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 BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS
AND MEASUREMENT ENGINEERING

Department : Computer science and Engineering, Information

Technology, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Batch/Year : 2021-2025/I YEAR/I SEMESTER
Created by : Ms. S. Selvalakshmi, Assistant Professor
R.M.K. ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Ms. V. Karkuzhali, Assistant Professor
R.M.D. ENGINEERING COLLGE
Ms. D. NAGESWARI, Assistant Professor
R.M.K. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
Date : 18.01.2022

4
Table of Contents

S.No Contents

1 Course Objectives

2 Pre Requisites

3 Syllabus

4 Course outcomes

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping

6 Lecture Plan

7 Activity based learning

8 Lecture Notes

9 Assignments

10 Part A Question & Answer

11 Part B Questions

12 Supportive online Certification courses

13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry

14 Contents beyond the Syllabus

15 Assessment Schedule

16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

17 Mini Project suggestions

5
Course Objective

• To impart knowledge on fundamentals of electrical circuits and its analysis

• To examine the different energy sources and protection methods

• To interpret the basic principles of electrical machines and their performance

• To explore the different types of electronic circuits and its characteristics

• To acquire knowledge on the principles and operation of measuring instruments

and transducers

6
 Pre Requisites
• HSC
• Maths
• Physics
• Chemistry

7
 SYLLABUS

BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND LTPC

MEASUREMENT ENGINEERING 3 003
UNIT I ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ANALYSIS 9
Ohms Law, Kirchhoff‘s Law-power- series and parallel circuit analysis with
resistive, capacitive and inductive network - nodal analysis, mesh analysis-star delta
conversion.
UNIT II POWER SYSTEM 9
Power Generation -Thermal-Hydro-wind and solar. construction and working
principle. Protection-need for earthing, fuses and circuit breakers. Energy Tariff
calculation for domestic loads.
UNIT III ELECTRICAL MACHINES 9
DC Generator-Types, Construction, principle, EMF equation, DC Motor-
working Principle - Three Phase Induction Motors- Types, Construction, Principle -
Single Phase Induction Motors –working Principle -Transformers-Types and
construction, EMF equation, Basics of Stepper Motor- applications of various
machines.
UNIT IV ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS 9
PN Junction-VI Characteristics of Diode, zener diode, Transistors Op amps-
configuration, rectifiers, differentiator, integrator, ADC- Types, Successive
approximation type, DAC- Types, Weighted resistor DAC and R-2R ladder type,
Voltage regulator IC using LM 723,LM 317.
UNIT V ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT 9
Characteristic of measurement-errors in measurement, torque in indicating
instruments- moving coil and moving iron meters, Induction type Energy meter and
Dynamometer watt meter. Transducers- classification-Thermocouple, RTD, Strain
gauge, LVDT, LDR and piezoelectric. Oscilloscope-CRO.
TOTAL: 45
PERIODS

8
Course Outcomes

After successful completion of the course, the students should be

Highest
Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level
CO1 Analyse the electric circuits. K2

Study the different type of renewable sources and common

CO2 K3
domestic loads
Classify the different types of electric machines and
CO3 K3
transformers

CO4 Acquire knowledge in basics of electronic circuits K3

Describe the different types of measuring instruments and

CO5 K3
transducers

9
CO- PO/PSO Mapping

10
 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT V ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT

Tax
No Per Mode
Actual ono
S.N of Propose tain of
Topic Lecture my
o Peri d date ing Delive
date Lev
ods CO ry
el
Characteristics of PPT and
1 measurement &errors in 1 24/01/22 24/01/22 CO3 K3 online
measurement mode

PPT and
25/01/22
2 Moving coil meter 1 25/01/22 CO3 K3 online
mode

PPT and
Moving Iron meter
3 1 27/01/22 27/01/22 CO5 K3 online
mode

PPT and
Induction type Energy
4 1 28/01/22 28/01/22 CO5 K3 online
meter
mode

PPT and
Dynamometer watt
5 1 29/01/22 29/01/22 CO5 K3 online
meter
mode

PPT and
Transducers-classificatio
6 1 31/01/22 31/01/22 CO5 K3 online
n, thermocouple,RTD
mode

Chalk
7 Strain gauge,LVDT 1 01/02/22 01/02/22 CO5 K3 and
board

Chalk
8 LDR,Peizoelectric 1 02/02/22 02/02/22 CO5 K3 and
board

Chalk
03/02/22
9 Oscilloscope-CRO 1 03/02/22 CO5 K3 and
board

Total Hours 9
8. Activity Based Learning – UNIT V -CROSS WORD
8.Activity based learning –UNIT V cross word
8.Activity based learning –UNIT V Picture Puzzle

Name the Transducers

a.

b.

c.

d.
 9. LECTURE NOTES
UNIT V ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
STATIC & DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM:
•The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two
categories:
i) Static characteristics
ii) Dynamic characteristics

Static characteristics:

•The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the

quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary
with time, is called ‘static characteristics’.

•The various static characteristics are:

I. Accuracy

II. Precision

III. Sensitivity

IV. Linearity

V. Reproducibility

VI. Repeatability

VII. Resolution

VIII. Threshold

IX. Drift

X. Stability

XI. Tolerance

XII. Range or span

I) Accuracy:
It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the
quantity to be measured.

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II) Precision: It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements.

Where, P = precision
Xn = Value of nth measurement
= Average value the set of measurement values

III) Sensitivity:
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument
responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change
in the value of the quantity to be measured. Mathematically it is expressed as,

2
Thus, if the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope
of the calibration curve. If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the sensitivity
varies with the input. Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the reciprocal of
sensitivity. Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity
IV)Linearity:
The Linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically
and linearity. The curve shows the actual calibration curve.

V)Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is
specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
VI) Repeatability:
It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature
VII)Resolution:
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that
output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called
resolution.
VIII)Threshold:
If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum
value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value defines the
threshold of the instrument

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IX) Drift:
The Drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication over an extended period during
which the value of the input variable does not change. Drift may be classified into three
categories:
a) zero drift:
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
b) span drift or sensitivity drift
If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is
called span drift or sensitivity drift.
c) Zonal drift:
In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.
.
X) Stability:
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout in specified
operating life.
XI)Tolerance:
The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value
which is called tolerance.
XII)Range or span:
The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to
measure is called its range or span.

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Dynamic characteristics:

The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which changes rapidly with time, is called
‘dynamic characteristics’.
The various dynamic characteristics are:
1.Speed of response
2.Measuring lag
3.Fidelity
4.Dynamic error

Speed of response:
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measured quantity.

Measuring lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:

a)Retardation type:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change
in measured quantity has occurred.

b)Time delay lag:

In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the
application of the input. Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system
indicates changes in the measurand quantity without dynamic error.

Fidelity
Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the
same form as the input. It is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes
in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.

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Dynamic error:
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time & the
value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also
called measurement error.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

In order to understand the concept of errors in measurement, we should know

the two terms that defines the error and these two terms are written below:

True Value

It is not possible to determine the true of quantity by experiment means. True

value may be defined as the average value of an infinite number of measured
values when average deviation due to various contributing factor will approach to
zero.

Measured Value

It may be defined as the approximated value of true value. It can be found out by
taking means of several measured readings during an experiment, by applying
suitable approximations on physical conditions.

Now we are in a position to define static error. Static error is defined as the
difference of the measured value and the true value of the quantity.
Mathematically we can write an expression of
error as, dA = Am - At where dA is the static error Am is measured value and At is
true value.
It may be noted that the absolute value of error cannot be determined as due to
the fact that the true value of quantity cannot be determined accurately.

Let us consider few terms related to errors.

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1)Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors

The concept of guarantee errors can better clear if we study this kind of error
by considering one example. Suppose there is a manufacturer who
manufacture an ammeter, now he should promises that the error in the
ammeter he is selling not greater the limit he sets. This limit of error is
known as limiting errors or guarantee error.

2)Relative Error or Fractional Error

It is defined as the ratio of the error and the specified magnitude of the
quantity. Mathematically we write as

Where dA is the error and A is the magnitude.

Types of Errors

Basically there are three types of errors on the basis; they may arise from
the source.

1. Gross Errors
This category of errors includes all the human mistakes while reading,
recording and the readings. Mistakes in calculating the errors also come
under this category. For example while taking the reading from the meter of
the instrument he may read 21 as 31. All these types of error are come
under this category. Gross errors can be avoided by using suitable measures
and they are written below:
(i)A proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also
calculation of error should be done accurately.
(ii)By increasing the number of experimenters we can reduce the gross
errors. If each experimenter takes different reading at different points, then
by taking average of more readings we can reduce the gross errors.

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(iii) Observational Errors

As the name suggests these types of errors are due wrong observations.
The wrong observations may be due to PARALLAX. In order to minimize the
PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are required, provided with mirrored
scales.
2.Systematic Errors

In order to understand these kinds of errors, let us categorize the systematic

errors as

(i)Instrumental Errors
These errors may be due to wrong construction, calibration of the measuring
instruments. These types of error may be arises due to friction or may be
due to hysteresis. These types of errors also include the loading effect and
misuse of the instruments. Misuse of the instruments results in the failure to
the adjust the zero of instruments. In order to minimize the gross errors in
measurement various correction factors must be applied and in extreme
condition instrument must be re- calibrated carefully.

(ii)Environmental Errors
This type of error arises due to conditions external to instrument. External
condition includes temperature, pressure, humidity or it may include external
magnetic field. Following are the steps that one must follow in order to
minimize the environmental errors:

(a)Try to maintain the temperature and humidity of the laboratory constant

by making some arrangements.
(b)Ensure that there should not be any external magnetic or electrostatic field
around the instrument.

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Random Errors

After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that there are still some errors in
measurement are left. These errors are known as random errors. Some of the
reasons of the appearance of these errors are known but still some reasons are
unknown. Hence we cannot fully eliminate these kinds of error.

ANALOG METERS
Analog device is one in which the output or display is a continuous function of
time and bears a constant relation to its input. Measuring instruments are classified
according to both the quantity measured by the instrument and the principle of
operation. Three general principles of operation are available:
(i) electromagnetic, which utilises the magnetic effects of electric currents;
(ii) electrostatic, which utilises the forces between electrically charged conductors;
(iii) electro-thermal, which utilises the heating effect.

Electric measuring instruments and meters are used to indicate directly the value of
current, voltage, power or energy. In this chapter, we will consider an
electromechanical meter (input is as an electrical signal which results in mechanical
force or torque as an output) that can be connected with additional suitable
components in order to act as an ammeter and a voltmeter. The most common
analog instrument or meter is the permanent magnet moving coil instrument and it is
used for measuring a dc current or voltage of an electric circuit. On the other hand,
the indications of alternating current ammeters and voltmeters must represent the
rms values of the current, or voltage, respectively, applied to the instrument.

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 Classification of Analog Instruments
The Analog instruments may be classified as

1.Indicating instruments

2.Recording instruments

3.Integrating instruments

Indicating instruments are instruments which indicate the magnitude of a quantity

being measured. They generally make use of a dial and a pointer for this purpose.

Recording instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being measured

over a specified period. The variation of the quantity being measured are recorded by
a pen (attached to the moving system of the instrument; the moving system is
operated by the quantity being measured) on a sheet of paper that moves
perpendicular to the movement of the pen.

Integrating instruments record total quantity over a specified period of time. The
summation, which they give, is the product of time and an electrical quantity. Ampere
hour and watt hour (energy) meters are examples of this category.

OPERATION TORQUES
Three types of torques are needed for satisfactory operation of any indicating
instrument. These are

•Deflecting torque
•Controlling torque
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•Damping torque
1.Deflecting Torque/Force

Any instrument’s deflection is found by the total effect of the deflecting torque/force,
control torque/ force and damping torque/force. The deflecting torque’s value is
dependent upon the electrical signal to be measured; this torque/force helps in rotating
the instrument movement from its zero position. The system producing the deflecting
torque is called the deflecting system.

2.Controlling Torque/Force

The act of this torque/force is opposite to the deflecting torque/force. When the deflecting
and controlling torques are equal in magnitude then the movement will be in definite
position or in equilibrium. Spiral springs or gravity is usually given to produce the
controlling torque. The system which produces the controlling torque is called the
controlling system.

3.Damping Torque/Force

A damping force generally works in an opposite direction to the movement of the moving
system. This opposite movement of the damping force, without any oscillation or very
small oscillation brings the moving system to rest at the final deflected position quickly.
Air friction, fluid friction and eddy currents provide the damping torque/force to act. It
must also be noted that not all damping force affects the steady-state deflection caused
by a given deflecting force or torque. With the angular velocity of the moving system, the
intensity of the damping force rises; therefore, its effect is greatest when it rotates rapidly
and zero when the system rotation is zero. In the description of various types of
instruments, detailed mathematical expressions for the damping torques are taken into
consideration.

The functions of the controlling system are

1.To produce a torque equal and opposite to the deflecting torque at the final steady
position of the pointer in order to make the deflection of the pointer definite for a
particular magnitude of current

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2.To bring the moving system back to its zero position when the force causing the
instrument moving system to deflect is removed

3.The controlling torque in indicating instruments is almost always obtained by a

spring, much less commonly, by gravity.

•CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

•1 Moving System

•The moving system should have the following properties:

1.The moving parts should be light.

2.The frictional force should be minimum.

•These requirements should be fulfilled in order that power required by the

instrument for its operation is small. The power is proportional to the weight of the
moving parts and the frictional forces opposing the movement. The moving system
can be made light by using aluminium as far as possible. The frictional forces are
reduced by using spindle- mounted jewel bearings and by carefully balancing the
system.

• Supports may be of the following types:

1.Suspension

2.Taut suspension

3.Pivot and jewel bearings

1. Suspension

It consist of a fine, ribbon-shaped metal filament for the upper suspension and a
coil of fine wire for the lower part. The ribbon is made of a spring material like
beryllium copper or phosphor bronze. This coiling of lower part of suspension is
done in order to given eligible restrain on the moving system..

12
The type of suspension requires careful leveling of the instrument, so that the moving
system hangs in correct vertical position. This construction is, therefore, not suited to
field use and is employed only in those laboratory applications in which very great
sensitivity is required. In order to prevent shocks to the suspension during transit, etc.,
a clamping arrangement is employed for supporting the moving system

2.Taut Suspension

A suspension type of instrument can only be used in vertical position. The taut
suspension has a flat ribbon suspension both above and below the moving element,
with suspension kept under tension by a spring arrangement . The advantage of this
type of suspension is that exact levelling is not required if the moving system is properly
balanced.

Suspension and taut suspension are customarily used in instruments of galvanometer

class which requires a low friction and high sensitivity mechanism. But actually there is
no strict line of demarcation between a galvanometer and other indicating instruments.
Some sensitive wattmeters and electrostatic voltmeters use flexible suspension

Ribbon suspension, in addition to supporting the moving element, exerts a controlling

torque when twisted. Thus, the use of suspension results in elimination of pivots, jewels,
control springs and therefore, pivotless instruments are free from many defects .

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Figure : Taut suspension

3. Pivot and Jewel Bearings

The moving system is mounted on a spindle made of hardened steel. The two ends of
the spindle are made conical and then polished to form pivots. These ends fit conical
holes in jewels located in the fixed part of instruments (Figure). These jewels, which are
preferably made of sapphire, form bearings.

Figure (a) Spring-loaded jewel bearing (b) Jewel bearing (c) Pivot

14
Controlling System
The controlling torque is provided by a spring or sometimes by gravity.

1. Gravity Control
In a gravity-controlled instrument, a small weight is attached to the moving
system in such a way that it produces a restoring or controlling torque when the
system is deflected. This is illustrated in Figure. The controlling torque, when the
deflection is θ, is ωl sin θ, where W is the control weight and l its distance from
the axis of rotation of the moving system, and it is, therefore, proportional only
to the sine of the angle of deflection, instead of as with spring control, being
directly proportional to the angle of deflection. Gravity- controlled instruments
must obviously be used in a vertical position in order that the control may
operate.

Figure 2.5 Gravity control

2..Spring Control

A hair-spring, usually of phosphor-bronze attached to the moving

system, is used in indicating instruments for control purpose, the
schematic arrangement being shown in Figure (a) and the actual
controlling spring used in the instrument is shown in Figure (b).

15
To give a controlling torque which is directly proportional to the angle of deflection
of the moving system, the number of turns on the spring should be fairly large, so
that the deflection per unit length is small. The stress in the spring must be
limited to such a value that there is no permanent set.

Figure (a) Spring control

Thus, controlling torque is proportional to instrument deflection.

16
 3.Comparison of Spring and Gravity Control

S.NO SPRING CONTROL GRAVITY CONTROL

1 Increase in torque is much The controlling torque increases very

faster as the controlling slowly as it is proportional to sine of
torque is proportional to the angular deflection. Hence the scale is
angular deflection more cramped at the lower end.

2 This type of instrument can This type of instrument can be used in

be used in both vertical and vertical positions only. Used for panel
horizontal positions. Used boards only.
for panel board meters and
lab purpose

3 They need not be leveled This kind of instrument should be properly

before being used. leveled before being used. Otherwise zero
error may occur.

4 Comparatively more Low cost.

cost.

Damping System

There are three systems of damping generally used. These are as follows:

• Air-friction damping

• Fluid-friction damping

• Eddy-current damping

1. Air-Friction Damping

In this method, a light Aluminium piston is attached to the moving system and moves
in an air chamber closed at one end, as shown in Figure The cross-section of this
chamber may be either circular or rectangular. The clearance between the piston and
the sides of the chamber should be small and uniform.

17
 If the piston is moving rapidly into the chamber, the air in the closed space is compressed
and the pressure opposes the motion of the piston (and, therefore, of the whole moving
system). If the piston is moving out of the chamber rapidly, the pressure in the closed
space falls, and the pressure on the open side of the piston is greater than that on the
opposite side. Motion is thus again opposed. Sometimes instead of a piston, a vane,
mounted on the spindle of the moving system, moves in a closed-sector-shaped box as
shown in Figure
Figure Open-end air friction damping

Figure 2.7 Air-friction damping using vane

2. Fluid-Friction Damping
In this type of damping, a light vane, attached to the spindle of the moving system, dips
into a pot of damping oil and should be completely submerged by the oil. This is
illustrated in Figure (a). The frictional drag in the disc is always in the direction opposing
motion. There is no friction force when the disc is stationary. In the second system
[Figure (b)], increased damping is obtained by the use of vanes.

18
 Figure 2.8 Fluid-friction damping
.

3.Eddy-Current Damping:
The fig shows the eddy current damping which is the most effective way to provide
damping. It is based on faraday’s law and Lenz law.

Figure Eddy-current damping

When a conductor moves in a magnetic field , it cuts the magnetic field and hence emf is
induced .This induced emf opposes the cause producing it, thus opposing the opposing
the motion of moving system. If a closed path is provided , a current will flow because of
induced emf which is called eddy current.

19
In this method aluminium disc is connected to the spindle which in turn connected to
the pointer .A part of the aluminium disc is inserted into the damping magnet which is
a permanent magnet.

When the pointer oscillates, the aluminium disc rotates which inturn cuts the
magnetic field of the damping magnet. So an emf is induced in the disc . As the disc
is a closed path, eddy current flows through the disc which opposes the cause
producing in it. , the pointer oscillation ,thus hunting the pointer oscillation.

PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

Principle of Operation
The principle on which a Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument operates
is that a torque is exerted on a current-carrying coil placed in the field of a
permanent magnet. A PMMC instrument is shown in Figure. The coil C has a number
of turns of thin insulated wires wound on a rectangular aluminium former F. The
frame is carried on a spindle S mounted in jewel bearings J1, J2. A pointer PR is
attached to the spindle so that

it moves over a calibrated scale. The whole of the moving system is made as light in
weight as possible to keep the friction at the bearing to a minimum.

The coil is free to rotate in air gaps formed between the shaped soft-iron pole piece
(pp) of a permanent magnet PM and a fixed soft-iron cylindrical core IC [Figure (b)].
The core serves two purposes; (a) it intensifies the magnetic field by reducing the
length of the air gap, and (b) it makes the field radial and uniform in the air gap.

Thus, the coil always moves at right angles to the magnetic field [Figure (c)]. Modern
permanent magnets are made of steel alloys which are difficult to machine. Soft-iron
pole pieces (pp) are attached to the permanent magnet PM for easy machining in
order to adjust the length of the air gap. Figure (d) shows the internal parts and
Figure (e) shows schematic of internal parts of a moving-coil instrument.

A soft-iron yoke (Y ) is used to complete the flux path and to provide shielding from
stray external fields.

20
 Figure:Permanent magnet moving coil instrument

Photograph of different components of a PMMC instrument

21
 Figure Internal construction of PMMC instruments

Swamping Resistor

The coil of the instrument is made of copper. Its resistance varies with
temperature. A resistor of low temperature coefficients, called the swamping
resistor, is connected in series with the coil. Its resistance practically remains
constant with temperature. Hence the effect of temperature on coil resistance is
swamped by this resistor.

Advantages of PMMC Instruments

1.Sensitive to small current

2.Very accurate and reliable

3.Uniform scale up to 270° or more

4.Very effective built in damping

5.Low power consumption, varies from 25 µW to 200 µW

6. Free from hysteresis and not effected by external fields because its permanent
magnet shields the coil from external magnetic fields

7.Easily adopted as a multi range instrument

22
23
Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
1.This type of instrument can be operated in direct current only. In alternating current,
the instrument does not operate because in the positive half, the pointer experiences a
force in one direction and in the negative half the pointer experiences the force in the
opposite direction. Due to the inertia of the pointer, it retains it’s zero position.

2.The moving system is very delicate and can easily be damaged by rough handling.

3.The coil being very fine, cannot withstand prolonged overloading.

4.It is costlier.

5. The ageing of the instrument (permanent magnet and control spring) may introduce
some errors.

MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENTS
Moving-Iron or MI instruments can be classified as

Attraction-type moving-iron instruments

Repulsion-type moving-iron instruments

The current to be measured, in general, is passed through a coil of wire in the moving-
iron instruments. In case of voltage measurement, the current which is proportional to
the voltage is measured. The number of turns of the coil depends upon the current to be
passed through it. For operation of the instrument, a certain number of ampere turns is
required. These ampere turns can be produced by the product of few turns and large
current or reverse.

24
Attraction-type Moving-Iron Instruments

The attraction type of MI instrument depends on the attraction of an iron vane

into a coil carrying current to be measured. Figure shows a attraction-type MI
instrument. A soft iron vane IV is attached to the moving system. When the
current to be measured is passed through the coil C, a magnetic field is
produced. This field attracts the eccentrically mounted vane on the spindle
towards it. The spindle is supported at the two ends on a pair of jewel
bearings. Thus, the pointer PR, which is attached to the spindle S of the
moving system is deflected. The pointer moves over a calibrated scale.

The control torque is provided by two hair springs S 1 and S2 in the same way
as for a PMMC instrument; but in such instruments springs are not used to
carry any current.
Gravity control can also be used for vertically mounted panel type MI meters.
The damping torque is provided by the movement of a thin vane V in a closed
sector-shaped box B, or simply by a vane attached to the moving system.
Eddy current damping can not be used in MI instruments owing to the fact
that any permanent magnet that will be required to produce Eddy current
damping can distort the otherwise weak operating magnetic field produced by
the coil.

If the current in the fixed coil is reversed, the field produced by it also
reverses. So the polarity induced on the vane reverses. Thus whatever be the
direction of the current in the coil the vane is always be magnetized in such a
way that it is attracted into the coil. Hence such instrument can be used for
both direct current as well as alternating current.

25
 Figure Attraction-type Moving Iron (MI) instruments

Repulsion-type Moving-Iron Instruments

In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil. One is fixed and the other is
movable. These are similarly magnetized when the current flows through the coil and
here is a force of repulsion between the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving
vane.

Two different designs for moving iron instruments commonly used are as follows:

1. Radial Vane Type In this type, the vanes are radial strips of iron. The strips are placed
within the coil as shown in Figure (a). The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable
one to the spindle of the instrument. The instrument pointer is attached to the moving vane
spindle.

As current flows through the coil, the generated magnetic field induces identical polarities on
both the fixed and moving vane. Thus, even when the current through the coil is alternating
(for AC measurement), there is always a repulsion force acting between the like poles of fixed
and moving vane. Hence deflection of the pointer is always in the same direction irrespective
of the polarity of current in the coil. The amount of deflection depends on the repulsion force
between the vanes which in turn depends on the amount of current passing through the coil.
The scale can thus be calibrated to read the current or voltage directly.

Figure Repulsion-type Moving Iron (MI) instruments

26
Co-axial Vane Type :
In these type of instruments, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of coaxial cylinders
as shown in Figure(b). Current in the coil magnetizes both the vanes with similar polarity.
Thus the movable vane rotates along the spindle axis due to this repulsive force. Coaxial
vane type instruments are moderately sensitive as compared to radial vane type
instruments that are more sensitive.

Moving iron instruments have their deflection is proportional to the square of the current
flowing through the coil. These instruments are thus said to follow a square law response
and have non-uniform scale marking. Deflection being proportional to square of the
current, whatever be the polarity of current in the coil, deflection of a moving iron
instrument is in the same direction. Hence, moving iron instruments can be used for both
DC and AC measurements.

Torque Equation of Moving-Iron Instruments

To deduce the expression for torque of a moving iron instrument, energy relation can be
considered for a small increment in current supplied to the instrument. This result in a
small deflection dθ and some mechanical work will be done. Let Td be the deflecting
torque.

Therefore mechanical work done = torque × angular displacement

Due to the change in inductance there will be a change in the energy stored in the
magnetic field.

Let I be the initial current, L be the instrument inductance and θ is the deflection. If the
current increases by dl then it causes the change in deflection dθ and the inductance by
dL. In order to involve the increment dI in the current, the applied voltage must be
increase by:

As dI and dL are very small, neglecting the second and higher order terms in small
quantities, this becomes
[substitute the value of edt from equation (2.28)]
The current is changes from I to (I + dI), and the inductor L to (L + dL)

Therefore the stored energy changes from

27
 From the principle of conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied = Increase in stored energy + Mechanical work done.

where Td is in newton-metre, I is in ampere, L is in henry and θ is in radians.

The moving system is provided with control springs and in turn the deflecting torque Td
is balanced by the controlling torque TC = k θ

where k is the control spring constant (N-m/rad) and θ is the deflection in radians.

At final steady position, TC = Td

Hence, the deflection is proportional to square of the rms value of the operating current.
The deflection torque is, therefore, unidirectional whatever may be the polarity of the
current.

Advantages of MI Instruments

1.Robust construction and relatively cheap

2.Suitable for measuring both dc and ac

3.Can withstand overload momentarily

Disadvantages of MI Instruments

1.As the deflection is proportional to I 2, hence the scale of the instrument is not uniform. It
is cramped in the lower end and expanded in the upper portion.

2.It is affected by stray magnetic fields.

28
Induction type single phase energy meter:
Energy meter is an instrument used to measure energy which is the total power
consumed over a specific period of time. Unit of energy is kWh or Joules.
Energy= Power * Time

Operating principle of Single phase induction type energy meter:

The operation of induction type energy meter depends on the passage of alternating
current through two suitably located coils producing rotating magnetic field which
interacts with a metallic disc suspended near to the coils and cause the disc to rotate.
The current coil carries the line current and produces field in phase with the line current.
The pressure coil is made highly inductive so that the current through it lags behind the
supply voltage by 90 degrees. Thus, a phase difference of 90 degrees exists between the
fluxes produced by the two coils. This sets up rotating field which interacts with the disc
to cause it to rotate.

Construction of Single phase induction type energy meter:

A single phase induction type energy meter generally has:
1. Moving system
2. Operating mechanism
3. Recording mechanism

29
1. Moving system: The moving system consists of a light aluminium disc mounted on a
vertical spindle. The disc is positioned in the air gap between the electromagnets. The moving
system is connected to a hardened steel pivot which is screwed to the foot of the shaft. The
pivot is supported by a jewel bearing.
There is no pointer and controlling torque, continuous rotation of the disc is produced due to
driving torque only.

2. Operating mechanism: It consists of series magnet, shunt magnet and breaking

magnet.

Series magnet: The series magnet consists of a number of U-shaped laminations

assembled together to form a core. A thick wire of few turns is wound on both legs of the
U-shaped laminated core. The wound coil is known as current coil and is connected in series
with the load so that it carries the load current. The series magnet is placed underside the
aluminium disc and produces magnetic field proportional to and in phase with the current.

Shunt Magnet: The shunt magnet consists of a number of M-shaped laminations assembled
together to form a core. A fine wire of large turns is wound on the central limb of this
magnet. The wound coil is known as pressure coil and is connected across the load so that it
carries current proportional to supply voltage. The shunt magnet is placed above the
aluminium disc as shown.
In order to obtain deflecting torque, current in the pressure coil must lag behind the supply
voltage by 90 degrees. This necessary phase shift is obtained by placing a copper ring over
central limb of shunt magnet. This copper ring acts as a short circuited transformer
secondary. As its inductance is high as compared with its resistance, the current circulating in
the ring will lag by nearly 90 degrees behind the voltage producing it.

30
Braking magnet: The speed of aluminium disc is controlled to the required
value by the C-shaped permanent braking magnet . The magnet is mounted so
that the disc revolves in the air gap between the polar extremities. As the disc
rotates, currents are induced in the disc because it cuts the flux produced by
the breaking magnet. The direction of the current in the disc is such that it
opposes the rotation of the disc. Since the induced currents in the disc are
proportional to the speed of the disc, therefore, breaking torque is proportional
to the disc speed.

3. Recording mechanism: The number of revolutions of the disc is a

measure of the electrical energy passing through the meter and is recorded on
dials which are geared to the shaft.

Working: When the energy meter is connected in the circuit to measure

electrical energy, the current coil carries the load current whereas the pressure
coil carries current proportional to the supply voltage. The magnetic field due to
current coil is in phase with line current whereas the magnetic field produced
due to pressure coil lags approximately 90 degrees behind the supply voltage.
The current coil field produces eddy currents in the disc which reacts with the
field due to the pressure coil. Thus, a driving force is created which causes the
disc to rotate.
The braking magnet provides the braking torque on the disc. By altering the
position of this magnet, desired speed can be obtained. The spindle is geared to
the recording mechanism so that electrical energy consumed in the circuit is
directly registered in kWh.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER WATTMETER
● The construction of electrodynamometer wattmeter is similar
to that of electrodynamometer type ammeters and voltmeters.
● It consists of a fixed coil connected in series with the load and
it carries the current through the load. It is also called as field
coil or current coil (C.C).

31
 ● The moving coil in the wattmeter is connected across the load and it carries the
current proportional to the voltage across the load. It is called as potential coil or
pressure coil (P.C).
Construction Details
Fixed Coil:
● The fixed coils carry the load current of the circuit.
● They are divided into two halves but connected in series.
● The fixed coils are wound with heavy wire with less number of turns. This wire is
stranded or laminated especially when carrying heavy currents in order to avoid
eddy current losses in conductors.
● The fixed coils of earlier wattmeters were designed to carry a current of 100 A but
modem designs usually limit the maximum current ranges of wattmeters to about
20 A.
● For power measurements involving large load currents, it is usually better to use a
5 A wattmeter in conjunction with a current transformer of suitable range.

Moving Coil:
● The moving coil is attached to the spindle connected to the pointer.
● It is also called pressure coil made of thin wire having more number of turns in
order to have high resistance, so that the maximum load current flows through
the load instead of flowing through the voltmeter as it is connected across the
load.
● A series resistor is used in the voltage circuit in order to limit the current to a small
value in the order of 100mA.

32
Control Torque:
Control torque is provided by springs, as it is a electrodynamometer type instrument.

Damping:
Air friction damping is used.

Pointer and Scale:

This type of instrument has mirror type scales and knife edge pointers to avoid parallax
error while reading.

Errors in Electrodynamometer type wattmeter

1. Error due to pressure coil inductance and capacitance.

2. Error due to the effect of mutual inductance.
3. Error due to wrong connection of pressure coil and current coil.
4. Eddy current error.
5. Stray magnetic field error.
6. Error due to vibration of moving system.
7. Temperature error.

33
Transducers

A device which converts a physical quantity into the proportional electrical signal is called a
transducer. The process of converting energy from one form to another is known as
transduction.

The primary function of transducers is to convert a physical force into an electrical signal so
that it can be easily handled and transmitted for measurement.
Parts of Transducer
A transducer consists of the following two important parts:
• Sensing element
• Transduction element
Sensing Element
It is the part of a transducer that responds to the physical sensation. The response of the
sensing element depends on the physical phenomenon.
Transduction Element
The transduction element of the transducer converts the output of the sensing element into
an electrical signal. The transduction element is also called the secondary transducer.

34
 Active transducers
They are also known as self-generating transducers. An active transducer is a
self-generating type transducer that has the ability to generate electrical voltage or
current as its output without using any external source of power.
passive transducers
They are known as externally energized transducers. These are externally
powered transducers, that induces variation in the parameters associated with the
electrical circuits, with the variation in the applied input signal.

Thermocouple
Thermocouple is defined as a thermal junction that functions based on the phenomenon
of the thermoelectric effect, i.e. the direct conversion of temperature differences to an
electrical voltage.
It is an electrical device or sensor used to measure temperature.
A thermocouple can measure a wide range of temperatures. It is a simple, robust, and
cost-effective temperature sensor used in various industrial applications, home, office,
and commercial applications.
Working of Thermocouple:
A thermocouple consists of two plates of different metals. Both plates are connected at
one end and make a junction. The junction is placed on the element or surface where
we want to measure the temperature. This junction is known as a hot junction. And the
second end of the plate is kept at a lower temperature (room temperature). This
junction is known as a cold junction or reference junction.

35
 Figure: Thermocouple circuit
See beck-effect
This type of effect occurs among two dissimilar metals. When the heat offers to any
one of the metal wires, then the flow of electrons supplies from hot metal wire to cold
metal wire. Therefore, direct current stimulates the circuit.
According to the Seebeck effect, the temperature difference between the two
different metals induces the potential differences between two points of the
thermocouple plates.
If the circuit is closed, a very small amount of current will flow through the
circuit. A voltmeter is connected to the circuit. The voltage measured by the voltmeter
is a function of a temperature difference between two junctions. Hence, by measuring
the voltage, we can calculate the temperature of the hot junction.

Resistance Temperature Detector or RTD

A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer or
RTD) is an electronic device used to determine the temperature by measuring the
resistance of an electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor.
To measure temperature with high accuracy, an RTD is the ideal solution, as it has
good linear characteristics over a wide range of temperatures.
The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the temperature is given
as,

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at toC and t0oC temperatures.

36
The figure above shows the resistance-temperature characteristics curve of the three
different metals In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals.
These three metals are having different resistance variations with respective to the
temperature variations. That is called resistance-temperature characteristics. Platinum
has the temperature range of 650oC, and then the Copper and Nickel have 120oC and
300oC respectively.. For Platinum, its resistance changes by approximately 0.4 ohms
per degree Celsius of temperature.

Strain Gauges

Strain gauges are devices whose resistance changes under the application of force or
strain. They can be used for measurement of force, strain, stress, pressure,
displacement, acceleration etc.

It is often easy to measure the parameters like length, displacement, weight etc. that
can be felt easily by some senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the
dimensions like force, stress and strain that cannot be really sensed directly by any
instrument. For such cases special devices called strain gauges are very useful.

There are some materials whose resistance changes when strain is applied to them or
when they are stretched and this change in resistance can be measured easily. For
applying the strain you need force, thus the change in resistance of the material can
be calibrated to measure the applied force. Thus the devices whose resistance
changes due to applied strain or applied force are called as the strain gauge

37
Principle of Working of Strain Gauges

When force is applied to any metallic wire its length increases due to the
strain. The more is the applied force, more is the strain and more is the
increase in length of the wire. If L1 is the initial length of the wire and L2 is the
final length after application of the force, the strain is given as:

ε =(L2-L1)/L1
∙Further, as the length of the stretched wire increases, its diameter decreases.
Now, we know that resistance of the conductor is the inverse function of the
length. As the length of the conductor increases its resistance decreases. This
change in resistance of the conductor can be measured easily and calibrated
against the applied force. Thus strain gauges can be used to measure force
and related parameters like displacement and stress. The input and output
relationship of the strain gauges can be expressed by the term gauge factor or
gauge gradient, which is defined as the change in resistance R for the given
value of applied strain ε.

∙Materials Used for the Strain Gauges

Earlier wire types of strain gauges were used commonly, which are now being
replaced by the metal foil types of gauges as shown in the figure below. The
metals can be easily cut into the zigzag foils for the formation of the strain
gauges. One of the most popular materials used for the strain gauges is the
copper-nickel-manganese alloy, which is known by the trade name ‘Advance.’
Some semiconductor materials can also be used for making the strain gauges.
Types of strain gauge

38
 ∙ Applications of the Strain Gauges

The strain gauges are used for two main purposes:

1) Measurement of strain: Whenever any material is subjected to high loads, they come
under strain, which can be measured easily with the strain gauges. The strain can also be
used to carry out stress analysis of the member.

2)Measurement of other quantities: The principle of change in resistance due to

applied force can also be calibrated to measure a number of other quantities like force,
pressure, displacement, acceleration etc. since all these parameters are related to each
other. The strain gauges can sense the displacements as small as 5 µm. They are usually
connected to the mechanical transducers like bellows for measuring pressure, displacement
and other quantities.

LVDT- Linear Variable Differential Transformer

LVDT works on the principle of differential transformer that has one primary winding and
two secondary windings. The voltage output from the LVDT is proportional to the
movement of the core whose displacement is to be measured.
LVDT comprises of the differential transformer that provides the AC voltage output
proportional to the displacement of the core passing through the windings. The LVDT
comprises one primary winding, and two secondary windings connected to each other in
series opposing manner as shown in the figure below. The body whose displacement is to
be measured is connected to the iron core.

39
Construction of the LVDT

The LVDT is basically a differential transformer, whose voltage output is

proportional to the displacement of the object hence it is given the name linear
variable differential transformer. The differential transformer has a hollow
magnetic core on which three coils are wound as shown in the figure below. There
is one primary coil in the middle of the core through which the input voltage is
applied. There are two secondary coils at the two ends of the central core, which
are connected to each other in the phase opposition manner and through which
the output is obtained. Through the hollow another solid core is passed, which is
connected to the body whose displacement is to be measured.

Working of the LVDT

The input voltage is supplied to the primary coil from the external source of power
and the output is obtained from the secondary coils. The amplitude and the phase of
the output depend on the relative coupling between the two output coils and primary
coil. The relative coupling is in turn dependent on the position of the solid core inside
the hollow core.

40
The figure below shows the output characteristics of the typical differential transformer.
As shown in the figure there is certain position of the core, called as the null position, for
which the output voltage is zero, this is an ideal position and is very difficult to attain.
Beyond the null position the core moves either to the left or to the right and there is
certain output voltage obtained from the differential transformer.

Figure: Output Characteristics of LVDT

Within certain limits on either side of the null position the output obtained from the
differential transformer is proportional to the movement of the core. This means the
output from the differential transformer is linear with respect to the motion of the core.
The linear variable differential transformer or LVDT works within this range of motion of
the core. Thus in LVDT the voltage output obtained is linear with respect to the motion of
the core moving inside it.

In LVDT the linear range obtained through the device is dependent on the length of the
secondary coils. The magnitude of the output voltage obtained across the sides of the null
position is same but they are opposite in phase. Thus it is possible to distinguish the two
outputs from LVDT by determining the phase difference between the output voltages.

The output obtained from the LVDT is calibrated against the input motion of the core. The
body whose displacement is to be measured is connected to this core, thus any motion of
the body gives direct output from the LVDT in the form of the displacement.

41
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or Photoresistor

A Light Dependent Resistor (also known as a photoresistor or LDR) is a device

whose resistivity is a function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are
light-sensitive devices. They are also called as photoconductors, photoconductive cells
or simply photocells.
They are made up of semiconductor materials that have high resistance. There are
many different symbols used to indicate a photoresistor or LDR, one of the most
commonly used symbol is shown in the figure below. The arrow indicates light falling on
it.

Working Principle of Photoresistor (LDR)

Photoresistors work based off of the principle of photoconductivity. Photoconductivity
is an optical phenomenon in which the material’s conductivity is increased when light
is absorbed by the material.

When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device, the electrons in the valence
band of the semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band. These
photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the bandgap of the
semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from the valence band to the
conduction band.

Hence when light having enough energy strikes on the device, more and more
electrons are excited to the conduction band which results in a large number of
charge carriers. The result of this process is more and more current starts flowing
through the device when the circuit is closed and hence it is said that the resistance
of the device has been decreased. This is the most common working principle of
LDR.

42
Characteristics of Photoresistor (LDR)

Photoresistor LDR’s are light-dependent devices whose resistance is decreased when

light falls on them and that is increased in the dark. When a light dependent resistor is
kept in dark, its resistance is very high. This resistance is called as dark resistance. It
can be as high as 1012 Ω and if the device is allowed to absorb light its resistance will
be decreased drastically. If a constant voltage is applied to it and the intensity of light
is increased the current starts increasing. The figure below shows the resistance vs.
illumination curve for a particular LDR.

Photocells or LDR’s are nonlinear devices. Their sensitivity varies with the wavelength of
light incident on them. Some photocells might not at all response to a certain range of
wavelengths. Based on the material used different cells have different spectral response
curves.

When light is incident on a photocell it usually takes about 8 to 12 ms for the change in
resistance to take place, while it takes one or more seconds for the resistance to rise
back again to its initial value after removal of light. This phenomenon is called a
resistance recovery rate. This property is used in audio compressors.

Also, LDR’s are less sensitive than photodiodes and phototransistors. (A photo diode
and a photocell (LDR) are not the same, a photo-diode is a pn junction semiconductor
device that converts light to electricity, whereas a photocell is a passive device, there is
no pn junction in this nor it “converts” light to electricity)

43
Types of Light Dependent Resistors

Photoresistors (LDRs) can be categorized into two types depending on the materials used
to construct them. The two types of photoresistors include:

Intrinsic photoresistors (Undoped semiconductor):

These are made of pure semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium. Electrons
get excited from valance band to conduction band when photons of enough energy fall on
it and the number charge carriers are increased.

Extrinsic photoresistors:
These are semiconductor materials doped with impurities which are called dopants. These
dopants create new energy bands above the valence band which is filled with electrons.
Hence this reduces the bandgap and less energy is required in exciting them. Extrinsic
photo resistors are generally used for long wavelengths.

Construction of a Photocell

The structure of a light-dependent resistor consists of a light-sensitive material which is

deposited on an insulating substrate such as ceramic. The material is deposited in a zigzag
pattern in order to obtain the desired resistance and power rating. This zigzag area
separates the metal deposited areas into two regions.

44
The structure of a light-dependent resistor consists of a light-sensitive material which is
deposited on an insulating substrate such as ceramic. The material is deposited in a
zigzag pattern in order to obtain the desired resistance and power rating. This zigzag
area separates the metal deposited areas into two regions.

Then the ohmic contacts are made on either sides of the area. The resistances of these
contracts should be as less as possible to make sure that the resistance mainly changes
due to the effect of light only. Materials normally used are cadmium sulfide, cadmium
selenide, indium antimonide, and cadmium sulfide. The use of lead and cadmium is
avoided as they are harmful to the environment.

Applications of Photo resistors (LDRs)

Photoresistors (LDRs) have low cost and simple structure and are often used as light
sensors.
Other applications of photoresistors include:

• Detect absences or presences of light like in a camera light meter.

• Used in street lighting design (can be combined with a good Arduino starter kit to act
as a street light controller)
• Alarm clocks
• Burglar alarm circuits
• Light intensity meters
• Used as part of a SCADA system to perform functions such as counting the number of
packages on a moving conveyor belt

45
 Piezoelectric Effect

There are certain materials that generate electric potential or voltage when
mechanical strain is applied to them or conversely when the voltage is applied to
them, they tend to change the dimensions along certain plane. This effect is called
as the piezoelectric effect. This effect was discovered in the year 1880 by Pierre
and Jacques Curie. Some of the materials that exhibit piezoelectric effect are
quartz, Rochelle salt, polarized barium titanate, ammonium dihydrogen, ordinary
sugar etc.

∙Piezoelectric Transducers

Piezoelectric Transducers

The piezoelectric transducers work on the principle of piezoelectric effect. When

mechanical stress or forces are applied to some materials along certain planes,
they produce electric voltage. This electric voltage can be measured easily by the
voltage measuring instruments, which can be used to measure the stress or
force.

46
∙The physical quantities like stress and force cannot be measured directly. In
such cases the material exhibiting piezoelectric transducers can be used. The
stress or the force that has to be measured is applied along certain planes to
these materials. The voltage output obtained from these materials due to
piezoelectric effect is proportional to the applied stress or force. The output
voltage can be calibrated against the applied stress or the force so that the
measured value of the output voltage directly gives the value of the applied
stress or force. In fact the scale can be marked directly in terms of stress or
force to give the values directly.
The voltage output obtained from the materials due to piezoelectric effect is very
small and it has high impedance. To measure the output some amplifiers,
auxiliary circuit and the connecting cables are required.

∙Materials used for the Piezoelectric Transducers

There are various materials that exhibit piezoelectric effect as mentioned above.
The materials used for the measurement purpose should posses desirable
properties like stability, high output, insensitive to the extreme temperature and
humidity and ability to be formed or machined into any shape. But none of the
materials exhibiting piezoelectric effect possesses all the properties. Quartz,
which is a natural crystal, is highly stable but the output obtained from it is very
small. It also offers the advantage of measuring very slowly varying parameter
as they have very low leakage when they are used with high input impedance
amplifiers.
Due to its stability, quartz is used commonly in the piezoelectric transducers. It is
usually cut into rectangular or square plate shape and held between two
electrodes. The crystal is connected to the appropriate electronic circuit to obtain
sufficient output.

47
 ∙Rochelle salt, a synthetic crystal, gives the highest output amongst all the materials
exhibiting piezoelectric effect. However, it has to be protected from the moisture and
cannot be used at temperature above 115 degree F. Overall the synthetic crystals are
more sensitive and give greater output than the natural crystals.

∙This article describes what is piezoelectric effect, piezoelectric transducers or piezo

transducers or piezo sensors, materials that exhibit piezoelectric effect, advantages
and disadvantages of the piezoelectric transducers, and applications of piezoelectric
transducers. The materials used for the measurement purpose should posses
desirable properties like stability, high output, insensitive to the extreme temperature
and humidity and ability to be formed or machined into any shape. The piezoelectric
crystals have high impedance so they have to be connected to the amplifier and the
auxiliary circuit, which have the potential to cause errors in measurement. To reduce
these errors amplifiers high input impedance and long cables should be used.

∙Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

The piezoelectric transducers offer several advantages as mentioned below:

1)High frequency response: They offer very high frequency response that means
the parameter changing at very high speeds can be sensed easily.

2)High transient response: The piezoelectric transducers can detect the events of
microseconds and also give the linear output.

3)High output: They offer high output that be measured in the electronic circuit.

48
OSCILLOSCOPE

Introduction

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) provides a visual presentation of any waveform
applied to the input terminal. The oscilloscope consists of the following major
subsystems.
∙ Cathode-ray tube(CRT)
∙ Vertical amplifier
∙ Horizontal amplifier
∙ Sweep Generator
∙ Trigger circuit
∙ Associated power supply

It can be employed to measure such quantities as peak voltage, frequency, phase

difference, pulse width, delay time, rise time and fall time.

Figure 1: Block diagram of a basic cathode-ray oscilloscope

49
Basic Operation of Oscilloscope
The basic parts of CRO are shown in Figure 1. In inexpensive, general-purpose
oscilloscopes, the left horizontal deflection plate (looking toward the screen) and the lower
vertical deflection plate are sometimes connected to ground. The beam is deflected upward
and to the right by signals applied to the upper vertical deflection plate or to the right
horizontal deflection plate. A signal to be displayed on the CRT screen is applied to the
vertical input terminal where it is fed into the vertical amplifier.
The signal is amplified and applied to the vertical deflection plate, which cause the
beam to be deflected in the vertical plane. As can be seen in Figure 1, the output of the
vertical amplifier is connected to the internal sync position of switch S1. With the switch set
to internal sync, as it is for normal operation of the oscilloscope, the output of the vertical
amplifier is applied to the sweep generator. This signal triggers the sweep generator,
except in low-cost oscilloscopes with a free-running sweep generator. The purpose of the
sweep generator is to develop a voltage at the horizontal deflection plate that increase
linearly with time. This linearly increasing voltage, called ramp voltage or a saw tooth
waveform, causes the beam to be deflected equal distance horizontally per unit of time.

Amplifier circuits are needed to increase the input signal to the voltage levels required
to operate the tube because the signals measured using CRO are typically small. There are
amplifier sections for both vertical and horizontal deflection of the beam.
The horizontal amplifier serves to amplify the signal at its input prior to the signal
being applied to the horizontal deflection plates. The input signal to the horizontal amplifier
depends on the position to which S2 is set. In normal operation of the oscilloscope, the
switch is set to internal sweep. When the instrument is used in the X-Y mode, for
phase-shift measurements or to determine the frequency of a signal, the signal that is
applied to the horizontal input terminal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier
Vertical Amplifier – amplify the signal at its input prior to the signal being applied
to the vertical deflection plates
Horizontal Amplifier – amplify the signal at its input prior to the signal being
applied to the horizontal deflection plates.
Sweep Generator – develop a voltage at the horizontal deflection plate that
increase linearly with time

50
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

A cathode ray tube (CRT) much like a television tube provides the visual display
showing the form of signal applied as a waveform on the front screen. The CRT is the
heart of the CRO providing visual display of an input signal waveform. A CRT contains
four basic parts:

1. An electron gun to provide a stream of electrons.

2. Focusing and accelerating elements to produce a well define beam of electrons.
3. Horizontal and vertical deflecting plates to control the path of the electron beam.
4. An evacuated glass envelope with a phosphorescent screen which glows visibly
when struck by electron beam.

Figure : Basic construction of CRT

Figure 2 shows the basic construction of CRT. A cathode containing an oxide
coating is heated indirectly by a filament resulting in the release of electrons
from the cathode surface.

65

51
 Basic Operation of CRT
The control grid, which has a negative potential, controls the electron flows from the
cathode and thus controls the number of electron directed to the screen. Once the
electron passed the control grid, they are focused into a tight beam and accelerated to a
higher velocity by focusing and accelerating anodes. The high velocity and well-defined
electron beam then passed through two sets of deflection plates.

The first set of plates is oriented to deflect the electron beam vertically. The angle of the
vertical deflection is determined by the voltage polarity applied to the deflection plates.
The electron beam is also being deflected horizontally a voltage applied to the horizontal
deflection plates. The tube sensitivity to deflecting voltages can be expressed in two
ways that are deflection factor and deflection sensitivity.

The deflected beam is then further accelerated by very high voltages applied to the tube
with the beam finally striking a phosphorescent material on the inside face of the tube.
The phosphor glows when struck by the energetic electrons – the visible glow will be
seen continue to emit light for a period of time after the source of excitation is removed.

Control Grid Regulates the number of electrons that reach the anode and
hence the brightness of the spot on the screen.
Focusing ensures that electrons leaving the cathode in slightly different
anode directions are focused down to a narrow beam and all arrive at
the same spot on the screen
Electron gun cathode, control grid, focusing anode, and accelerating anode
Deflecting An electric field between the first pair of plates deflects the
plates electrons
horizontally, and an electric field between the second pair deflects
them vertically. If no deflecting fields are present, the electrons
travel in a straight line from the hole in the accelerating anode to
the center of the screen, where they produce a bright spot.

66

52
 Oscilloscope Application

1.Voltage Measurement

The most direct voltage measurement made with an oscilloscope is the peak-peak
value. The rms value of the voltage can easily be calculated from the peak to
peak measurement if desired. The peak to peak value of voltage is compute as

Vp-p = (vertical p-p division) x volts/div

2.Period and frequency measurement

The time period of a sine wave is determined by measuring the time for one cycle
in horizontal divisions and multiplying by setting of the time/div control
Period T= (horizontal divisions / cycle) (time / div)
Frequency F= 1 / T

3.Phase difference measurement

Phase difference, θ = (phase difference in divisions) x (degree/div)

4.Frequency measurement

If we apply input signal to both horizontal and vertical deflection plates of x-y
oscilloscope and time base generator is disconnected, it forms a vector pattern
that allows us to discern the relationship between the two signals. Such diagram
are called Lissajous pattern. From the Lissajous pattern frequency can be
measured

5.Phase angle computation

Oscilloscope can also be used in the X-Y mode to determine the phase angle
between two signals of the same frequency

67

53
Reference video links for students

UNIT 5
1. Temperature Transducers

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mQ3o1t4Ssg

2. Working of Thermistor, RTD

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tg8M3uOJi2M

3. Construction and working of LVDT

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anCnrtjNLQM&t=3s

4. Peizoelectric Transducer Working

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TgyMZA9fHFE

5. Working of Cathode Ray Tube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zj91VO7WJgU&t=3s

6. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kpn3AKyqgoQ

7. Working of Moving Coil Instruments

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqW5rmmqv_Y

8. Working of Moving Iron Instruments

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L9wHaLyv94Q

54
10.Assignments

1. Enlist and discuss the various types of error in

measurement? (K2,CO4)
2. Describe briefly the working of moving coil permanent
magnet instrument with a neat diagram.(K2,CO4)
3. With the neat block diagram explain the working and
operation principle of CRO?(K2,CO4)

55
 11. PART A Q&A

UNIT V TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What are the basic elements of a generalized measurement system?
(K1,CO4)

• Primary sensing element which is generally a transducer. Data conditioning element

which further consists of variable conversion element and variable manipulation
element.

• Data transmission and presentation elements which include data transmission

system and data display system.

2. List any four Static characteristics of a measuring system. (K1,CO4)

Accuracy, Precision, Error, Resolution, Stability, Linearity etc.

3. Define the term Accuracy. (K1,CO4)

The accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity to be measured. It indicates the ability of an
instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity.

4. What is an Error? (K1,CO4)

The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the quantity
to be measured is called an error.

5. What is calibration? (K1,CO4)

Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or making a scale so that the readings
of an instrument agree with the accepted value and the certified standard.

6. Define the term Precision. (K1,CO4)

It is the Measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements. It denotes the amount

by which the individual readings are departed about the average of number of
readings.

56
 11. PART A Q&A
UNIT V TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

7. Explain the function of measurement system. (K2,CO4)

The measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the

quantity to be measured in an analogous form. The analogous signal is then
processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to the end device which
presents the results of the measurement.

8. Define static characteristics. (K1,CO4)

Static characteristics are the set of rules or criteria that is defined for those
instruments that varies very slowly with time or remains a constant.

9. Define resistive transducer. Give example. (K1,CO4)

•The resistance of the, metal conductor is expressed by a simple expression

•R =ρL /A , Where
•ρ is the specific resistance of the material of the wire, ’Ll’
•is the length of the wire and ’A’ is the area of cross section of the wire.

•Any stimulus or measurand or a variable which changes or affects any one of the
quantities like L, A or ρ, the resistance of the wire is changed. This change in
resistance can .be suitably converted by a electrical circuitry to a change in voltage.
Example: potentiometer, strain gauge, thermistor etc.

10. What is gauge factor? (K1,CO4)

The gauge factor is unit resistance change per unit strain, which is due to three
factors as revealed by the above equation.

11. Mention the applications of strain gauge. (K2,CO4)

The applications of strain gauge are,

a.Used to measure pressure

b.Used to measure torque

c.Used to measure acceleration

d.Used to measure force

57
 11. PART A Q&A
UNIT V TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
12.What are the various Dynamic characteristics? (K1,CO4 )

1. Various Dynamic characteristics are

2. Fidelity

3. Speed of Response

4. Time Delay

5. Lag

6. Dynamic Error

13. Give the applications of measurement systems. (K2,CO4)

The instruments and measurement systems are sued for

Monitoring of processes and operations.

Control of processes and operations.

Experimental engineering analysis.

14. What is RTD? List the general requirements of RTD. (K1,CO4)

It is also known as resistance thermometer. Resistance of material changes with

temperature changes. This property is used in temperature measurement.

Requirements for RTD material are

(b)The change in resistance of a material per unit change in temperature should be as
large as possible.

(c)The resistivity of material should be high, so that minimum volume of material is

used for the construction.
(d)The resistance should have a continuous and stable relationship with temperature.
(e)The material should have positive temperature resistance coefficient.

58
15. What are the applications of thermistors? (K1,CO4)
1.Measurement of power at high frequencies
2.Measurement of thermal conductivity
3.Measurement of level, flow and pressure of liquids
4.Measurement of composition of gases
5.Vacuum measurements
6.Providing time delay.
16. Mention the features of thermistors. (K2,CO4)

a.Compact, rugged and inexpensive

b.Good stability
c.The response time of thermistors can vary from a fraction of a second to minutes.

d.Self-heating of thermistors is avoided.

e.Thermistors can be installed at a distance from their associated measuring circuits

17. What is inductance transducer? (K1,CO4)

a.Transducers based on the principle of variation in inductance are generally termed

as inductive transducers.

b.In these transducers self-inductance or the mutual of a couple of coils is changed

when the quantity to be measured is varied.

18. Mention three principles of inductance transducer. (K2,CO4)

•Change of self-inductance
•Change of mutual inductance
•Production of eddy currents.
19. What is LVDT? (K1,CO4)

•Linear Variable Differential Transformer or simply LVDT is a well established

inductive transducer used for measuring the linear displacement.
•Generally, it is an electromechanical transducer which converts the movement of
the core, which is coupled mechanically, into a corresponding electrical output.
LVDT can measure the displacement up to ± 0.5 m.

59
 11. PART A Q&A
UNIT V TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
20.. What are the applications of LVDT? (K1,CO4)
•Displacement measurement and LVDT Gage heads, LVDT pneumatic servo follower
•LVDT Load cells
•LVDT Pressure Transducer
21. Name the different essential torques in indicating instruments.
(K1,CO4)
Deflecting torque
Controlling torque
Damping torque
22. State the advantages of PMMC instruments (K2,CO4)
Uniform scale.
No hysterisis loss
Very accurate
High effuiciency.
23. State the disadvantages of PMMC instruments (K2,CO4)
Cannot be used for ac m/s
Some errors are caused by temperature variations.
24. State the applications of PMMC instruments (K2,CO4)

m/s of dc voltage and current

used in dc galvanometer.

25. How the range of instrument can be extended in PMMC instruments.

(K3,CO4)

In ammeter by connecting a shunt resister

In voltmeter by connecting a series resister.

26. State the advantages of Dynamometer type instruments(K2,CO4)

•Can be used for both dc and ac m/s.
•Free from hysterisis and eddy current errors.

60
 11. PART A Q&A
UNIT V TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

27. State the advantages of Moving iron type instruments(K2,CO4)

Less expensive

Can be used for both dc and ac

Reasonably accurate.

28. Name the errors caused in Dynamometer type wattmeter. (K1,CO4)

Error due to pressure coil inductance

Error due to pressure coil capacitance

Error due to methods of connection

Error due to stray magnetic fields

Error due to eddy current.

29. What is a Lissajous pattern? (K1,CO4)

Lissajous pattern is a pattern that results from applying periodic signals to the
deflection plates of a CRO.

30. How is CRO superior to ordinary measuring instruments? (K3,CO4)

CRO is an electronic device that gives graphical representation of alternating

quantities under examination. The CRO gives very accurate measurements and is
free from the errorsintroduced by the moving parts. It is also from damping
mechanisms and other inertia containing parts.

61
 12. PART B UNIT V
1. Enlist and discuss the various types of error in measurement? (K2,CO4)

2. Classify different types of measuring instruments. (K2,CO4)

3. Discuss the important features of measuring instruments. (K2,CO4)

4. Describe briefly the working of moving coil permanent magnet instrument with a neat
diagram.(K2,CO4)

5. Describe briefly the working of moving iron instrument with a neat diagram.(K2,CO4)

6. Describe briefly the working of moving coil Dynamometer instrument with a neat
diagram.(K2,CO4)

7. Explain in detail the different types of instruments used for measurement of electrical
energy?(K2,CO4)

8. With the neat block diagram explain the working and operation principle of
CRO?(K2,CO4)

9. Categorize the different types of resistance transducers. With the neat diagram explain
the working of resistance thermometer (RTD)(K2,CO4)

10. Explain the principle of working of a variable inductor transducer. Describe the
operation of an LVDT with the help of a diagram.(K2,CO4)

11. Explain with the neat diagram the working principle and operation of different types of
strain guage.. (K2,CO4)

12. How do piezoelectric transducers work? State their advantages and disadvantages.
Enumerate the application of piezoelectric transducers. (K2,CO4)

62
13.Supportive online Certification courses:

UNIT V :

NPTEL/SWAYAM:

Electrical Measurement and Electronic Instruments

By Avishek Chatterjee | IIT Kharagpur
12 Weeks

COURSERA

Sensors and Sensor Circuit Design

UDEMY:

Electrical Measuring Instruments

63
14. Real time Applications in day to day life and to
Industry

UNIT V:

1. Keeping food fresher for longer with a partial vacuum

A recent innovation in refrigeration takes a step beyond cooling, and actually seals the

inside of the fridge using a partial vacuum. By lowering the oxygen levels inside the

fridge, food remains fresh for longer.

Pressure sensors are essential in this application, as they provide the feedback needed

by the pump used to reduce the pressure in the compartment.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EH6fRxA0NFw&feature=youtu.be

2. Applications of CRO:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lanpw4Ry8xc

64
15. Content beyond syllabus
Humidity Sensor

Humidity is the measure of water vapour present in a gas. It is usually measured

as absolute humidity, relative humidity or dew point temperature.
Absolute humidity or Specific humidity is the mass of water vapour present per
unit volume.

Relative Humidity is the ratio of water vapour pressure actually present to water
vapour pressure required for saturation at a given temperature. The ratio is
expressed in percent. Relative humidity (RH) is always dependent upon
temperature.

- actual partial pressure

- saturation pressure of vapour

3.9.1 Construction

A typical resistive hygrometer is

shown in figure below.

Fig 3.52 Hygrometer

65
 It shows a mixture of lithium chloride and carbon which acts as
conducting film. This is put on an insulating substrate between metal electrodes. A
mixture of lithium chloride and carbon exhibits a change in resistivity with
humidity. This material with a binder may be coated on wire or an electrodes.
Resulting resistance changes over a wide range, e.g. 104 to 109 Ω as the humidity
changes from 100 to 0 percent. This makes it impractical to design a single
element to operate from 1 to 100 percent relative humidity. Instead several
elements are used, each in a narrow range, with provision for switching elements.
Resistance is measured either with a Wheatstone bridge or by a combination of
current and voltage measurements. Most of these must not be exposed to
conditions of 100 percent humidity as the resulting condensation may damage the
device. Either they must be operated in a constant temperature environment or
temperature corrections must be made. These are accurate to within ± 2.5 percent
or ± 1.5 percent in some cases. Response times are typically of the order of few
seconds. These are currently the most common electronic hygrometers.

3.9.2 Working Principle

The resistance of the element changes when it is exposed to variations in

humidity. The higher the relative humidity, the more moisture the lithium chloride
will absorb, and the lower will be its resistance. The resistance of the sensing unit
is a measure of the relative humidity, Resistance should be measured by applying
a.c to the Wheatstone bridge. D.C voltage is not applied because it tends to
breakdown the lithium chloride to its lithium and chloride atoms. The current flow
is a measure of the resistance and hence of the relative humidity. Thus
hygrometer is called Dunmore type of hygrometer. The resistance/relative
humidity relationship is quite non-linear, and generally a single transducer can
cover only a small range of the order of 10 percent humidity. Where large ranges,
as great as 5 to 99 percent relative humidity, are needed, seven or eight
transducers, each designed for a specific part of the total range, are combined in
a single package. These transducers are widely used for continuous recording
and/or control or relative humidity. Another electrical type of transducer, .the
sulfonated polystyrene ion-exchange device called the pope cell exhibits a non-
linear change of resistance from a few if Ω at 0 percent to about 1000 Ω at 100
percent relative humidity and a single transducer can cover the entire range.
Accuracy is comparable to that of the Dunmore transducer.

66
15.ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE ( PROPOSED DATE &
ACTUAL DATE)

ASSESSMENT PROPOSED DATE ACTUAL DATE

FIAT 14/12/2021 14/12/2021

SIAT 31/01/2022 31/01/2022

REVISION TEST 21/02/2022 21/02/2022

MODEL 01/03/2022 01/03/2022

81
 16.PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCES

TEXT BOOK:

1. S.K.Bhattacharya, Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Pearson

(Covers Units 1,2,4 and 5)

2. C L Wadhwa, Generation Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy,

New Age International: Unit 3 except Domestic refrigerator and air conditioner -

construction and working principle)

REFERENCES:

1. S.B. Lal Seksena and Kaustuv Dasgupta, Fundaments of Electrical

Engineering, Cambridge, 2016

2. B.L Theraja, Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. Chand

& Co

3. S.K.Sahdev, Basic of Electrical Engineering, Pearson

4. John Bird, ―Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technologyǁ, Fourth

Edition, Elsevier,

5. Mittle,Mittal, Basic Electrical Engineeringǁ, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill

Edition, 2016.

1. R.S Khurmi and J K Gupta, Textbook of Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

(M.E.), S Chand& Co
 17. Mini Project Suggestions

1. AUTOMATIC ROOM LIGHT SENSORS :

This is a very simple lights project on automatic room lights, where Arduino and PIR
sensor automatically turn on and off the room lights.

2. THERMISTOR TEMPERATURE SENSING ALARM:

This circuit is a temperature sensing as well as alarm circuit. The circuit raises an alarm
whenever the temperature crosses a certain limit.

3. TOUCH ON AND OFF SWITCH CIRCUIT

This Touch ON/OFF Switch circuit is more useful in such a way that we can automatically
ON or OFF any switch by touching a device without moving from our place.

4. DISH POSITIONING CONTROL BY IR REMOTE.

5. THYRISTOR POWER CONTROL BY IR REMOTE.

 Thank you

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