between their ability to model the clinker chemistry, bed motion, and thermodynamics. The different behavior between
fossil and alternative fuels has encouraged the development of separate models for rotary kilns using alternative fossil and alternative fuels has encouraged the development of separate models for rotary kilns using alternative
fuels. fuels.
A mathematical model which is able to predict sulfur release caused by volatiles from wood particles fired in A mathematical model which is able to predict sulfur release caused by volatiles from wood particles fired in
the material kiln inlet has been developed in this chapter. The model is based on the reaction between the the material kiln inlet has been developed in this chapter. The model is based on the reaction between the
volatiles and CaSO4 in the bed material, which is considered as continuous stirred tank reactors in series and volatiles and CaSO4 in the bed material, which is considered as continuous stirred tank reactors in series and
therefore assuming well mixing between the volatile gases and the bed material. therefore assuming well mixing between the volatile gases and the bed material.
SO2 release was predicted when firing different wood particle mass substituting 10 % of the energy required SO2 release was predicted when firing different wood particle mass substituting 10 % of the energy required
for production in the kiln inlet. The SO2 released and consequently the sulfur evaporation factor increased with for production in the kiln inlet. The SO2 released and consequently the sulfur evaporation factor increased with
decreasing particle mass. The effect of the fuel degree of coverage, the bed fill degree, and the bed sulfur decreasing particle mass. The effect of the fuel degree of coverage, the bed fill degree, and the bed sulfur
content was investigated for 25 wood particles of 10 g. The calculations showed that almost all CO reacts with content was investigated for 25 wood particles of 10 g. The calculations showed that almost all CO reacts with
CaSO4 for the different cases. The total SO2 release was the same for the different fill degrees, but the SO2 CaSO4 for the different cases. The total SO2 release was the same for the different fill degrees, but the SO2
concentration in the kiln inlet increased with increasing fill degree, because the material bed flow was concentration in the kiln inlet increased with increasing fill degree, because the material bed flow was
decreased as well as the gas flow. For the different bed sulfur content, the same total SO2 release and decreased as well as the gas flow. For the different bed sulfur content, the same total SO2 release and
concentration in the kiln inlet was obtained because the limiting reactant was the volatiles, which was equal concentration in the kiln inlet was obtained because the limiting reactant was the volatiles, which was equal
for the different cases. The sulfur evaporation factor increased with decreasing sulfur content in the bed and for the different cases. The sulfur evaporation factor increased with decreasing sulfur content in the bed and
fill degree, while it decreased with increasing the fuel degree of coverage. fill degree, while it decreased with increasing the fuel degree of coverage.
The modification of the firing degree was also studied considering wood particles of 10 g. The total SO2 release The modification of the firing degree was also studied considering wood particles of 10 g. The total SO2 release
and the sulfur evaporation factor increased with increasing firing degree in the kiln inlet. These model and the sulfur evaporation factor increased with increasing firing degree in the kiln inlet. These model
177 177
191 191
predictions are in a good agreement with the experimental results from Chapter 5, except the effect of bed predictions are in a good agreement with the experimental results from Chapter 5, except the effect of bed
sulfur input. sulfur input.
A sensitivity analysis have been applied to the kiln model in order to investigate the importance of the input A sensitivity analysis have been applied to the kiln model in order to investigate the importance of the input
parameters by evaluating the uncertainty in the outputs variables. By modifying one parameter at the time, the parameters by evaluating the uncertainty in the outputs variables. By modifying one parameter at the time, the
firing degree and the fuel degree of coverage were identified as the most influencing factors for the total SO 2 firing degree and the fuel degree of coverage were identified as the most influencing factors for the total SO 2
release and the sulfur evaporation factor, while the kinetic parameters did not modify the output results. release and the sulfur evaporation factor, while the kinetic parameters did not modify the output results.
The evaluation of the modeling results have been carried out by adapting the model to the high temperature The evaluation of the modeling results have been carried out by adapting the model to the high temperature
rotary drum and comparing with the experimental results of Chapter 6. The modeling results follow the correct rotary drum and comparing with the experimental results of Chapter 6. The modeling results follow the correct
tendency of the experimental data, however, the absolute level of the SO2 concentration cannot be predicted tendency of the experimental data, however, the absolute level of the SO2 concentration cannot be predicted
by the model since the bed length and the oxygen concentration are uncertain parameters. The predictions of by the model since the bed length and the oxygen concentration are uncertain parameters. The predictions of
the kiln model can be used to evaluate how a relative change in an input parameter affects the sulfur release in the kiln model can be used to evaluate how a relative change in an input parameter affects the sulfur release in
a cement plant. a cement plant.
Adams, T. N., and Svedin, K.; Alternative fuel impact on lime reburning kiln performance. TAPPI Press - Adams, T. N., and Svedin, K.; Alternative fuel impact on lime reburning kiln performance. TAPPI Press -
Engineering, Pulping and Environmental Conference 2008, 4, 2550-2570, 2008. Engineering, Pulping and Environmental Conference 2008, 4, 2550-2570, 2008.
Agustini, S. S., Queck, A., and Specht, E.; Modeling of the regenerative heat flow of the wall in direct fired Agustini, S. S., Queck, A., and Specht, E.; Modeling of the regenerative heat flow of the wall in direct fired
rotary kilns. Heat Transfer Engineering, 29, 57-66, 2008. rotary kilns. Heat Transfer Engineering, 29, 57-66, 2008.
Akhtar, S. S., Abbas, T., and Lockwood, F. C.; Advanced computational tools for cement plants. 2008 IEEE Akhtar, S. S., Abbas, T., and Lockwood, F. C.; Advanced computational tools for cement plants. 2008 IEEE
Cement Industry Technical Conference Record, 154-69, 2008. Cement Industry Technical Conference Record, 154-69, 2008.
Barr, P. V., Brimacombe, J. K., and Watkinson, A. P.; A heat-transfer model for the rotary kiln .2 development Barr, P. V., Brimacombe, J. K., and Watkinson, A. P.; A heat-transfer model for the rotary kiln .2 development
of the cross-section model. Metallurgical Transactions B-Process Metallurgy, 20, 403-19, 1989. of the cross-section model. Metallurgical Transactions B-Process Metallurgy, 20, 403-19, 1989.
Boateng, A. A.; Rotary kilns transport phenomena and transport processes. Elsevier, United States of America. Boateng, A. A.; Rotary kilns transport phenomena and transport processes. Elsevier, United States of America.
2008. ISBN: 978-0-7506-7877-3. 2008. ISBN: 978-0-7506-7877-3.
Boateng, A. A., and Barr, P. V.; A thermal model for the rotary kiln including heat transfer within the bed. Boateng, A. A., and Barr, P. V.; A thermal model for the rotary kiln including heat transfer within the bed.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 39, 2131, 1996a. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 39, 2131, 1996a.
Boateng, A. A., and Barr, P. V.; Modelling of particle mixing and segregation in the transverse plane of a Boateng, A. A., and Barr, P. V.; Modelling of particle mixing and segregation in the transverse plane of a
rotary kiln, Chemical Engineering Science, 51, 17, 4167-4181, 1996b. rotary kiln, Chemical Engineering Science, 51, 17, 4167-4181, 1996b.
Coulson, J.M., and Richardson, J.F.; Chemical Engineering, Volume 1: Fluid flow, heat transfer and mass Coulson, J.M., and Richardson, J.F.; Chemical Engineering, Volume 1: Fluid flow, heat transfer and mass
transfer. Sixth edition, Butterworth –Heinemann.1999. ISBN: 0-7506-4444-3. transfer. Sixth edition, Butterworth –Heinemann.1999. ISBN: 0-7506-4444-3.
Darabi, P., Yuan, J., and Salcudean, M.; Numerical studies of mid-kiln tyre combustion. Advances in Cement Darabi, P., Yuan, J., and Salcudean, M.; Numerical studies of mid-kiln tyre combustion. Advances in Cement
Research, 20, 121-8, 2008. Research, 20, 121-8, 2008.
178 178
192 192
Dhanjal, S. K., Barr, P. V., and Watkinson, A. P.; The rotary kiln: An investigation of bed heat transfer in the Dhanjal, S. K., Barr, P. V., and Watkinson, A. P.; The rotary kiln: An investigation of bed heat transfer in the
transverse plane. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B-Process Metallurgy and Materials transverse plane. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B-Process Metallurgy and Materials
Processing Science, 35, 1059-70, 2004. Processing Science, 35, 1059-70, 2004.
Di Blasi, C.; Modeling chemical and physical processes of wood and biomass pyrolysis. Progress in Energy Di Blasi, C.; Modeling chemical and physical processes of wood and biomass pyrolysis. Progress in Energy
and Combustion Science, 34, 1, 47–90, 2008. and Combustion Science, 34, 1, 47–90, 2008.
Dias, R., Teixeira, J. A., Mota, M., and Yeshin, A.; tortuosity variation in a low density binary particulate bed. Dias, R., Teixeira, J. A., Mota, M., and Yeshin, A.; tortuosity variation in a low density binary particulate bed.
Separation and Purification Technology, 51, 180-184, 2006. Separation and Purification Technology, 51, 180-184, 2006.
Eriksson, J. E., Maripuu, M., and Theiliander, H.; Simulation of the lime mud kiln. AIChE Annual Meeting, Eriksson, J. E., Maripuu, M., and Theiliander, H.; Simulation of the lime mud kiln. AIChE Annual Meeting,
Conference Proceedings, 1991. Conference Proceedings, 1991.
Ferron, J. R., and Singh, D. K.; Rotary kiln transport processes. AIChE Journal, 37, 747-758, 1991. Ferron, J. R., and Singh, D. K.; Rotary kiln transport processes. AIChE Journal, 37, 747-758, 1991.
FLSMIDTH A/S; Rotary kilns for cement plants. Brochure, 2011. Available at www.flsmidth.com. FLSMIDTH A/S; Rotary kilns for cement plants. Brochure, 2011. Available at www.flsmidth.com.
Fueller, E. N., Schettler, P. D., and Giddings, C. J.; A new method for prediction of binary gas-phase diffusion Fueller, E. N., Schettler, P. D., and Giddings, C. J.; A new method for prediction of binary gas-phase diffusion
coefficients. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 58, 19–27, 1966. coefficients. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 58, 19–27, 1966.
Guo, W., Lim, C. J., Bi, X., Sokhansanj, S., and Melin, S.; Determination of effective thermal conductivity Guo, W., Lim, C. J., Bi, X., Sokhansanj, S., and Melin, S.; Determination of effective thermal conductivity
and specific heat capacity of wood pellets. Fuel, 103, 347-55, 2013. and specific heat capacity of wood pellets. Fuel, 103, 347-55, 2013.
Haas, J., and Weber, R.; Co-firing of refuse derived fuels with coals in cement kilns: Combustion conditions Haas, J., and Weber, R.; Co-firing of refuse derived fuels with coals in cement kilns: Combustion conditions
for stable sintering. Journal of the Energy Institute, 83, 225-34, 2010. for stable sintering. Journal of the Energy Institute, 83, 225-34, 2010.
6256-7. 6256-7.
Ivarsson, C., and Svedin, K.; Study of the lime reburning process with biofuels. International Chemical Ivarsson, C., and Svedin, K.; Study of the lime reburning process with biofuels. International Chemical
Recovery Conference, 2007. Recovery Conference, 2007.
Kaantee, U., Zevenhoven, R., Backman, R., and Hupa, M.; Cement manufacturing using alternative fuels and Kaantee, U., Zevenhoven, R., Backman, R., and Hupa, M.; Cement manufacturing using alternative fuels and
the advantages of process modelling. Fuel Processing Technology, 85, 293-301, 2004. the advantages of process modelling. Fuel Processing Technology, 85, 293-301, 2004.
Kuipers, J. A. M., and van Swaaij, W. P. M.; Computational fluid dynamics applied to chemical reaction Kuipers, J. A. M., and van Swaaij, W. P. M.; Computational fluid dynamics applied to chemical reaction
engineering. Advances in Chemical Engineering, 24, 227-318, 1998. engineering. Advances in Chemical Engineering, 24, 227-318, 1998.
Küssel, U., Able, D., Schumacher, M., and Weng, M.; Modeling of rotary kilns and application to limestone Küssel, U., Able, D., Schumacher, M., and Weng, M.; Modeling of rotary kilns and application to limestone
calcination. Proceedings 7th Modelica Conference, Como, Italy, 2009. calcination. Proceedings 7th Modelica Conference, Como, Italy, 2009.
Levenspiel, O.; Chemical reaction engineering. Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 1999. ISBN: 978- Levenspiel, O.; Chemical reaction engineering. Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 1999. ISBN: 978-
0471254249. 0471254249.
Linjewile, T. M., Hull, A. S., and Agarwal, P.K.; Heat transfer to a large mobile particle in a gas fluidized beds Linjewile, T. M., Hull, A. S., and Agarwal, P.K.; Heat transfer to a large mobile particle in a gas fluidized beds
of smaller particles. Chemical Engineering Science, 48, 21, 3671-3675, 1993. of smaller particles. Chemical Engineering Science, 48, 21, 3671-3675, 1993.
Locher, G.; Modelling circulating sulfur, chlorine and alkali systems in the clinker burning process; part 2: Locher, G.; Modelling circulating sulfur, chlorine and alkali systems in the clinker burning process; part 2:
Theory and discussion. Cement International, 7, 64-75, 2009. Theory and discussion. Cement International, 7, 64-75, 2009.
179 179
193 193
Lu, J., Huang, L., Hu, Z., and Wang, S.; Simulation of the gas-solid two-phase flow, coal combustion and raw Lu, J., Huang, L., Hu, Z., and Wang, S.; Simulation of the gas-solid two-phase flow, coal combustion and raw
meal calcination in a pre-calciner. ZKG International, 57, 55-63, 2004. meal calcination in a pre-calciner. ZKG International, 57, 55-63, 2004.
Ma, A. C., Zhou, J. M., Ou, J. P., and Li, W. X.; CFD prediction of physical field for multi-air channel Ma, A. C., Zhou, J. M., Ou, J. P., and Li, W. X.; CFD prediction of physical field for multi-air channel
pulverized coal burner in rotary kiln. Journal of Central South University of Technology, 13, 75-9, 2006. pulverized coal burner in rotary kiln. Journal of Central South University of Technology, 13, 75-9, 2006.
Mastorakos, E., Massias, A., Tsakiroglou, C. D., Goussis, D. A., Burganos, V. N., and Payatakes, A. C.; CFD Mastorakos, E., Massias, A., Tsakiroglou, C. D., Goussis, D. A., Burganos, V. N., and Payatakes, A. C.; CFD
predictions for cement kilns including flame modelling, heat transfer and clinker chemistry. Applied predictions for cement kilns including flame modelling, heat transfer and clinker chemistry. Applied
Mathematical Modelling, 23, 55-76, 1999. Mathematical Modelling, 23, 55-76, 1999.
Mujumdar, K. S., and Ranade, V.; Modeling of rotary cement kiln- reaction engineering and CFD. VDM erlag Mujumdar, K. S., and Ranade, V.; Modeling of rotary cement kiln- reaction engineering and CFD. VDM erlag
Dr. Müller, USA. 2009. ISBN: 978-3-639-11219-1. Dr. Müller, USA. 2009. ISBN: 978-3-639-11219-1.
Mujumdar, K. S., Ganesh, K. V., Kulkarni, S. B., and Ranade, V. V.; Rotary cement kiln simulator (RoCKS): Mujumdar, K. S., Ganesh, K. V., Kulkarni, S. B., and Ranade, V. V.; Rotary cement kiln simulator (RoCKS):
Integrated modeling of pre-heater, calciner, kiln and clinker cooler RID A-5627-2009. Chemical Integrated modeling of pre-heater, calciner, kiln and clinker cooler RID A-5627-2009. Chemical
Mujumdar, K. S., and Ranade, V. V.; CFD modeling of rotary cement kilns. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Mujumdar, K. S., and Ranade, V. V.; CFD modeling of rotary cement kilns. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical
Engineering, 3, 106-18, 2008. Engineering, 3, 106-18, 2008.
Nunn, R., Howard, J. B., Longwell, J. P., and Peters, W. A.; Product Compositions and Kinetics in the Rapid Nunn, R., Howard, J. B., Longwell, J. P., and Peters, W. A.; Product Compositions and Kinetics in the Rapid
Pyrolysis of Sweet Gum Hardwood. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Process Design and Pyrolysis of Sweet Gum Hardwood. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Process Design and
Development, 24, 836-844, 1985. Development, 24, 836-844, 1985.
92481-98-6. 92481-98-6.
Paschedag, A. R.; Computational Fluid Dynamics. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 2005. Paschedag, A. R.; Computational Fluid Dynamics. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 2005.
Pershing, D. W., Lighty, J. S., Silcox, G. D., Heap, M. P., and Owens, W. D.; Solid waste incineration in rotary Pershing, D. W., Lighty, J. S., Silcox, G. D., Heap, M. P., and Owens, W. D.; Solid waste incineration in rotary
kilns. Combustion Science and Technology, 93, 245-76, 1993. kilns. Combustion Science and Technology, 93, 245-76, 1993.
Ramakrishnan, V., and Sai, P. S. T.; Mathematical modeling of pneumatic char injection in a direct reduction Ramakrishnan, V., and Sai, P. S. T.; Mathematical modeling of pneumatic char injection in a direct reduction
rotary kiln. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B-Process Metallurgy and Materials Processing rotary kiln. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B-Process Metallurgy and Materials Processing
Science, 30, 969-77, 1999. Science, 30, 969-77, 1999.
Ranade, V. V., and Mujumdar, K. S.; A CFD tour of a cement kiln. Tce, 39-41, March 2006. Available at Ranade, V. V., and Mujumdar, K. S.; A CFD tour of a cement kiln. Tce, 39-41, March 2006. Available at
www.tcetoday.com/. www.tcetoday.com/.
Reina, J., Velo, E., and Puigjaner, L.; Kinetic study of the pyrolysis of waste wood. Industrial & Engineering Reina, J., Velo, E., and Puigjaner, L.; Kinetic study of the pyrolysis of waste wood. Industrial & Engineering
Sadighi, S., Shirvani, M., and Ahmad, A.; Rotary cement kiln coating estimator: Integrated modelling of kiln Sadighi, S., Shirvani, M., and Ahmad, A.; Rotary cement kiln coating estimator: Integrated modelling of kiln
with shell temperature measurement. Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 89, 116-25, 2011. with shell temperature measurement. Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 89, 116-25, 2011.
180 180
194 194
Silcox, G. D., and Pershing , D. W.; The effects of rotary kiln operating conditions and design on burden Silcox, G. D., and Pershing , D. W.; The effects of rotary kiln operating conditions and design on burden
heating rates as determined by a mathematical model of rotary kiln heat transfer. Journal of the Air & heating rates as determined by a mathematical model of rotary kiln heat transfer. Journal of the Air &
Waste Management Association, 40, 337-344, 1990. Waste Management Association, 40, 337-344, 1990.
Spang, H. A.; Dynamic model of a cement kiln. Automatica, 8, 309-323, 1972. Spang, H. A.; Dynamic model of a cement kiln. Automatica, 8, 309-323, 1972.
Stadler, K. S., Poland, J., and Gallestey, E.; Model predictive control of a rotary cement kiln. Control Stadler, K. S., Poland, J., and Gallestey, E.; Model predictive control of a rotary cement kiln. Control
Engineering Practice, 19, 1-9, 2011. Engineering Practice, 19, 1-9, 2011.
Sullivan, J. D., Maier, C. G., and Ralston, O. C.; Passage of solid particles through rotary cylindrical kilns. US Sullivan, J. D., Maier, C. G., and Ralston, O. C.; Passage of solid particles through rotary cylindrical kilns. US
Bureau of Mines, Technical Paper 384, 1-42, 1927. Bureau of Mines, Technical Paper 384, 1-42, 1927.
Svedin, K., Ivarsson, C., and Lundborg, R.; Lime kiln modelling. CFD & one-dimensional simulations. Svedin, K., Ivarsson, C., and Lundborg, R.; Lime kiln modelling. CFD & one-dimensional simulations.
ÅFORSK and VÄRMEFORSK, 2009. Available at http://www.aforsk.se and http://www.varmeforsk.se/ ÅFORSK and VÄRMEFORSK, 2009. Available at http://www.aforsk.se and http://www.varmeforsk.se/
Wang, S., Lu, J., Li, W., Li, J., and Hu, Z.; Modeling of pulverized coal combustion in cement rotary kiln. Wang, S., Lu, J., Li, W., Li, J., and Hu, Z.; Modeling of pulverized coal combustion in cement rotary kiln.
Energy & Fuels, 20, 2350-6, 2006. Energy & Fuels, 20, 2350-6, 2006.
Witsel, A. C., Renotte, C., and Remy, M.; New dynamic model of rotary cement kiln. 17th IMACS World Witsel, A. C., Renotte, C., and Remy, M.; New dynamic model of rotary cement kiln. 17th IMACS World
Congress Scientific Computation, Applied Mathematics and Simulation, Paris, France, 2005. Congress Scientific Computation, Applied Mathematics and Simulation, Paris, France, 2005.
Yang, Y., Pijnenborg, M. J. A., Reuter, M. A., and Verwoerd, J.; Combustion modeling of a rotary-kiln Yang, Y., Pijnenborg, M. J. A., Reuter, M. A., and Verwoerd, J.; Combustion modeling of a rotary-kiln
hazardous waste incinerator. 23rd Proceedings of the Annual International Conference on Incineration and hazardous waste incinerator. 23rd Proceedings of the Annual International Conference on Incineration and
Thermal Treatment Technologies, United States, 2004. Thermal Treatment Technologies, United States, 2004.
181 181
195 195
182 182
196 196
Chapter 8: Model on Build-ups Tendency in the Kiln System Chapter 8: Model on Build-ups Tendency in the Kiln System
8. Model on Build-ups Tendency in the Kiln System 8. Model on Build-ups Tendency in the Kiln System
A model to predict the tendency of build-ups of a kiln system caused by sulfur and chlorine evaporation and A model to predict the tendency of build-ups of a kiln system caused by sulfur and chlorine evaporation and
condensation will be described in this chapter. The description of the system is explained in section 8.1, condensation will be described in this chapter. The description of the system is explained in section 8.1,
followed by the assumptions, and the model development. Two cases are considered; first when the kiln system followed by the assumptions, and the model development. Two cases are considered; first when the kiln system
operates with fuel in the calciner and kiln burner, and secondly, when the kiln system operates with alternative operates with fuel in the calciner and kiln burner, and secondly, when the kiln system operates with alternative
fuels substitution in the kiln inlet and the corresponding sulfur evaporation factor, calculated in Chapter 7, will fuels substitution in the kiln inlet and the corresponding sulfur evaporation factor, calculated in Chapter 7, will
be combined in this model. be combined in this model.
When partially converted or unburned alternative fuels drop into the material bed in the inlet of the rotary kiln, When partially converted or unburned alternative fuels drop into the material bed in the inlet of the rotary kiln,
the sulfur may be released from the material bed contributing to a higher internal recirculation of sulfur. the sulfur may be released from the material bed contributing to a higher internal recirculation of sulfur.
Deposit build-ups, which negatively affect the process stability of the kiln system, are a consequence of the Deposit build-ups, which negatively affect the process stability of the kiln system, are a consequence of the
internal recirculation of volatile constituents, as explained in Chapter 4. internal recirculation of volatile constituents, as explained in Chapter 4.
The aim of the model of the build-up tendency in the kiln system is to predict the content of sulfur and chlorine The aim of the model of the build-up tendency in the kiln system is to predict the content of sulfur and chlorine
in the hot meal, which is subsequently used to evaluate the risk of build-up formations in the calciner according in the hot meal, which is subsequently used to evaluate the risk of build-up formations in the calciner according
to Figure 4-12 in Chapter 4. to Figure 4-12 in Chapter 4.
The model is based on a mass balance of sulfur and chlorine around the preheater tower and the calciner. The The model is based on a mass balance of sulfur and chlorine around the preheater tower and the calciner. The
input sources of sulfur and chorine are the raw meal, and the fuel fired in the calciner and in the kiln burner. input sources of sulfur and chorine are the raw meal, and the fuel fired in the calciner and in the kiln burner.
In the burning zone of the kiln, chlorine and sulfur evaporation from the raw materials takes place due to In the burning zone of the kiln, chlorine and sulfur evaporation from the raw materials takes place due to
thermal degradation. The fraction evaporated and the input from the kiln burner can partly be absorbed in the thermal degradation. The fraction evaporated and the input from the kiln burner can partly be absorbed in the
kiln and the remaining part is absorbed in the calciner by fresh raw meal. Then the concentrations of SO3 and kiln and the remaining part is absorbed in the calciner by fresh raw meal. Then the concentrations of SO3 and
Cl in the hot meal are calculated which re-enters the rotary kiln and the calculation steps are repeated until Cl in the hot meal are calculated which re-enters the rotary kiln and the calculation steps are repeated until
these concentrations do not change from iteration to iteration, reaching a steady-state. When considering these concentrations do not change from iteration to iteration, reaching a steady-state. When considering
alternative fuel substitution in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation takes place both in the kiln inlet due to reducing alternative fuel substitution in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation takes place both in the kiln inlet due to reducing
conditions and in the burning zone due to thermal decomposition. conditions and in the burning zone due to thermal decomposition.
The input and output solid mass flows in the kiln system are specified in Figure 8-1. The solid mass flows can The input and output solid mass flows in the kiln system are specified in Figure 8-1. The solid mass flows can
be from raw material (black), dust transported with the gas flow (red), and fuel ashes (green) that can be be from raw material (black), dust transported with the gas flow (red), and fuel ashes (green) that can be
incorporated in the material. incorporated in the material.
183 183
197 197
ṁraw mat ṁdust out ṁraw mat ṁdust out
Preheater Preheater
tower tower
+ +
ṁash,fuel ṁash,fuel
Calciner ṁdust terciary air Calciner ṁdust terciary air
ṁdust kiln Bypass ṁdust kiln Bypass

ṁdust bypass ṁash,fuel ṁdust bypass ṁash,fuel
ṁhot ṁhot
Rotary kiln Clinker cooler ṁclinker Rotary kiln Clinker cooler ṁclinker
meal meal
Figure 8-1: Schematic kiln system with the mass flows of raw material (black), dust (red) and the ashes introduced by the fuel Figure 8-1: Schematic kiln system with the mass flows of raw material (black), dust (red) and the ashes introduced by the fuel
(green) specified. (green) specified.
In order to simplify the mass flow system, it is assumed that the sulfur and chlorine of the fuel is included in In order to simplify the mass flow system, it is assumed that the sulfur and chlorine of the fuel is included in
the model as inputs to the gas phase. Furthermore, the mass contribution of the dust from the tertiary air is the model as inputs to the gas phase. Furthermore, the mass contribution of the dust from the tertiary air is
already included in the calculations of the hot meal mass flow. A simple scheme of the considered model already included in the calculations of the hot meal mass flow. A simple scheme of the considered model
system with the gas and solid flows is therefore illustrated in Figure 8-2, where the control volume of the system with the gas and solid flows is therefore illustrated in Figure 8-2, where the control volume of the
model is indicated by the green dotted line. model is indicated by the green dotted line.
ṁraw mat, nett ṁgas ṁraw mat, nett ṁgas

wS, raw mat Raw material SO2/Cl to stack
R ySO2, gas wS, raw mat Raw
R material SO2/Cl to stack ySO2, gas
wCl, raw mat yCl, gas wCl, raw mat yCl, gas
Preheater Solid flow Preheater Solid flow

Gas flow Gas flow
tower tower
+ ṁfuel calc + ṁfuel calc

Calciner wS, fuel calc Calciner wS, fuel calc
Calciner Fuel wCl, fuel calc Calciner Fuel wCl, fuel calc
ṁbypass ṁbypass
Bypass yS, bypass Bypass yS, bypass
yCl, bypass yCl, bypass
ṁhot meal ṁfuel burner ṁhot meal ṁfuel burner
wS, hot meall Hot meal ɛS, kiln inlet ɛS, burning
urning zone
z Kiln burner fuel wS, fuel burner wS, hot meall Hot meal ɛS, kiln inlet ɛS, burning
urning zone
z Kiln burner fuel wS, fuel burner
wCl, hot mealal SO2/Cl from kiln ɛCl wCl, fuel burner wCl, hot mealal SO2/Cl from kiln ɛCl wCl, fuel burner

Figure 8-2: Simplified scheme of the kiln system with the gas and solid flows and the concentrations of S and Cl that enters and Figure 8-2: Simplified scheme of the kiln system with the gas and solid flows and the concentrations of S and Cl that enters and
exist the system. The boundaries of model are indicated by the green dotted line. exist the system. The boundaries of model are indicated by the green dotted line.
184 184
198 198
8.2 Kiln System without Alternative Fuel Substitution in the Kiln Inlet 8.2 Kiln System without Alternative Fuel Substitution in the Kiln Inlet
8.2.1 Model Development 8.2.1 Model Development
The model can be schematically summarized in different steps, as illustrated in Figure 8-3. The model can be schematically summarized in different steps, as illustrated in Figure 8-3.
Input S and Cl from Input S and Cl from Input S and Cl from Input S and Cl from
raw meal calciner fuel raw meal calciner fuel
Calculation of total solid concentrations Calculation of total solid concentrations

after calciner in hot meal after calciner in hot meal
S and Cl evaporation S and Cl evaporation

at the burning zone (gas conc.) at the burning zone (gas conc.)
Input S and Cl from Iteration until steady- state Input S and Cl from Iteration until steady- state
kiln burner fuel to gas in hot meal concentrations kiln burner fuel to gas in hot meal concentrations
S and Cl absorption in S and Cl absorption in
fresh raw meal in the calciner fresh raw meal in the calciner
(gas and solid conc.) (gas and solid conc.)
Prediction SO3 and Cl solid Prediction SO3 and Cl solid

concentrations in hot meal concentrations in hot meal
Figure 8-3: Scheme of the modeling steps for determining the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot meal when the kiln system does Figure 8-3: Scheme of the modeling steps for determining the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot meal when the kiln system does
not have alternative fuel substitution in the kiln inlet. not have alternative fuel substitution in the kiln inlet.
The input sulfur and chlorine concentrations of the raw meal are recalculated on basis of loss on ignition (LOI) The input sulfur and chlorine concentrations of the raw meal are recalculated on basis of loss on ignition (LOI)
free according to equation 8.1.The weight fraction on basis of loss of ignition free, wi,LOIfree, raw mat, allows their free according to equation 8.1.The weight fraction on basis of loss of ignition free, wi,LOIfree, raw mat, allows their
comparison at different locations, after and before calcination. comparison at different locations, after and before calcination.
wj,rawmat 100 wj,rawmat 100

wj, LOI free,rawmat where j= S or Cl [8.1] wj, LOI free,rawmat where j= S or Cl [8.1]
(100 LOI rawmat ) (100 LOI rawmat )
where wj,raw mat is the sulfur or chlorine concentration in the raw meal in wt. %, and LOIraw mat is the percentage where wj,raw mat is the sulfur or chlorine concentration in the raw meal in wt. %, and LOIraw mat is the percentage
of loss on ignition of the raw meal. of loss on ignition of the raw meal.
It is considered that a fraction of the sulfur present in the raw meal leaves the preheater tower and is emitted It is considered that a fraction of the sulfur present in the raw meal leaves the preheater tower and is emitted
through the stack. In a preheater kiln, it has been estimated that SO2 emissions from the stack will count 15- through the stack. In a preheater kiln, it has been estimated that SO2 emissions from the stack will count 15-
30 % of the sulfur entering with the raw materials in the form of non-sulfates, i.e. pyrite and organic sulfur 30 % of the sulfur entering with the raw materials in the form of non-sulfates, i.e. pyrite and organic sulfur
(Nielsen and Jepsen, 1990). Chlorine can also be released in the stack as HCl, however, due to a lack of reported (Nielsen and Jepsen, 1990). Chlorine can also be released in the stack as HCl, however, due to a lack of reported
values in the literature a fraction of 10 % of the chlorine entering with the raw materials is assumed. values in the literature a fraction of 10 % of the chlorine entering with the raw materials is assumed.
The total sulfur and chlorine input, ṁS,total input and ṁCl,total input, from the raw materials and calciner fuel are The total sulfur and chlorine input, ṁS,total input and ṁCl,total input, from the raw materials and calciner fuel are
determined, by equations 8.2 and 8.3, taking into account the respective mass flows and the fractions that determined, by equations 8.2 and 8.3, taking into account the respective mass flows and the fractions that
leaves the preheater tower as SO2 or HCl. leaves the preheater tower as SO2 or HCl.
185 185
199 199
mS ,total input mrawmat , LOI free

w S , LOI free
f , raw mat ((1 J s )
m fuel ,calc
wS , fuel
[8.2] mS ,total input mrawmat , LOI free
w S , LOI free
f , raw mat ((1 J s )
m fuel ,calc
wS , fuel
[8.2]
100 100 100 100

wCCl , LOI free (1 J Cl )
f , rawmat (
m fuel
wCl
C , fuel
[8.3]
wCCl , LOI free (1 J Cl )
f , rawmat ( wCl
C , fuel
[8.3]
mCl total input mrawmatt , LOI free
f l
f l , calc mCl total input mrawmatt , LOI free
f m fuel l
f l , calc
100 100 100 100
where wS,fuel and wCl,fuel are the sulfur and content of the calciner fuel in wt. %, respectively, ṁrawmat, LOI free is the where wS,fuel and wCl,fuel are the sulfur and content of the calciner fuel in wt. %, respectively, ṁrawmat, LOI free is the
net mass flow of the raw meal LOI free when introduced in the preheater in kg/h, ṁfuel, calc is mass flow of the net mass flow of the raw meal LOI free when introduced in the preheater in kg/h, ṁfuel, calc is mass flow of the
fuel introduced in the calciner in kg/h, and γS and γCl are the fraction of sulfur and chlorine, respectively, which fuel introduced in the calciner in kg/h, and γS and γCl are the fraction of sulfur and chlorine, respectively, which
leaves the preheater tower. leaves the preheater tower.
The net raw meal mass flow is calculated by the difference of the feed raw meal flow and the flow of dust loss The net raw meal mass flow is calculated by the difference of the feed raw meal flow and the flow of dust loss
out of the preheater. In order to this be valid, it is assumed that the same concentration of sulfur and chlorine out of the preheater. In order to this be valid, it is assumed that the same concentration of sulfur and chlorine
that enters with the feed raw meal flow is the same in the flow of dust loss. that enters with the feed raw meal flow is the same in the flow of dust loss.
The recirculation of volatiles from the rotary kiln is included in the model by defining a sulfur evaporation The recirculation of volatiles from the rotary kiln is included in the model by defining a sulfur evaporation
factor, εS, a chlorine evaporation factor, εCl, and a kiln sulfur absorption factor, βS. The iteration process starts factor, εS, a chlorine evaporation factor, εCl, and a kiln sulfur absorption factor, βS. The iteration process starts
by calculating the sulfur that evaporates in the kiln, ṅSevap, i, that enters the model system by the gas stream. For by calculating the sulfur that evaporates in the kiln, ṅSevap, i, that enters the model system by the gas stream. For
the first iteration (i=1), the sulfur and chlorine molar flows correspond to the raw meal and for the following the first iteration (i=1), the sulfur and chlorine molar flows correspond to the raw meal and for the following
iterations (i ≥ 2), the molar flows corresponds to the hot meal. This is mathematically expressed as following iterations (i ≥ 2), the molar flows corresponds to the hot meal. This is mathematically expressed as following
where i is the number of iterations and N is the total number of iterations. where i is the number of iterations and N is the total number of iterations.
For i= 1 ṅS, i=1 = ṅS, raw meal = ṅS,tota linput and ṅCl, i=1 = ṅCl,total input For i= 1 ṅS, i=1 = ṅS, raw meal = ṅS,tota linput and ṅCl, i=1 = ṅCl,total input
For i ≥ 2 to N ṅS, i≥2 = ṅS, hot meal = ṅS,i and ṅCl, i≥2 = ṅCl,i For i ≥ 2 to N ṅS, i≥2 = ṅS, hot meal = ṅS,i and ṅCl, i≥2 = ṅCl,i
The sulfur that evaporates in the burning zone is calculated according to equation 8.4 by taking into account The sulfur that evaporates in the burning zone is calculated according to equation 8.4 by taking into account
the sulfur evaporation factor, the sulfur input from the kiln burner fuel, ṅS,burner, which is calculated by the the sulfur evaporation factor, the sulfur input from the kiln burner fuel, ṅS,burner, which is calculated by the
sulfur content and the mass flow of the fuel, and the kiln absorption of sulfur. sulfur content and the mass flow of the fuel, and the kiln absorption of sulfur.
nS evap , i n S ,i H S nS , bburner (1 ES ) for i = 1 to N [8.4] nS evap , i n S ,i H S nS , bburner (1 ES ) for i = 1 to N [8.4]
For chlorine, it is assumed that there is no absorption in the kiln inlet due to its high volatility, however, this For chlorine, it is assumed that there is no absorption in the kiln inlet due to its high volatility, however, this
phenomena has not been reported and may be difficult to quantify it due to the inaccessibility of the rotary kiln phenomena has not been reported and may be difficult to quantify it due to the inaccessibility of the rotary kiln
during operation. The chlorine that evaporates is thereby determined by equation 8.5. during operation. The chlorine that evaporates is thereby determined by equation 8.5.
nCl evap, i nCl ,i H Cl nCl , burner for i = 1 to N [8.5] nCl evap, i nCl ,i H Cl nCl , burner for i = 1 to N [8.5]
In the calciner, the sulfur in the kiln gas stream is fully absorbed by fresh calcined raw meal (Rasmussen, In the calciner, the sulfur in the kiln gas stream is fully absorbed by fresh calcined raw meal (Rasmussen,
2011), and the chlorine fully condenses in the fresh calcined raw meal (Jøns et al., 2008). The fresh calcined 2011), and the chlorine fully condenses in the fresh calcined raw meal (Jøns et al., 2008). The fresh calcined
186 186
200 200
raw meal refers to raw meal that contains the total input of sulfur and chlorine from the raw materials and raw meal refers to raw meal that contains the total input of sulfur and chlorine from the raw materials and
calciner fuel. Subsequently, the molar concentration of sulfur and chlorine in the hot meal (for i≥2) can be calciner fuel. Subsequently, the molar concentration of sulfur and chlorine in the hot meal (for i≥2) can be
calculated by equation 8.6 and 8.7. calculated by equation 8.6 and 8.7.
nSS,ii 1 nS , total input nS evap,i for i= 1 to N [8.6] nSS,ii 1 nS , total input nS evap,i for i= 1 to N [8.6]
nCl ,i 1 nCl ,ttotall input
in nCl evap
e ,i for i = 1 to N [8.7] nCl ,i 1 nCl ,ttotall input
in nCl evap
e ,i for i = 1 to N [8.7]
Then, the iteration process will continue by recalculating the ṅS,evap and ṅCl,evap (equation 8.4 and 8.5) followed Then, the iteration process will continue by recalculating the ṅS,evap and ṅCl,evap (equation 8.4 and 8.5) followed
by determining a new molar concentration of sulfur and chlorine in the hot meal (equation 8.6 and 8.7). When by determining a new molar concentration of sulfur and chlorine in the hot meal (equation 8.6 and 8.7). When
this sulfur and chlorine concentration in the hot meal do not change from iteration to iteration, the system has this sulfur and chlorine concentration in the hot meal do not change from iteration to iteration, the system has
reached steady-state and hot meal concentrations are determined by converting into mass flows multiplying reached steady-state and hot meal concentrations are determined by converting into mass flows multiplying
by the molar mass of SO3 and Cl, respectively. by the molar mass of SO3 and Cl, respectively.
Finally, the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot meal, wSO3,hot meal, LOI free and wCl,hot meal, LOI free, in wt. % LOI free Finally, the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot meal, wSO3,hot meal, LOI free and wCl,hot meal, LOI free, in wt. % LOI free
basis, are determined by equation 8.8 and 8.9. basis, are determined by equation 8.8 and 8.9.
§ mSO3 ,hot
h t meall
· § 100 · § mSO3 ,hot
h t meall
· § 100 ·
wSO3 ,hot meal , LOI free ¨¨ 1
100 ¸ ¨ ¸¸ [8.8] wSO3 ,hot meal , LOI free ¨¨ 1
100 ¸ ¨ ¸¸ [8.8]
¸ ¨ ¸ ¨
© mhot meal ¹ © 100 LOI hot meal ¹ © mhot meal ¹ © 100 LOI hot meal ¹
§ mCl , hot
h meall
· § 100 · § mCl , hot
h meall
· § 100 ·
wCl ,hot meal , LOI free ¨¨ 10
100 ¸ ¨
1 ¸¸ [8.9] wCl ,hot meal , LOI free ¨¨ 10
100 ¸ ¨
1 ¸¸ [8.9]
¸ ¨ ¸ ¨
© mhot meal ¹ © 100 LOI hot meal ¹ © mhot meal ¹ © 100 LOI hot meal ¹
where ṁSO3,hot meal and ṁCl,hot meal are the molar flows of SO3 and Cl in the hot meal in kg/h, ṁhot meal is the mass where ṁSO3,hot meal and ṁCl,hot meal are the molar flows of SO3 and Cl in the hot meal in kg/h, ṁhot meal is the mass
flow of the hot meal in the bottom cyclone in kg/h, and LOIhot meal is the percentage of loss on ignition of the flow of the hot meal in the bottom cyclone in kg/h, and LOIhot meal is the percentage of loss on ignition of the
hot meal. Finally, the tendency of build-ups can be evaluated by using these concentrations. hot meal. Finally, the tendency of build-ups can be evaluated by using these concentrations.
The effect of chlorine removal by a bypass can also be included in the model by including a calculation step. The effect of chlorine removal by a bypass can also be included in the model by including a calculation step.
The bypass, as mentioned in Chapter 4, is installed with the main purpose to remove chlorine, however, SO 2 The bypass, as mentioned in Chapter 4, is installed with the main purpose to remove chlorine, however, SO 2
may also be extracted with the kiln gases removed. Assuming a uniform concentration of the gas phase, the may also be extracted with the kiln gases removed. Assuming a uniform concentration of the gas phase, the
model also includes that the sulfur as SO2 is removed by the bypass. The sulfur and chlorine that evaporate, model also includes that the sulfur as SO2 is removed by the bypass. The sulfur and chlorine that evaporate,
calculated by equation 8.7 and 8.8, respectively, are used to determine the chlorine that condenses and the calculated by equation 8.7 and 8.8, respectively, are used to determine the chlorine that condenses and the
sulfur that absorbs in the hot meal by equation 8.10 and 8.12, respectively, taking into account that a gas sulfur that absorbs in the hot meal by equation 8.10 and 8.12, respectively, taking into account that a gas
fraction will be removed with a bypass. A bypass absorbed factor, ф, is defined, which is directly related to fraction will be removed with a bypass. A bypass absorbed factor, ф, is defined, which is directly related to
the bypass size that is normally specified as a percentage of the kiln gases removed. Subsequently, the sulfur the bypass size that is normally specified as a percentage of the kiln gases removed. Subsequently, the sulfur
and chlorine in the hot meal, calculated according to equations 8.11 and 8.13, expresses the chlorine and chlorine in the hot meal, calculated according to equations 8.11 and 8.13, expresses the chlorine
condensation and the sulfur absorption in the hot meal. These steps are repeated in each iteration process to condensation and the sulfur absorption in the hot meal. These steps are repeated in each iteration process to
187 187
201 201
achieve the SO3 and Cl concentration in the hot meal. When the system reaches steady-state, the SO3 and Cl achieve the SO3 and Cl concentration in the hot meal. When the system reaches steady-state, the SO3 and Cl
concentrations in the hot meal are determined by equation 8.8 and 8.9, respectively. concentrations in the hot meal are determined by equation 8.8 and 8.9, respectively.
nCl conds
conds, i (1 I )
nCl evap,i (1 for i= 1 to N [8.10] nCl conds
conds, i (1 I )
nCl evap,i (1 for i= 1 to N [8.10]
nCl
Cl, i 1 totalinput nCl cond , i
nCll ,totalinput for i= 1 to N [8.11] nCl
Cl, i 1 totalinput nCl cond , i
nCll ,totalinput for i= 1 to N [8.11]
(1 I )
nS abs ,i nS evap ,i (1 for i= 1 to N [8.12] (1 I )
nS abs ,i nS evap ,i (1 for i= 1 to N [8.12]
totalinp nS abs , i
nSS, i 1 nS ,totalinput
totalinput for i= 1 to N [8.13] totalinp nS abs , i
nSS, i 1 nS ,totalinput
totalinput for i= 1 to N [8.13]
8.2.2 Results 8.2.2 Results
A cement plant with a clinker production of 3500 tons per day with an energy consumption of 2.993 MJ/kg A cement plant with a clinker production of 3500 tons per day with an energy consumption of 2.993 MJ/kg
clinker is considered the base for the calculations. The input parameters used for the model are specified in clinker is considered the base for the calculations. The input parameters used for the model are specified in
Table 8-1. The sulfur and chlorine content in the calciner and kiln burner fuel is typical for a low sulfur petcoke, Table 8-1. The sulfur and chlorine content in the calciner and kiln burner fuel is typical for a low sulfur petcoke,
however, it could also represent another fuel. however, it could also represent another fuel.
The fuel flows in the calciner and in the kiln burner, in kg/h, are determined by the energy required in each The fuel flows in the calciner and in the kiln burner, in kg/h, are determined by the energy required in each
place, which is 60 % in the calciner and 40 % in the kiln burner, and the lower heating value of the fuel. The place, which is 60 % in the calciner and 40 % in the kiln burner, and the lower heating value of the fuel. The
raw materials and hot meal flow and loss of ignition are chosen to be typical values in the cement industry; raw materials and hot meal flow and loss of ignition are chosen to be typical values in the cement industry;
however, these values can vary depending on the type and origin of the different raw materials. however, these values can vary depending on the type and origin of the different raw materials.
The sulfur and chlorine inputs in the raw materials are the recommended upper limits to introduce in the kiln The sulfur and chlorine inputs in the raw materials are the recommended upper limits to introduce in the kiln
system. The sources specify these limits are normally specified in loss of ignition free based, but these values system. The sources specify these limits are normally specified in loss of ignition free based, but these values
have been converted to use as defined in this model. have been converted to use as defined in this model.
The sulfur and the chlorine evaporation factors can vary between 0.3 and 0.7 and from 0.90 to 0.99, The sulfur and the chlorine evaporation factors can vary between 0.3 and 0.7 and from 0.90 to 0.99,
respectively, as previously mentioned in Chapter 4. The values of these parameters have been assumed in their respectively, as previously mentioned in Chapter 4. The values of these parameters have been assumed in their
typical range, however, the parameters depend significantly on other process variables, such as temperature in typical range, however, the parameters depend significantly on other process variables, such as temperature in
the burning zone and oxygen content in the kiln and this is not considered in the present model. the burning zone and oxygen content in the kiln and this is not considered in the present model.
In order to check the mass balance, the mass flows of the raw meal and hot meal are calculated in loss of In order to check the mass balance, the mass flows of the raw meal and hot meal are calculated in loss of
ignition free based, which allows their comparison at different locations, after and before calcination. In Figure ignition free based, which allows their comparison at different locations, after and before calcination. In Figure
F-1 in Appendix F, the typical material feed, hot meal and dust loss are specified. F-1 in Appendix F, the typical material feed, hot meal and dust loss are specified.
188 188
202 202
Table 8-1: Input parameters for the model on build-ups tendency in the kiln system. Table 8-1: Input parameters for the model on build-ups tendency in the kiln system.
Parameter Symbol Value Reference Parameter Symbol Value Reference

Sulfur in raw materials [wt. %] wS,raw mat 0.05 (Hewlett, 1998) Sulfur in raw materials [wt. %] wS,raw mat 0.05 (Hewlett, 1998)
Chlorine in raw materials [wt. %] wCl,raw mat 0.01 (Norbom, 1973) Chlorine in raw materials [wt. %] wCl,raw mat 0.01 (Norbom, 1973)
Raw materials flow [kg/kg clinker] F raw mat 1.602 Industrial relevant value Raw materials flow [kg/kg clinker] F raw mat 1.602 Industrial relevant value
o o
LOI of raw meal, 975 C [wt. %] LOIraw mat 36.1 Industrial relevant value LOI of raw meal, 975 C [wt. %] LOIraw mat 36.1 Industrial relevant value
Sulfur fraction that leaves the preheater [-] γS 0.3 (Nielsen and Jepsen, 1990) Sulfur fraction that leaves the preheater [-] γS 0.3 (Nielsen and Jepsen, 1990)
Chlorine fraction that leaves the preheater [-] γCl 0.1 Assumed Chlorine fraction that leaves the preheater [-] γCl 0.1 Assumed
Fuel lower heating value [MJ/kg] LHV 30 (Milenkova et al., 2003) Fuel lower heating value [MJ/kg] LHV 30 (Milenkova et al., 2003)
Sulfur in calciner fuel [wt. %] wS,fuel calc 5.00 (Milenkova et al., 2003) Sulfur in calciner fuel [wt. %] wS,fuel calc 5.00 (Milenkova et al., 2003)
Chlorine in calciner fuel [wt. %] wCl,fuel calc 0.001 Assumed Chlorine in calciner fuel [wt. %] wCl,fuel calc 0.001 Assumed
Calciner fuel flow [kg/h] ṁfuel,calc 8725 Calculated Calciner fuel flow [kg/h] ṁfuel,calc 8725 Calculated
Sulfur in kiln burner fuel [wt. %] wS,fuel burner 5.00 (Milenkova et al., 2003) Sulfur in kiln burner fuel [wt. %] wS,fuel burner 5.00 (Milenkova et al., 2003)
Chlorine in kiln burner fuel [wt. %] wCl,fuel burner 0.001 Assumed Chlorine in kiln burner fuel [wt. %] wCl,fuel burner 0.001 Assumed
Kiln burner fuel flow [kg/h] ṁfuel burner 5816 Calculated Kiln burner fuel flow [kg/h] ṁfuel burner 5816 Calculated
Sulfur evaporation factor [-] εS 0.60 (Bhatty et al., 2011) Sulfur evaporation factor [-] εS 0.60 (Bhatty et al., 2011)
Chlorine evaporation factor [-] εCl 0.95 (Jøns et al., 2008) Chlorine evaporation factor [-] εCl 0.95 (Jøns et al., 2008)
Kiln sulfur absorption factor [-] βS 0.1 Assumed Kiln sulfur absorption factor [-] βS 0.1 Assumed
Hot meal flow [kg/kg clinker] F hot meal 1.27 Industrial relevant value Hot meal flow [kg/kg clinker] F hot meal 1.27 Industrial relevant value
o o
LOI of hot meal, 975 C [wt. %] LOIhot meal 5 Industrial relevant value LOI of hot meal, 975 C [wt. %] LOIhot meal 5 Industrial relevant value
Bypass absorbed factor [-] Ф 0.15 (Jøns et al., 2008) Bypass absorbed factor [-] Ф 0.15 (Jøns et al., 2008)
The output of the model is the predicted SO3 and Cl content in the hot meal. For the parameters in Table 8-1, The output of the model is the predicted SO3 and Cl content in the hot meal. For the parameters in Table 8-1,
the SO3 and Cl content are 2.45 and 0.83 wt. %, respectively. Figure 8-4 shows the result obtained, indicated the SO3 and Cl content are 2.45 and 0.83 wt. %, respectively. Figure 8-4 shows the result obtained, indicated
by a blue cross in the diagram for predicting the tendency of build-ups. Furthermore, when the bypass absorbed by a blue cross in the diagram for predicting the tendency of build-ups. Furthermore, when the bypass absorbed
factor is introduced for a new calculation, the chlorine condensation and the sulfur absorption in the calciner factor is introduced for a new calculation, the chlorine condensation and the sulfur absorption in the calciner
are reduced as illustrated by a red star in Figure 8-4. With bypass, the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot are reduced as illustrated by a red star in Figure 8-4. With bypass, the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot
meal obtained are 1.98 and 0.19 wt. %, respectively. meal obtained are 1.98 and 0.19 wt. %, respectively.
189 189
203 203
SO3 in hot meal [wt. % LOI free] 6 6

5 5
4 4
3 without bypass 3 without bypass

with bypass with bypass
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 8-4: Prediction of SO3 and Cl content in the diagram of build-up tendency for the initial conditions (without bypass) and with Figure 8-4: Prediction of SO3 and Cl content in the diagram of build-up tendency for the initial conditions (without bypass) and with
bypass operation (ф=0.15). bypass operation (ф=0.15).
According to the definitions of the zones in the graph, the cement plan without bypass will have a medium According to the definitions of the zones in the graph, the cement plan without bypass will have a medium
tendency of build-up and with bypass a medium build-up tendency, quite close to the low tendency area. tendency of build-up and with bypass a medium build-up tendency, quite close to the low tendency area.
A sensitivity analysis of the individual parameters has been carried out in order to investigate the effect of the A sensitivity analysis of the individual parameters has been carried out in order to investigate the effect of the
parameters on the SO3 and Cl content of the hot meal. The sulfur and chlorine input concentrations and parameters on the SO3 and Cl content of the hot meal. The sulfur and chlorine input concentrations and
evaporation factors have been investigated. Each input parameter is changed with +/- 25 % while keeping the evaporation factors have been investigated. Each input parameter is changed with +/- 25 % while keeping the
remaining parameters constant, except for the chlorine evaporation, which has tested for the interval limits of remaining parameters constant, except for the chlorine evaporation, which has tested for the interval limits of
its variation. Table 8-2 summarizes the variation input values and the output results obtained in each case its variation. Table 8-2 summarizes the variation input values and the output results obtained in each case
specifying SO3 and Cl concentration in hot meal and in which zone of the build-up tendency diagram that specifying SO3 and Cl concentration in hot meal and in which zone of the build-up tendency diagram that
scenario belongs. Furthermore, the deviation from the output results obtained by the initial case is determined scenario belongs. Furthermore, the deviation from the output results obtained by the initial case is determined
in order to evaluate the influence of the parameter. in order to evaluate the influence of the parameter.
The results show that chlorine evaporation factor has the largest influence on the output variables with 400 % The results show that chlorine evaporation factor has the largest influence on the output variables with 400 %
deviation on the Cl concentration compared to the reference case when the chlorine evaporation factor was deviation on the Cl concentration compared to the reference case when the chlorine evaporation factor was
0.99. The variation of the sulfur evaporation factor greatly influences the SO3 concentration with -23 % and 0.99. The variation of the sulfur evaporation factor greatly influences the SO3 concentration with -23 % and
42 % deviation when the input is varied -/+ 25 %. The ranking is followed by the sulfur concentration in the 42 % deviation when the input is varied -/+ 25 %. The ranking is followed by the sulfur concentration in the
calciner fuel (with almost +/- 14 % deviation) and in the kiln burner (with -/+ 8 % deviation). On the contrary, calciner fuel (with almost +/- 14 % deviation) and in the kiln burner (with -/+ 8 % deviation). On the contrary,
the chlorine input in the calciner fuel and the sulfur content in the raw materials content do not influence the chlorine input in the calciner fuel and the sulfur content in the raw materials content do not influence
significantly to output results. The bypass reduces significantly the chlorine circulation even when the chlorine significantly to output results. The bypass reduces significantly the chlorine circulation even when the chlorine
evaporation factor is maximum. The actual uncertainty of the sulfur and chlorine in the fuels may be higher evaporation factor is maximum. The actual uncertainty of the sulfur and chlorine in the fuels may be higher
than -/+ 25 % variation, depending on the homogeneity of the used fuel. The uncertainty of the sulfur and than -/+ 25 % variation, depending on the homogeneity of the used fuel. The uncertainty of the sulfur and
190 190
204 204
chlorine evaporation factor may also be higher if there is high variations on the process conditions, such as the chlorine evaporation factor may also be higher if there is high variations on the process conditions, such as the
oxygen concentration in the kiln and the burning zone temperature. oxygen concentration in the kiln and the burning zone temperature.
Table 8-2: Sensitivity analysis of the build-up tendency model on the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot meal. Note:* +/-25 % Table 8-2: Sensitivity analysis of the build-up tendency model on the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot meal. Note:* +/-25 %
variation of the initial value has not applied, the interval limits of the chlorine evaporation factor has been chosen. variation of the initial value has not applied, the interval limits of the chlorine evaporation factor has been chosen.
Input parameters Output variables Deviation [%] Input parameters Output variables Deviation [%]
Variation SO3 Cl Build-up Variation SO3 Cl Build-up
SO3 conc. Cl conc. SO3 conc. Cl conc.
+/- 25 % [wt. % LOI free] [wt. % LOI free] tendency zone +/- 25 % [wt. % LOI free] [wt. % LOI free] tendency zone
Sulfur in raw 0.0375 2.37 0.83 Medium -2.98 0.00 Sulfur in raw 0.0375 2.37 0.83 Medium -2.98 0.00
materials [wt. %] 0.0625 2.52 0.83 Medium 2.98 0.00 materials [wt. %] 0.0625 2.52 0.83 Medium 2.98 0.00
Chlorine in raw 0.0075 2.45 0.77 Medium 0.00 -7.46 Chlorine in raw 0.0075 2.45 0.77 Medium 0.00 -7.46
materials [wt. %] 0.0125 2.45 0.89 Medium 0.00 7.46 materials [wt. %] 0.0125 2.45 0.89 Medium 0.00 7.46
Sulfur in calciner 3.75 2.11 0.83 Medium -13.76 0.00 Sulfur in calciner 3.75 2.11 0.83 Medium -13.76 0.00
fuel [wt. %] 6.25 2.78 0.83 Medium/High 13.76 0.00 fuel [wt. %] 6.25 2.78 0.83 Medium/High 13.76 0.00
Chlorine in calciner 0.0008 2.45 0.83 Medium 0.00 -0.03 Chlorine in calciner 0.0008 2.45 0.83 Medium 0.00 -0.03
fuel [wt. %] 0.0013 2.45 0.83 Medium 0.00 0.03 fuel [wt. %] 0.0013 2.45 0.83 Medium 0.00 0.03
Sulfur in kiln 3.75 2.25 0.83 Medium -8.26 0.00 Sulfur in kiln 3.75 2.25 0.83 Medium -8.26 0.00
burner [wt. %] 6.25 2.65 0.83 Medium 8.26 0.00 burner [wt. %] 6.25 2.65 0.83 Medium 8.26 0.00
Chlorine in kiln 0.0008 2.45 0.69 Medium 0.00 -17.5 Chlorine in kiln 0.0008 2.45 0.69 Medium 0.00 -17.5
burner fuel [wt. %] 0.0013 2.45 0.98 Medium/High 0.00 17.5 burner fuel [wt. %] 0.0013 2.45 0.98 Medium/High 0.00 17.5
Sulfur evaporation 0.45 1.89 0.83 Medium -22.69 0.00 Sulfur evaporation 0.45 1.89 0.83 Medium -22.69 0.00
factor 0.75 3.46 0.83 High 41.54 0.00 factor 0.75 3.46 0.83 High 41.54 0.00
Chlorine 0.9 2.45 0.42 Medium 0.00 -50.0 Chlorine 0.9 2.45 0.42 Medium 0.00 -50.0
evaporation factor* 0.99 2.45 4.16 High 0.00 400 evaporation factor* 0.99 2.45 4.16 High 0.00 400
When Ф=0.15 When Ф=0.15
Sulfur evaporation 0.45 1.63 0.19 Low -17.50 0.00 Sulfur evaporation 0.45 1.63 0.19 Low -17.50 0.00
factor 0.75 2.51 0.19 Medium 26.92 0.00 factor 0.75 2.51 0.19 Medium 26.92 0.00
Chlorine 0.90 1.98 0.16 Low/Medium 0.00 -18.1 Chlorine 0.90 1.98 0.16 Low/Medium 0.00 -18.1
evaporation factor* 0.99 1.98 0.23 Medium 0.00 21.5 evaporation factor* 0.99 1.98 0.23 Medium 0.00 21.5
8.3 Kiln System with Alternative Fuel Substitution in the Kiln Inlet 8.3 Kiln System with Alternative Fuel Substitution in the Kiln Inlet
8.3.1 Model Modification 8.3.1 Model Modification
When alternative fuels are fired in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation also takes place in the kiln inlet and thereby When alternative fuels are fired in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation also takes place in the kiln inlet and thereby
the steps needed to determine the SO3 concentration in the hot meal can be summarized in Figure 8-5. The the steps needed to determine the SO3 concentration in the hot meal can be summarized in Figure 8-5. The
model steps for the calculation of the Cl concentration in the hot meal are not modified, since the chlorine is model steps for the calculation of the Cl concentration in the hot meal are not modified, since the chlorine is
not affected by the combustion of alternative fuels in contact with the kiln bed material. not affected by the combustion of alternative fuels in contact with the kiln bed material.
191 191
205 205
Input S from raw meal Input S from calciner fuel Input S from raw meal Input S from calciner fuel
Calculation of total solid concentrations Calculation of total solid concentrations

after calciner in hot meal after calciner in hot meal
S evaporation S evaporation
at the kiln inlet (gas conc.) at the kiln inlet (gas conc.)
S absorption in fresh raw S absorption in fresh raw

meal in the calciner (gas and solid conc.) meal in the calciner (gas and solid conc.)
remaining sulfur remaining sulfur
Iteration until steady- state Iteration until steady- state
S evaporation in hot meal concentrations S evaporation in hot meal concentrations
at the burning zone (gas conc.) at the burning zone (gas conc.)
Input S from Input S from
kiln burner fuel to gas kiln burner fuel to gas
S absorption in fresh raw S absorption in fresh raw
meal in the calciner (gas and solid conc.) meal in the calciner (gas and solid conc.)
Prediction of SO3 solid Prediction of SO3 solid

concentration in hot meal concentration in hot meal
Figure 8-5: Scheme of the modeling steps for determining the SO3 concentration in the hot meal when the kiln system has alternative Figure 8-5: Scheme of the modeling steps for determining the SO3 concentration in the hot meal when the kiln system has alternative
fuel substitution in the kiln inlet. fuel substitution in the kiln inlet.
The total sulfur from the raw materials and fuel are determined using the same procedure explained in section The total sulfur from the raw materials and fuel are determined using the same procedure explained in section
8.2.1 (equations 8.1, and 8.2). Due to alternative fuels firing in the kiln inlet, the sulfur evaporation at the kiln 8.2.1 (equations 8.1, and 8.2). Due to alternative fuels firing in the kiln inlet, the sulfur evaporation at the kiln
inlet, ṅS,evap inlet, is described for each iteration according to equation 8.14, where ɛS, inlet is the sulfur evaporation inlet, ṅS,evap inlet, is described for each iteration according to equation 8.14, where ɛS, inlet is the sulfur evaporation
factor in the kiln inlet obtained in Chapter 7. The sulfur evaporated in the kiln inlet is assumed that cannot be factor in the kiln inlet obtained in Chapter 7. The sulfur evaporated in the kiln inlet is assumed that cannot be
absorbed along the rotary kiln because the gas will flow towards the calciner. absorbed along the rotary kiln because the gas will flow towards the calciner.
nS evap inlet ,i nS ,i H SS,inlet for i= 1 to N [8.14] nS evap inlet ,i nS ,i H SS,inlet for i= 1 to N [8.14]
The remaining sulfur in the solid bed material inside the rotary kiln, ṅS,remaining, is calculated by the difference The remaining sulfur in the solid bed material inside the rotary kiln, ṅS,remaining, is calculated by the difference
of the sulfur input in the raw meal (i =1) or hot meal (i ≥2) and the sulfur evaporated in the kiln inlet (equation of the sulfur input in the raw meal (i =1) or hot meal (i ≥2) and the sulfur evaporated in the kiln inlet (equation
8.15). 8.15).
nSremaining , i nS , i nS evap inlet ,i for i= 1 to N [8.15] nSremaining , i nS , i nS evap inlet ,i for i= 1 to N [8.15]
The remaining sulfur can evaporate in the burning zone of the rotary kiln and the sulfur from the kiln burner The remaining sulfur can evaporate in the burning zone of the rotary kiln and the sulfur from the kiln burner
fuel also contributes to the gas phase SO2. The sulfur evaporated in the burning zone may also be absorbed fuel also contributes to the gas phase SO2. The sulfur evaporated in the burning zone may also be absorbed
along the kiln. Therefore, the sulfur evaporation at the burning zone, ṅS evap end, is mathematically determined along the kiln. Therefore, the sulfur evaporation at the burning zone, ṅS evap end, is mathematically determined
by equation 8.16. by equation 8.16.
192 192
206 206
nS evap end , i (nS remaining ,i H S nS ,burner ) (1 ES ) for i= 1 to N [8.16] nS evap end , i (nS remaining ,i H S nS ,burner ) (1 ES ) for i= 1 to N [8.16]
The sulfur in the hot meal can finally be determined by equation 8.17. Then, equations 8.14, 8.15, 8.16, and The sulfur in the hot meal can finally be determined by equation 8.17. Then, equations 8.14, 8.15, 8.16, and
8.17 are recalculated until the system reach steady-state by reaching a stable value of the sulfur molar flow. 8.17 are recalculated until the system reach steady-state by reaching a stable value of the sulfur molar flow.
nSS,ii 1 nS ,totalinput nS evap inlet

l ,i nS , evap end ,i for i= 1 to N [8.17] nSS,ii 1 nS ,totalinput nS evap inlet
l ,i nS , evap end ,i for i= 1 to N [8.17]
A large number of iterations are needed to reach a stable sulfur concentration in the hot meal since the sulfur A large number of iterations are needed to reach a stable sulfur concentration in the hot meal since the sulfur
recirculation is increased significantly in the initial iterations. recirculation is increased significantly in the initial iterations.
8.3.2 Results 8.3.2 Results
It is considered that 10 % of the energy required for cement production from the calciner is substituted fuel It is considered that 10 % of the energy required for cement production from the calciner is substituted fuel
fired in the kiln inlet. The fuel used consist of wood particles of 1 g each, which does not contain neither sulfur fired in the kiln inlet. The fuel used consist of wood particles of 1 g each, which does not contain neither sulfur
nor chlorine. In Chapter 7, a sulfur evaporation factor of 0.04 was obtained for this scenario. Using the initial nor chlorine. In Chapter 7, a sulfur evaporation factor of 0.04 was obtained for this scenario. Using the initial
input parameters specified in Table 8-1 and the sulfur evaporation factor in the kiln inlet, the SO3 and Cl input parameters specified in Table 8-1 and the sulfur evaporation factor in the kiln inlet, the SO3 and Cl
concentrations in the hot meal are 2.55 and 0.83 wt. %, respectively. A cement plant operating under these concentrations in the hot meal are 2.55 and 0.83 wt. %, respectively. A cement plant operating under these
conditions will experience a high build-up tendency, as shown in Figure 8-6. conditions will experience a high build-up tendency, as shown in Figure 8-6.
When firing alternative fuels in the kiln inlet, the calciner fuel flow is typically reduced in order to avoid too When firing alternative fuels in the kiln inlet, the calciner fuel flow is typically reduced in order to avoid too
high calciner temperature. Then, a 10 % of the calciner fuel flow is reduced, from 8725.4 kg/h to 7852.8 kg/h, high calciner temperature. Then, a 10 % of the calciner fuel flow is reduced, from 8725.4 kg/h to 7852.8 kg/h,
and the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot meal correspond to 2.41 and 0.83 wt. %, respectively. and the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the hot meal correspond to 2.41 and 0.83 wt. %, respectively.
Introducing the bypass absorbed chlorine factor, ф=0.15 and using 7852.8 kg/h calciner fuel, the SO3 and Cl Introducing the bypass absorbed chlorine factor, ф=0.15 and using 7852.8 kg/h calciner fuel, the SO3 and Cl
concentrations in the hot meal obtained are 1.94 wt. % and 0.19 wt. %, respectively. Figure 8-6 shows that the concentrations in the hot meal obtained are 1.94 wt. % and 0.19 wt. %, respectively. Figure 8-6 shows that the
results of these scenarios are in the medium tendency zone in the diagram of build-up tendency. results of these scenarios are in the medium tendency zone in the diagram of build-up tendency.
193 193
207 207
6 6

5 5
4 8725.4 kg/h calciner fuel 4 8725.4 kg/h calciner fuel

7852.8 kg/h calciner fuel 7852.8 kg/h calciner fuel
3 3
7852.8 kg/h calciner fuel + bypass 7852.8 kg/h calciner fuel + bypass
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 8-6: Prediction of SO3 and Cl content in the diagram of build-up tendency for the initial conditions (without bypass) plus Figure 8-6: Prediction of SO3 and Cl content in the diagram of build-up tendency for the initial conditions (without bypass) plus
firing alternative fuels in the kiln inlet causing a sulfur evaporation factor of 0.04, when the calciner fuel flow is reduced 10 % and firing alternative fuels in the kiln inlet causing a sulfur evaporation factor of 0.04, when the calciner fuel flow is reduced 10 % and
when bypass is included. when bypass is included.
A sensitivity analysis of the SO3 and Cl content of the hot meal, when the calciner fuel flow is reduced 10 % A sensitivity analysis of the SO3 and Cl content of the hot meal, when the calciner fuel flow is reduced 10 %
(7852.8 kg/h), is conducted using the same procedure as in section 8.2.2 by changing one parameter at the time (7852.8 kg/h), is conducted using the same procedure as in section 8.2.2 by changing one parameter at the time
with +/- 25 % and compare it with the initial case. However, only the sulfur input parameters are studied since with +/- 25 % and compare it with the initial case. However, only the sulfur input parameters are studied since
the alternative fuels firing in the kiln inlet does not modify the chlorine cycle. the alternative fuels firing in the kiln inlet does not modify the chlorine cycle.
Table 8-3: Sensitivity analysis of the build-up tendency model on the SO3 concentration in the hot meal when firing alternative fuels Table 8-3: Sensitivity analysis of the build-up tendency model on the SO3 concentration in the hot meal when firing alternative fuels
in the kiln inlet causing sulfur evaporation. in the kiln inlet causing sulfur evaporation.
Input parameters Output variables Deviation [%] Input parameters Output variables Deviation [%]
Variation Build-up tendency Variation Build-up tendency
SO3 [wt. % LOI free] SO3 conc. SO3 [wt. % LOI free] SO3 conc.
+/- 25 % zone +/- 25 % zone
Sulfur in raw 0.0375 2.33 Medium -3.15 Sulfur in raw 0.0375 2.33 Medium -3.15
materials [wt. %] 0.0625 2.49 Medium 3.15 materials [wt. %] 0.0625 2.49 Medium 3.15
Sulfur in calciner 3.75 2.09 Medium -13.1 Sulfur in calciner 3.75 2.09 Medium -13.1
fuel [wt. %] 6.25 2.73 Medium 13.1 fuel [wt. %] 6.25 2.73 Medium 13.1
Sulfur in kiln 3.75 2.20 Medium -8.74 Sulfur in kiln 3.75 2.20 Medium -8.74
burner fuel [wt. %] 6.25 2.62 Medium 8.74 burner fuel [wt. %] 6.25 2.62 Medium 8.74
Kiln inlet sulfur 0.03 2.40 Medium -0.26 Kiln inlet sulfur 0.03 2.40 Medium -0.26
evaporation factor 0.05 2.47 Medium 2.40 evaporation factor 0.05 2.47 Medium 2.40
Burning zone sulfur 0.45 1.86 Medium -22.7 Burning zone sulfur 0.45 1.86 Medium -22.7
evaporation factor 0.75 3.41 High 41.5 evaporation factor 0.75 3.41 High 41.5
The sensitivity analysis show that the sulfur evaporation factor at the burning zone is the most influencing The sensitivity analysis show that the sulfur evaporation factor at the burning zone is the most influencing
parameter to the SO3 concentration in the hot meal with a -23 % and 41 % deviation to the reference case when parameter to the SO3 concentration in the hot meal with a -23 % and 41 % deviation to the reference case when
the input is changed -/+ 25 % of its value. The ranking is followed by the sulfur input in the calciner fuel (with the input is changed -/+ 25 % of its value. The ranking is followed by the sulfur input in the calciner fuel (with
194 194
208 208
+/- 13 % deviation) and in the kiln burner fuel (with almost +/- 9 % deviation). The variation of the kiln inlet +/- 13 % deviation) and in the kiln burner fuel (with almost +/- 9 % deviation). The variation of the kiln inlet
sulfur evaporation factor does not give a significant variation in the SO3 in the hot meal. However, the actual sulfur evaporation factor does not give a significant variation in the SO3 in the hot meal. However, the actual
uncertainty of this input parameter may depend on the fuel type, particle size and degree of coverage and may uncertainty of this input parameter may depend on the fuel type, particle size and degree of coverage and may
contributed with higher kiln inlet sulfur evaporation factor value. contributed with higher kiln inlet sulfur evaporation factor value.
8.4 Model Limitations 8.4 Model Limitations
The model developed for prediction of the build-up tendency in the kiln system does not consider the The model developed for prediction of the build-up tendency in the kiln system does not consider the
interaction of alkali with sulfur and chlorine, which may influence the volatile cycles. interaction of alkali with sulfur and chlorine, which may influence the volatile cycles.
The dust recirculation in the preheater tower and the efficiency of each cyclone are taken into account indirectly The dust recirculation in the preheater tower and the efficiency of each cyclone are taken into account indirectly
by the material flows in the inlet and outlet of the preheater tower. Furthermore, the sulfur and chlorine content by the material flows in the inlet and outlet of the preheater tower. Furthermore, the sulfur and chlorine content
in the dust may be different than in the material flow in each cyclone stage, and this effect is not included in in the dust may be different than in the material flow in each cyclone stage, and this effect is not included in
the model. the model.
The model does not included that the alternative fuel fired in the kiln inlet contributes with sulfur and chlorine The model does not included that the alternative fuel fired in the kiln inlet contributes with sulfur and chlorine
inputs. These contributions may need to be further implemented because many of alternative fuels contain inputs. These contributions may need to be further implemented because many of alternative fuels contain
sulfur and/or chlorine, as showed in Table 3-2. Furthermore, it was assumed that the mass flow and that the sulfur and/or chlorine, as showed in Table 3-2. Furthermore, it was assumed that the mass flow and that the
sulfur and chlorine in the calciner and burner fuels are inputs to the gas phase, and thereby the fuel ash is not sulfur and chlorine in the calciner and burner fuels are inputs to the gas phase, and thereby the fuel ash is not
accounted in the mass balance. To use a solid fuel in the model, it is necessary to take into account the fuel ash accounted in the mass balance. To use a solid fuel in the model, it is necessary to take into account the fuel ash
contribution to the hot meal flow and subsequently to the clinker. However, this limitation will not influence contribution to the hot meal flow and subsequently to the clinker. However, this limitation will not influence
so much the model results because if it is assumed that the used calciner fuel has 0.5 wt. % ash, the ash mass so much the model results because if it is assumed that the used calciner fuel has 0.5 wt. % ash, the ash mass
will contribute to 4362.5 kg/h, which is a 2.92 % of the raw material flow. will contribute to 4362.5 kg/h, which is a 2.92 % of the raw material flow.
The model does not determine either the clinker quality in respect to SO3 and Cl or the emissions in stack or The model does not determine either the clinker quality in respect to SO3 and Cl or the emissions in stack or
bypass, because the gas flow is normally used in the mill and it is out of the purpose of this model. bypass, because the gas flow is normally used in the mill and it is out of the purpose of this model.
A model to predict the tendency of build-ups of a kiln system based on the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the A model to predict the tendency of build-ups of a kiln system based on the SO3 and Cl concentrations in the
hot meal has been developed. The model gives realistic results because the output concentrations are in the hot meal has been developed. The model gives realistic results because the output concentrations are in the
range expected. range expected.
Results are obtained specifying the sulfur and chlorine content in the raw material and calciner fuel, and the Results are obtained specifying the sulfur and chlorine content in the raw material and calciner fuel, and the
sulfur and chlorine evaporation factors. For a cement plant with 3500 tons per day without bypass using raw sulfur and chlorine evaporation factors. For a cement plant with 3500 tons per day without bypass using raw
materials with 0.05 wt. % S and 0.01 wt. % Cl and fuel with 5 wt. % S and 0.001 wt. % Cl, the tendency of materials with 0.05 wt. % S and 0.01 wt. % Cl and fuel with 5 wt. % S and 0.001 wt. % Cl, the tendency of
build-ups predicted was in the medium/high line, while using bypass the tendency of build-ups was medium, build-ups predicted was in the medium/high line, while using bypass the tendency of build-ups was medium,
close to the low region. A sensitivity analysis was performed in order to investigate the effect of the parameters close to the low region. A sensitivity analysis was performed in order to investigate the effect of the parameters
on the SO3 and Cl content of the hot meal and showed that the chlorine evaporation factor has the largest on the SO3 and Cl content of the hot meal and showed that the chlorine evaporation factor has the largest
195 195
209 209
influence with almost 400 % deviation on the Cl concentration when the evaporation factor was 0.99 as influence with almost 400 % deviation on the Cl concentration when the evaporation factor was 0.99 as
opposed to the reference case of 0.95. On the contrary, the modification on the chlorine content in the calciner opposed to the reference case of 0.95. On the contrary, the modification on the chlorine content in the calciner
fuel did not varied the output results and sulfur content in the raw material influenced only with -/+ 4 % fuel did not varied the output results and sulfur content in the raw material influenced only with -/+ 4 %
deviation at a 25 % input variation. deviation at a 25 % input variation.
When alternative fuels are fired in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation at the kiln inlet is taken into account as When alternative fuels are fired in the kiln inlet, sulfur evaporation at the kiln inlet is taken into account as
well as the sulfur evaporation at the burning zone. The results showed that the plant will experience medium well as the sulfur evaporation at the burning zone. The results showed that the plant will experience medium
tendency build-ups, except when operating with bypass. The sensitivity analysis results show that the sulfur tendency build-ups, except when operating with bypass. The sensitivity analysis results show that the sulfur
evaporation factor at the burning zone is the most influencing parameter to the SO3 concentration in the hot evaporation factor at the burning zone is the most influencing parameter to the SO3 concentration in the hot
meal with a -23 % and 41 % deviation at an input variation of 25 %, while the variation of the kiln inlet sulfur meal with a -23 % and 41 % deviation at an input variation of 25 %, while the variation of the kiln inlet sulfur
evaporation factor has a small effect on the output. evaporation factor has a small effect on the output.
When the bypass chlorine absorption factor is considered in the model, the chlorine concentration in the hot When the bypass chlorine absorption factor is considered in the model, the chlorine concentration in the hot
meal is significantly reduced both with and without firing alternative fuels in the kiln inlet. meal is significantly reduced both with and without firing alternative fuels in the kiln inlet.
The model is limited by not taking the alkali interaction, dust recirculation in the preheater tower, and the The model is limited by not taking the alkali interaction, dust recirculation in the preheater tower, and the
sulfur and chlorine input from the fuel fired in the kiln inlet into account. sulfur and chlorine input from the fuel fired in the kiln inlet into account.
USA. 2011. ISBN: 978-0893122713. USA. 2011. ISBN: 978-0893122713.
Hewlett, P. C.; Lea's chemistry of cement and concrete. Fourth edition. New York. 1998. ISBN: 978-0-7506- Hewlett, P. C.; Lea's chemistry of cement and concrete. Fourth edition. New York. 1998. ISBN: 978-0-7506-
6256-7. 6256-7.
Jøns, E., Hundebol, S., and Clausen, K.; New reasons for installing a chloride by-pass. Interaction between Jøns, E., Hundebol, S., and Clausen, K.; New reasons for installing a chloride by-pass. Interaction between
chloride and sulphur. IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference Record, 178-92, 2008. chloride and sulphur. IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference Record, 178-92, 2008.
Milenkova, K. S., Borrego, A. G., Alvarez, D., Xiberta, J., and Menendez, R.; Devolatilisation behaviour of Milenkova, K. S., Borrego, A. G., Alvarez, D., Xiberta, J., and Menendez, R.; Devolatilisation behaviour of
petroleum coke under pulverised fuel combustion conditions. Fuel, 82, 1883-91, 2003. petroleum coke under pulverised fuel combustion conditions. Fuel, 82, 1883-91, 2003.
Nielsen, P. B., and Jepsen, O. L.; An overview of the formation of SOx and NOx in various pyroprocessing Nielsen, P. B., and Jepsen, O. L.; An overview of the formation of SOx and NOx in various pyroprocessing
systems. IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference XXXII, 255-76, 1990. systems. IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference XXXII, 255-76, 1990.
Norbom, H.R.; Application of Suspension Preheater Kilns versus Other Kilns in North America, Proceedings Norbom, H.R.; Application of Suspension Preheater Kilns versus Other Kilns in North America, Proceedings
of the IEEE, Cement Industry Technical Conference, Miami, USA, 1973. of the IEEE, Cement Industry Technical Conference, Miami, USA, 1973.
Rasmussen, M. H.; Low SO2 emission preheaters for cement production. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of Rasmussen, M. H.; Low SO2 emission preheaters for cement production. Ph.D. thesis, Technical University of
196 196
210 210
Chapter 9: Industrial Experience on Sulfur Release Chapter 9: Industrial Experience on Sulfur Release
9. Industrial Experience on Sulfur Release 9. Industrial Experience on Sulfur Release

The purpose of this chapter is to study the sulfur release in the kiln inlet on an industrial plant, which fires The purpose of this chapter is to study the sulfur release in the kiln inlet on an industrial plant, which fires
alternative fuels in the calciner and the kiln riser. alternative fuels in the calciner and the kiln riser.
The aim of the industrial study was to investigate the relationship between organic carbon in the last cyclone The aim of the industrial study was to investigate the relationship between organic carbon in the last cyclone
(bottom stage cyclone) and SO2 in the gas phase in the kiln inlet, because the organic carbon from the hot meal (bottom stage cyclone) and SO2 in the gas phase in the kiln inlet, because the organic carbon from the hot meal
is believed to be directly related to unburned calciner fuel. Unburned light fuel particles can be carried upwards is believed to be directly related to unburned calciner fuel. Unburned light fuel particles can be carried upwards
with the gas flow through the calciner and transported into the bottom stage cyclone. The char particles may with the gas flow through the calciner and transported into the bottom stage cyclone. The char particles may
arrive to the kiln inlet and their subsequently combustion may cause the release of sulfur. arrive to the kiln inlet and their subsequently combustion may cause the release of sulfur.
The investigation was carried out by analysis of hot meal samples and process data from an industrial cement The investigation was carried out by analysis of hot meal samples and process data from an industrial cement
plant. Multicomponent gas measurements were compared with the stationary measurement equipment of the plant. Multicomponent gas measurements were compared with the stationary measurement equipment of the
cement plant in order to support the investigations of sulfur release during combustion in the kiln inlet. cement plant in order to support the investigations of sulfur release during combustion in the kiln inlet.
The chapter starts with a description of the plant, such as the system design, the fuels used, and a description The chapter starts with a description of the plant, such as the system design, the fuels used, and a description
of the tests performed. Section 9.2 describes the two gas measurements systems used in the kiln inlet and of the tests performed. Section 9.2 describes the two gas measurements systems used in the kiln inlet and
compares their results. The investigation of sulfur evaporation from the process is explained in section 9.3, compares their results. The investigation of sulfur evaporation from the process is explained in section 9.3,
which includes the organic carbon results from the hot meal samples and analyses of the calciner fuel which includes the organic carbon results from the hot meal samples and analyses of the calciner fuel
conversion, the tendency of build-ups, and the sulfur volatility. Finally, the conclusions of the industrial conversion, the tendency of build-ups, and the sulfur volatility. Finally, the conclusions of the industrial
experience and the challenges encountered in the sulfur release study are described. experience and the challenges encountered in the sulfur release study are described.
9.1 Background 9.1 Background
The cement plant, where the investigation was carried out, has two separate line calciners. The strings, named The cement plant, where the investigation was carried out, has two separate line calciners. The strings, named
string A and B, are identical and consist of a calciner and three cyclones, as shown schematically in Figure string A and B, are identical and consist of a calciner and three cyclones, as shown schematically in Figure
9-1. The raw materials used are wet and form a slurry, which is introduced into the dryer crusher of each stream 9-1. The raw materials used are wet and form a slurry, which is introduced into the dryer crusher of each stream
where the slurry is dried and ground. The dry raw materials are then carried upwards to the top cyclone by the where the slurry is dried and ground. The dry raw materials are then carried upwards to the top cyclone by the
gas stream. The gases in the preheater tower are bypassed from the second cyclone to the dryer crusher before gas stream. The gases in the preheater tower are bypassed from the second cyclone to the dryer crusher before
going to the top cyclone, which works as gas/dust separator. The hot air from the clinker cooler goes to the going to the top cyclone, which works as gas/dust separator. The hot air from the clinker cooler goes to the
calciner and the rotary kiln gases are mixed with the calciner outlet gases. The plant produces mineralized calciner and the rotary kiln gases are mixed with the calciner outlet gases. The plant produces mineralized
clinker, which means that 0.13 wt. % fluoride on clinker basis is added in the kiln inlet, which allows lowering clinker, which means that 0.13 wt. % fluoride on clinker basis is added in the kiln inlet, which allows lowering
the burning temperature in the kiln. the burning temperature in the kiln.
197 197
211 211
String A String B String A String B

Slurry Slurry Slurry Slurry
Dryer Dryer Dryer Dryer

crusher crusher crusher crusher
Gas flow Gas flow

Material flow Material flow
Hot meal sampling point Hot meal sampling point
Gas measurement point Gas measurement point
Calciner Calciner Calciner Calciner
A B A B
Petcoke Petcoke
Petcoke RDF Petcoke RDF
RDF Tertiary air for string B RDF Tertiary air for string B
Tertiary air for string A Tertiary air for string A
Tire chips Tire chips
Steam coal Steam coal

Low sulfur petcoke Low sulfur petcoke
Figure 9-1: Scheme of the industrial cement plant where the investigation took place. Not to scale. Figure 9-1: Scheme of the industrial cement plant where the investigation took place. Not to scale.
The fuels used in both calciners are petcoke and plastic/paper-based refused derived fuel (RDF). Sometimes, The fuels used in both calciners are petcoke and plastic/paper-based refused derived fuel (RDF). Sometimes,
tire chips are fired in the riser duct from 2 meters above the kiln inlet. The fuel analyses of petcoke, RDF, and tire chips are fired in the riser duct from 2 meters above the kiln inlet. The fuel analyses of petcoke, RDF, and
tire chips are specified in Table 9-1, where a.r. denotes as received. tire chips are specified in Table 9-1, where a.r. denotes as received.
Table 9-1: Fuel analyses and lower heating values (LHV) of petcoke, RDF, and tire chips that the cement plant used in the calciner Table 9-1: Fuel analyses and lower heating values (LHV) of petcoke, RDF, and tire chips that the cement plant used in the calciner
and riser duct. Notes: 1Volatile matter, 2 Fixed carbon. and riser duct. Notes: 1Volatile matter, 2 Fixed carbon.
Proximate analysis Proximate analysis

Moisture Ultimate analysis [wt. % a.r.] LHV Moisture Ultimate analysis [wt. % a.r.] LHV
Fuel [wt. % a.r.] Fuel [wt. % a.r.]
[wt. % a.r.] [MJ/kg] [wt. % a.r.] [MJ/kg]
VM1 FC2 Ash C H N Cl S VM1 FC2 Ash C H N Cl S
Petcoke 1.1 13.0 84.9 1.0 86.9 3.71 - - 5.85 35.183 Petcoke 1.1 13.0 84.9 1.0 86.9 3.71 - - 5.85 35.183
RDF 24.1 61.6 6.6 7.7 45.8 6.31 0.67 0.54 0.40 19.330 RDF 24.1 61.6 6.6 7.7 45.8 6.31 0.67 0.54 0.40 19.330
Tire chips - 64 3.5 2.5 80.5 7.01 0.20 - 1.47 34.199 Tire chips - 64 3.5 2.5 80.5 7.01 0.20 - 1.47 34.199
198 198
212 212
The cement plant controls the calciner temperature by adjusting the flow of petcoke fired. In order to estimate The cement plant controls the calciner temperature by adjusting the flow of petcoke fired. In order to estimate
the amount of RDF fired, the percentage of fuel input to each calciner originating from petcoke is calculated the amount of RDF fired, the percentage of fuel input to each calciner originating from petcoke is calculated
by to equation 9.1. The percentage remaining of fuel input corresponds to RDF. by to equation 9.1. The percentage remaining of fuel input corresponds to RDF.
Fpetcoke LHVpetcoke Fpetcoke LHVpetcoke

petcoke % 100 [9.1] petcoke % 100 [9.1]
Ecalc Fproduc Ecalc Fproduc
where Fpetcoke is the flow of petcoke in t/h fired into the calciner, LHV petcoke is the lower heating value of the where Fpetcoke is the flow of petcoke in t/h fired into the calciner, LHV petcoke is the lower heating value of the
6 6
petcoke, which is approx. 33.5·10 J/kg (the lower heating value for petcoke is 35.183 ·10 J/kg according to petcoke, which is approx. 33.5·106 J/kg (the lower heating value for petcoke is 35.183 ·106 J/kg according to
the analysis, but the fired petcoke is mixed with unspecified fuels), Ecalc is the energy consumption of the the analysis, but the fired petcoke is mixed with unspecified fuels), Ecalc is the energy consumption of the
5
calciner, which is estimated to be 29.3·10 J/kg clinker, and Fproduc is the production of each string in t/h. calciner, which is estimated to be 29.3·105 J/kg clinker, and Fproduc is the production of each string in t/h.
The tire chips are assumed not to contribute to the calciner energy consumption, because the amount of fuel The tire chips are assumed not to contribute to the calciner energy consumption, because the amount of fuel
fired in the main burner is reduced when tire chips are fired. Figure 9-2 qualitatively illustrates the flows of fired in the main burner is reduced when tire chips are fired. Figure 9-2 qualitatively illustrates the flows of
mixture fuel fired in the main burner and tire chips. The temperature in the hot zone can be lowered, because mixture fuel fired in the main burner and tire chips. The temperature in the hot zone can be lowered, because
the gas temperature in the kiln inlet will increase due to the combustion of tire chips. The tire chips fired in the the gas temperature in the kiln inlet will increase due to the combustion of tire chips. The tire chips fired in the
kiln inlet contribute therefore to the energy consumption of the main burner. The fuel in the main burner kiln inlet contribute therefore to the energy consumption of the main burner. The fuel in the main burner
consists of a mixture of 50 wt. % steam coal and 50 wt. % low sulfur petcoke, and the overall sulfur content consists of a mixture of 50 wt. % steam coal and 50 wt. % low sulfur petcoke, and the overall sulfur content
in the mixture is 2.7 wt. %. in the mixture is 2.7 wt. %.
7 7
Fuel in main burner Fuel in main burner
6 6
Firing flows [t/h]
Firing flows [t/h]

5 5
4 4
3 3
2 Tire chips 2 Tire chips

1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Days Days
Figure 9-2: Qualitative representation of the firing flows of tire chips and mixture fuel in the main burner. Figure 9-2: Qualitative representation of the firing flows of tire chips and mixture fuel in the main burner.
Hot meal samples were taken from the bottom cyclone of strings A and B during a period of one month in 8 Hot meal samples were taken from the bottom cyclone of strings A and B during a period of one month in 8
different sampling days. The hot meal samples were taken with a sampler provided by FLSmidth A/S to ensure different sampling days. The hot meal samples were taken with a sampler provided by FLSmidth A/S to ensure
a homogenous cooling and to avoid oxidation of the carbon. Multicomponent gas measurements with focus on a homogenous cooling and to avoid oxidation of the carbon. Multicomponent gas measurements with focus on
199 199
213 213
SO2, CO, and O2 in the kiln inlet were performed on sampling day 3 and 4 using a hot Fourier transform SO2, CO, and O2 in the kiln inlet were performed on sampling day 3 and 4 using a hot Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) measurement system with a heated self-cleaning probe and samples were also infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) measurement system with a heated self-cleaning probe and samples were also
taken during these days. taken during these days.
The two tests performed consisted of: The two tests performed consisted of:
- Test 1: Increase of RDF firing in calciner A (from 37 to 85 % RDF of calciner fuel input). Petcoke - Test 1: Increase of RDF firing in calciner A (from 37 to 85 % RDF of calciner fuel input). Petcoke
flow was decreased from 4.6 to 1.1 t/h. No tire chips were fired in the kiln inlet. flow was decreased from 4.6 to 1.1 t/h. No tire chips were fired in the kiln inlet.
- Test 2: Increase of tire chips injection in the kiln inlet from 1 to 1.5 t/h. - Test 2: Increase of tire chips injection in the kiln inlet from 1 to 1.5 t/h.
9.2 Gas Measurements 9.2 Gas Measurements
During the visit to the cement plant, a hot FTIR gas measurement system was used and compared to a cold gas During the visit to the cement plant, a hot FTIR gas measurement system was used and compared to a cold gas
measurement system, typically used in the cement industry. The main difference between the systems is that measurement system, typically used in the cement industry. The main difference between the systems is that
the hot FTIR system measures the components in the analyzer using the hot gases, while the fixed installation the hot FTIR system measures the components in the analyzer using the hot gases, while the fixed installation
of the plant (cold gas system) needs to cool the gas before the measurement. The cooling of the gas can affect of the plant (cold gas system) needs to cool the gas before the measurement. The cooling of the gas can affect
the measurements because condensed moisture can absorb SO2. The measurement principle of both techniques the measurements because condensed moisture can absorb SO2. The measurement principle of both techniques
can be found in Appendix G. can be found in Appendix G.
9.2.1 Comparison between Two Measurements Systems 9.2.1 Comparison between Two Measurements Systems
The fixed equipment (the cold gas measuring system) logs the data every 60 seconds and purges the probe (to The fixed equipment (the cold gas measuring system) logs the data every 60 seconds and purges the probe (to
remove the dust that may enter) every 10 minutes. The FTIR equipment was set to log data every 5 seconds, remove the dust that may enter) every 10 minutes. The FTIR equipment was set to log data every 5 seconds,
and a self-purge cleaning mechanism was set up to purge every 5 minutes. Therefore, the FTIR equipment was and a self-purge cleaning mechanism was set up to purge every 5 minutes. Therefore, the FTIR equipment was
sampling more frequently and it was also cleaned more frequently in order to avoid the SO2 absorption. sampling more frequently and it was also cleaned more frequently in order to avoid the SO2 absorption.
Furthermore, the detection limits of the FTIR system were lower than for the fixed equipment. Furthermore, the detection limits of the FTIR system were lower than for the fixed equipment.
The probe used for the hot FTIR equipment had smaller dimensions than the one used for the fixed equipment. The probe used for the hot FTIR equipment had smaller dimensions than the one used for the fixed equipment.
This was an advantage because the gas residence time in the probe and the filter was shorter than normal, This was an advantage because the gas residence time in the probe and the filter was shorter than normal,
which means, that the gases had less time to react or be absorbed inside the probe. which means, that the gases had less time to react or be absorbed inside the probe.
The FTIR equipment was placed on a level 3-4 meters above the fixed equipment. Therefore, the fixed The FTIR equipment was placed on a level 3-4 meters above the fixed equipment. Therefore, the fixed
equipment was measuring more directly into the kiln gasses. Figure 9-3 illustrates representatively the location equipment was measuring more directly into the kiln gasses. Figure 9-3 illustrates representatively the location
of the hot FTIR gas measurement system and the fixed cold gas measurement system in the kiln system. of the hot FTIR gas measurement system and the fixed cold gas measurement system in the kiln system.
200 200
214 214
Tire chips Tire chips
Riser Riser
duct duct
Smoke Smoke
chamber chamber
Hot FTIR gas Hot FTIR gas
measurement system measurement system
Cold fixed gas Cold fixed gas
measurement system measurement system
Figure 9-3: Scheme of the location of the hot FTIR gas measurement system and the fixed cold gas measurement system. Figure 9-3: Scheme of the location of the hot FTIR gas measurement system and the fixed cold gas measurement system.
The FTIR equipment recorded concentrations of CO and SO2 when the fixed equipment showed lower The FTIR equipment recorded concentrations of CO and SO2 when the fixed equipment showed lower
concentrations than 0.02 vol. % of CO and 0 ppm SO2. The CO and SO2 spikes were observed in brief periods concentrations than 0.02 vol. % of CO and 0 ppm SO2. The CO and SO2 spikes were observed in brief periods
during test 1 and 2. It was noticed that the O2 levels measured by the FTIR equipment were at least 1 vol. % during test 1 and 2. It was noticed that the O2 levels measured by the FTIR equipment were at least 1 vol. %
higher than the kiln inlet probe position from the fixed equipment. higher than the kiln inlet probe position from the fixed equipment.
The fixed gas analyzer recorded 0 ppm SO2 in the kiln inlet, even though the fuel mixture in the main burner The fixed gas analyzer recorded 0 ppm SO2 in the kiln inlet, even though the fuel mixture in the main burner
has 2.7 wt. % of sulfur. Assuming that the fuel mixture has a composition of 86.9 wt. % C, 3.71 wt. % H, 3.15 has 2.7 wt. % of sulfur. Assuming that the fuel mixture has a composition of 86.9 wt. % C, 3.71 wt. % H, 3.15
wt. % N, and 2.7 wt. % S and that it is combusted in 6 vol. % O2 (which is the approximate level observed in wt. % N, and 2.7 wt. % S and that it is combusted in 6 vol. % O2 (which is the approximate level observed in
Table 9-2), the SO2 concentration at the kiln inlet coming from main burner should be approx. 1400 ppm SO2 Table 9-2), the SO2 concentration at the kiln inlet coming from main burner should be approx. 1400 ppm SO2
assuming no SO2 absorption by the dust or clinker. However, this high SO2 concentration is not seen in the assuming no SO2 absorption by the dust or clinker. However, this high SO2 concentration is not seen in the
kiln measurements, which means that the sulfur has been absorbed by the clinker or by the dust in the cement kiln measurements, which means that the sulfur has been absorbed by the clinker or by the dust in the cement
kiln. kiln.
Figure 9-4 and Figure 9-5 show the O2, CO, and SO2 measurements with the fixed equipment and the FTIR Figure 9-4 and Figure 9-5 show the O2, CO, and SO2 measurements with the fixed equipment and the FTIR
equipment for normal operation, test 1, and the addition of 1 t/h tire chips during the sampling day 3. equipment for normal operation, test 1, and the addition of 1 t/h tire chips during the sampling day 3.
The CO measurements by the fixed equipment cannot be trusted because the uncertainty of this measurement The CO measurements by the fixed equipment cannot be trusted because the uncertainty of this measurement
is usually 2 % of the full range of the equipment, which is from 0 to 5 vol. % CO, therefore the uncertainty is is usually 2 % of the full range of the equipment, which is from 0 to 5 vol. % CO, therefore the uncertainty is
± 0.1 % CO. ± 0.1 % CO.
201 201
215 215
Addition Addition
Normal Addition Normal Normal Addition Normal
tire chips tire chips
operation Test 1 tire chips 10 operation Test 1 350 operation Test 1 tire chips 10 operation Test 1 350
10 350 10 350
9 9 9 9
300 300 300 300
CO and SO2 [ppm dry]


8 8 8 8
7 250 7 250 7 250 7 250
O2 [vol. % dry]
O2 [vol. % dry]
O2 [vol. % dry]
O2 [vol. % dry]
6 6 200 6 6 200
200 200
5 5 5 5
4 150 150 4 150 150
4 4
3 100 3 100 3 100 3 100
2 2 2 2
50 50 50 50
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Time [hh:m] Time [hh:mm] Time [hh:m] Time [hh:mm]
O΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet O΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet O΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet O΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet
Figure 9-4: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet Figure 9-5: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet Figure 9-4: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet Figure 9-5: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet
measured by the fixed equipment for normal operation, test 1 and measured by the FTIR equipment for normal operation, test 1 and measured by the fixed equipment for normal operation, test 1 and measured by the FTIR equipment for normal operation, test 1 and
the addition of tire chips (1 t/h). Probe cleaning effects have been the addition of tire chips (1 t/h). Probe cleaning effects have been the addition of tire chips (1 t/h). Probe cleaning effects have been the addition of tire chips (1 t/h). Probe cleaning effects have been
removed. removed. removed. removed.
Some spikes of CO and SO2 were briefly observed with the FTIR equipment, while with the fixed equipment Some spikes of CO and SO2 were briefly observed with the FTIR equipment, while with the fixed equipment
very small CO spikes were recorded and the SO2 concentration did not change. Table 9-2 summarizes the very small CO spikes were recorded and the SO2 concentration did not change. Table 9-2 summarizes the
averages, maximum and minimum concentrations of O2, CO, and SO2 during the different periods. The FTIR averages, maximum and minimum concentrations of O2, CO, and SO2 during the different periods. The FTIR
equipment measured 80 and 277 ppm as maximum concentration of CO and SO2, respectively. equipment measured 80 and 277 ppm as maximum concentration of CO and SO2, respectively.
Table 9-2: Summary of the average (avg), maximum and minimum concentrations of O2, CO and SO2 measured by the FTIR Table 9-2: Summary of the average (avg), maximum and minimum concentrations of O2, CO and SO2 measured by the FTIR
equipment and the fixed equipment during normal operation, test 1 and addition of tire chips. equipment and the fixed equipment during normal operation, test 1 and addition of tire chips.
Measurements of Sampling day 3 Measurements of Sampling day 3

O2 [vol. %] CO [ppm] SO2 [ppm] O2 [vol. %] CO [ppm] SO2 [ppm]
FTIR equipment FTIR equipment
avg max min avg max min avg max min avg max min avg max min avg max min
Normal Production 6.8 8 5.6 4.9 61.6 0 1 56.6 0 Normal Production 6.8 8 5.6 4.9 61.6 0 1 56.6 0
Test 1 7.1 8.3 5.7 5.3 79.9 0 23.8 276.6 0 Test 1 7.1 8.3 5.7 5.3 79.9 0 23.8 276.6 0
Addition tire chips 1 t/h 7.2 8.4 5.7 12.6 91.2 0 0 0 0 Addition tire chips 1 t/h 7.2 8.4 5.7 12.6 91.2 0 0 0 0
O2 [vol. %] CO [vol. %] SO2 [ppm] O2 [vol. %] CO [vol. %] SO2 [ppm]
Fixed equipment Fixed equipment
Normal Production 5.9 6.6 5.1 0.019 0.019 0.019 0 0 0 Normal Production 5.9 6.6 5.1 0.019 0.019 0.019 0 0 0
Test 1 5.7 6.5 5.1 0.020 0.024 0.016 0 0 0 Test 1 5.7 6.5 5.1 0.020 0.024 0.016 0 0 0
Addition tire chips 1 t/h 6.5 7.6 5.4 0.020 0.022 0.017 0 0 0 Addition tire chips 1 t/h 6.5 7.6 5.4 0.020 0.022 0.017 0 0 0
202 202
216 216
Figure 9-6 shows an enlargement of the O2, CO, and SO2 concentration profiles in the kiln inlet measured by Figure 9-6 shows an enlargement of the O2, CO, and SO2 concentration profiles in the kiln inlet measured by
the FTIR equipment during test 1. It can be seen that the O2 concentration increases when the probe is purged. the FTIR equipment during test 1. It can be seen that the O2 concentration increases when the probe is purged.
This means that no dust is present inside the probe, subsequently higher concentrations of SO2 are measured, This means that no dust is present inside the probe, subsequently higher concentrations of SO2 are measured,
which is the SO2 concentration present in the kiln inlet. Afterwards, the SO2 concentration slowly decreases, which is the SO2 concentration present in the kiln inlet. Afterwards, the SO2 concentration slowly decreases,
because the SO2 is absorbed in dust or/and on the probe filter. The O2 concentration is around 6 vol. %, which because the SO2 is absorbed in dust or/and on the probe filter. The O2 concentration is around 6 vol. %, which
is the level present in the kiln gas. This cycle is repeated for each purge. is the level present in the kiln gas. This cycle is repeated for each purge.
20 SO2 getting absorbed 300 20 SO2 getting absorbed 300

18 Real SO2 18 Real SO2
250 250

16 measuremen 16 measuremen
14 14
O2 [vol. % dry]
O2 [vol. % dry]
200 200
12 Purge 12 Purge
probe probe
10 150 10 150
8 8
100 100
6 6
4 Real O2 4 Real O2
measurement 50 measurement 50
2 2
0 0 0 0
01:03 01:06 01:08 01:11 01:03 01:06 01:08 01:11
Time [hh:mm] Time [hh:mm]
O΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet O΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet
Figure 9-6: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations obtained by the FTIR equipment during test 1. The blowing cleaning effects on the Figure 9-6: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations obtained by the FTIR equipment during test 1. The blowing cleaning effects on the
signals have been removed. signals have been removed.
It can be seen that the dust from the kiln constitute a challenge when measuring the “real” SO2 concentration It can be seen that the dust from the kiln constitute a challenge when measuring the “real” SO2 concentration
in the kiln. in the kiln.
Figure 9-7 and Figure 9-8 show the O2, CO, and SO2 concentration profiles obtained with the fixed equipment Figure 9-7 and Figure 9-8 show the O2, CO, and SO2 concentration profiles obtained with the fixed equipment
and the FTIR equipment during normal operation and during test 2 at sampling day 4. When the tire chips were and the FTIR equipment during normal operation and during test 2 at sampling day 4. When the tire chips were
increased from 1 to 1.5 t/h, spikes of CO and SO2 were only seen with the FTIR equipment. increased from 1 to 1.5 t/h, spikes of CO and SO2 were only seen with the FTIR equipment.
203 203
217 217
Normal Normal
Normal Test 2 Normal operation Test 2 Normal operation Normal Test 2 Normal operation Test 2 Normal operation
operation operation
operation 10 2500 operation 10 2500
10 300 10 300
9 9 9 9
250 250


8 8 2000 8 8 2000
O2 [vol. % dry]
O2 [vol. % dry]
7 7
O2 [vol. % dry]
O2 [vol. % dry]
7 200 7 200
6 6 1500 6 6 1500
5 150 5 5 150 5
4 4 1000 4 4 1000
3 100 3 100
3 3
2 50 2 500 2 50 2 500
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

O΍ kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet O΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet O΍ kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet O΍ kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO΍ kiln inlet
Figure 9-7: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet Figure 9-8: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet Figure 9-7: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet Figure 9-8: O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet
measured by the fixed equipment during normal operation and measured by the FTIR equipment during normal operation and test measured by the fixed equipment during normal operation and measured by the FTIR equipment during normal operation and test
test 2. Probe cleaning effects have been removed. 2. Probe cleaning effects have been removed. test 2. Probe cleaning effects have been removed. 2. Probe cleaning effects have been removed.
The average concentrations, the maximum and minimum concentrations of O2, CO and SO2 for the The average concentrations, the maximum and minimum concentrations of O2, CO and SO2 for the
measurements performed on day 4 are listed in Table 9-3. The maximum concentration of CO and SO2 detected measurements performed on day 4 are listed in Table 9-3. The maximum concentration of CO and SO2 detected
with the FTIR equipment were 1792 ppm and 233 ppm, respectively. with the FTIR equipment were 1792 ppm and 233 ppm, respectively.
Table 9-3: Summary of the average (avg), maximum and minimum concentrations of O 2, CO and SO2 measured by the FTIR Table 9-3: Summary of the average (avg), maximum and minimum concentrations of O 2, CO and SO2 measured by the FTIR
equipment and the fixed equipment during normal operation and test 2. equipment and the fixed equipment during normal operation and test 2.
Measurements of Sampling day 4 Measurements of Sampling day 4

O2 [vol. %] CO [ppm] SO2 [ppm] O2 [vol. %] CO [ppm] SO2 [ppm]
FTIR equipment FTIR equipment
Normal Production 7.4 8.5 5.5 30.2 112.8 1 0 0 0 Normal Production 7.4 8.5 5.5 30.2 112.8 1 0 0 0
Test 2 7.5 8.9 6 55.5 1791.6 1 30.7 232.6 0 Test 2 7.5 8.9 6 55.5 1791.6 1 30.7 232.6 0
Normal Production 7.9 9.9 5.8 54.8 2164.8 1 1.9 83.4 0 Normal Production 7.9 9.9 5.8 54.8 2164.8 1 1.9 83.4 0
O2 [vol. %] CO [vol. %] SO2 [ppm] O2 [vol. %] CO [vol. %] SO2 [ppm]
Fixed equipment Fixed equipment
Test 2 6.2 7 5.5 0.019 0.022 0.016 0 0 0 Test 2 6.2 7 5.5 0.019 0.022 0.016 0 0 0
In general, the SO2 concentration levels were low and the spikes were brief, so the fixed installation had In general, the SO2 concentration levels were low and the spikes were brief, so the fixed installation had
difficulties to measure the process changes which occurred so briefly. The purge function and sampling difficulties to measure the process changes which occurred so briefly. The purge function and sampling
204 204
218 218
conditioning of the FTIR equipment did improve the measurements, but the dust in the probe also quickly conditioning of the FTIR equipment did improve the measurements, but the dust in the probe also quickly
started to absorb SO2. started to absorb SO2.
In conclusion, there is a good agreement of the oxygen concentration levels measured by the two measurement In conclusion, there is a good agreement of the oxygen concentration levels measured by the two measurement
equipments, but the hot FTIR gas measurement equipment is able to measure changes in CO and SO2 equipments, but the hot FTIR gas measurement equipment is able to measure changes in CO and SO2
concentrations that were not detected by the cold gas measurement equipment. The CO concentration measured concentrations that were not detected by the cold gas measurement equipment. The CO concentration measured
by the cold gas measurement equipment cannot be trusted because the CO concentration levels are below the by the cold gas measurement equipment cannot be trusted because the CO concentration levels are below the
uncertainty. The SO2 concentration cannot be either trusted because the data log and purge time is quite long, uncertainty. The SO2 concentration cannot be either trusted because the data log and purge time is quite long,
which makes that the analyzer is not detecting the fast variations. Furthermore, the lack of frequent which makes that the analyzer is not detecting the fast variations. Furthermore, the lack of frequent
maintenance (meaning that the dust in filters may not been removed) may have influence the results, obtaining maintenance (meaning that the dust in filters may not been removed) may have influence the results, obtaining
no detection of SO2. no detection of SO2.
9.3 Investigation of Sulfur Evaporation on the Process 9.3 Investigation of Sulfur Evaporation on the Process
Hot meal samples were taken from the bottom cyclone of strings A and B at 8 separate days during a month Hot meal samples were taken from the bottom cyclone of strings A and B at 8 separate days during a month
period. During this period, one sample from each calciner string was taken during normal operation, but on period. During this period, one sample from each calciner string was taken during normal operation, but on
sampling days 5 and 6 only one sample was taken from B string because the A-string was out of operation. sampling days 5 and 6 only one sample was taken from B string because the A-string was out of operation.
During the visit on sampling day 3 and 4, the following samples were taken: During the visit on sampling day 3 and 4, the following samples were taken:
- Sampling day 3: two samples during normal operation and three samples (two from string A and one - Sampling day 3: two samples during normal operation and three samples (two from string A and one
from B) during a period where the RDF was increased in calciner A. from B) during a period where the RDF was increased in calciner A.
- Sampling day 4: two samples (one from string A and one from B) during a period with increased tire - Sampling day 4: two samples (one from string A and one from B) during a period with increased tire
chips injection in the kiln inlet. chips injection in the kiln inlet.
The samples were sent to the FLSmidth A/S laboratory for analyses of the chemical composition (by X-Ray The samples were sent to the FLSmidth A/S laboratory for analyses of the chemical composition (by X-Ray
diffraction) and organic carbon. The organic carbon was determined by an instrument, which incinerates the diffraction) and organic carbon. The organic carbon was determined by an instrument, which incinerates the
sample in an oxygen flow and an IR cell, subsequently analyses the CO2 generated during the incineration. sample in an oxygen flow and an IR cell, subsequently analyses the CO2 generated during the incineration.
The O2, CO, and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet, CO and O2 out of the preheater, the flows of petcoke and The O2, CO, and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet, CO and O2 out of the preheater, the flows of petcoke and
tire ships and the temperatures in the calciners were recorded as process data corresponding to the days of the tire ships and the temperatures in the calciners were recorded as process data corresponding to the days of the
samples. Table 9-4 shows the concentration range of the O2, CO and SO2 measurements in the kiln inlet and samples. Table 9-4 shows the concentration range of the O2, CO and SO2 measurements in the kiln inlet and
preheater, and the production rate and the calciner temperatures during the period of sampling. preheater, and the production rate and the calciner temperatures during the period of sampling.
205 205
219 219
Table 9-4: Concentration range of the gas measurements (O2, CO and SO2) in the kiln inlet and preheaters, the production range and Table 9-4: Concentration range of the gas measurements (O2, CO and SO2) in the kiln inlet and preheaters, the production range and
the temperature of the calciner for normal operation. Target calciner temperature: 875 oC. the temperature of the calciner for normal operation. Target calciner temperature: 875 oC.
O2 kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO2 kiln O2 preheater CO preheater Production each T calciner O2 kiln inlet CO kiln inlet SO2 kiln O2 preheater CO preheater Production each T calciner
[vol. %] [vol. %] inlet [ppm] [vol. %] [vol. %] string [t/day] [oC] [vol. %] [vol. %] inlet [ppm] [vol. %] [vol. %] string [t/day] [oC]
0-0.2 0-0.2
5-9 ≤ 0.02 0 4-10 2000-2500 881-1013 5-9 ≤ 0.02 0 4-10 2000-2500 881-1013
spikes to 0.4 spikes to 0.4
During the sampling period the cement plant operated with high concentration of oxygen, which varied from During the sampling period the cement plant operated with high concentration of oxygen, which varied from
4 to 10 vol. %, and subsequent low CO concentrations, below 0.02 vol. %, both in the kiln inlet and in the 4 to 10 vol. %, and subsequent low CO concentrations, below 0.02 vol. %, both in the kiln inlet and in the
preheater. preheater.
Table 9-5 summarizes the hot meal analysis of the all samples taken for this investigation and it can be seen Table 9-5 summarizes the hot meal analysis of the all samples taken for this investigation and it can be seen
that the content of minor components, such MgO, Mn2O3, TiO2, P2O5, and SrO, have a small variation (less that the content of minor components, such MgO, Mn2O3, TiO2, P2O5, and SrO, have a small variation (less
than 0.05 wt. % in standard deviation) in the 19 hot meal samples. However, SiO2 and CaO, which are than 0.05 wt. % in standard deviation) in the 19 hot meal samples. However, SiO2 and CaO, which are
important components for the clinker, are having large standard deviations of 1.66 and 3.32 wt. %, respectively. important components for the clinker, are having large standard deviations of 1.66 and 3.32 wt. %, respectively.
The Al2O3 and Fe2O3 content, which are the other main oxides in the clinker, vary to less extent with a standard The Al2O3 and Fe2O3 content, which are the other main oxides in the clinker, vary to less extent with a standard
deviations of 0.5 and 0.25 wt. %, respectively. The Cl, K2O and SO3 contents present similar standard deviations of 0.5 and 0.25 wt. %, respectively. The Cl, K2O and SO3 contents present similar standard
deviations as the main oxides, giving 0.62, 0.56 and 0.26 wt. %, respectively. The greatest variation is in the deviations as the main oxides, giving 0.62, 0.56 and 0.26 wt. %, respectively. The greatest variation is in the
loss on ignition (LOI), which range from 1.87 to 17.9 wt. %. The loss on ignition indicates how incomplete loss on ignition (LOI), which range from 1.87 to 17.9 wt. %. The loss on ignition indicates how incomplete
the calcination was. The organic carbon from the hot meal samples during normal operation varies from 0.03 the calcination was. The organic carbon from the hot meal samples during normal operation varies from 0.03
to 0.12 wt. % with an average of 0.06 wt. %. When RDF firing was increased the organic carbon varied from to 0.12 wt. % with an average of 0.06 wt. %. When RDF firing was increased the organic carbon varied from
0.03 to 0.07 wt. %, and when the firing of tires chips in the kiln inlet was increased the organic carbon varied 0.03 to 0.07 wt. %, and when the firing of tires chips in the kiln inlet was increased the organic carbon varied
from 0.05 to 0.1 wt. %. from 0.05 to 0.1 wt. %.
The fixed installation of the cement plant recorded always a SO2 concentration of 0 ppm in the kiln inlet during The fixed installation of the cement plant recorded always a SO2 concentration of 0 ppm in the kiln inlet during
the sampling period, as shown in Table 9-4. Therefore, the organic carbon variation from the hot meal samples the sampling period, as shown in Table 9-4. Therefore, the organic carbon variation from the hot meal samples
cannot be related to the SO2 in the kiln inlet. However, it may be possible that the content of organic carbon cannot be related to the SO2 in the kiln inlet. However, it may be possible that the content of organic carbon
measured in the hot meal under those conditions provokes a minor SO2 release that the analyzer was unable to measured in the hot meal under those conditions provokes a minor SO2 release that the analyzer was unable to
detect. detect.
206 206
220 220
Chapter 9: Industrial Experience on Sulfur Release
Table 9-5: Summary of the hot meal samples analysis for each sample taken during normal operation, test 1 and test 2. Note: 1Loss on ignition.
Sampling Sampling Sampling day Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
Pre-test Sampling day 3
Chemical day 1 day 2 4 day 5 day 6 day 7 day 8
composition Process Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal
[wt. %] Test 1 Test 2
instability operation operation operation operation operation operation operation
A B A B A B A B A A B A B B B A B A B
SiO2 19.2 17.97 19.76 20.38 19.49 19.74 17.09 20.78 18.57 18.58 20.68 16.10 20.20 23.83 20.24 20.28 21.59 20.24 19.51
Al2O3 5.11 4.77 4.82 5.52 4.82 5.45 4.37 5.76 4.83 4.77 5.87 4.02 5.63 5.31 5.36 5.06 5.58 5.76 5.49
Fe2O3 3.71 3.63 4.16 3.59 4.29 3.59 3.6 3.64 3.93 3.96 3.64 3.47 3.58 4.14 3.91 4.02 3.87 4.25 3.72
CaO 58.3 54.9 63.5 58.29 62.24 55.24 61.03 62.13 64.29 64.12 60.46 52.33 59.74 58.96 62.83 63.31 60.48 62.44 61.88
MgO 0.74 0.73 0.8 0.78 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.79 0.77 0.78 0.81 0.63 0.78 0.82 0.78 0.82 0.79 0.81 0.78
221
Mn2O3 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
207
TiO2 0.25 0.24 0.26 0.29 0.27 0.29 0.23 0.31 0.26 0.25 0.31 0.20 0.28 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.30 0.31 0.29
P2O5 0.28 0.33 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.29 0.26 0.31 0.35 0.38 0.28 0.21 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.37 0.25 0.28 0.26
K 2O 2.17 3.0 1.1 1.48 1.38 2.22 1.28 0.92 1.38 1.49 1.22 2.31 1.20 0.92 1.07 1.14 0.93 1.05 1.44
Na2O 0.44 0.51 0.36 0.4 0.43 0.54 0.37 0.38 0.42 0.46 0.47 0.56 0.42 0.84 0.41 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.45
SrO 0.14 0.12 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.14
SO3 1.90 1.325 1.9 1.52 1.85 1.94 1.52 1.87 1.73 1.88 1.99 1.75 1.63 2.11 2.4 1.35 1.92 1.85 2.04
Chlorine 1.60 2.82 0.47 0.85 0.93 1.72 0.89 0.47 0.95 0.93 0.79 2.06 0.67 0.50 0.61 0.80 0.45 0.59 0.99
LOI1 975 °C 7.10 12.21 2.12 6.74 2.4 8.76 9.60 2.5 3.13 2.92 3.28 17.9 5.73 2.04 2.72 2.64 2.98 1.87 3.21
TOTAL 97.49 98.44 99.46 99.46 98.63 98.97 100.22 99.56 99.83 99.76 99.18 99.61 99.6 99.64 100.41 99.88 99.3 99.47 99.24
Organic
0.09 0.07 0.03 0.1 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.2 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.05 0.1 0.07 0.12 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.05
Carbon
Table 9-5: Summary of the hot meal samples analysis for each sample taken during normal operation, test 1 and test 2. Note: 1Loss on ignition.
Sampling Sampling Sampling day Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
Pre-test Sampling day 3
Chemical day 1 day 2 4 day 5 day 6 day 7 day 8
composition Process Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal
[wt. %] Test 1 Test 2
instability operation operation operation operation operation operation operation
A B A B A B A B A A B A B B B A B A B
SiO2 19.2 17.97 19.76 20.38 19.49 19.74 17.09 20.78 18.57 18.58 20.68 16.10 20.20 23.83 20.24 20.28 21.59 20.24 19.51
Al2O3 5.11 4.77 4.82 5.52 4.82 5.45 4.37 5.76 4.83 4.77 5.87 4.02 5.63 5.31 5.36 5.06 5.58 5.76 5.49
Fe2O3 3.71 3.63 4.16 3.59 4.29 3.59 3.6 3.64 3.93 3.96 3.64 3.47 3.58 4.14 3.91 4.02 3.87 4.25 3.72
CaO 58.3 54.9 63.5 58.29 62.24 55.24 61.03 62.13 64.29 64.12 60.46 52.33 59.74 58.96 62.83 63.31 60.48 62.44 61.88
MgO 0.74 0.73 0.8 0.78 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.79 0.77 0.78 0.81 0.63 0.78 0.82 0.78 0.82 0.79 0.81 0.78
221
Mn2O3 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
207
TiO2 0.25 0.24 0.26 0.29 0.27 0.29 0.23 0.31 0.26 0.25 0.31 0.20 0.28 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.30 0.31 0.29
P2O5 0.28 0.33 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.29 0.26 0.31 0.35 0.38 0.28 0.21 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.37 0.25 0.28 0.26
K 2O 2.17 3.0 1.1 1.48 1.38 2.22 1.28 0.92 1.38 1.49 1.22 2.31 1.20 0.92 1.07 1.14 0.93 1.05 1.44
Na2O 0.44 0.51 0.36 0.4 0.43 0.54 0.37 0.38 0.42 0.46 0.47 0.56 0.42 0.84 0.41 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.45
SrO 0.14 0.12 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.14
SO3 1.90 1.325 1.9 1.52 1.85 1.94 1.52 1.87 1.73 1.88 1.99 1.75 1.63 2.11 2.4 1.35 1.92 1.85 2.04
Chlorine 1.60 2.82 0.47 0.85 0.93 1.72 0.89 0.47 0.95 0.93 0.79 2.06 0.67 0.50 0.61 0.80 0.45 0.59 0.99
LOI1 975 °C 7.10 12.21 2.12 6.74 2.4 8.76 9.60 2.5 3.13 2.92 3.28 17.9 5.73 2.04 2.72 2.64 2.98 1.87 3.21
TOTAL 97.49 98.44 99.46 99.46 98.63 98.97 100.22 99.56 99.83 99.76 99.18 99.61 99.6 99.64 100.41 99.88 99.3 99.47 99.24
Organic
0.09 0.07 0.03 0.1 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.2 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.05 0.1 0.07 0.12 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.05
Carbon
When RDF in calciner A was increased from 37 to 85 % RDF of fuel input (test 1), the organic carbon in the When RDF in calciner A was increased from 37 to 85 % RDF of fuel input (test 1), the organic carbon in the
samples corresponded to the lower range of the organic carbon content during normal operation. According to samples corresponded to the lower range of the organic carbon content during normal operation. According to
this observation and the fuel analysis, the RDF contains 90 % of combustible material and it was well this observation and the fuel analysis, the RDF contains 90 % of combustible material and it was well
combusted in the calciner. combusted in the calciner.
The organic carbon from the hot meal samples correlates to the percentage of fuel input to the each calciner The organic carbon from the hot meal samples correlates to the percentage of fuel input to the each calciner
coming from petcoke as shown in Figure 9-9, calculated according to equation 9.1. coming from petcoke as shown in Figure 9-9, calculated according to equation 9.1.
100 100
80 80
Petcoke % of fuel input

60 60
samples at normal operation samples at normal operation

40 40
samples during test 1 samples during test 1
20 samples during test 2 20 samples during test 2
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Organic carbon [wt. %] Organic carbon [wt. %]
Figure 9-9: Relationship between the percentage of petcoke as fuel input in the calciner and the organic carbon of hot meal samples. Figure 9-9: Relationship between the percentage of petcoke as fuel input in the calciner and the organic carbon of hot meal samples.
The results show that the organic carbon increased when higher petcoke and lower RDF were fired. As such, The results show that the organic carbon increased when higher petcoke and lower RDF were fired. As such,
it may be concluded that the organic carbon is the unconverted carbon coming from the petcoke, since it has it may be concluded that the organic carbon is the unconverted carbon coming from the petcoke, since it has
higher content of fixed carbon than RDF. According to Figure 9-9, it would be advantageous to fire higher higher content of fixed carbon than RDF. According to Figure 9-9, it would be advantageous to fire higher
content of RDF. However, the cement plant have found by experience that the limitation for firing large content of RDF. However, the cement plant have found by experience that the limitation for firing large
amounts of RDF is the CO emissions in the stack, where the daily accumulated limit of CO, which is 350 amounts of RDF is the CO emissions in the stack, where the daily accumulated limit of CO, which is 350
3
mg/Nm CO @ 10 vol. % O2, cannot be exceeded. mg/Nm3 CO @ 10 vol. % O2, cannot be exceeded.
9.3.1 Fuel Conversion in the Calciner 9.3.1 Fuel Conversion in the Calciner
Table 9-6 summarizes the gas concentrations in the kiln inlet, the preheater, the fuel flows in the calciner, the Table 9-6 summarizes the gas concentrations in the kiln inlet, the preheater, the fuel flows in the calciner, the
production flow, the content of organic carbon in the hot meal, the degree of char conversion, and the total production flow, the content of organic carbon in the hot meal, the degree of char conversion, and the total
conversion in the calciner to the corresponding time when the hot meal sample was taken. conversion in the calciner to the corresponding time when the hot meal sample was taken.
The CO concentration measured in the preheater gives an indication of the combustion in the calciner. The The CO concentration measured in the preheater gives an indication of the combustion in the calciner. The
high content of O2 and the low content of CO in the kiln inlet and in the preheater ensured a good combustion. high content of O2 and the low content of CO in the kiln inlet and in the preheater ensured a good combustion.
208 208
222 222
Table 9-6: Summary of the process data in the kiln inlet, the preheater, the fuel flows in the calciner, the production flow, the organic carbon in the hot meal, the degree of char conversion and
the total conversion in the calciner when the hot meal sample was taken. Note:*Calculated using equation 9.1 from the RDF % fuel input and its lower heating value.
Kiln inlet Preheater Hot Degree Total
Fuel in calciner
concentrations concentrations meal Production char degree
Organic
O2 SO2 CO O2 CO Petcoke RDF* Petcoke RDF [t/day] conversion conversion
Carbon
[vol.%] [ppm] [vol.%] [vol.%] [vol.%] [t/h] [t/h] [%] [%] [%] [%]
[wt. %]
Sampling Normal A 9.47 0 0.021 8.46 0.052 7.10 0.68 92.99 7.01 0.03 2095 99.5 99.6
day 1 operation B 8.89 0 0.013 5.24 0.129 5.20 4.28 60.8 39.2 0.10 2345 97.7 98.6
day 2 operation B 7.27 0 0.02 6.94 0.043 4.86 4.68 57.01 42.99 0.05 2339 98.8 99.3
Normal A 6.36 0 0.02 6.46 0.105 4.66 3.59 62.54 37.46 0.07 2061 98.4 99.0
operation B 6.07 0 0.018 4.55 0.044 3.23 7.09 36.23 63.77 0.20 2389 93.7 97.4
223
209
Sampling
A 5.90 0 0.021 5.26 0.038 1.12 8.17 14.9 85.1 0.04 2061 97.6 99.4
day 3
Test 1 A 5.89 0 0.021 5.07 0.417 1.16 8.11 15.5 84.5 0.03 2061 98.3 99.6
B 6.25 0 0.020 4.09 0.042 3.64 6.48 41.75 58.25 0.07 2389 97.9 99.1
Sampling A 6.55 0 0.020 7.01 0.031 6.22 1.26 86.28 13.72 0.05 1978 99.0 99.2
Test 2
day 4 B 6.65 0 0.019 5.13 0.056 5.84 3.51 68.02 31.98 0.10 2357 98.0 98.7
Sampling Normal
B 9.14 0 0.010 4.58 0.025 2.20 8.44 24.93 75.07 0.07 2415 97.0 99.0
day 5 operation
Sampling Normal
B 8.89 0 0.020 4.83 0.022 6.97 1.8 83.16 16.84 0.12 2299 98.0 98.5
day 6 operation
day 7 operation B 6.49 0 0.009 5.68 0.035 3.28 5.76 42.1 57.9 0.04 2135 98.8 99.4
day 8 operation B 6.02 0 0.01 9.37 0.069 4.06 5.47 48.68 51.32 0.05 2289 98.7 99.3
Table 9-6: Summary of the process data in the kiln inlet, the preheater, the fuel flows in the calciner, the production flow, the organic carbon in the hot meal, the degree of char conversion and
the total conversion in the calciner when the hot meal sample was taken. Note:*Calculated using equation 9.1 from the RDF % fuel input and its lower heating value.
Kiln inlet Preheater Hot Degree Total
Fuel in calciner
concentrations concentrations meal Production char degree
Organic
O2 SO2 CO O2 CO Petcoke RDF* Petcoke RDF [t/day] conversion conversion
Carbon
[vol.%] [ppm] [vol.%] [vol.%] [vol.%] [t/h] [t/h] [%] [%] [%] [%]
[wt. %]
day 1 operation B 8.89 0 0.013 5.24 0.129 5.20 4.28 60.8 39.2 0.10 2345 97.7 98.6
day 2 operation B 7.27 0 0.02 6.94 0.043 4.86 4.68 57.01 42.99 0.05 2339 98.8 99.3
Normal A 6.36 0 0.02 6.46 0.105 4.66 3.59 62.54 37.46 0.07 2061 98.4 99.0
operation B 6.07 0 0.018 4.55 0.044 3.23 7.09 36.23 63.77 0.20 2389 93.7 97.4
223
209
Sampling
A 5.90 0 0.021 5.26 0.038 1.12 8.17 14.9 85.1 0.04 2061 97.6 99.4
day 3
Test 1 A 5.89 0 0.021 5.07 0.417 1.16 8.11 15.5 84.5 0.03 2061 98.3 99.6
B 6.25 0 0.020 4.09 0.042 3.64 6.48 41.75 58.25 0.07 2389 97.9 99.1
Sampling A 6.55 0 0.020 7.01 0.031 6.22 1.26 86.28 13.72 0.05 1978 99.0 99.2
Test 2
day 4 B 6.65 0 0.019 5.13 0.056 5.84 3.51 68.02 31.98 0.10 2357 98.0 98.7
Sampling Normal
B 9.14 0 0.010 4.58 0.025 2.20 8.44 24.93 75.07 0.07 2415 97.0 99.0
day 5 operation
Sampling Normal
B 8.89 0 0.020 4.83 0.022 6.97 1.8 83.16 16.84 0.12 2299 98.0 98.5
day 6 operation
day 7 operation B 6.49 0 0.009 5.68 0.035 3.28 5.76 42.1 57.9 0.04 2135 98.8 99.4
day 8 operation B 6.02 0 0.01 9.37 0.069 4.06 5.47 48.68 51.32 0.05 2289 98.7 99.3
The degree of char conversion is calculated from the carbon introduced by the petcoke and the RDF and the The degree of char conversion is calculated from the carbon introduced by the petcoke and the RDF and the
organic carbon determined in the samples taken in the bottom stage cyclone. The degree of char conversion in organic carbon determined in the samples taken in the bottom stage cyclone. The degree of char conversion in
the calciner varies from 93.7 to 99.5 % with an average of 98.2 %. Figure 9-10 shows the relationship between the calciner varies from 93.7 to 99.5 % with an average of 98.2 %. Figure 9-10 shows the relationship between
the percentage of petcoke as fuel input and the degree of char conversion in the calciner. the percentage of petcoke as fuel input and the degree of char conversion in the calciner.
The total degree of conversion is based on the total conversion of combustible material, which comprises the The total degree of conversion is based on the total conversion of combustible material, which comprises the
volatiles and the fixed carbon of both RDF and petcoke fired. Figure 9-11 shows the total degree of conversion volatiles and the fixed carbon of both RDF and petcoke fired. Figure 9-11 shows the total degree of conversion
of the combustible material as function of the petcoke percentage of fuel input in the calciner. The total degree of the combustible material as function of the petcoke percentage of fuel input in the calciner. The total degree
of fuel conversion in the calciner varies from 97.4 to 99.6 % with an average of 99.1 %, which also shows that of fuel conversion in the calciner varies from 97.4 to 99.6 % with an average of 99.1 %, which also shows that
the combustible material fuel is fully combusted in the calciner. the combustible material fuel is fully combusted in the calciner.
120 120 120 120

Degree of char conversion [%]
Degree of char conversion [%]

Total degree of conversion [%]
Total degree of conversion [%]

100 100 100 100
80 80 80 80
60 60 60 60
40 40 40 40
20 20 20 20
0 0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Petcoke % of fuel input Petcoke % of fuel input Petcoke % of fuel input Petcoke % of fuel input
Figure 9-10: Petcoke % of fuel input as function of the Figure 9-11: Petcoke % of fuel input as function of the total degree of Figure 9-10: Petcoke % of fuel input as function of the Figure 9-11: Petcoke % of fuel input as function of the total degree of
degree of char conversion in the calciner. conversion in the calciner. degree of char conversion in the calciner. conversion in the calciner.
According to Figure 9-10 and Figure 9-11, f the degree of char conversion and the total degree of conversion According to Figure 9-10 and Figure 9-11, f the degree of char conversion and the total degree of conversion
are higher than 90 % for the different percentage of petcoke fired, which means that the calciner fuel is fully are higher than 90 % for the different percentage of petcoke fired, which means that the calciner fuel is fully
converted in the calciner. converted in the calciner.
9.3.2 Tendency of Build-ups 9.3.2 Tendency of Build-ups
The SO3 and Cl contents in the hot meal samples were determined because these concentrations may predict The SO3 and Cl contents in the hot meal samples were determined because these concentrations may predict
the tendency of the build-ups formation in the kiln system according to Figure 9-12. The diagram, previously the tendency of the build-ups formation in the kiln system according to Figure 9-12. The diagram, previously
presented in Chapter 4, is based on industrial experience using fossil fuels and is divided in 3 zones: low, presented in Chapter 4, is based on industrial experience using fossil fuels and is divided in 3 zones: low,
medium, and high build-up tendency. In the graph points corresponding to samples taken during a process medium, and high build-up tendency. In the graph points corresponding to samples taken during a process
instability, normal operation, test 1, test 2, and samples taken from string B while there was a build-up in string instability, normal operation, test 1, test 2, and samples taken from string B while there was a build-up in string
A are plotted. A are plotted.
210 210
224 224
6 6

5 5
samples during normal operation samples during normal operation
samples of test 1 samples of test 1
4 4
samples of test 2 samples of test 2
3 samples while buildup 3 samples while buildup
samples with process instability samples with process instability
2 2
1 1
Low build-up Medium build-up High build-up Low build-up Medium build-up High build-up
tendency tendency tendency tendency tendency tendency
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Figure 9-12: Diagram for predicting the tendency of build-ups by the content of SO3 and Cl in the hot meal when firing fossil fuels. Figure 9-12: Diagram for predicting the tendency of build-ups by the content of SO3 and Cl in the hot meal when firing fossil fuels.
It can be seen that the samples taken during normal operation are situated in the zone corresponding to medium It can be seen that the samples taken during normal operation are situated in the zone corresponding to medium
tendency build-up. The point in the high build-up tendency region from test 2 originates from string A, which tendency build-up. The point in the high build-up tendency region from test 2 originates from string A, which
experienced a blockage 2 days after sampling, where string A was stopped corresponding to sampling day 5 experienced a blockage 2 days after sampling, where string A was stopped corresponding to sampling day 5
and 6. The other point in the high build-up tendency region during the normal operation corresponds to string and 6. The other point in the high build-up tendency region during the normal operation corresponds to string
B during the sampling day 2, this string also experienced blockage the following day. The samples taken while B during the sampling day 2, this string also experienced blockage the following day. The samples taken while
the string experiences are very close to the limit of high build-up tendency region, which could indicate the the string experiences are very close to the limit of high build-up tendency region, which could indicate the
cause of the observed build-ups. The build-ups, which this cement plant experiences, are normally present in cause of the observed build-ups. The build-ups, which this cement plant experiences, are normally present in
the bottom stage cyclone and in the riser duct. the bottom stage cyclone and in the riser duct.
9.3.3 Sulfur Volatility 9.3.3 Sulfur Volatility
The volatility of the sulfur in the kiln can be described using an evaporation factor, as described in Chapter 4. The volatility of the sulfur in the kiln can be described using an evaporation factor, as described in Chapter 4.
The sulfur evaporation factor, εs, is defined according to equation 9.2. The sulfur evaporation factor, εs, is defined according to equation 9.2.
wSO3 hotmeal , LOI free wSO3 clinker wSO3 hotmeal , LOI free wSO3 clinker
Hs [9.2] Hs [9.2]
wSO3 hotmeal , LOI free wSO3 hotmeal , LOI free
where wSO3 hotmeal, LOI free is the content of SO3 in the hot meal on LOI free basis and wSO3 clinker is the content of where wSO3 hotmeal, LOI free is the content of SO3 in the hot meal on LOI free basis and wSO3 clinker is the content of
SO3 in the clinker. The dust circulation from the coolers and the kiln to the bottom stage cyclone has been SO3 in the clinker. The dust circulation from the coolers and the kiln to the bottom stage cyclone has been
disregarded. The clinker produced was analyzed every second hour by the cement plant laboratory. It is disregarded. The clinker produced was analyzed every second hour by the cement plant laboratory. It is
assumed that the clinker analysis corresponds to the hot meal sample after 30 min from the time of sampling, assumed that the clinker analysis corresponds to the hot meal sample after 30 min from the time of sampling,
which corresponds approx. to the residence time of the solid material in the rotary kiln. The SO3 content in the which corresponds approx. to the residence time of the solid material in the rotary kiln. The SO3 content in the
211 211
225 225
clinker is summarized in Table H-1 in Appendix H, which shows the clinker analysis of the corresponding hot clinker is summarized in Table H-1 in Appendix H, which shows the clinker analysis of the corresponding hot
meal samples. meal samples.
Table 9-7 shows the range of the sulfur evaporation factor during the normal operation and for test 1 and 2. Table 9-7 shows the range of the sulfur evaporation factor during the normal operation and for test 1 and 2.
Table 9-7: Sulfur evaporation factor range during normal operation, test 1 and test 2. Table 9-7: Sulfur evaporation factor range during normal operation, test 1 and test 2.
Normal operation Test 1 Test 2 Normal operation Test 1 Test 2

Sulfur evaporation factor 0.25-0.54 0.38-0.46 0.42- 0.46 Sulfur evaporation factor 0.25-0.54 0.38-0.46 0.42- 0.46
It can be seen that the tests performed does not change the sulfur evaporation. Figure 9-13 shows the sulfur It can be seen that the tests performed does not change the sulfur evaporation. Figure 9-13 shows the sulfur
evaporation factor as function of the organic carbon of the hot meal samples. It can be seen that there is no evaporation factor as function of the organic carbon of the hot meal samples. It can be seen that there is no
clear relationship. This supports the experiments using wood with different degree of devolatilization, clear relationship. This supports the experiments using wood with different degree of devolatilization,
presented in Chapter 5, where char caused less much sulfur release than the volatiles. presented in Chapter 5, where char caused less much sulfur release than the volatiles.
0.6 0.6
Sulfur evaporation factor
Sulfur evaporation factor

0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 Normal operation 0.3 Normal operation

test 1 test 1
0.2 0.2
test 2 test 2
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Organic carbon [wt. %] Organic carbon [wt. %]
Figure 9-13: Sulfur evaporation factor as function of the organic carbon of hot meal samples during normal operation and for test 1 Figure 9-13: Sulfur evaporation factor as function of the organic carbon of hot meal samples during normal operation and for test 1
and test 2. and test 2.
9.4 Conclusions for the Industrial Experience and Challenges 9.4 Conclusions for the Industrial Experience and Challenges
Hot meal sampling and multicomponent gas measurements with focus on SO2, CO and O2 in the kiln inlet Hot meal sampling and multicomponent gas measurements with focus on SO2, CO and O2 in the kiln inlet
were performed in a cement plant with the aim of determining the relationship between organic carbon in the were performed in a cement plant with the aim of determining the relationship between organic carbon in the
bottom stage cyclone and the SO2 in the kiln inlet. Two tests were performed: 1) an increase of RDF firing in bottom stage cyclone and the SO2 in the kiln inlet. Two tests were performed: 1) an increase of RDF firing in
calciner A and 2) an increase of tire chips injection in the kiln inlet. calciner A and 2) an increase of tire chips injection in the kiln inlet.
212 212
226 226
There were differences in the CO and SO2 concentration measured with the hot FTIR gas measurement There were differences in the CO and SO2 concentration measured with the hot FTIR gas measurement
equipment and the cold gas measurement equipment. The cold gas measurement equipment was not able to equipment and the cold gas measurement equipment. The cold gas measurement equipment was not able to
detect spikes of SO2 and CO occurring in brief periods when the two tests were performed. detect spikes of SO2 and CO occurring in brief periods when the two tests were performed.
During the sampling period, the organic carbon from the hot meal samples varied from 0.03 to 0.2 wt. % with During the sampling period, the organic carbon from the hot meal samples varied from 0.03 to 0.2 wt. % with
an average of 0.06 wt. % and the gas analysis recorded by fixed equipment showed always 0 ppm SO2 in the an average of 0.06 wt. % and the gas analysis recorded by fixed equipment showed always 0 ppm SO2 in the
kiln inlet. Therefore, it was not possible to identify a relationship between organic carbon and SO2 in the kiln kiln inlet. Therefore, it was not possible to identify a relationship between organic carbon and SO2 in the kiln
inlet from these measurements. However, it cannot be excluded that the organic carbon in the hot meal is inlet from these measurements. However, it cannot be excluded that the organic carbon in the hot meal is
related to the SO2 release in the kiln inlet. related to the SO2 release in the kiln inlet.
A relationship between the organic carbon and the percentage of petcoke fired in the calciner was found. The A relationship between the organic carbon and the percentage of petcoke fired in the calciner was found. The
organic carbon increased when more petcoke (and less RDF) was fired. The degree of char conversion in the organic carbon increased when more petcoke (and less RDF) was fired. The degree of char conversion in the
calciner and the total degree of fuel were higher than 90 %, which indicate that the calciner fuel was well calciner and the total degree of fuel were higher than 90 %, which indicate that the calciner fuel was well
combusted in the calciner. combusted in the calciner.
Build-ups and process instabilities experienced by the cement plant correspond to SO3 and Cl levels in the Build-ups and process instabilities experienced by the cement plant correspond to SO3 and Cl levels in the
analyzed hot meal in or close to the region of high build-up tendency for fossil fuels. There is a good analyzed hot meal in or close to the region of high build-up tendency for fossil fuels. There is a good
consistency between the predictions of build-ups by the diagram and the reality, this tool could therefore be consistency between the predictions of build-ups by the diagram and the reality, this tool could therefore be
potentially used to detect and avoid future build-ups when firing alternative fuels potentially used to detect and avoid future build-ups when firing alternative fuels
Nowadays there still exist challenges on the measurements to control process stability and predict instability Nowadays there still exist challenges on the measurements to control process stability and predict instability
situations. The SO2 concentration in the kiln is fast continuous variable used to control the cement plant situations. The SO2 concentration in the kiln is fast continuous variable used to control the cement plant
operation. However, the measurement of SO2 in the kiln is difficult due to the high content of dust in the gas operation. However, the measurement of SO2 in the kiln is difficult due to the high content of dust in the gas
and the technology used is not always able to measure it because the dust absorbs the SO 2. Analysis of SO3 and the technology used is not always able to measure it because the dust absorbs the SO 2. Analysis of SO3
and Cl in the hot meal is another indication for process instability but it is time consuming to take the sample, and Cl in the hot meal is another indication for process instability but it is time consuming to take the sample,
analyze it, and react on the process control. From an economical and practical point of view, it is more analyze it, and react on the process control. From an economical and practical point of view, it is more
convenient for the cement plants to have a fast indication of the process stability by continuous gas convenient for the cement plants to have a fast indication of the process stability by continuous gas
measurements instead of the hot meal sampling. measurements instead of the hot meal sampling.
213 213
227 227
214 214
228 228
Chapter 10: Final Conclusions Chapter 10: Final Conclusions
10. Final Conclusions 10. Final Conclusions

An improved understanding of sulfur release during fuel combustion in the kiln inlet of cement rotary kilns An improved understanding of sulfur release during fuel combustion in the kiln inlet of cement rotary kilns
has been gained through this Ph.D. project through review of the existing literature, pilot and full-scale has been gained through this Ph.D. project through review of the existing literature, pilot and full-scale
experimental investigations, and mathematical modeling. experimental investigations, and mathematical modeling.
10.1 Main Results and Conclusions 10.1 Main Results and Conclusions
The main conclusions to be drawn from the literature review are: The main conclusions to be drawn from the literature review are:
x Cement production is a very energy-consuming process. There is an interest in replacing fossil fuels x Cement production is a very energy-consuming process. There is an interest in replacing fossil fuels
with selected waste, biomass and industrial by-products with recoverable calorific value, defined as with selected waste, biomass and industrial by-products with recoverable calorific value, defined as
alternative fuels, in order to minimize production cost, i.e. due to increasing fossil fuel prices and alternative fuels, in order to minimize production cost, i.e. due to increasing fossil fuel prices and
environmental concerns. environmental concerns.
x The combustion of alternative fuels is more challenging than combustion of fossil fuels, due to the x The combustion of alternative fuels is more challenging than combustion of fossil fuels, due to the
lack of experience in handling the different and varying combustion characteristics caused by different lack of experience in handling the different and varying combustion characteristics caused by different
chemical and physical properties, e.g. higher moisture content and larger particle sizes. New chemical and physical properties, e.g. higher moisture content and larger particle sizes. New
combustion equipments or modifications of existing plant layouts have been developed but alternative combustion equipments or modifications of existing plant layouts have been developed but alternative
fuels are often directly fired in the calciner and/or to the main burner despite the large particle sizes fuels are often directly fired in the calciner and/or to the main burner despite the large particle sizes
because this requires a minimum of investments. because this requires a minimum of investments.
x Sulfur, chloride, sodium, and potassium, which are volatile elements, evaporate when exposed to high x Sulfur, chloride, sodium, and potassium, which are volatile elements, evaporate when exposed to high
temperature in the burning zone and subsequently condense in colder parts of the plant. High temperature in the burning zone and subsequently condense in colder parts of the plant. High
concentrations of volatile elements often cause difficulties in kiln operation and plant stability by concentrations of volatile elements often cause difficulties in kiln operation and plant stability by
causing build-ups, kiln rings and/or shell corrosion. causing build-ups, kiln rings and/or shell corrosion.
x When unconverted or partly converted alternative fuels drop into the rotary kiln inlet and are x When unconverted or partly converted alternative fuels drop into the rotary kiln inlet and are
combusted in direct contact with the bed material, local reducing conditions may occur. The volatiles combusted in direct contact with the bed material, local reducing conditions may occur. The volatiles
released from the fuels may therefore react with sulfates present in the hot meal and form gaseous SO2. released from the fuels may therefore react with sulfates present in the hot meal and form gaseous SO2.
x Previous studies of sulfur release during combustion of alternative fuel particles have shown that x Previous studies of sulfur release during combustion of alternative fuel particles have shown that
reducing gases from the fuel devolatilization cause reductive decomposition of CaSO4 and indicated reducing gases from the fuel devolatilization cause reductive decomposition of CaSO4 and indicated
that the fuel particle size is of high importance for the degree of sulfur release. that the fuel particle size is of high importance for the degree of sulfur release.
x Investigations of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 showed that CaO, CaS, or mixtures of both x Investigations of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 showed that CaO, CaS, or mixtures of both
products are favored depending on the temperature and the type and concentration of the reducing gas. products are favored depending on the temperature and the type and concentration of the reducing gas.
The most influencing parameter to the reaction rate of reduction of CaSO4 is the partial pressure of the The most influencing parameter to the reaction rate of reduction of CaSO4 is the partial pressure of the
gaseous reductive agent. gaseous reductive agent.
215 215
229 229
The main results and conclusions regarding sulfur release in the material inlet of cement rotary kiln are: The main results and conclusions regarding sulfur release in the material inlet of cement rotary kiln are:
x The inorganic chemistry was studied by thermodynamic calculations in order to improve x The inorganic chemistry was studied by thermodynamic calculations in order to improve
understanding of the chemistry. The reducing agents in the gas phase decreased the stability of CaSO4 understanding of the chemistry. The reducing agents in the gas phase decreased the stability of CaSO4
and increased the stability of SO2 in the kiln inlet at temperatures between 900 and 1100 oC. The and increased the stability of SO2 in the kiln inlet at temperatures between 900 and 1100 oC. The
volatility of the chlorine was not affected by the gas atmosphere, but was very sensitive to the volatility of the chlorine was not affected by the gas atmosphere, but was very sensitive to the
temperature. Higher levels of alkali compared sulfur reduced the sulfur release to the gas phase, but temperature. Higher levels of alkali compared sulfur reduced the sulfur release to the gas phase, but
increased the amount of compounds in liquid phase in the kiln and the alkali species in the gas phase. increased the amount of compounds in liquid phase in the kiln and the alkali species in the gas phase.
x The pilot plant experiments in the high temperature rotary drum using pine wood and tire rubber x The pilot plant experiments in the high temperature rotary drum using pine wood and tire rubber
particles were performed in order to investigate the effect of particle size, fuel conversion degree, particles were performed in order to investigate the effect of particle size, fuel conversion degree,
sulfur load in the bed and moisture content of the fuel on the release of sulfur. The effect of fuel particle sulfur load in the bed and moisture content of the fuel on the release of sulfur. The effect of fuel particle
size on sulfur release showed that smaller particles increase the SO2 release because they were heated size on sulfur release showed that smaller particles increase the SO2 release because they were heated
faster and thus released the volatile gases faster and with higher concentrations because stronger local faster and thus released the volatile gases faster and with higher concentrations because stronger local
reducing conditions were formed. The effect of wood cylinders with different degree of volatiles reducing conditions were formed. The effect of wood cylinders with different degree of volatiles
showed that the sulfur release mainly took place during devolatilization, corresponding to the cases of showed that the sulfur release mainly took place during devolatilization, corresponding to the cases of
virgin wood and wood chars made at 300 and 500 °C. This was supported by the findings of the virgin wood and wood chars made at 300 and 500 °C. This was supported by the findings of the
industrial investigation on sulfur released, where no clear relationship was observed between the industrial investigation on sulfur released, where no clear relationship was observed between the
organic carbon (char) from the fuel entering in the rotary kiln and the sulfur evaporation factor. organic carbon (char) from the fuel entering in the rotary kiln and the sulfur evaporation factor.
x The effect of different concentrations of CO, H2, and CH4 on sulfur release was investigated x The effect of different concentrations of CO, H2, and CH4 on sulfur release was investigated
experimentally at different temperatures, oxygen contents and times of exposure. The experiments experimentally at different temperatures, oxygen contents and times of exposure. The experiments
using a single reducing agent indicated a threshold concentration below which SO2 release does not using a single reducing agent indicated a threshold concentration below which SO2 release does not
occur. The effect of the different concentrations can be related to the effect of gases released from occur. The effect of the different concentrations can be related to the effect of gases released from
alternative fuels. The concentration of the reducing agent and the time of exposure were of high alternative fuels. The concentration of the reducing agent and the time of exposure were of high
importance for SO2 release because it was found that a high concentration of the reducing agent in a importance for SO2 release because it was found that a high concentration of the reducing agent in a
short period (representing devolatilization) led to a higher total SO2 amount compared to the a low short period (representing devolatilization) led to a higher total SO2 amount compared to the a low
concentration during a long period (representing char combustion or devolatilization of large fuel concentration during a long period (representing char combustion or devolatilization of large fuel
particles). particles).
x The experimental results of binary mixtures when CO was present showed that SO2 increases with x The experimental results of binary mixtures when CO was present showed that SO2 increases with
increasing CO concentration in the mixture. Similar SO2 release was obtained for the different increasing CO concentration in the mixture. Similar SO2 release was obtained for the different
mixtures of CH4 and H2. mixtures of CH4 and H2.
x A mathematical model, which was able to predict sulfur release caused by volatiles from wood x A mathematical model, which was able to predict sulfur release caused by volatiles from wood
particles fired in the material kiln inlet was developed based on the reaction between the volatiles and particles fired in the material kiln inlet was developed based on the reaction between the volatiles and
CaSO4 in the bed material in CSTR in series. The effect of the fuel degree of coverage, the bed fill CaSO4 in the bed material in CSTR in series. The effect of the fuel degree of coverage, the bed fill
degree, and the bed sulfur content and firing degree on sulfur release was investigated. The sulfur degree, and the bed sulfur content and firing degree on sulfur release was investigated. The sulfur
evaporation factor increased with decreasing particle mass, sulfur content in the bed and fill degree, evaporation factor increased with decreasing particle mass, sulfur content in the bed and fill degree,
216 216
230 230
while it decreased with increasing the fuel degree of coverage. The firing degree and the fuel degree while it decreased with increasing the fuel degree of coverage. The firing degree and the fuel degree
of coverage were identified by the sensitivity analysis as the most influencing factors for the total SO2 of coverage were identified by the sensitivity analysis as the most influencing factors for the total SO2
release and the sulfur evaporation factor, while the kinetic parameters did not modify the output results. release and the sulfur evaporation factor, while the kinetic parameters did not modify the output results.
The model evaluation showed that the model follows the experimental data tendency. The model evaluation showed that the model follows the experimental data tendency.
x A model to predict the tendency of build-ups of a kiln system based on the SO3 and Cl concentrations x A model to predict the tendency of build-ups of a kiln system based on the SO3 and Cl concentrations
in the hot meal was developed. For a cement plant with 3500 tons per day without bypass using raw in the hot meal was developed. For a cement plant with 3500 tons per day without bypass using raw
materials with 0.05 wt. % S and 0.01 wt. % Cl and fuel with 5 wt. % S and 0.001 wt. % Cl, the tendency materials with 0.05 wt. % S and 0.01 wt. % Cl and fuel with 5 wt. % S and 0.001 wt. % Cl, the tendency
of build-ups predicted was in the medium/high line, while using bypass the tendency of build-ups was of build-ups predicted was in the medium/high line, while using bypass the tendency of build-ups was
medium, close to the low region. The model also predicted medium tendency build-ups when medium, close to the low region. The model also predicted medium tendency build-ups when
alternative fuels are fired in the kiln inlet. A sensitivity analysis was performed in order to investigate alternative fuels are fired in the kiln inlet. A sensitivity analysis was performed in order to investigate
the effect of the parameters on the SO3 and Cl content of the hot meal and showed that the chlorine the effect of the parameters on the SO3 and Cl content of the hot meal and showed that the chlorine
evaporation factor has the largest influence with almost 400 % deviation on the Cl concentration. evaporation factor has the largest influence with almost 400 % deviation on the Cl concentration.
10.2 Recommendations 10.2 Recommendations
When considering alternative fuel utilization in the calciner or in the riser duct, the particle size and fuel flow When considering alternative fuel utilization in the calciner or in the riser duct, the particle size and fuel flow
are key parameters to ensure a proper combustion before the particles reach the bed material in the kiln inlet are key parameters to ensure a proper combustion before the particles reach the bed material in the kiln inlet
causing sulfur release. Shredding large fuel particles would be the first recommendation to avoid their causing sulfur release. Shredding large fuel particles would be the first recommendation to avoid their
combustion in contact with the bed material and thereby avoid sulfur release in the kiln inlet. However, if the combustion in contact with the bed material and thereby avoid sulfur release in the kiln inlet. However, if the
combustion of small particles in large amounts is not complete, high sulfur release may take place due to the combustion of small particles in large amounts is not complete, high sulfur release may take place due to the
particle size and elevated number of particles. The sulfur release may decrease when operating the kiln with particle size and elevated number of particles. The sulfur release may decrease when operating the kiln with
an oxygen concentration above 5 vol. % in the kiln inlet, which is also recommended if the fuel is not an oxygen concentration above 5 vol. % in the kiln inlet, which is also recommended if the fuel is not
downsized. Since no SO2 release takes place below a threshold concentration of reducing agent/s, a threshold downsized. Since no SO2 release takes place below a threshold concentration of reducing agent/s, a threshold
fuel flow for the kiln inlet may exist, giving no sulfur release because the concentration of the reducing agents fuel flow for the kiln inlet may exist, giving no sulfur release because the concentration of the reducing agents
released are below the threshold. However, each kiln may have its own threshold fuel flow in the kiln inlet, released are below the threshold. However, each kiln may have its own threshold fuel flow in the kiln inlet,
which would depend on the kiln characteristics and raw materials and fuels used. Thereby a general which would depend on the kiln characteristics and raw materials and fuels used. Thereby a general
recommendation in this aspect is difficult to make. recommendation in this aspect is difficult to make.
Gas stratification in the rotary kiln has been reported by measurements (Hansen, 2002) and predicted by CFD Gas stratification in the rotary kiln has been reported by measurements (Hansen, 2002) and predicted by CFD
modeling. Figure 10-1 and Figure 10-2, which are cordially provided by Aixergee Process Optimization, show modeling. Figure 10-1 and Figure 10-2, which are cordially provided by Aixergee Process Optimization, show
the O2 and CO2 gas concentrations, respectively, in the inlet of the rotary kiln for a an ILC-kiln system with 2 the O2 and CO2 gas concentrations, respectively, in the inlet of the rotary kiln for a an ILC-kiln system with 2
string. It can be seen that both concentrations are stratified, meaning that the concentration is string. It can be seen that both concentrations are stratified, meaning that the concentration is
increasing/decreasing in layers and is not uniform in the entire freeboard. The model allows the mixing inflow, increasing/decreasing in layers and is not uniform in the entire freeboard. The model allows the mixing inflow,
however, the results show that there is a poor mixing between the gas and the bed material (no gas penetration however, the results show that there is a poor mixing between the gas and the bed material (no gas penetration
into the bed material) and the bed material is contact with the lowest concentration of O2 and the highest of into the bed material) and the bed material is contact with the lowest concentration of O2 and the highest of
CO2. CO2.
217 217
231 231
Figure 10-1: CDF modelling of the stratification of the O2 Figure 10-2: CDF modelling of the stratification of the CO2 Figure 10-1: CDF modelling of the stratification of the O2 Figure 10-2: CDF modelling of the stratification of the CO2
concentration in vol. % in the kiln inlet of a cement plant, concentration in vol. % in the kiln inlet of a cement plant, concentration in vol. % in the kiln inlet of a cement plant, concentration in vol. % in the kiln inlet of a cement plant,
provided by Aixergee Process Optimization. provided by Aixergee Process Optimization. provided by Aixergee Process Optimization. provided by Aixergee Process Optimization.
This effect may influence the combustion of alternative fuel particles in the kiln inlet and subsequently the This effect may influence the combustion of alternative fuel particles in the kiln inlet and subsequently the
sulfur release. In order to prevent or minimize gas stratification, mixing devices can be applied in the kiln inlet sulfur release. In order to prevent or minimize gas stratification, mixing devices can be applied in the kiln inlet
to enhance turbulence flow and optimize the fuel combustion. These mixing devices may minimize the sulfur to enhance turbulence flow and optimize the fuel combustion. These mixing devices may minimize the sulfur
release, because of the uniformity of the gas atmosphere and the time of contact between the fuel and material release, because of the uniformity of the gas atmosphere and the time of contact between the fuel and material
may be reduced. However, they may have a short service life due to abrasion, thermal stress or mechanical may be reduced. However, they may have a short service life due to abrasion, thermal stress or mechanical
stress. Other ways of breaking the gas stratification may also have a positive effect reducing sulfur release. stress. Other ways of breaking the gas stratification may also have a positive effect reducing sulfur release.
The sulfur release in the inlet of the rotary kiln can be avoided when the volatile gases from fuels are not The sulfur release in the inlet of the rotary kiln can be avoided when the volatile gases from fuels are not
released in contact with the bed material, thereby, only allowing fuel char to be in contact with the kiln bed released in contact with the bed material, thereby, only allowing fuel char to be in contact with the kiln bed
material. Assuming a cement plant with a production of 3500 tons per day that operates the rotary kiln with 5 material. Assuming a cement plant with a production of 3500 tons per day that operates the rotary kiln with 5
vol. % O2, the maximum char fuel flow introduced into the rotary kiln can be calculated based on the minimum vol. % O2, the maximum char fuel flow introduced into the rotary kiln can be calculated based on the minimum
gas flow for the char combustion and the actual gas flow in the kiln inlet, which is 0.5 kg gas/kg clinker. The gas flow for the char combustion and the actual gas flow in the kiln inlet, which is 0.5 kg gas/kg clinker. The
fuel char is assumed to consist of carbon. For the pine wood with 44.7 wt. % C, the maximum wood char flow fuel char is assumed to consist of carbon. For the pine wood with 44.7 wt. % C, the maximum wood char flow
is 3377 kg/h. However, this amount of char would consume all the oxygen content in the gas phase, which is is 3377 kg/h. However, this amount of char would consume all the oxygen content in the gas phase, which is
undesirable for the process. It would be reasonable to assume that between 1/4 and 1/10 of the maximum char undesirable for the process. It would be reasonable to assume that between 1/4 and 1/10 of the maximum char
flow could be introduced into the rotary kiln without causing undesired effects, because the oxygen content flow could be introduced into the rotary kiln without causing undesired effects, because the oxygen content
should not decrease drastically. Thereby, the real char flow into the rotary kiln is between 845 to 340 kg/h should not decrease drastically. Thereby, the real char flow into the rotary kiln is between 845 to 340 kg/h
wood char, which would correspond to 7500-3000 kg wood/h for a wood with 11.3 wt. % fixed carbon. wood char, which would correspond to 7500-3000 kg wood/h for a wood with 11.3 wt. % fixed carbon.
Considering tire rubber with 87 wt. % C, the maximum char fuel is 1700 kg/h and the real char flow varies Considering tire rubber with 87 wt. % C, the maximum char fuel is 1700 kg/h and the real char flow varies
between 430 to 170 kg /h tire char, corresponding to 1300-520 kg/h tire (for a tire rubber with 32.6 wt. % fixed between 430 to 170 kg /h tire char, corresponding to 1300-520 kg/h tire (for a tire rubber with 32.6 wt. % fixed
carbon). The tire rubber flow fired in the riser duct in the industrial campaign, where 4000-5000 tons of clinker carbon). The tire rubber flow fired in the riser duct in the industrial campaign, where 4000-5000 tons of clinker
was produced, are around the same order of magnitude as the calculated results. was produced, are around the same order of magnitude as the calculated results.
218 218
232 232
Sulfur release from the kiln bed material can also be minimized when fuel combustion takes place at Sulfur release from the kiln bed material can also be minimized when fuel combustion takes place at
o
temperatures below 800 C. This may imply to have a different configuration of the kiln system with the place temperatures below 800 oC. This may imply to have a different configuration of the kiln system with the place
of fuel combustion, in which the fuel combustion is completed at lower temperatures and the hot flue gas is of fuel combustion, in which the fuel combustion is completed at lower temperatures and the hot flue gas is
used for calcination. used for calcination.
10.3 Suggestions for Future Work 10.3 Suggestions for Future Work
The model to predict sulfur release in the kiln inlet due to alternative fuels firing has been successfully The model to predict sulfur release in the kiln inlet due to alternative fuels firing has been successfully
developed and evaluated against experimental data. However, the model could be optimized with respect to developed and evaluated against experimental data. However, the model could be optimized with respect to
predicting the SO2 release when the sulfur concentration in the kiln bed material is varied, which is related to predicting the SO2 release when the sulfur concentration in the kiln bed material is varied, which is related to
the particle motion in the bed and rotational speed. The particle motion could be relevant to include but also the particle motion in the bed and rotational speed. The particle motion could be relevant to include but also
difficult, and CFD tools may be needed. difficult, and CFD tools may be needed.
A comparison between the model and the pilot-scale data implies that the model over-estimates the SO2 A comparison between the model and the pilot-scale data implies that the model over-estimates the SO2
concentration compared to the experiment results at 10 vol. % O2. Hence, the effect of the oxygen in the concentration compared to the experiment results at 10 vol. % O2. Hence, the effect of the oxygen in the
freeboard atmosphere should be further implemented. Furthermore, the kiln model and tendency of build-ups freeboard atmosphere should be further implemented. Furthermore, the kiln model and tendency of build-ups
model should be validated against full-scale data and thereby, the absorption of SO2 on the dust carried by the model should be validated against full-scale data and thereby, the absorption of SO2 on the dust carried by the
kiln gas could be also included. kiln gas could be also included.
The effect of the gas stratification in the high temperature rotary kiln may be difficult to achieve but the effect The effect of the gas stratification in the high temperature rotary kiln may be difficult to achieve but the effect
of the gas atmosphere, i.e. different CO2 concentrations together with O2, could be further experimentally of the gas atmosphere, i.e. different CO2 concentrations together with O2, could be further experimentally
investigated. investigated.
Experiments with mixing devices in the rotary kiln could be investigated in order to optimize the fuel Experiments with mixing devices in the rotary kiln could be investigated in order to optimize the fuel
combustion in direct contact with the kiln bed material, and characterize the effect on sulfur release. combustion in direct contact with the kiln bed material, and characterize the effect on sulfur release.
Hansen, E.R.; Staged combustion for NOx reduction using high pressure air injection. IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Hansen, E.R.; Staged combustion for NOx reduction using high pressure air injection. IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement
Industry Technical Conference, 2002. Industry Technical Conference, 2002.
219 219
233 233
220 220
234 234
List of Symbols List of Symbols

Abbreviations and acronyms Abbreviations and acronyms
a.r. As received a.r. As received
avg Average avg Average
C2S Belite C2S Belite
C3S Alite C3S Alite
C4AF Ferrite C4AF Ferrite
C3A Aluminate C3A Aluminate
CFD Computational fluid dynamics CFD Computational fluid dynamics
CSTR Continuous stirred tank reactor CSTR Continuous stirred tank reactor
ILC In-Line Calciner ILC In-Line Calciner
FC Fixed Carbon FC Fixed Carbon
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
Max Maximum Max Maximum
MBM Meat and Bone Meal MBM Meat and Bone Meal
Min Minimum Min Minimum
n.a. Not available n.a. Not available
PE Polyethylene PE Polyethylene
PVC Poly-vinyl-chloride PVC Poly-vinyl-chloride
RDF Refuse derived fuel RDF Refuse derived fuel
SLC Separate Line calciner SLC Separate Line calciner
TDF Tire-derived fuel TDF Tire-derived fuel
VLS Vapor-liquid-solid VLS Vapor-liquid-solid
VM Volatile matter VM Volatile matter
Roman nomenclature Roman nomenclature

a Activity [-] a Activity [-]
A Area [m2] A Area [m2]
A Pre-exponential factor [m/s] or [s-1] A Pre-exponential factor [m/s] or [s-1]
C Concentration [mol/m3] or [ppm] C Concentration [mol/m3] or [ppm]
Cp Heat capacity [J/kg·K] Cp Heat capacity [J/kg·K]
D Diffusion coefficient [m2/s] D Diffusion coefficient [m2/s]
Ea Activation energy [J/mol] Ea Activation energy [J/mol]
FC Fixed carbon [wt. %] FC Fixed carbon [wt. %]
F Flow [kg/h] or [t/h] F Flow [kg/h] or [t/h]
F Fill degree [-] or [%] F Fill degree [-] or [%]
G Free Gibbs Energy [J/mol] G Free Gibbs Energy [J/mol]
h Heat transfer coefficient [W/m2·K] h Heat transfer coefficient [W/m2·K]
H Enthalpy [kJ/kg] H Enthalpy [kJ/kg]
kp Thermal conductivity [W/m·K] kp Thermal conductivity [W/m·K]
kg Mass transfer coefficient [m/s] kg Mass transfer coefficient [m/s]
k Rate constant [m/s] k Rate constant [m/s]
L Length [m] or [mm] L Length [m] or [mm]
LHV Lower heating value [MJ/kg] LHV Lower heating value [MJ/kg]
LOI Loss on ignition [%] LOI Loss on ignition [%]
221 221
235 235
m Mass [g] or [kg] m Mass [g] or [kg]

ṁ Mass flow [kg/h] ṁ Mass flow [kg/h]
M Molar weight [g/mol] M Molar weight [g/mol]
n Moles [mol] n Moles [mol]
ṅ Molar flow [mol/s] ṅ Molar flow [mol/s]
P Pressure [Pa] or [atm] P Pressure [Pa] or [atm]
Q Volumetric flow [m3/s] Q Volumetric flow [m3/s]
r Radius [m] r Radius [m]
R Initial Radius [m] R Initial Radius [m]
R Universal gas constant 8.314 [m3·Pa/mol·K] R Universal gas constant 8.314 [m3·Pa/mol·K]
Re Reynolds number [-] Re Reynolds number [-]
Sc Schmidt number [-] Sc Schmidt number [-]
Sh Sherwood number [-] Sh Sherwood number [-]
t Time [s] or [min] t Time [s] or [min]
T Temperature [°C] or [K] T Temperature [°C] or [K]
v Velocity [m/s] v Velocity [m/s]
V Volume [m3] V Volume [m3]
w Weight percent concentration [wt. %] w Weight percent concentration [wt. %]
y Mole fraction [-] y Mole fraction [-]
x Distance [m] x Distance [m]
X Degree of conversion [-] X Degree of conversion [-]
z Special atomic diffusion volume [-] z Special atomic diffusion volume [-]
Greek nomenclature Greek nomenclature

α Porosity [-] α Porosity [-]
α Na2O fraction reacting with SO3 [-] α Na2O fraction reacting with SO3 [-]
β Absorption factor [-] β Absorption factor [-]
γ Activity coefficient [-] γ Activity coefficient [-]
γ Fraction leaving preheater tower [-] γ Fraction leaving preheater tower [-]
ε Evaporation factor [-] ε Evaporation factor [-]
ρ Density [kg/m3] ρ Density [kg/m3]
ϕ Degree of coverage [-] ϕ Degree of coverage [-]
ø Diameter [m] ø Diameter [m]
τ Residence time [s] τ Residence time [s]
τ Tortuosity [-] τ Tortuosity [-]
ω Rotational speed [rpm] ω Rotational speed [rpm]
Subscripts Subscripts
avg Average avg Average
abs Absorbed abs Absorbed
b Bed b Bed
burner Rotary kiln burner burner Rotary kiln burner
calc Calciner calc Calciner
cond Conduction cond Conduction
conds Condensed conds Condensed
Cl Chlorine Cl Chlorine
222 222
236 236
diff Diffusion diff Diffusion

eff Effective eff Effective
end Hot end of the rotary kiln end Hot end of the rotary kiln
f Final f Final
Fuel Fuel Fuel Fuel
g Gas g Gas
hot meal Calcined cement raw material hot meal Calcined cement raw material
in Inlet in Inlet
inlet Material rotary kiln inlet inlet Material rotary kiln inlet
k Rotary kiln k Rotary kiln
LOI free Loss on ignition free LOI free Loss on ignition free
p Particle p Particle
prod Production prod Production
pyr Pyrolysis pyr Pyrolysis
out Outlet out Outlet
raw mat Raw materials raw mat Raw materials
reac Reaction reac Reaction
S Sulfur S Sulfur
Vol Volatiles Vol Volatiles
w Wood w Wood
0 Initial conditions or t=0 0 Initial conditions or t=0
223 223
237 237
224 224
238 238
Appendixes Appendixes
225 225
239 239
226 226
240 240
Appendix A: Equilibrium Calculations Appendix A: Equilibrium Calculations
- Equilibrium between SO2 and SO3 - Equilibrium between SO2 and SO3
The equilibrium concentration as function of the temperature for reaction (A-1) is shown in Figure A-1. The equilibrium concentration as function of the temperature for reaction (A-1) is shown in Figure A-1.
SO2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o SO3 ( g ) (A-1) SO2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o SO3 ( g ) (A-1)
1 1
0.8 0.8
Concentration [kmol]
Concentration [kmol]
0.6 0.6
SO΍ (g) SO΍ (g)

0.4 0.4
SOΎ (g) SOΎ (g)
0.2 0.2
0 0
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Figure A-1: Equilibrium calculations for the reaction SO2 + 0.5 O2 = SO3, thermodynamic data from HSC chemistry program. Figure A-1: Equilibrium calculations for the reaction SO2 + 0.5 O2 = SO3, thermodynamic data from HSC chemistry program.
This phenomenon can also be seen by the free Gibbs Energy of the equilibrium reaction (A-1), which is This phenomenon can also be seen by the free Gibbs Energy of the equilibrium reaction (A-1), which is
mathematically expressed by equation A.1. mathematically expressed by equation A.1.
§ PSO3 · § PSO3 ·
'G 'G 0 R T ln ¨ 'G 'G 0 R T ln ¨
¨ PSO PO1/2 ¸¸ ¨ PSO PO1/2 ¸¸
[A.1] [A.1]
© 2 2 ¹ © 2 2 ¹
where ΔGo is the free Gibbs energy at standard conditions (298.15 K and 1 atm) , which is -141.8 kJ, R is the where ΔGo is the free Gibbs energy at standard conditions (298.15 K and 1 atm) , which is -141.8 kJ, R is the
universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol·K), T is the absolute temperature in K and Pi is the partial pressure of the universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol·K), T is the absolute temperature in K and Pi is the partial pressure of the
component i. component i.
- Gibbs Energy Minimization - Gibbs Energy Minimization
The equilibrium of a closed thermodynamic system is established when its Gibbs energy at constant The equilibrium of a closed thermodynamic system is established when its Gibbs energy at constant
temperature and pressure has reached its minimum. temperature and pressure has reached its minimum.
227 227
241 241
G ' (T , P, ni' ) d G (T , P, ni ) [A.2] G ' (T , P, ni' ) d G (T , P, ni ) [A.2]
Gibbs Energy of the system of one or more phases is given by equation A.3. Gibbs Energy of the system of one or more phases is given by equation A.3.
G ¦¦ n
k i
k
i Pik [A.3] G ¦¦ n
k i
k
i Pik [A.3]
where k is the number of different phase, ni is the molar amount of the phase constituent i, Pi is the chemical where k is the number of different phase, ni is the molar amount of the phase constituent i, Pi is the chemical
potential of a phase constituent i, potential of a phase constituent i,
At equilibrium the chemical potential of each element or compound at each phase is equal (equation A.5). The At equilibrium the chemical potential of each element or compound at each phase is equal (equation A.5). The
chemical potential is defined by equation A.4. chemical potential is defined by equation A.4.
P Dj P Ej P Jj ... [A.4] P Dj P Ej P Jj ... [A.4]
Pi Pi0 R T ln ai Pi0 R T ln xi J i [A.5] Pi Pi0 R T ln ai Pi0 R T ln xi J i [A.5]
where ai is the activity and Jis the activity coefficient. Thereby, expression A.3 can be rewritten as: where ai is the activity and Jis the activity coefficient. Thereby, expression A.3 can be rewritten as:
G ¦¦ n P
k i
k
i i
k0
R T ln xik J ik [A.6] G ¦¦ n P
k i
k
i i
k0
R T ln xik J ik [A.6]
The minim value of Gibbs energy is found also when masses of the system components remain constant (mass The minim value of Gibbs energy is found also when masses of the system components remain constant (mass
balance constraints). This is mathematically expressed by A.7. balance constraints). This is mathematically expressed by A.7.
bj ¦¦
D
nD aD
i
i ij [A.7] bj ¦¦
D
nD aD
i
i ij [A.7]
where bj is the molar amount of the system component j, ni is the molar amount of the constituent i in phase α where bj is the molar amount of the system component j, ni is the molar amount of the constituent i in phase α
and aij is the stoichiometric coefficient of the system component j in constituent i. and aij is the stoichiometric coefficient of the system component j in constituent i.
FactStage uses ChemApp library during the process to minimize Gibbs energy. FactStage uses ChemApp library during the process to minimize Gibbs energy.
228 228
242 242
Appendix B: Species included in the Thermodynamic Calculations Appendix B: Species included in the Thermodynamic Calculations
For the equilibrium calculations of Chapter 4, ideal gas phase compounds, pure solid phases, and pure liquid For the equilibrium calculations of Chapter 4, ideal gas phase compounds, pure solid phases, and pure liquid
phases were included from the FactSage 6.2 compound database. The species included in the full calculations phases were included from the FactSage 6.2 compound database. The species included in the full calculations
(section 4.4.1) from the compound database are listed below. For the simplified model (section 4.4.2) these (section 4.4.1) from the compound database are listed below. For the simplified model (section 4.4.2) these
species are also considered, excluding the species marked in bold. species are also considered, excluding the species marked in bold.
- Ideal gas phase components - Ideal gas phase components
C C2 C3 C4 C5 N N2 N3 C C2 C3 C4 C5 N N2 N3
CN C2N CNN CNN (g2) (CN)2 C4N2 O O2 CN C2N CNN CNN (g2) (CN)2 C4N2 O O2
O3 CO C2O CO2 C3O2 NO N2O NO2 O3 CO C2O CO2 C3O2 NO N2O NO2
NO3 N2O3 N2O4 N2O5 NCO Na Na2 NaCN NO3 N2O3 N2O4 N2O5 NCO Na Na2 NaCN
(NaCN)2 NaO Al Al2 AlC AlN AlO AlO (NaCN)2 NaO Al Al2 AlC AlN AlO AlO
Al2O (AlO)2 Si Si2 Si3 SiC SiC2 Si2C Al2O (AlO)2 Si Si2 Si3 SiC SiC2 Si2C
SiN Si2N SiO S S2 S3 S4 S5 SiN Si2N SiO S S2 S3 S4 S5
S6 S7 S8 CS CS2 NS SO SO2 S6 S7 S8 CS CS2 NS SO SO2
SO3 SSO COS Na2SO4 AlS Al2S Al2S2 SiS SO3 SSO COS Na2SO4 AlS Al2S Al2S2 SiS
SiS2 Cl Cl2 CCl CCl2 C2Cl2 CCl3 CCl4 SiS2 Cl Cl2 CCl CCl2 C2Cl2 CCl3 CCl4
C2Cl4 C2Cl6 C6Cl6 ClCN ClO ClO2 Cl2O COCl C2Cl4 C2Cl6 C6Cl6 ClCN ClO ClO2 Cl2O COCl
COCl2 ONCl NO2Cl NaCl (NaCl)2 AlCl AlCl2 AlCl3 COCl2 ONCl NO2Cl NaCl (NaCl)2 AlCl AlCl2 AlCl3
Al2Cl6 OAlCl NaAlCl4 SiCl SiCl2 SiCl3 SiCl4 SCl Al2Cl6 OAlCl NaAlCl4 SiCl SiCl2 SiCl3 SiCl4 SCl
S2Cl SCl2 ClSSCl SOCl2 SO2Cl2 K K2 KCN S2Cl SCl2 ClSSCl SOCl2 SO2Cl2 K K2 KCN
(KCN)2 KO K2SO4 KCl (KCl)2 KAlCl4 Ca Ca2 (KCN)2 KO K2SO4 KCl (KCl)2 KAlCl4 Ca Ca2
CaO CaS CaCl CaCl2 Fe FeO Fe(CO)5 FeS CaO CaS CaCl CaCl2 Fe FeO Fe(CO)5 FeS
FeCl FeCl2 FeCl3 (FeCl2)2 (FeCl3)2 NaFeCl4 AlCl6Fe FeAl2Cl8 FeCl FeCl2 FeCl3 (FeCl2)2 (FeCl3)2 NaFeCl4 AlCl6Fe FeAl2Cl8
- Pure liquids phases - Pure liquids phases
Na2O Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO N2O4 Na C2Na2 Na2O Al2O3 SiO2 K2O CaO N2O4 Na C2Na2
NaCN Na2O Na2CO3 NaNO2 NaNO3 Al Al2O3 NaAlO2 NaCN Na2O Na2CO3 NaNO2 NaNO3 Al Al2O3 NaAlO2
Si SiO2 (Na2O)(SiO2) (Na2O)2(SiO2) (Na2O)(SiO2)2 Na6Si2O7 S CS2 Si SiO2 (Na2O)(SiO2) (Na2O)2(SiO2) (Na2O)(SiO2)2 Na6Si2O7 S CS2
SO3 Na2S NaS2 Na2S2 Na2S3 Na2SO3 Na2SO4 AlS SO3 Na2S NaS2 Na2S2 Na2S3 Na2SO3 Na2SO4 AlS
Al2S3 SiS2 CCl4 C2Cl4 NaCl AlCl3 NaAlCl4 SiCl4 Al2S3 SiS2 CCl4 C2Cl4 NaCl AlCl3 NaAlCl4 SiCl4
SCl2 ClSSCl K KCN K 2O K2CO3 KNO3 KAlO2 SCl2 ClSSCl K KCN K 2O K2CO3 KNO3 KAlO2
K2SiO3 K2Si2O5 K2Si4O9 K 2S K2SO3 K2SO4 KCl KAlCl4 K2SiO3 K2Si2O5 K2Si4O9 K 2S K2SO3 K2SO4 KCl KAlCl4
Ca CaO CaAl2 CaAl4 CaAl2O4 CaAl4O7 CaSO4 CaCl2 Ca CaO CaAl2 CaAl4 CaAl2O4 CaAl4O7 CaSO4 CaCl2
Fe Fe3C FeO Fe3O4 Fe(CO)5 FeS FeCl2 FeCl3 Fe Fe3C FeO Fe3O4 Fe(CO)5 FeS FeCl2 FeCl3
229 229
243 243
- Pure solid phases - Pure solid phases
Na2O Na2O (s2) Na2O (s3) Al2O3 Al2O3 (s2) Al2O3 (s3) Na2O Na2O (s2) Na2O (s3) Al2O3 Al2O3 (s2) Al2O3 (s3)
Al2O3 (s4) NaAlO2 NaAlO2(s2) NaAl9O14 Na2Al12O19 SiO2 Al2O3 (s4) NaAlO2 NaAlO2(s2) NaAl9O14 Na2Al12O19 SiO2
SiO2 (s2) SiO2 (s3) SiO2 (s4) SiO2 (s5) SiO2 (s6) SiO2 (s7) SiO2 (s2) SiO2 (s3) SiO2 (s4) SiO2 (s5) SiO2 (s6) SiO2 (s7)
SiO2(s8) Na2SiO3 Na4SiO4 Na2Si2O5 Na2Si2O5 (s2) Na2Si2O5 (s3) SiO2(s8) Na2SiO3 Na4SiO4 Na2Si2O5 Na2Si2O5 (s2) Na2Si2O5 (s3)
Na6Si2O7 Na6Si8O19 Al2Si2O7 NaAlSiO4 NaAlSiO4 (s2) NaAlSi2O6 Na6Si2O7 Na6Si8O19 Al2Si2O7 NaAlSiO4 NaAlSiO4 (s2) NaAlSi2O6
NaAlSi3O8 NaAlSi3O8 (s2) K 2O KAlO2 KAlO2 (s2) KAl9O14 NaAlSi3O8 NaAlSi3O8 (s2) K 2O KAlO2 KAlO2 (s2) KAl9O14
K2Al12O19 K2SiO3 K2Si2O5 K2Si2O5 (s2) K2Si2O5 (s3) K2Si4O9 K2Al12O19 K2SiO3 K2Si2O5 K2Si2O5 (s2) K2Si2O5 (s3) K2Si4O9
K2Si4O9 (s2) KAlSiO4 KAlSiO4 (s2) KAlSi2O6 KAlSi2O6 (s2) KAlSi3O8 K2Si4O9 (s2) KAlSiO4 KAlSiO4 (s2) KAlSi2O6 KAlSi2O6 (s2) KAlSi3O8
KAlSi3O8 (s2) KAlSi3O8 (s3) CaO CaAl2O4 CaAl4O7 CaAl12O19 KAlSi3O8 (s2) KAlSi3O8 (s3) CaO CaAl2O4 CaAl4O7 CaAl12O19
Ca3Al2O6 CaSiO3 CaSiO3 (s2) Ca2SiO4 Ca2SiO4 (s2) Ca2SiO4 (s3) Ca3Al2O6 CaSiO3 CaSiO3 (s2) Ca2SiO4 Ca2SiO4 (s2) Ca2SiO4 (s3)
Ca3SiO5 Ca3Si2O7 Na4CaSi3O9 Na2CaSi5O12 Na2Ca2Si3O9 Na2Ca3Si6O16 Ca3SiO5 Ca3Si2O7 Na4CaSi3O9 Na2CaSi5O12 Na2Ca2Si3O9 Na2Ca3Si6O16
CaAl2SiO6 CaAl2Si2O8 CaAl2Si2O8 (s2) Ca2Al2SiO7 Ca3Al2Si3O12 Fe2O3 CaAl2SiO6 CaAl2Si2O8 CaAl2Si2O8 (s2) Ca2Al2SiO7 Ca3Al2Si3O12 Fe2O3
Fe2O3 (s2) Fe2O3 (s3) Na2Fe2O4 Al2Fe2O66 FeSiO3 FeSiO3 (s2) Fe2O3 (s2) Fe2O3 (s3) Na2Fe2O4 Al2Fe2O66 FeSiO3 FeSiO3 (s2)
FeSiO3 (s3) Fe2SiO4 Fe2SiO4 (s2) Fe2SiO4 (s3) Fe2Al4Si5O18 Fe3Al2Si3O12 FeSiO3 (s3) Fe2SiO4 Fe2SiO4 (s2) Fe2SiO4 (s3) Fe2Al4Si5O18 Fe3Al2Si3O12
CaFe2O4 Ca2Fe2O5 CaFe4O7 CaFeSi2O6 Ca2FeSi2O7 Ca3Fe2Si3O12 CaFe2O4 Ca2Fe2O5 CaFe4O7 CaFeSi2O6 Ca2FeSi2O7 Ca3Fe2Si3O12
C C (s2) N2O4 N2O5 Na C2Na2 C C (s2) N2O4 N2O5 Na C2Na2
NaCN NaO2 Na2O Na2O (s2) Na2O (s3) Na2O2 NaCN NaO2 Na2O Na2O (s2) Na2O (s3) Na2O2
Na2O2(s2) Na2CO3 Na2CO3 (s2) Na2CO3(s3) NaNO2 NaNO2 (s2) Na2O2(s2) Na2CO3 Na2CO3 (s2) Na2CO3(s3) NaNO2 NaNO2 (s2)
NaNO3 NaNO3 (s2) Al Al4C3 AlN Al2O3 NaNO3 NaNO3 (s2) Al Al4C3 AlN Al2O3
Al2O3(s2) Al2O3 (s3) Al2O3 (s4) NaAlO2 NaAlO2 (s2) NaAl9O14 Al2O3(s2) Al2O3 (s3) Al2O3 (s4) NaAlO2 NaAlO2 (s2) NaAl9O14
Na2Al12O19 Si SiC SiC (s2) Si3N4 SiO2 Na2Al12O19 Si SiC SiC (s2) Si3N4 SiO2
SiO2 (s2) SiO2 (s3) SiO2 (s4) SiO2 (s5) SiO2 (s6) SiO2 (s7) SiO2 (s2) SiO2 (s3) SiO2 (s4) SiO2 (s5) SiO2 (s6) SiO2 (s7)
(Na2O)(SiO2)2 (Na2O)(SiO2)2
SiO2 (s8) (Na2O)(SiO2) (Na2O)2(SiO2) (Na2O)(SiO2)2 (Na2O)(SiO2)2 (s3) SiO2 (s8) (Na2O)(SiO2) (Na2O)2(SiO2) (Na2O)(SiO2)2 (Na2O)(SiO2)2 (s3)
(s2) (s2)
Na6Si2O7 Na6Si8O19 Al2SiO5 Al2SiO5 (s2) Al2SiO5(s3) (Al2O3)(SiO2)2 Na6Si2O7 Na6Si8O19 Al2SiO5 Al2SiO5 (s2) Al2SiO5(s3) (Al2O3)(SiO2)2
Al6Si2O13 NaAlSiO4 NaAlSiO4(s2) NaAlSiO4 (s3) NaAlSiO4 (s4) NaAlSi2O6 Al6Si2O13 NaAlSiO4 NaAlSiO4(s2) NaAlSiO4 (s3) NaAlSiO4 (s4) NaAlSi2O6
NaAlSi3O8 NaAlSi3O8 (s2) S S (s2) SO3 Na2S NaAlSi3O8 NaAlSi3O8 (s2) S S (s2) SO3 Na2S
NaS2 Na2S2 Na2S3 Na2S4 Na2SO3 Na2SO4 NaS2 Na2S2 Na2S3 Na2S4 Na2SO3 Na2SO4
Na2SO4 (s2) AlS Al2S3 Al2(SO4)3 SiS SiS2 Na2SO4 (s2) AlS Al2S3 Al2(SO4)3 SiS SiS2
NaCl NaClO4 NaClO4 (s2) AlCl3 OAlCl NaAlCl4 NaCl NaClO4 NaClO4 (s2) AlCl3 OAlCl NaAlCl4
K KCN KO2 K 2O K2O2 K2CO3 K KCN KO2 K 2O K2O2 K2CO3
K2CO3 (s2) KNO3 KNO3 (s2) KAlO2 KAlO2 (s2) KAl9O14 K2CO3 (s2) KNO3 KNO3 (s2) KAlO2 KAlO2 (s2) KAl9O14
K2Al12O19 K2SiO3 K2Si2O5 K2Si2O5 (s2) K2Si2O5 (s3) K2Si4O9 K2Al12O19 K2SiO3 K2Si2O5 K2Si2O5 (s2) K2Si2O5 (s3) K2Si4O9
K2Si4O9 (s2) KAlSiO4 KAlSiO4 (s2) KAlSi2O6 KAlSi2O6 (s2) KAlSi3O8 K2Si4O9 (s2) KAlSiO4 KAlSiO4 (s2) KAlSi2O6 KAlSi2O6 (s2) KAlSi3O8
KAlSi3O8 (s2) KAlSi3O8 (s3) K 2S K2SO3 K2SO4 K2SO4 (s2) KAlSi3O8 (s2) KAlSi3O8 (s3) K 2S K2SO3 K2SO4 K2SO4 (s2)
K3Na(SO4)2 KAl(SO4)2 KCl KClO4 KClO4 (s2) K2ClNO3 K3Na(SO4)2 KAl(SO4)2 KCl KClO4 KClO4 (s2) K2ClNO3
KAlCl4 Ca Ca (s2) CaC2 CaC2 (s2) Ca3N2 KAlCl4 Ca Ca (s2) CaC2 CaC2 (s2) Ca3N2
CaO CaO2 CaCO3 CaCO3 (s2) Ca(NO3)2 CaAl2 CaO CaO2 CaCO3 CaCO3 (s2) Ca(NO3)2 CaAl2
CaAl4 CaAl2O4 CaAl4O7 CaAl12O19 Ca3Al2O6 CaSi CaAl4 CaAl2O4 CaAl4O7 CaAl12O19 Ca3Al2O6 CaSi
CaSi2 Ca2Si CaSiO3 CaSiO3 (s2) Ca2SiO4 Ca2SiO4 (s2) CaSi2 Ca2Si CaSiO3 CaSiO3 (s2) Ca2SiO4 Ca2SiO4 (s2)
Ca2SiO4 (s3) Ca3SiO5 Ca3Si2O7 Na4CaSi3O9 Na2CaSi5O12 Na2Ca2Si3O9 Ca2SiO4 (s3) Ca3SiO5 Ca3Si2O7 Na4CaSi3O9 Na2CaSi5O12 Na2Ca2Si3O9
Na2Ca3Si6O16 CaAl2SiO6 CaAl2Si2O8 CaAl2Si2O8 (s2) Ca2Al2SiO7 Ca3Al2Si3O12 Na2Ca3Si6O16 CaAl2SiO6 CaAl2Si2O8 CaAl2Si2O8 (s2) Ca2Al2SiO7 Ca3Al2Si3O12
CaS CaSO3 CaSO4 CaSO4 (s2) CaCl2 CaOCl2 CaS CaSO3 CaSO4 CaSO4 (s2) CaCl2 CaOCl2
230 230
244 244
K2Ca(CO3)2 K2Ca2(CO3)3 K2Ca2(SO4)3 KCaCl3 Fe Fe (s2) K2Ca(CO3)2 K2Ca2(CO3)3 K2Ca2(SO4)3 KCaCl3 Fe Fe (s2)
Fe3C Fe3C (s2) Fe2N Fe4N Fe4N (s2) FeO Fe3C Fe3C (s2) Fe2N Fe4N Fe4N (s2) FeO
Fe2O3 Fe2O3 (s2) Fe2O3 (s3) Fe3O4 Fe3O4 (s2) Fe3O4 (s3) Fe2O3 Fe2O3 (s2) Fe2O3 (s3) Fe3O4 Fe3O4 (s2) Fe3O4 (s3)
Fe3O4 (s4) FeCO3 (Na2O)(Fe2O3) FeAl3 FeAl2O4 Al2Fe2O6 Fe3O4 (s4) FeCO3 (Na2O)(Fe2O3) FeAl3 FeAl2O4 Al2Fe2O6
FeSi FeSi2 Fe3Si Fe3Si7 FeSiO3 FeSiO3 (s2) FeSi FeSi2 Fe3Si Fe3Si7 FeSiO3 FeSiO3 (s2)
FeSiO3(s3) (FeO)2(SiO2) (FeO)2(SiO2) (s2) (FeO)2(SiO2) (s3) Fe2Al4Si5O18 Fe3Al2Si3O12 FeSiO3(s3) (FeO)2(SiO2) (FeO)2(SiO2) (s2) (FeO)2(SiO2) (s3) Fe2Al4Si5O18 Fe3Al2Si3O12
FeS FeS (s2) FeS (s3) FeS2 FeS2 (s2) Fe7S8 FeS FeS (s2) FeS (s3) FeS2 FeS2 (s2) Fe7S8
FeSO4 Fe2(SO4)3 FeCl2 FeCl3 FeOCl NaFeCl4 FeSO4 Fe2(SO4)3 FeCl2 FeCl3 FeOCl NaFeCl4
FeAl2Cl8 KFeCl3 KFeCl4 K2FeCl4 CaFe2O4 Ca2Fe2O5 FeAl2Cl8 KFeCl3 KFeCl4 K2FeCl4 CaFe2O4 Ca2Fe2O5
CaFe4O7 CaFeSi2O6 Ca2FeSi2O7 Ca3Fe2Si3O12 CaFe4O7 CaFeSi2O6 Ca2FeSi2O7 Ca3Fe2Si3O12
231 231
245 245
232 232
246 246
Appendix C: Data from the Experiments using Reducing Agents Appendix C: Data from the Experiments using Reducing Agents
- Example of obtained Data - Example of obtained Data

Original data obtained in the experiments presented in Chapter 6 is exemplified in Figure C-1, which shows Original data obtained in the experiments presented in Chapter 6 is exemplified in Figure C-1, which shows
the constant SO2 concentration for different CO concentrations introduced in different experiments. The the constant SO2 concentration for different CO concentrations introduced in different experiments. The
duration of the period where CO was introduced under the bed material for each concentration was 4 or 5 min duration of the period where CO was introduced under the bed material for each concentration was 4 or 5 min
in order to reach a steady-state and have a constant SO2 concentration. The results shown in Chapter 6 are the in order to reach a steady-state and have a constant SO2 concentration. The results shown in Chapter 6 are the
averages of the constant SO2 concentrations and the standard deviations of results. averages of the constant SO2 concentrations and the standard deviations of results.
500 500

400 400
20 vol. % CO 20 vol. % CO
300 300
200 200
100 10 vol. % CO 100 10 vol. % CO

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure C-1: Effect of different CO concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration. Experimental conditions: Figure C-1: Effect of different CO concentrations introduced under the bed material on SO2 concentration. Experimental conditions:
flow tube 1NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm. flow tube 1NL/min, 900 °C, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm.
- Carbon Balance - Carbon Balance

The carbon mass balance was checked by considering the molar mass flow rate of CO introduced and CO2 The carbon mass balance was checked by considering the molar mass flow rate of CO introduced and CO2
measured by the gas analyzer, according to equation C.1. The deviation of the results is calculated according measured by the gas analyzer, according to equation C.1. The deviation of the results is calculated according
to equation C.2. to equation C.2.
nCO,inini nCO,out
out [C.1] nCO,inini nCO,out
out [C.1]
out nC ,in
nC ,out out nC ,in
nC ,out
Deviation (%) in
10
100 [C.2] Deviation (%) in
10
100 [C.2]
nC ,inin nC ,inin
The CO2 concentration measured by the analyzer needed to be corrected for the mass balance because the CO2 The CO2 concentration measured by the analyzer needed to be corrected for the mass balance because the CO2
coming from the air of the freeboard atmosphere need to be subtracted. The base lines are 215-248 ppm CO2 coming from the air of the freeboard atmosphere need to be subtracted. The base lines are 215-248 ppm CO2
when using 5 vol. % O2 and 383 ppm CO2 when using 10 vol. % O2. The data for the experiments performed when using 5 vol. % O2 and 383 ppm CO2 when using 10 vol. % O2. The data for the experiments performed
233 233
247 247
at 900 oC at 5 and 10 vol. % O2 are shown in Table C-1 and C-2, respectively, and Table C-3 shows the data at 900 oC at 5 and 10 vol. % O2 are shown in Table C-1 and C-2, respectively, and Table C-3 shows the data
for the experiments performed at 1000 oC. for the experiments performed at 1000 oC.
Table C-1: Carbon balance and deviation for the experiments performed at 900 oC and 5 vol. % O2. Note: Base line for CO2 from the Table C-1: Carbon balance and deviation for the experiments performed at 900 oC and 5 vol. % O2. Note: Base line for CO2 from the
air content of the freeboard atmosphere is 215 ppm. air content of the freeboard atmosphere is 215 ppm.
IN OUT IN OUT
Flow 1 NL/min Flow 101 NL/min Flow 1 NL/min Flow 101 NL/min
CO2 without CO2 without
CO conc. kmol CO/min = CO2 conc. kmol CO2/min= CO conc. kmol CO/min = CO2 conc. kmol CO2/min=
yCO base line yCO2 Deviation [%] yCO base line yCO2 Deviation [%]
[vol. %] kmol Cin/min [ppm] kmol Cout/min [vol. %] kmol Cin/min [ppm] kmol Cout/min
[ppm] [ppm]
5 0.05 2.23·10-3 683 468 4.68·10-4 2.11·10-3 5.46 5 0.05 2.23·10-3 683 468 4.68·10-4 2.11·10-3 5.46
7 0.07 3.12 ·10-3 853 638 6.38·10-4 2.87·10-3 7.95 7 0.07 3.12 ·10-3 853 638 6.38·10-4 2.87·10-3 7.95
10 0.1 4.46·10-3 1165 950 9.50·10-4 4.28·10-3 4.05 10 0.1 4.46·10-3 1165 950 9.50·10-4 4.28·10-3 4.05
15 0.15 6.69·10-3 1590 1375 1.38·10-3 6.20·10-3 7.42 15 0.15 6.69·10-3 1590 1375 1.38·10-3 6.20·10-3 7.42
20 0.2 8.92·10-3 2101 1886 1.89·10-3 8.50·10-3 4.76 20 0.2 8.92·10-3 2101 1886 1.89·10-3 8.50·10-3 4.76
Table C-2: Carbon balance and deviation for the experiments performed at 900 oC and 10 vol. % O2. Note: Base line for CO2 from Table C-2: Carbon balance and deviation for the experiments performed at 900 oC and 10 vol. % O2. Note: Base line for CO2 from
the air content of the freeboard atmosphere is 383 ppm. the air content of the freeboard atmosphere is 383 ppm.
IN OUT IN OUT
[vol. %] kmol C/min [ppm] kmol C/min [vol. %] kmol C/min [ppm] kmol C/min
[ppm] [ppm]
5 0.05 2.23·10-3 861 478 4.78 ·10-4 2.15·10-3 3.44 5 0.05 2.23·10-3 861 478 4.78 ·10-4 2.15·10-3 3.44
7 0.07 3.12 ·10-3 1050 667 6.67·10-4 3.01·10-3 3.76 7 0.07 3.12 ·10-3 1050 667 6.67·10-4 3.01·10-3 3.76
10 0.1 4.46·10-3 1309 926 9.26·10-4 4.17·10-3 6.47 10 0.1 4.46·10-3 1309 926 9.26·10-4 4.17·10-3 6.47
-3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3
15 0.15 6.69·10 1865 1482 1.48·10 6.68·10 0.21 15 0.15 6.69·10 1865 1482 1.48·10 6.68·10 0.21
20 0.2 8.92·10-3 2297 1914 1.91·10-3 8.62·10-3 3.34 20 0.2 8.92·10-3 2297 1914 1.91·10-3 8.62·10-3 3.34
Table C-3: Carbon balance and deviation for the experiments performed at 1000 oC and 5 vol. % O2. Note: Base line for CO2 from Table C-3: Carbon balance and deviation for the experiments performed at 1000 oC and 5 vol. % O2. Note: Base line for CO2 from
the air content of the freeboard atmosphere is 248 ppm. the air content of the freeboard atmosphere is 248 ppm.
IN OUT IN OUT
[vol. %] kmol C/min [ppm] kmol C/min [vol. %] kmol C/min [ppm] kmol C/min
[ppm] [ppm]
5 0.05 2.23·10-3 780 482 4.82·10-4 2.17·10-3 2.64 5 0.05 2.23·10-3 780 482 4.82·10-4 2.17·10-3 2.64
-3 -4 -3 -3 -4
10 0.1 4.46·10 1240 942 9.42·10 4.24·10 4.86 10 0.1 4.46·10 1240 942 9.42·10 4.24·10-3 4.86
15 0.15 6.69·10-3 1785 1543 1.54·10-3 6.95·10-3 3.90 15 0.15 6.69·10-3 1785 1543 1.54·10-3 6.95·10-3 3.90
20 0.2 8.92·10-3 2324 2026 2.03·10-3 9.1·10-3 2.31 20 0.2 8.92·10-3 2324 2026 2.03·10-3 9.1·10-3 2.31
234 234
248 248
- CO2 concentrations of the Different Experiments - CO2 concentrations of the Different Experiments
The corresponding CO2 concentrations measured for each experiment of section 6.3 are plotted as the average The corresponding CO2 concentrations measured for each experiment of section 6.3 are plotted as the average
of the constant concentrations and the standard deviations of results. Figure C-2 shows the CO2 concentrations of the constant concentrations and the standard deviations of results. Figure C-2 shows the CO2 concentrations
for different CO concentrations used varying the oxygen concentration. for different CO concentrations used varying the oxygen concentration.
3000 3000
CO2 concentration in outlet [ppmv]
CO2 concentration in outlet [ppmv]

2000 2000
1000 1000
10 vol.% O΍ 10 vol.% O΍
5 vol.% O΍ 5 vol.% O΍
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
CO concentration in tube [vol.%] CO concentration in tube [vol.%]
Figure C-1: CO2 concentration when different CO concentrations were introduced under the bed material with 5 and 10 vol. % O2. Figure C-1: CO2 concentration when different CO concentrations were introduced under the bed material with 5 and 10 vol. % O2.
The CO2 concentrations for different CO concentrations used varying the temperature are shown in Figure C- The CO2 concentrations for different CO concentrations used varying the temperature are shown in Figure C-
3. 3.
3000 3000
CO2 concentration in outlet [ppm]

2000 2000
1000 ͼC 1000 ͼC
1000 900 ͼC 1000 900 ͼC
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
CO concentration in tube [vol. %] CO concentration in tube [vol. %]
Figure C-2: CO2 concentration when different CO concentrations were introduced under the bed material at 900 and 1000 °C. Figure C-2: CO2 concentration when different CO concentrations were introduced under the bed material at 900 and 1000 °C.
235 235
249 249
The CO2 concentrations corresponding to the experiments investigating the time of exposure of different CO The CO2 concentrations corresponding to the experiments investigating the time of exposure of different CO
o
concentrations at 900 and 1000 C are plotted in Figure C-4 and Figure C-5, respectively. concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC are plotted in Figure C-4 and Figure C-5, respectively.
2500 2500 2500 2500

CO2 concentration [ppmv]
CO2 concentration [ppmv]

CO2 concentration [ppm]

2000 15 vol.%CO 2000 2000 15 vol.%CO 2000
10 vol.%CO 10 vol.%CO 10 vol.%CO 10 vol.%CO
1500 7 vol.%CO 1500 5 vol.%CO 1500 7 vol.%CO 1500 5 vol.%CO
5 vol.%CO 5 vol.%CO
1000 1000 1000 1000
500 500 500 500
0 0 0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Figure C-3: CO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CO Figure C-4: CO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CO Figure C-3: CO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CO Figure C-4: CO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CO
was introduced under the bed material with 5, 7, 10, 15, and 20 was introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15, and 20 was introduced under the bed material with 5, 7, 10, 15, and 20 was introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15, and 20
vol. % CO at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 vol. % at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 vol. % CO at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1 vol. % at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1
NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5
vol. % O2, 6 rpm. vol. % O2, 6 rpm. vol. % O2, 6 rpm. vol. % O2, 6 rpm.
For the different CH4 concentrations experiments, the corresponding CO2 concentrations varying the oxygen For the different CH4 concentrations experiments, the corresponding CO2 concentrations varying the oxygen
concentration are illustrated in Figure C-6. concentration are illustrated in Figure C-6.
3000 3000

2000 2000
10 vol.%O΍ 10 vol.%O΍
5 vol.% O΍ 5 vol.% O΍
1000 1000
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Figure C-6: CO2 concentration when different CH4 concentrations were introduced under the bed material with 5 and 10 vol. % O2. Figure C-6: CO2 concentration when different CH4 concentrations were introduced under the bed material with 5 and 10 vol. % O2.
236 236
250 250
The corresponding CO2 concentrations for different CH4 concentrations used varying the temperature are The corresponding CO2 concentrations for different CH4 concentrations used varying the temperature are
illustrated in Figure C-7. illustrated in Figure C-7.
3000 3000

2000 2000
1000 ͼC 1000 ͼC
1000 900 ͼC 1000 900 ͼC
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Figure C-5: CO2 concentration when different CH4 concentrations were introduced under the bed material at 900 and 1000 °C. Figure C-5: CO2 concentration when different CH4 concentrations were introduced under the bed material at 900 and 1000 °C.
The CO2 concentrations corresponding to the experiments investigating the time of exposure of different CH4 The CO2 concentrations corresponding to the experiments investigating the time of exposure of different CH4
o
concentrations at 900 and 1000 C are plotted in Figure C-8 and Figure C-9, respectively. concentrations at 900 and 1000 oC are plotted in Figure C-8 and Figure C-9, respectively.
1500 1500
1500 20 vol.% CHΏ 20 vol.%CHΏ 1500 20 vol.% CHΏ 20 vol.%CHΏ


15 vol.%CHΏ 15 vol.%CHΏ 15 vol.%CHΏ 15 vol.%CHΏ
1000 1000 1000 1000
500 500 500 500
0 0
0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Figure C-6: CO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CH4 Figure C-7: CO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L CH4 was Figure C-6: CO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L of CH4 Figure C-7: CO2 concentrations when a total of 0.4 L CH4 was
was introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. % was introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 introduced under the bed material with 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol. %
vol. % CH4 at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube CH4 at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min, vol. % CH4 at 900 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube CH4 at 1000 °C. Experimental conditions: flow tube 1NL/min,
1NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 1NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2,
vol. % O2, 6 rpm. 6 rpm. vol. % O2, 6 rpm. 6 rpm.
237 237
251 251
The corresponding CO2 concentrations for experiments of the mixtures of CO/CH4 and CO/H2 as function of The corresponding CO2 concentrations for experiments of the mixtures of CO/CH4 and CO/H2 as function of
the CO concentration are shown in Figure C-10, and for the experiments of the CH4/CO and CH4/H2 mixtures the CO concentration are shown in Figure C-10, and for the experiments of the CH4/CO and CH4/H2 mixtures
as function of the CH4 concentration in Figure C-11. as function of the CH4 concentration in Figure C-11.
2500 2500

2000 2000
1500 1500
CO /H΍ CO /H΍
1000 1000
CO / CHΏ CO / CHΏ
500 500
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
CO concentration in tube [vol. %] CO concentration in tube [vol. %]
Figure C-8: CO2 concentrations when mixtures CO/CH4 and CO/H2 were introduced under the bed material at 900 °C. Experimental Figure C-8: CO2 concentrations when mixtures CO/CH4 and CO/H2 were introduced under the bed material at 900 °C. Experimental
conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm. conditions: flow tube 1 NL/min, 5 % fill degree, 2 wt. % CaSO4, 100 NL/min with 5 vol. % O2, 6 rpm.
2500 2500

2000 2000
1500 1500
CHΏ / CO CHΏ / CO
1000 CHΏ /H΍ 1000 CHΏ /H΍
500 500
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
CH4 concentration in tube [vol.%] CH4 concentration in tube [vol.%]
Figure C-9: CO2 concentrations when mixtures of CH4/CO and CH4/H2 were introduced under the bed material at 900 °C. Figure C-9: CO2 concentrations when mixtures of CH4/CO and CH4/H2 were introduced under the bed material at 900 °C.
238 238
252 252
Appendix D: Kinetic Studies of CaSO4 Reductive Decomposition Appendix D: Kinetic Studies of CaSO4 Reductive Decomposition
Kinetic studies of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with CO and H2 have been performed at different Kinetic studies of the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with CO and H2 have been performed at different
concentrations and temperature ranges by many authors (Diaz-Bossio et al., 1985; Xiao and Song, 2011; Zheng concentrations and temperature ranges by many authors (Diaz-Bossio et al., 1985; Xiao and Song, 2011; Zheng
et al., 2011; Kim and Sohn, 2002; Talukdar et al., 1996). The activation energy and the pre-exponential factor et al., 2011; Kim and Sohn, 2002; Talukdar et al., 1996). The activation energy and the pre-exponential factor
found for the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with CO and H2 according to reactions (D-1) and (D-2) are found for the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with CO and H2 according to reactions (D-1) and (D-2) are
summarized in Table D-1. No kinetic parameters for the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with CH4 have summarized in Table D-1. No kinetic parameters for the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 with CH4 have
been reported. been reported.
CaSO4 (s) CO ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) CO2 ( g ) (D-1) CaSO4 (s) CO ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) CO2 ( g ) (D-1)
CaSO4 (s) H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) (D-2) CaSO4 (s) H 2 ( g ) o CaO (s) SO2 ( g ) H 2O ( g ) (D-2)
Table D-1: Summery of the reported kinetic parameters for reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO and H2. Table D-1: Summery of the reported kinetic parameters for reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO and H2.
Reducing Ea Reducing Ea
Reaction Conditions T range [°C] A [m/s] Equipment Reference Reaction Conditions T range [°C] A [m/s] Equipment Reference
agent [kJ/mol] agent [kJ/mol]
variation 1-6 variation 1-6
(Diaz-Bossio (Diaz-Bossio
(D-1) CO vol. % CO with 900-1180 242 ± 33 7.4 ·104 TGA (D-1) CO vol. % CO with 900-1180 242 ± 33 7.4 ·104 TGA
et al., 1985) et al., 1985)
24 vol. % CO2 24 vol. % CO2
Circulating Circulating
variation 0.1-1 (Talukdar et variation 0.1-1 (Talukdar et
(D-1) CO 750-950 251.7 6.964·107 fluidized bed (D-1) CO 750-950 251.7 6.964·107 fluidized bed
vol. % CO al., 1996) vol. % CO al., 1996)
reactor reactor
20, 40 and 70 Isothermal bed (Xiao and 20, 40 and 70 Isothermal bed (Xiao and
(D-1) CO 880-950 145.3 1.89 ·103 (D-1) CO 880-950 145.3 1.89 ·103
vol. % CO in N2 reactor Song, 2011) vol. % CO in N2 reactor Song, 2011)
variation 1-6 variation 1-6
(Diaz-Bossio (Diaz-Bossio
(D-2) H2 vol. % H2 with 900-1180 288 ± 44 6.1 ·106 TGA (D-2) H2 vol. % H2 with 900-1180 288 ± 44 6.1 ·106 TGA
et al., 1985) et al., 1985)
24 vol. % CO2 24 vol. % CO2
The kinetic parameters for the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO found by Xiao and Song (Xiao and The kinetic parameters for the reductive decomposition of CaSO4 by CO found by Xiao and Song (Xiao and
Song, 2011) are the ones used for the model because no CO2 was introduced and the temperature range is Song, 2011) are the ones used for the model because no CO2 was introduced and the temperature range is
relevant. relevant.
Appendix D References Appendix D References
Diaz-Bossio, L. M., Squier, S. E., and Pulsifer, A. H.; Reductive decomposition of calcium sulfate utilizing Diaz-Bossio, L. M., Squier, S. E., and Pulsifer, A. H.; Reductive decomposition of calcium sulfate utilizing
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Chemical Engineering Science, 40, 319-24, 1985. carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Chemical Engineering Science, 40, 319-24, 1985.
Kim, B., and Sohn, H. Y.; A novel cyclic reaction system involving CaS and CaSO4 for converting sulfur Kim, B., and Sohn, H. Y.; A novel cyclic reaction system involving CaS and CaSO4 for converting sulfur
dioxide to elemental sulfur without generating secondary pollutants. 3. Kinetics of the hydrogen reduction dioxide to elemental sulfur without generating secondary pollutants. 3. Kinetics of the hydrogen reduction
of the calcium sulfate powder to calcium sulfide. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 41, 3092- of the calcium sulfate powder to calcium sulfide. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 41, 3092-
6, 2002. 6, 2002.
Talukdar, J., Basu, P., and Greenblatt, J. H.; Reduction of calcium sulfate in a coal-fired circulating fluidized Talukdar, J., Basu, P., and Greenblatt, J. H.; Reduction of calcium sulfate in a coal-fired circulating fluidized
bed furnace. Fuel, 75, 1115-23, 1996. bed furnace. Fuel, 75, 1115-23, 1996.
239 239
253 253
Zheng, M., Shen, L., Feng, X., and Xiao, J.; Kinetic model for parallel reactions of CaSO4 with CO in chemical- Zheng, M., Shen, L., Feng, X., and Xiao, J.; Kinetic model for parallel reactions of CaSO4 with CO in chemical-
looping combustion. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 50, 5414-27, 2011. looping combustion. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 50, 5414-27, 2011.
240 240
254 254
Appendix E: CaSO4 Particle Analysis Appendix E: CaSO4 Particle Analysis
The particle size of CaSO4 has been characterized by a Malvern with a repetition of 5 samples. The statistical The particle size of CaSO4 has been characterized by a Malvern with a repetition of 5 samples. The statistical
results are listed below. results are listed below.
Results Statistics: Results Statistics:
Distribution type: Volume Concentration= 0.0066 vol. % Density= 1.000 g/ cm3 Specific S.A. = 3.2264 m2/g Distribution type: Volume Concentration= 0.0066 vol. % Density= 1.000 g/ cm3 Specific S.A. = 3.2264 m2/g
Mean diameters: D (v, 0.1)= 0.97 μm D (v, 0.5)= 6.49 μm D (v, 0.9)= 28.74 μm Mean diameters: D (v, 0.1)= 0.97 μm D (v, 0.5)= 6.49 μm D (v, 0.9)= 28.74 μm
The cumulative particle distribution is shown in Figure E-1 and the raw data obtained is presented in Table The cumulative particle distribution is shown in Figure E-1 and the raw data obtained is presented in Table
E-1. E-1.
120 120
Cumulative fractioni [% undersize]
Cumulative fractioni [% undersize]

100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Partice size [μm] Partice size [μm]
Figure E-1: Cumulative particle distribution of the used CaSO4. Figure E-1: Cumulative particle distribution of the used CaSO4.
241 241
255 255
Table E-2: Low and high particle size interval corresponding to the cumulative fraction for the CaSO 4 particle distribution. Table E-2: Low and high particle size interval corresponding to the cumulative fraction for the CaSO 4 particle distribution.
Size low Size high Cumulative fraction Size low Size high Cumulative fraction Size low Size high Cumulative fraction Size low Size high Cumulative fraction
[μm] [μm] [% undersize] [μm] [μm] [% undersize] [μm] [μm] [% undersize] [μm] [μm] [% undersize]
0.05 0.06 0.02 6.63 7.72 55.33 0.05 0.06 0.02 6.63 7.72 55.33
0.06 0.07 0.05 7.72 9.00 59.94 0.06 0.07 0.05 7.72 9.00 59.94
0.07 0.08 0.11 9.00 10.48 64.44 0.07 0.08 0.11 9.00 10.48 64.44
0.08 0.09 0.21 10.48 12.21 68.80 0.08 0.09 0.21 10.48 12.21 68.80
0.09 0.11 0.36 12.21 14.22 73.01 0.09 0.11 0.36 12.21 14.22 73.01
0.11 0.13 0.59 14.22 16.57 77.06 0.11 0.13 0.59 14.22 16.57 77.06
0.13 0.15 0.92 16.57 19.31 80.95 0.13 0.15 0.92 16.57 19.31 80.95
0.15 0.17 1.36 19.31 22.49 84.65 0.15 0.17 1.36 19.31 22.49 84.65
0.17 0.20 1.93 22.49 26.20 88.08 0.17 0.20 1.93 22.49 26.20 88.08
0.20 0.23 2.64 26.20 30.53 91.18 0.20 0.23 2.64 26.20 30.53 91.18
0.23 0.27 3.45 30.53 35.56 93.86 0.23 0.27 3.45 30.53 35.56 93.86
0.27 0.31 4.31 35.56 41.43 96.05 0.27 0.31 4.31 35.56 41.43 96.05
0.31 0.36 5.15 41.43 48.27 97.74 0.31 0.36 5.15 41.43 48.27 97.74
0.36 0.42 5.91 48.27 56.23 98.93 0.36 0.42 5.91 48.27 56.23 98.93
0.42 0.49 6.60 56.23 65.51 99.68 0.42 0.49 6.60 56.23 65.51 99.68
0.49 0.58 7.24 65.51 76.32 100.00 0.49 0.58 7.24 65.51 76.32 100.00
0.58 0.67 7.87 76.32 88.91 100.00 0.58 0.67 7.87 76.32 88.91 100.00
0.67 0.78 8.57 88.91 103.58 100.00 0.67 0.78 8.57 88.91 103.58 100.00
0.78 0.91 9.53 103.58 120.67 100.00 0.78 0.91 9.53 103.58 120.67 100.00
0.91 1.06 10.76 120.67 140.58 100.00 0.91 1.06 10.76 120.67 140.58 100.00
1.06 1.24 12.31 140.58 163.77 100.00 1.06 1.24 12.31 140.58 163.77 100.00
1.24 1.44 14.23 163.77 190.80 100.00 1.24 1.44 14.23 163.77 190.80 100.00
1.44 1.68 16.51 190.80 222.28 100.00 1.44 1.68 16.51 190.80 222.28 100.00
1.68 1.95 19.13 222.28 258.95 100.00 1.68 1.95 19.13 222.28 258.95 100.00
1.95 2.28 22.08 258.95 301.68 100.00 1.95 2.28 22.08 258.95 301.68 100.00
2.28 2.65 25.35 301.68 351.46 100.00 2.28 2.65 25.35 301.68 351.46 100.00
2.65 3.09 28.93 351.46 409.45 100.00 2.65 3.09 28.93 351.46 409.45 100.00
3.09 3.60 32.82 409.45 477.01 100.00 3.09 3.60 32.82 409.45 477.01 100.00
3.60 4.19 37.00 477.01 555.71 100.00 3.60 4.19 37.00 477.01 555.71 100.00
4.19 4.88 41.41 555.71 647.41 100.00 4.19 4.88 41.41 555.71 647.41 100.00
4.88 5.69 46.00 647.41 754.23 100.00 4.88 5.69 46.00 647.41 754.23 100.00
5.69 6.63 50.66 754.23 878.67 100.00 5.69 6.63 50.66 754.23 878.67 100.00
242 242
256 256
Appendix F: Mass balance in basis of loss of ignition free Appendix F: Mass balance in basis of loss of ignition free
The solid mass flows of the raw meal and hot meal are calculated in loss of ignition free based according to The solid mass flows of the raw meal and hot meal are calculated in loss of ignition free based according to
equation F.1. The basis of loss of ignition free allows their comparison at different locations, after and before equation F.1. The basis of loss of ignition free allows their comparison at different locations, after and before
calcination. calcination.
m j (100
( LOI j ) m j (100
( LOI j )
mjj, LOI free where j= raw meal or hot meal [F.1] mjj, LOI free where j= raw meal or hot meal [F.1]
100 100
In Figure F-1, the typical material feed and hot meal (in black) and dust loss (in red) are specified. The net In Figure F-1, the typical material feed and hot meal (in black) and dust loss (in red) are specified. The net
flows are calculated in order to check that at the different locations of the plant there is approximately 1 kg of flows are calculated in order to check that at the different locations of the plant there is approximately 1 kg of
material LOI free per kg of clinker. The dust from the rotary kiln is assumed to have 0 % LOI in order to material LOI free per kg of clinker. The dust from the rotary kiln is assumed to have 0 % LOI in order to
calculate the net flow of the hot meal, and 15 % of the kiln dust is removed by the bypass. calculate the net flow of the hot meal, and 15 % of the kiln dust is removed by the bypass.
1.75 kg raw meal/kg clinker 0.142 kg dust/kg clinker 1.75 kg raw meal/kg clinker 0.142 kg dust/kg clinker
Net flow: 1.602 kg/kg clinker, LOI 36.1% Net flow: 1.602 kg/kg clinker, LOI 36.1%
1.023 kg LOI free/kg clinker 1.023 kg LOI free/kg clinker
Preheater tower Preheater tower

+ +
Calciner Calciner
0.156 kg dust/kg clinker 0.156 kg dust/kg clinker

0.0276 kg bypass dust/kg clinker 0.0276 kg bypass dust/kg clinker
0.183 kg dust/kg clinker, LOI 0 % 0.183 kg dust/kg clinker, LOI 0 %

Rotary kiln 1 kg LOI free/kg clinker Rotary kiln 1 kg LOI free/kg clinker
1.274 kg hot meal/kg clinker, LOI 5% 1.274 kg hot meal/kg clinker, LOI 5%
1.21 kg LOI free/kg clinker 1.21 kg LOI free/kg clinker
Net flow: 1.21 kg LOI free/kg clinker-0.183 kg dust/kg clinker Net flow: 1.21 kg LOI free/kg clinker-0.183 kg dust/kg clinker
=1.027 kg LOI free/kg clinker =1.027 kg LOI free/kg clinker
Figure F-1: Solid mass flows material feed and hot meal (in black) and dust loss (in red) in basis of loss of ignition free in order to Figure F-1: Solid mass flows material feed and hot meal (in black) and dust loss (in red) in basis of loss of ignition free in order to
check that there is no formation or loss of material. check that there is no formation or loss of material.
243 243
257 257
244 244
258 258
Appendix G: Industrial gas measurement system principles Appendix G: Industrial gas measurement system principles
- Cold gas measurement system principle - Cold gas measurement system principle
The fixed gas measurement system is located in kiln inlet. The gas measurement system can be divided in The fixed gas measurement system is located in kiln inlet. The gas measurement system can be divided in
three main blocks as illustrated in Figure G-1. three main blocks as illustrated in Figure G-1.
Sampling Sampling
Extraction Extraction
gas gas conditioning gas gas conditioning
probe probe
system system
Process stream
Process stream
gas gas
Analyzer Analyzer
Figure G-1: Measuring principle of the process gas analysis system. Figure G-1: Measuring principle of the process gas analysis system.
The gas measurement system consists of: The gas measurement system consists of:
- An extraction probe. The design of the extraction probe is identical for the cold gas measurement - An extraction probe. The design of the extraction probe is identical for the cold gas measurement
system and the hot FTIR measurement system. It consists of a tube with a steel cooling jacket with system and the hot FTIR measurement system. It consists of a tube with a steel cooling jacket with
circulating water to keep the probe cool, so it can resist the high temperature in cement plants. The circulating water to keep the probe cool, so it can resist the high temperature in cement plants. The
inner tube is heated to 200-210 oC. inner tube is heated to 200-210 oC.
Water cooled cooling jacket (50 oC) Water cooled cooling jacket (50 oC)
Filter Filter
Electrical heated sample probe (200 oC) Electrical heated sample probe (200 oC)
Figure G-2: Schematic drawing of the applied extraction probe (FSLmidth A/S 2012a). Figure G-2: Schematic drawing of the applied extraction probe (FSLmidth A/S 2012a).
- Sampling conditioning system. It consists of a gas cooler, a gas pump, a condensation pump, a flow - Sampling conditioning system. It consists of a gas cooler, a gas pump, a condensation pump, a flow
o
meter and a filter with humidity sensor. The sample gas pump sucks the gas which is cooled to 5 C in meter and a filter with humidity sensor. The sample gas pump sucks the gas which is cooled to 5 oC in
the gas cooler to remove condensate water (FLSmidth A/S, 2012b). the gas cooler to remove condensate water (FLSmidth A/S, 2012b).
- Analyzer. This cement plant has an infrared system to analyze SO2, CO, and NO, and paramagnetic - Analyzer. This cement plant has an infrared system to analyze SO2, CO, and NO, and paramagnetic
for O2. for O2.
245 245
259 259
- Hot FTIR measurement system principle - Hot FTIR measurement system principle
The FTIR measurement system consists of the blocks shown in Figure G-1. The sampling conditioning system The FTIR measurement system consists of the blocks shown in Figure G-1. The sampling conditioning system
differs between the two techniques. In the FTIR measurement system the gas is not cooled. The heated pump differs between the two techniques. In the FTIR measurement system the gas is not cooled. The heated pump
contains a zirconium cell for analyzing the oxygen. The analyzer consists of an FTIR spectometer, where the contains a zirconium cell for analyzing the oxygen. The analyzer consists of an FTIR spectometer, where the
rest of the gas components, are analysed. rest of the gas components, are analysed.
FTIR analyzes the gas composition by measuring the absorbance at different frequencies. The structure of the FTIR analyzes the gas composition by measuring the absorbance at different frequencies. The structure of the
FTIR spectrometer is shown in Figure G-3. The spectrometer measures all the IR wavelengths simultaneously. FTIR spectrometer is shown in Figure G-3. The spectrometer measures all the IR wavelengths simultaneously.
FTIR has the advantage of being able to measure continuously and multicomponents simultaneously, such as FTIR has the advantage of being able to measure continuously and multicomponents simultaneously, such as
NOx, SO2, CO2, CO, H2O, NH3, HCl, and hydrocarbons from single measurement and interferences are NOx, SO2, CO2, CO, H2O, NH3, HCl, and hydrocarbons from single measurement and interferences are
automatically resolved. NH3, HCl and hydrocarbons can be measured by the FTIR because the gas has not automatically resolved. NH3, HCl and hydrocarbons can be measured by the FTIR because the gas has not
been cooled and these componends have not condensed. been cooled and these componends have not condensed.
FTIR Spectometer FTIR Spectometer
Signal & data Signal & data

IR source Interferometer Sample cell Detector IR source Interferometer Sample cell Detector
processing processing
Modulated infrared Transmitted Measured signal Modulated infrared Transmitted Measured signal
radiation infrared radiation radiation infrared radiation
Figure G-3: Scheme of the structure of FTIR spectrometer (Gasmet, 2013). Figure G-3: Scheme of the structure of FTIR spectrometer (Gasmet, 2013).
Appendix G References Appendix G References
FLSmidth A/S; Kiln inlet gas analysis for a competitive edge. 2012a. Available at FLSmidth A/S; Kiln inlet gas analysis for a competitive edge. 2012a. Available at
http://www.flsmidth.com/en- http://www.flsmidth.com/en-
us/Gas+Analysis+Technology/Applications/Gas+Analysis+in+Cement/Kiln+Inlet/Kiln+Inlet+Gas+Ana us/Gas+Analysis+Technology/Applications/Gas+Analysis+in+Cement/Kiln+Inlet/Kiln+Inlet+Gas+Ana
lysis. lysis.
FLSmidth A/S; Gas conditioning system. 2012b. Available at http://www.flsmidth.com/en- FLSmidth A/S; Gas conditioning system. 2012b. Available at http://www.flsmidth.com/en-
US/Gas+Analysis+Technology/Products/Gas+Analysis+Systems/Gas+Conditioning+Systems. US/Gas+Analysis+Technology/Products/Gas+Analysis+Systems/Gas+Conditioning+Systems.
Gasmet; FTIR gas analysers. 2013. Available at http://www.gasmet.com/products/ftir_gas_analyzers/. Gasmet; FTIR gas analysers. 2013. Available at http://www.gasmet.com/products/ftir_gas_analyzers/.
246 246
260 260
Appendix H: Clinker composition for the industrial investigation Appendix H: Clinker composition for the industrial investigation
In order to calculate the sulfur evaporation factor, SO3 content in the clinker is needed. The clinker analysis, In order to calculate the sulfur evaporation factor, SO3 content in the clinker is needed. The clinker analysis,
which corresponds to the hot meal sample after 30 min from the time of sampling is summarized in Table H- which corresponds to the hot meal sample after 30 min from the time of sampling is summarized in Table H-
1. 1.
Table H-1: Summary of the clinker analysis corresponding to the hot meal samples taken. Table H-1: Summary of the clinker analysis corresponding to the hot meal samples taken.
Clinker composition [wt. % clinker based] Clinker composition [wt. % clinker based]
Free CaO Alite Aluminate Ferrite SO3 Naeq Fluoride Cl P 2O 5 MgO Free CaO Alite Aluminate Ferrite SO3 Naeq Fluoride Cl P 2O 5 MgO
Sampling day 1 0.8 65.8 7.5 12.3 1.3 0.5 0.1 0 0.4 0.9 Sampling day 1 0.8 65.8 7.5 12.3 1.3 0.5 0.1 0 0.4 0.9
Sampling day 3 (test 1) 1.8 78.7 7.9 12.1 1.6 0.6 0.1 0 0.4 0.9 Sampling day 3 (test 1) 1.8 78.7 7.9 12.1 1.6 0.6 0.1 0 0.4 0.9
Sampling day 4 (test 2) 1.3 63.2 7.5 12.5 1.4 0.6 0.1 0 0.3 0.8 Sampling day 4 (test 2) 1.3 63.2 7.5 12.5 1.4 0.6 0.1 0 0.3 0.8
247 247
261 261
248 248
262 262
Publication Publication
249 249
263 263
250 250
264 264
GLOBAL CEMENT: ALTERNATIVE FUELS GLOBAL CEMENT: ALTERNATIVE FUELS
Maria del Mar Cortada Mut,1 Linda Kaare Nørskov,2 Peter Glarborg1 and Kim Dam-Johansen1 Maria del Mar Cortada Mut,1 Linda Kaare Nørskov,2 Peter Glarborg1 and Kim Dam-Johansen1
[1] Technical University of Denmark, [2] FLSmidth A/S, Denmark [1] Technical University of Denmark, [2] FLSmidth A/S, Denmark
Sulphur release from alternative fuel firing Sulphur release from alternative fuel firing
The cement industry has long been dependent on the use of fossil fuels, although a recent The cement industry has long been dependent on the use of fossil fuels, although a recent
trend in replacing fossil fuels with alternative fuels has arisen.1, 2 However, when unconverted trend in replacing fossil fuels with alternative fuels has arisen.1, 2 However, when unconverted
or partly converted alternative fuels are admitted directly in the rotary kiln inlet, the volatiles or partly converted alternative fuels are admitted directly in the rotary kiln inlet, the volatiles
released from the fuels may react with sulphates present in the hot meal to form SO2. Here released from the fuels may react with sulphates present in the hot meal to form SO2. Here
Maria del Mar Cortada Mut and associates describe pilot and industrial scale experiments Maria del Mar Cortada Mut and associates describe pilot and industrial scale experiments
focusing on the factors that affect SO2 release in the cement kiln inlet. focusing on the factors that affect SO2 release in the cement kiln inlet.
I n the cement industry alternative fuels are often

fired directly in the calciner and/or the main
burner despite the large particle sizes because this
These consequences result in modified process
conditions and may affect the clinker quality and the
process operation, causing build-ups, blockages and/
I n the cement industry alternative fuels are often
fired directly in the calciner and/or the main
burner despite the large particle sizes because this
These consequences result in modified process
conditions and may affect the clinker quality and the
process operation, causing build-ups, blockages and/
requires the lowest investment. A consequence of fir- or corrosion. The formation of build-ups and block- requires the lowest investment. A consequence of fir- or corrosion. The formation of build-ups and block-
ing large alternative fuel particles is that the partially ages is a consequence of high internal circulation in ing large alternative fuel particles is that the partially ages is a consequence of high internal circulation in
converted or unburned solid fuels may fall into the the kiln of the volatile elements, which are sulphur, converted or unburned solid fuels may fall into the the kiln of the volatile elements, which are sulphur,
material charge and affect the process stability. Solid chlorine and alkali metals. This article focuses on the material charge and affect the process stability. Solid chlorine and alkali metals. This article focuses on the
fuels can end up in the material charge in the rotary kiln inlet of the rotary kiln and sulphur recirculation. fuels can end up in the material charge in the rotary kiln inlet of the rotary kiln and sulphur recirculation.
kiln in four different ways if the fuels are fired in the kiln in four different ways if the fuels are fired in the
calciner, main burner or directly into the material Sulphur recirculation calciner, main burner or directly into the material Sulphur recirculation
inlet of the kiln (Figure 1):3 Sulphur can be introduced to cement rotary kilns by inlet of the kiln (Figure 1):3 Sulphur can be introduced to cement rotary kilns by
the cement raw materials and/or by the fuels. Biomass the cement raw materials and/or by the fuels. Biomass
1. Large solid fuel particles of a considerable weight, fuels such as wood waste and straw contain between 1. Large solid fuel particles of a considerable weight, fuels such as wood waste and straw contain between
which cannot be carried upwards with the gas flow, 5-10 times less sulphur than fossil fuels. A large dif- which cannot be carried upwards with the gas flow, 5-10 times less sulphur than fossil fuels. A large dif-
when fired in the calciner, may drop through the ference in sulphur content between fossil fuels also when fired in the calciner, may drop through the ference in sulphur content between fossil fuels also
riser duct into the rotary kiln. exists. The gaseous SO2 coming from burner fuel and riser duct into the rotary kiln. exists. The gaseous SO2 coming from burner fuel and
2. Large solid fuel particles fired through the kiln thermal decomposition in the rotary kiln flows to the 2. Large solid fuel particles fired through the kiln thermal decomposition in the rotary kiln flows to the
burners may not be completely combusted in calciner, where good gas-solid mixing and the tem- burners may not be completely combusted in calciner, where good gas-solid mixing and the tem-
the flame of the main burner and fall into the perature favours nearly 100% capture of the SO2 with the flame of the main burner and fall into the perature favours nearly 100% capture of the SO2 with
material charge. free lime (CaO), forming calcium sulphate (CaSO4). material charge. free lime (CaO), forming calcium sulphate (CaSO4).
3. Small and unconverted solid fuel parti- Calcium sulphate, whether sourced from the raw ma- 3. Small and unconverted solid fuel parti- Calcium sulphate, whether sourced from the raw ma-
cles, which are light enough to be carried terials or formed in the calciner, will be incorporated cles, which are light enough to be carried terials or formed in the calciner, will be incorporated
upwards with the gas flow through the calciner in the hot meal entering the rotary kiln. upwards with the gas flow through the calciner in the hot meal entering the rotary kiln.
and transported into the bottom and transported into the bottom
cyclone stage, may flow into the To preheater cyclone stage, may flow into the To preheater
kiln inlet with calcined raw meal. kiln inlet with calcined raw meal.
4. Coarse solid fuels may be fired 4. Coarse solid fuels may be fired
directly into the rotary kiln directly into the rotary kiln
material inlet end. material inlet end.
Consequences of the combustion Consequences of the combustion

of alternative fuels in the rotary kiln Calciner of alternative fuels in the rotary kiln Calciner
can include: can include:
Right - Figure 1: The four 3) Right - Figure 1: The four 3)
Cyclone Cyclone
scenarios whereby solid fuels can scenarios whereby solid fuels can
drop into the material charge in t%JSFDU QIZTJDBM DPOUBDU CFUXFFO drop into the material charge in t%JSFDU QIZTJDBM DPOUBDU CFUXFFO
the rotary kiln.3 the fuels and the cement raw ma- the rotary kiln.3 the fuels and the cement raw ma-
terials; terials;
t-PDBM SFEVDJOH DPOEJUJPOT JO UIF 1) t-PDBM SFEVDJOH DPOEJUJPOT JO UIF 1)
Calciner fuel Calciner fuel
bed material of the rotary kiln; bed material of the rotary kiln;
t1PUFOUJBM JODSFBTF PG JOUFSOBM 4) Rotary kiln 2) Fuel and t1PUFOUJBM JODSFBTF PG JOUFSOBM 4) Rotary kiln 2) Fuel and
circulation of sulphur, chlorine primary air circulation of sulphur, chlorine primary air
and alkali metal species. and alkali metal species.
Cooling air Clinker Cooling air Clinker
36 Global Cement Magazine September 2014 www.GlobalCement.com 36 Global Cement Magazine September 2014 www.GlobalCement.com
265 265
Gas inlet Gas inlet

is cooled and analysed. The chamber furnace door is is cooled and analysed. The chamber furnace door is
Window equipped with a window for visual inspection, two Window equipped with a window for visual inspection, two
holes for thermocouples and a centrally placed water- holes for thermocouples and a centrally placed water-
cooled tube for the introduction of solid fuels. The cooled tube for the introduction of solid fuels. The
solid fuels are placed in a sample container which can Left - Figure 2: 3D view of the solid fuels are placed in a sample container which can Left - Figure 2: 3D view of the
Exhaust gas to high temperature rotary drum. Exhaust gas to high temperature rotary drum.
be pushed into the hot rotary drum or pulled out to be pushed into the hot rotary drum or pulled out to
gas analysers gas analysers
(O2, CO, CO2, SO2) the water cooled tube. (O2, CO, CO2, SO2) the water cooled tube.
The experiments were performed with a constant The experiments were performed with a constant
flow of 100NL/min of air mixed with N2 at 900°C. flow of 100NL/min of air mixed with N2 at 900°C.
The cement raw materials were based on a synthetic The cement raw materials were based on a synthetic
mixture of coarse quartz sand with a particle size mixture of coarse quartz sand with a particle size
ranging from 0.5-0.71mm and 2wt% CaSO4. The ranging from 0.5-0.71mm and 2wt% CaSO4. The
The combustion of alternative fuels in direct con- mixture was placed in the rotary drum in the desired The combustion of alternative fuels in direct con- mixture was placed in the rotary drum in the desired
tact with the bed material in the kiln inlet may result volumetric filling degree of 5%. tact with the bed material in the kiln inlet may result volumetric filling degree of 5%.
in SO2 release resulting from the decomposition of in SO2 release resulting from the decomposition of
CaSO4 by reducing gases released by the fuels. The Fuels CaSO4 by reducing gases released by the fuels. The Fuels
main volatile compounds released from the fuels are 1JOF XPPE DZMJOEFST XJUI EJBNFUFST PG BOE main volatile compounds released from the fuels are 1JOF XPPE DZMJOEFST XJUI EJBNFUFST PG BOE
CO(g), CH4(g) and H2(g). Consequentially, CaSO4(s) 8mm were used as fuels. All cylinders had a length CO(g), CH4(g) and H2(g). Consequentially, CaSO4(s) 8mm were used as fuels. All cylinders had a length
decomposes according to reactions 1, 2 and 3, result- of 25mm. The fuel analysis and the lower heating decomposes according to reactions 1, 2 and 3, result- of 25mm. The fuel analysis and the lower heating
ing in the release of SO2(g). In the calciner, the SO2 value (LHV) are shown in Table 1. All experiments ing in the release of SO2(g). In the calciner, the SO2 value (LHV) are shown in Table 1. All experiments
can again be absorbed on the CaO to form CaSO4. used the same energy input of 55kJ. This means the can again be absorbed on the CaO to form CaSO4. used the same energy input of 55kJ. This means the
Thus, an internal sulphur cycle is established in the mass of the wood cylinders was kept constant, there- Thus, an internal sulphur cycle is established in the mass of the wood cylinders was kept constant, there-
rotary kiln and the calciner, which increases the fore five cylinders of 8mm diameter, two cylinders rotary kiln and the calciner, which increases the fore five cylinders of 8mm diameter, two cylinders
intensity of the sulphur cycle in the kiln. of 13mm diameter and one cylinder of 19mm were intensity of the sulphur cycle in the kiln. of 13mm diameter and one cylinder of 19mm were
used. Wood char made from the pine wood cylinders used. Wood char made from the pine wood cylinders
1. CaSO4 + CO → CaO + SO2 + CO2 was pyrolised in a horizontal tube reactor under a 1. CaSO4 + CO → CaO + SO2 + CO2 was pyrolised in a horizontal tube reactor under a
2. CaSO4 + ¼CH4 → CaO + SO2 + ¼CO2 + ½H2O nitrogen atmosphere for 20min at 300, 500, 700, and 2. CaSO4 + ¼CH4 → CaO + SO2 + ¼CO2 + ½H2O nitrogen atmosphere for 20min at 300, 500, 700, and
3. CaSO4 + H2 → CaO + SO2 + H2O 900°C in order to obtain wood char with different 3. CaSO4 + H2 → CaO + SO2 + H2O 900°C in order to obtain wood char with different
degree of volatiles. The degree of devolatilisation was degree of volatiles. The degree of devolatilisation was
High levels of SO2(g) increase the risk of deposit calculated on the basis of the volatile concentration High levels of SO2(g) increase the risk of deposit calculated on the basis of the volatile concentration
build-ups and corrosion. The deposits typically accu- before and after pyrolysis, which is 25% for the wood build-ups and corrosion. The deposits typically accu- before and after pyrolysis, which is 25% for the wood
mulate in the material inlet end of the rotary kiln or char at 300°C, 90% for the wood char at 500°C and mulate in the material inlet end of the rotary kiln or char at 300°C, 90% for the wood char at 500°C and
in the riser duct between the calciner and rotary kiln, 100% for the wood char made at 700°C and 900°C. in the riser duct between the calciner and rotary kiln, 100% for the wood char made at 700°C and 900°C.
where they cause blockages. In severe cases, it may be where they cause blockages. In severe cases, it may be
necessary to shut down the cement plant to remove necessary to shut down the cement plant to remove
the deposits. Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis LHV Left - Table 1: Fuel analysis and the deposits. Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis LHV Left - Table 1: Fuel analysis and
(wt% a.r.) (wt% a.r.) (MJ/kg lower heating value (LHV) for (wt% a.r.) (wt% a.r.) (MJ/kg lower heating value (LHV) for
Pilot plant experiments a. r.) pine wood cylinders. Pilot plant experiments a. r.) pine wood cylinders.
a.r. = as received a.r. = as received
Sulphur release from the raw material due to com- VM FC Ash C H N S VM = volatile matter Sulphur release from the raw material due to com- VM FC Ash C H N S VM = volatile matter
bustion of alternative fuels has been studied on a 76.8 22.7 0.5 44.7 5.54 0.04 - 15.97 FC = fixed carbon (char) bustion of alternative fuels has been studied on a 76.8 22.7 0.5 44.7 5.54 0.04 - 15.97 FC = fixed carbon (char)
pilot scale setup that simulates the cement kiln mate- pilot scale setup that simulates the cement kiln mate-
rial inlet. Investigations of the effect of fuel particle rial inlet. Investigations of the effect of fuel particle
size and the degree of fuel devolatilisation have been The total release of SO2 was calculated for each size and the degree of fuel devolatilisation have been The total release of SO2 was calculated for each
made. The industrial scenarios presented in Figure 1 experiment and quantified by integration of the SO2 made. The industrial scenarios presented in Figure 1 experiment and quantified by integration of the SO2
were used as guides for the experiments where non- concentration in the gas over the relevant time inter- were used as guides for the experiments where non- concentration in the gas over the relevant time inter-
or partly converted alternative fuels may fall into the val according to Equation 1. or partly converted alternative fuels may fall into the val according to Equation 1.
rotary kiln. rotary kiln.
Equipment Equipment
The experiments were performed in a high tem- The experiments were performed in a high tem-
perature rotary drum, which simulates the process perature rotary drum, which simulates the process
conditions at the material inlet end of an industrial conditions at the material inlet end of an industrial
Left - Equation 1: Total SO2 Left - Equation 1: Total SO2
rotary kiln (Figure 2).3 The rotary drum is electrically nsulphur release = total SO2 release (mol) rotary kiln (Figure 2).3 The rotary drum is electrically nsulphur release = total SO2 release (mol)
release is quantified by integra- release is quantified by integra-
heated by a furnace. Gas can be introduced into the ySO2 = SO2 concentration (ppmV) tion of the SO2 concentration heated by a furnace. Gas can be introduced into the ySO2 = SO2 concentration (ppmV) tion of the SO2 concentration
chamber furnace through a hole in the roof in order R = The Ideal Gas Constant (8.314J/molK), over time. chamber furnace through a hole in the roof in order R = The Ideal Gas Constant (8.314J/molK), over time.
to have a controlled atmosphere. An externally placed P = Atmospheric pressure (Pa) to have a controlled atmosphere. An externally placed P = Atmospheric pressure (Pa)
gas pump transports the gas through the rotating T = Temperature (K) gas pump transports the gas through the rotating T = Temperature (K)
drum and the steel tube, after which the gas exiting V = Gas ﬂow (m3/s) drum and the steel tube, after which the gas exiting V = Gas ﬂow (m3/s)
the reactor, which includes SO2, CO, CO2, and O2, the reactor, which includes SO2, CO, CO2, and O2,
www.GlobalCement.com Global Cement Magazine September 2014 37 www.GlobalCement.com Global Cement Magazine September 2014 37
266 266
Results Results
from the raw materials as a function of the particle from the raw materials as a function of the particle
The influence of the pine wood particle size and size of the combusted non-pyrolised wood and wood The influence of the pine wood particle size and size of the combusted non-pyrolised wood and wood
oxygen content on SO2 release from the synthetic char made at 300 and 500°C. The results show that oxygen content on SO2 release from the synthetic char made at 300 and 500°C. The results show that
raw materials at conditions corresponding to the the SO2 release decreases with decreasing degree raw materials at conditions corresponding to the the SO2 release decreases with decreasing degree
kiln inlet is illustrated in Figure 3. For all particle of devolatilisation. kiln inlet is illustrated in Figure 3. For all particle of devolatilisation.
sizes, SO2 release decreases with increasing oxygen sizes, SO2 release decreases with increasing oxygen
concentration. The high oxygen concentration in the concentration. The high oxygen concentration in the
atmosphere may react with the reducing agent and Scan the QR code below or enter the bit.ly code atmosphere may react with the reducing agent and Scan the QR code below or enter the bit.ly code
thereby lower its concentration. Another possibility into your web-brower to read the industrial thereby lower its concentration. Another possibility into your web-brower to read the industrial
is that the oxygen may influence the reductive de- scale results and conclusion.... is that the oxygen may influence the reductive de- scale results and conclusion....
composition reactions. composition reactions.
The experiments performed with the wood char The experiments performed with the wood char
at different temperatures showed that only the non- at different temperatures showed that only the non-
pyrolised wood and wood char made at 300 and See more pyrolised wood and wood char made at 300 and See more
http://bit.ly/ http://bit.ly/
500°C caused SO2 release. No SO2 was measured 1q9LrUo 500°C caused SO2 release. No SO2 was measured 1q9LrUo
during the experiments with wood char made at 700 during the experiments with wood char made at 700
and 900°C. Figure 4 presents the total SO2 release and 900°C. Figure 4 presents the total SO2 release
300 300
Right - Figure 3: Effect of Right - Figure 3: Effect of

particle diameter of pine wood 5vol% O2 particle diameter of pine wood 5vol% O2
Total SO2 release (mg)
Total SO2 release (mg)

200 200
cylinders and oxygen content on 10vol% O2 cylinders and oxygen content on 10vol% O2
SO2 release from the raw materi- SO2 release from the raw materi-
als due to combustion. als due to combustion.
Energy input of 55kJ in each Energy input of 55kJ in each
experiment. Experimental condi- experiment. Experimental condi-
tions: 900°C, 5% fill degree, 100 tions: 900°C, 5% fill degree, 100
2wt% CaSO4, 100NL/min, 6rpm. 2wt% CaSO4, 100NL/min, 6rpm.
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Particle diameter (mm) Particle diameter (mm)
160 160
140 140
120 120
Non-pyrolised wood Non-pyrolised wood
Char at 300°C Char at 300°C
Right - Figure 4: SO2 release 100 Char at 500°C Right - Figure 4: SO2 release 100 Char at 500°C
from the raw materials due to from the raw materials due to
SO2 release (mg)
SO2 release (mg)

the combustion of different the combustion of different
particle size wood and wood 80 particle size wood and wood 80
char at 300 and 500°C. Experi- char at 300 and 500°C. Experi-
mental conditions: 900°C, 5% mental conditions: 900°C, 5%
fill degree, 2wt% CaSO4, 100NL/ 60 fill degree, 2wt% CaSO4, 100NL/ 60
min, 10vol% O2 in N2, 6rpm. min, 10vol% O2 in N2, 6rpm.
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Particle diameter (mm) Particle diameter (mm)
38 Global Cement Magazine September 2014 www.GlobalCement.com 38 Global Cement Magazine September 2014 www.GlobalCement.com
267 267
1600 1600
Additionally, the char combustion step for the Additionally, the char combustion step for the
1400 1400
wood chars does not provoke SO2 release. This is 19mm diameter wood chars does not provoke SO2 release. This is 19mm diameter
Left - Figure 5: SO2 concentra- Left - Figure 5: SO2 concentra-
contradictory to the general experience when un- 1200 contradictory to the general experience when un- 1200
tions from the raw materials tions from the raw materials
SO2 concentration (ppm)
SO2 concentration (ppm)

burned petcoke is admitted to the kiln inlet causing a 1000 due to combustion of the dif- burned petcoke is admitted to the kiln inlet causing a 1000 due to combustion of the dif-
dramatic increase in sulphur circulation.4 ferent dimensions of pine wood dramatic increase in sulphur circulation.4 ferent dimensions of pine wood
800 cylinders. Energy input of 55kJ in 800 cylinders. Energy input of 55kJ in
It was also observed that SO2 release increases 13mm diameter It was also observed that SO2 release increases 13mm diameter
600 each experiment. Experimental 600 each experiment. Experimental
with decreasing particle size. For example, the SO2 conditions: 900°C, 5% fill with decreasing particle size. For example, the SO2 conditions: 900°C, 5% fill
concentration peak reached higher values for the 400 8mm diameter degree, 5vol% O2 in N2, 2wt% concentration peak reached higher values for the 400 8mm diameter degree, 5vol% O2 in N2, 2wt%
8mm pine wood particles than for the larger parti- 200 CaSO4, 100NL/min, 6rpm. 8mm pine wood particles than for the larger parti- 200 CaSO4, 100NL/min, 6rpm.
cle dimensions under the same conditions (Figure cle dimensions under the same conditions (Figure
0 0
5). This is because the smallest particles are heated 0 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 5). This is because the smallest particles are heated 0 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
faster and release the volatile gases faster and in Time (s) faster and release the volatile gases faster and in Time (s)
higher concentrations. Consequently, stronger local higher concentrations. Consequently, stronger local
reducing conditions are formed. The total SO2 release the gas flow through the calciner and transported reducing conditions are formed. The total SO2 release the gas flow through the calciner and transported
increases, as previously discussed, with decreasing into the bottom stage cyclone. The char particles may increases, as previously discussed, with decreasing into the bottom stage cyclone. The char particles may
particle size of non-pyrolised wood and wood char therefore arrive in the kiln inlet and their subsequent particle size of non-pyrolised wood and wood char therefore arrive in the kiln inlet and their subsequent
made at 300°C. There is a big difference in the SO2 re- combustion may cause the release of SO2. made at 300°C. There is a big difference in the SO2 re- combustion may cause the release of SO2.
lease for wood char made at 300 and 500°C due to the The investigation was carried out at a cement lease for wood char made at 300 and 500°C due to the The investigation was carried out at a cement
degree of fuel conversion at these temperatures. The plant with two separate line calciners. The strings, degree of fuel conversion at these temperatures. The plant with two separate line calciners. The strings,
total SO2 release for the wood char made at 500°C is named A and B, are identical and consistent with a total SO2 release for the wood char made at 500°C is named A and B, are identical and consistent with a
below 1mg for all of the different fuel particle sizes. calciner and three cyclones (Figure 6). below 1mg for all of the different fuel particle sizes. calciner and three cyclones (Figure 6).
This is due to the high degree of devolatilisation, The raw materials are wet and form a slurry that This is due to the high degree of devolatilisation, The raw materials are wet and form a slurry that
90%, whereby few volatile gases are released. is introduced into the dryer crusher where it is dried 90%, whereby few volatile gases are released. is introduced into the dryer crusher where it is dried
and ground. The dry raw materials are then carried and ground. The dry raw materials are then carried
Industrial investigation of SO2 release upwards to the top cyclone by a gas stream. The gases Industrial investigation of SO2 release upwards to the top cyclone by a gas stream. The gases
Industrial scale measurements that investigate the in the preheater tower are bypassed from the second Industrial scale measurements that investigate the in the preheater tower are bypassed from the second
relationship between organic carbon in the bottom cyclone to the dryer crusher before going to the top relationship between organic carbon in the bottom cyclone to the dryer crusher before going to the top
stage cyclone and SO2 in the kiln inlet were con- cyclone, which works as gas/dust separator. The hot stage cyclone and SO2 in the kiln inlet were con- cyclone, which works as gas/dust separator. The hot
ducted. Organic carbon from the hot meal is believed air from the clinker cooler goes to the calciner and ducted. Organic carbon from the hot meal is believed air from the clinker cooler goes to the calciner and
to be directly related to unburned calciner fuel. Un- the rotary kiln gases are mixed with the calciner to be directly related to unburned calciner fuel. Un- the rotary kiln gases are mixed with the calciner
burned fuel particles may be carried upwards with outlet gases. burned fuel particles may be carried upwards with outlet gases.
String A String B String A String B
Dryer Dryer Dryer Dryer

crusher crusher crusher crusher
Left - Figure 6: Scheme of the Left - Figure 6: Scheme of the

Calciner A Calciner B industrial cement plant where Calciner A Calciner B industrial cement plant where
the investigation took place. the investigation took place.
Petcoke Petcoke
Petcoke Petcoke
RDF RDF
RDF RDF
Tertiary air for str Tertiary air for str
ing B ing B
Tertiary air for string A Tertiary air for string A
Bituminous Bituminous
coal coal
www.GlobalCement.com Global Cement Magazine September 2014 www.GlobalCement.com Global Cement Magazine September 2014
268 268
Right - Table 2: Fuel analyses Right - Table 2: Fuel analyses
and lower heating values (LHV)
Moisture Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis LHV and lower heating values (LHV)
Moisture Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis LHV
of petcoke, RDF and tyre chips (wt% a.r.) (wt% a.r.) (wt% a.r.) (MJ/kg a.r.) of petcoke, RDF and tyre chips (wt% a.r.) (wt% a.r.) (wt% a.r.) (MJ/kg a.r.)
that the cement plant used in that the cement plant used in
the calciner and riser duct. the calciner and riser duct.
a.r. = As received
VM FC Ash C H N Cl S a.r. = As received
VM FC Ash C H N Cl S
VM = Volatile matter Petcoke 1.1 13.0 84.9 1.0 86.9 3.71 - - 5.85 34.779 VM = Volatile matter Petcoke 1.1 13.0 84.9 1.0 86.9 3.71 - - 5.85 34.779
FC = Fixed carbon (char) FC = Fixed carbon (char)
RDF 24.1 61.6 6.6 7.7 45.8 6.31 0.67 0.54 0.40 19.330 RDF 24.1 61.6 6.6 7.7 45.8 6.31 0.67 0.54 0.40 19.330
Tyre chips - 64 3.5 2.5 80.5 7.01 0.20 - 1.47 34.199 Tyre chips - 64 3.5 2.5 80.5 7.01 0.20 - 1.47 34.199
Right - Table 3: O2, CO and SO2 Right - Table 3: O2, CO and SO2
concentration range of the gas concentration range of the gas
measurements in the kiln inlet O2 kiln CO kiln SO2 kiln inlet O2 preheater CO preheater Production each Energy calciner T calciner (°C) measurements in the kiln inlet O2 kiln CO kiln SO2 kiln inlet O2 preheater CO preheater Production each Energy calciner T calciner (°C)
and preheaters, the production inlet (vol%) inlet (vol%) (ppm) (vol%) (vol%) string (t/day) (MJ/kg clinker) and preheaters, the production inlet (vol%) inlet (vol%) (ppm) (vol%) (vol%) string (t/day) (MJ/kg clinker)
range, the energy consump- range, the energy consump-
tion of the calciner and the 5-9 ≤0.02 0 4-10 0-0.2 2000-2500 2.93 881-1013 tion of the calciner and the 5-9 ≤0.02 0 4-10 0-0.2 2000-2500 2.93 881-1013
temperature of the calciner for spikes to 0.4 temperature of the calciner for spikes to 0.4
normal operation. Target calciner normal operation. Target calciner
temperature: 875°C. temperature: 875°C.
The fuels used in the calciners are petcoke, plastic under such conditions provokes minor SO2 release The fuels used in the calciners are petcoke, plastic under such conditions provokes minor SO2 release
BOEQBQFSCBTFESFGVTFEEFSJWFEGVFM 3%'
4PNF- that the analyser was unable to detect. BOEQBQFSCBTFESFGVTFEEFSJWFEGVFM 3%'
4PNF- that the analyser was unable to detect.
times tyre chips are fired in the riser duct from 2m The organic carbon from the hot meal samples times tyre chips are fired in the riser duct from 2m The organic carbon from the hot meal samples
above the kiln inlet. The fuel analyses of petcoke, correlates to the percentage of fuel input to each cal- above the kiln inlet. The fuel analyses of petcoke, correlates to the percentage of fuel input to each cal-
3%'BOEUZSFDIJQTBSFTQFDJĕFEJO5BCMF ciner coming from the petcoke (Figure 7). The results 3%'BOEUZSFDIJQTBSFTQFDJĕFEJO5BCMF ciner coming from the petcoke (Figure 7). The results
The cement plant controlled the calciner tem- show that the levels of organic carbon increased when The cement plant controlled the calciner tem- show that the levels of organic carbon increased when
perature by adjusting the flow of petcoke. In order to UIFQFUDPLFDPOUFOUXBTJODSFBTFEBOEUIF3%'DPO- perature by adjusting the flow of petcoke. In order to UIFQFUDPLFDPOUFOUXBTJODSFBTFEBOEUIF3%'DPO-
FTUJNBUFUIFBNPVOUPG3%'ĕSFE UIFQFSDFOUBHFPG tent was reduced. As such, it may be concluded that FTUJNBUFUIFBNPVOUPG3%'ĕSFE UIFQFSDFOUBHFPG tent was reduced. As such, it may be concluded that
fuel input to each calciner originating from petcoke the organic carbon in the unconverted carbon comes fuel input to each calciner originating from petcoke the organic carbon in the unconverted carbon comes
is calculated by Equation 2. The percentage remain- from the petcoke, since it has a higher concentration is calculated by Equation 2. The percentage remain- from the petcoke, since it has a higher concentration
JOHJOUIFDBMDJOFSBęFSĕSJOHDPSSFTQPOETUP3%' PGĕYFEDBSCPOUIBO3%'"DDPSEJOHUP'JHVSF JU JOHJOUIFDBMDJOFSBęFSĕSJOHDPSSFTQPOETUP3%' PGĕYFEDBSCPOUIBO3%'"DDPSEJOHUP'JHVSF JU
Two tests were performed at the plant: XPVMECFBEWBOUBHFPVTUPĕSFIJHIFSDPOUFOUPG3%' Two tests were performed at the plant: XPVMECFBEWBOUBHFPVTUPĕSFIJHIFSDPOUFOUPG3%'
however, the cement plant found that firing large however, the cement plant found that firing large
tTest 1*ODSFBTFPG3%'ĕSJOHJODBMDJOFS" GSPN BNPVOUTPG3%'DBVTFEQSPDFTTDPOUSPMQSPCMFNT tTest 1*ODSFBTFPG3%'ĕSJOHJODBMDJOFS" GSPN BNPVOUTPG3%'DBVTFEQSPDFTTDPOUSPMQSPCMFNT
UP3%'PGDBMDJOFSGVFMJOQVU XIJMFQFUDPLF The volatility of the SO2 in the kiln was as- UP3%'PGDBMDJOFSGVFMJOQVU XIJMFQFUDPLF The volatility of the SO2 in the kiln was as-
flow was decreased from 4.6t/hr to 1.1t/hr). No tyre sessed using the sulphur evaporation factor εsulphur flow was decreased from 4.6t/hr to 1.1t/hr). No tyre sessed using the sulphur evaporation factor εsulphur
chips were fired. (Equation 3). The dust circulation from the coolers chips were fired. (Equation 3). The dust circulation from the coolers
tTest 2: Increase tyre chips injection in the kiln inlet and the kiln to the bottom stage cyclone was disre- tTest 2: Increase tyre chips injection in the kiln inlet and the kiln to the bottom stage cyclone was disre-
from 1 to 1.5t/hr. garded. The clinker was analysed every second hour. from 1 to 1.5t/hr. garded. The clinker was analysed every second hour.
It was assumed that the clinker analysis corresponds It was assumed that the clinker analysis corresponds
Hot meal samples were taken from the bottom cy- to the hot meal sample after 30min from the time Hot meal samples were taken from the bottom cy- to the hot meal sample after 30min from the time
Below - Equation 2: The clone of strings A and B during eight sampling days of sampling, which correlates approximately to the Below - Equation 2: The clone of strings A and B during eight sampling days of sampling, which correlates approximately to the
estimated amount of RDF fired over a one month period. The hot meal samples were residence time of the solid material in the rotary kiln. estimated amount of RDF fired over a one month period. The hot meal samples were residence time of the solid material in the rotary kiln.
was calculated according to the was calculated according to the
taken with an FLSmidth sampler to ensure homoge- Figure 8 shows εsulphur as a function of the organic taken with an FLSmidth sampler to ensure homoge- Figure 8 shows εsulphur as a function of the organic
percentage of fuel input to each percentage of fuel input to each
calciner that originated neous cooling and to avoid oxidation of the carbon. carbon of the hot meal samples. There is no clear re- calciner that originated neous cooling and to avoid oxidation of the carbon. carbon of the hot meal samples. There is no clear re-
from the petcoke. The O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet, lationship between organic carbon and εsulphur in the from the petcoke. The O2, CO and SO2 concentrations in the kiln inlet, lationship between organic carbon and εsulphur in the
CO and O2 out of the kiln. This supports the observation in the wood char CO and O2 out of the kiln. This supports the observation in the wood char
preheater, the petcoke experiments where the SO2 volatility was not affected preheater, the petcoke experiments where the SO2 volatility was not affected
and tyre chips flows and by char combustion. and tyre chips flows and by char combustion.
the calciner temperatures the calciner temperatures
were recorded (Table 3). Conclusions were recorded (Table 3). Conclusions
The SO2 gas measure- The combustion of alternative fuels in direct contact The SO2 gas measure- The combustion of alternative fuels in direct contact
Fpetcoke = Flow of petcoke (t/hr) fired into the ment in the kiln inlet with the kiln bed increases sulphur recirculation Fpetcoke = Flow of petcoke (t/hr) fired into the ment in the kiln inlet with the kiln bed increases sulphur recirculation
calciner always recorded 0ppm of when they are fired directly into the kiln inlet or calciner always recorded 0ppm of when they are fired directly into the kiln inlet or
LHVpetcoke = Lower heating value of the pet- SO2 during the sampling when they end up in the kiln inlet because they have LHVpetcoke = Lower heating value of the pet- SO2 during the sampling when they end up in the kiln inlet because they have
coke, which is approximately 33.5MJ/kg (the period (Table 3). There- not reached full conversion in the calciner. coke, which is approximately 33.5MJ/kg (the period (Table 3). There- not reached full conversion in the calciner.
lower heating value for petcoke is 34.78MJ/kg fore, the organic carbon The experimental work shows that SO2 release lower heating value for petcoke is 34.78MJ/kg fore, the organic carbon The experimental work shows that SO2 release
according to the analysis, but the fired petcoke variation from the hot from the raw materials takes place primarily during according to the analysis, but the fired petcoke variation from the hot from the raw materials takes place primarily during
is mixed with unspecified fuels) meal samples cannot be devolatilisation and not during char combustion is mixed with unspecified fuels) meal samples cannot be devolatilisation and not during char combustion
Ecalciner = Calciner energy consumption, which related to the SO2 in the when firing biomass as an alternative fuel. The indus- Ecalciner = Calciner energy consumption, which related to the SO2 in the when firing biomass as an alternative fuel. The indus-
is estimated to be 2.93MJ/kg clinker kiln inlet. However, it trial scale observations did not show any correlation is estimated to be 2.93MJ/kg clinker kiln inlet. However, it trial scale observations did not show any correlation
11SPEVDUJPOPGFBDITUSJOH UIS
may be possible that the between εsulphur and the organic carbon content in 11SPEVDUJPOPGFBDITUSJOH UIS
may be possible that the between εsulphur and the organic carbon content in
petcoke %1FUDPLFĕSFEBTGVFMJOQVU
content of organic carbon the hot meal samples, the fraction of the calciner fuel petcoke %1FUDPLFĕSFEBTGVFMJOQVU
content of organic carbon the hot meal samples, the fraction of the calciner fuel
measured in the hot meal ĕSFEBT3%' PSUZSFDIJQĕSJOHJOUIFLJMOJOMFU measured in the hot meal ĕSFEBT3%' PSUZSFDIJQĕSJOHJOUIFLJMOJOMFU
Global Cement Magazine September 2014 www.GlobalCement.com Global Cement Magazine September 2014 www.GlobalCement.com
269 269
The pilot plant experiments indicate that SO2 The pilot plant experiments indicate that SO2
release decreases with increasing oxygen concentra- release decreases with increasing oxygen concentra-
tion. Smaller particles in the kiln charge increase SO2 tion. Smaller particles in the kiln charge increase SO2
release because they are heated faster and thus release Left - Equation 3: The volatility release because they are heated faster and thus release Left - Equation 3: The volatility
of the SO2 in the kiln is assessed of the SO2 in the kiln is assessed
the volatile gases faster and in higher concentrations. εsulphur = Sulphur evaporation factor the volatile gases faster and in higher concentrations. εsulphur = Sulphur evaporation factor
using the sulphur evaporation using the sulphur evaporation
)PXFWFS XIFO BENJUUFE UP UIF DBMDJOFS ĕOF 3%' [SO3]hot meal, LOI free = SO3 concentration in hot factor εsulphur. )PXFWFS XIFO BENJUUFE UP UIF DBMDJOFS ĕOF 3%' [SO3]hot meal, LOI free = SO3 concentration in hot factor εsulphur.
particles will generally burn in suspension, thereby meal on loss on ignition (LOI) free basis (wt%) particles will generally burn in suspension, thereby meal on loss on ignition (LOI) free basis (wt%)
never reaching the kiln charge, whereas larger par- [SO3]clinker = SO3 concentration in the clinker never reaching the kiln charge, whereas larger par- [SO3]clinker = SO3 concentration in the clinker
ticles will. When firing fuel directly into the back (wt%) ticles will. When firing fuel directly into the back (wt%)
end of the kiln the experimental results explain why end of the kiln the experimental results explain why
it may be more advantageous to use coarse chips or it may be more advantageous to use coarse chips or
whole tyres rather than finer particles. 4. /JFMTFO 1 # BOE +FQTFO 0- “An overview of the formation whole tyres rather than finer particles. 4. /JFMTFO 1 # BOE +FQTFO 0- “An overview of the formation
of SOx and NOx in various pyroprocessing systems,” IEEE Cement of SOx and NOx in various pyroprocessing systems,” IEEE Cement
References Industry Technical Conference, 1990. References Industry Technical Conference, 1990.
1. Cembureau, “Sustainable cement production: Co-processing of 1. Cembureau, “Sustainable cement production: Co-processing of
alternative fuels and raw materials in the cement industry,” 2009. Acknowledgments alternative fuels and raw materials in the cement industry,” 2009. Acknowledgments
2. Mokrzycki, E. and Uliasz-Bochenczyk, A., “Alternative fuels for the This project is established within the framework of 2. Mokrzycki, E. and Uliasz-Bochenczyk, A., “Alternative fuels for the This project is established within the framework of
cement industry,” Appl. Energy, 74, 95, 2003. the advanced technology platform ‘New Cement cement industry,” Appl. Energy, 74, 95, 2003. the advanced technology platform ‘New Cement
3. Nielsen, A.R., “Combustion of large solid fuels in cement rotary 1SPEVDUJPO5FDIOPMPHZ GPVOEFECZUIF%BOJTI/B- 3. Nielsen, A.R., “Combustion of large solid fuels in cement rotary 1SPEVDUJPO5FDIOPMPHZ GPVOEFECZUIF%BOJTI/B-
kilns,”1I%ćFTJT 5FDIOJDBM6OJWFSTJUZPG%FONBSL ,HT-ZOHCZ tional Advanced Technology Foundation, FLSmidth kilns,”1I%ćFTJT 5FDIOJDBM6OJWFSTJUZPG%FONBSL ,HT-ZOHCZ tional Advanced Technology Foundation, FLSmidth
%FONBSL *4#/ "4BOEUIF5FDIOJDBM6OJWFSTJUZPG%FONBSL %FONBSL *4#/ "4BOEUIF5FDIOJDBM6OJWFSTJUZPG%FONBSL
100 100
80 Samples at normal operation 80 Samples at normal operation

Samples during test 1 Samples during test 1

60 60
Left - Figure 7: Relationship Left - Figure 7: Relationship
between the percentage of between the percentage of
40 petcoke as fuel input in the 40 petcoke as fuel input in the
calciner and the organic carbon calciner and the organic carbon
of hot meal samples. of hot meal samples.
20 20
0 0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Organic carbon (wt%) Organic carbon (wt%)
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
Left - Figure 8: Sulphur Left - Figure 8: Sulphur

εsulphur
εsulphur
0.3 evaporation factor εsulphur as a 0.3 evaporation factor εsulphur as a
function of the organic carbon of function of the organic carbon of
Samples at normal operation hot meal samples during normal Samples at normal operation hot meal samples during normal
0.2 operation and for tests 1 and 2. 0.2 operation and for tests 1 and 2.
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Organic carbon (wt%) Organic carbon (wt%)
www.GlobalCement.com Global Cement Magazine September 2014 www.GlobalCement.com Global Cement Magazine September 2014
270 270
Centre of Combustion and Harmful Emission Control
Department of Chemical and
Biochemical Engineering
Technical University of Denmark
Søltofts Plads, Building 229
DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby
Denmark
Phone: +45 4525 2800

Fax: +45 4525 4588
Web: www.chec.kt.dtu.dk
ISBN : 978-87-93054-48-6

Sulphur Release During AFR Use

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sulphur Release During AFR Use

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Downloaded from orbit.dtu.

dk on: Sep 08, 2020

Sulfur Release during Alternative fuels Combustion in Cement Rotary Kilns

Cortada Mut, Maria del Mar

Link back to DTU Orbit

Maria del Mar Cortada Mut

Ph.D. Thesis Ph.D. Thesis

August, 2014 August, 2014

Print: J&R Frydenberg A/S Print: J&R Frydenberg A/S

ISBN: 978-87-93054-48-6 ISBN: 978-87-93054-48-6

Kgs. Lyngby, August 2014. Kgs. Lyngby, August 2014.

1.1 Background 1.1 Background

1.2 Project Objectives 1.2 Project Objectives

1.4 References 1.4 References

2. Cement Chemistry and Production 2. Cement Chemistry and Production

2.1 Introduction 2.1 Introduction

2.2 Cement Chemistry 2.2 Cement Chemistry

2.2.1 Raw Materials 2.2.1 Raw Materials

2.2.2 Calcination 2.2.2 Calcination

2.2.3 Clinker Reactions 2.2.3 Clinker Reactions

2.3 Cement Production 2.3 Cement Production

Flue gas Raw materials Flue gas Raw materials

Raw mill Raw mill

Gas flow Gas flow

Recycled filter dust Recycled filter dust

Dust Stack Dust Stack

Calcined raw meal Calcined raw meal

Additives (Gypsum) Additives (Gypsum)

2.3.1 Preparation of Raw Materials 2.3.1 Preparation of Raw Materials

2.3.2 Pyro Processing 2.3.2 Pyro Processing

Exhaust gas outlet Exhaust gas outlet

Raw meal Raw meal

2.3.3 Clinker Processing 2.3.3 Clinker Processing

2.3.4 Process Data Overview 2.3.4 Process Data Overview

2.4 Conclusions 2.4 Conclusions

2.5 References 2.5 References

3.1 Introduction 3.1 Introduction

(Singer, 1991)(AFPM, 2012)

Chapter 3: Alternative Fuels in the Cement Production

(Singer, 1991)(AFPM, 2012)

(US Department of Energy, 2012)

(Kaantee et al., 2004)

3.2 Combustion of Alternative Fuels 3.2 Combustion of Alternative Fuels

Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer

Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer Oxidizer

Converted via pathway F,G or H Converted via pathway F,G or H

Material solid flow Material solid flow

Tertiary air Tertiary air

Cooling air Cement clinker Cooling air Cement clinker

Thermal Reactor Thermal Reactor

3.2.2.1 Biomass 3.2.2.1 Biomass

3.2.2.2 Tires 3.2.2.2 Tires

3.2.2.3 Plastics 3.2.2.3 Plastics

3.3.1 External reactors 3.3.1 External reactors

3.3.1.1 Combustion Chambers 3.3.1.1 Combustion Chambers

Tertiary air Tertiary air

Raw meal Raw meal

Alternative fuel Alternative fuel

Flyable combustion Flyable combustion

3.3.1.2 Gasifiers 3.3.1.2 Gasifiers

3.3.2 Kiln burners 3.3.2 Kiln burners

3.3.3 Emerging technologies 3.3.3 Emerging technologies

3.3.3.1 Pyrorotor 3.3.3.1 Pyrorotor

2FeS2 (s) o 2FeSx (s) 2(1 0,5x)S2 ( g )

SO2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o SO3 ( g ) (4-5) SO2 ( g ) ½ O2 ( g ) o SO3 ( g ) (4-5)

o CaO ( s) SO2 (g) 1 O2 ( g )