Chapter 01

Introduction

1
 1. INTRODUCTION

Established in 1987 and converted into Private Limited Company in 1992 under the Company
Act 1956. Today We, abzan Engineering Ltd , are one of the leading Construction Engineering &
Services provider. Leveraging over the expertise of our team members & the experience in the
Industry, we have marked ourselves as one of the fast growing Company in Construction
Engineering and Services Sector in India and Middle East. Promoted collectively by Mr. M. T.
Kaifi, Mr. M. T. Saifi & Mr. D. N. Prasad who served in the constrution industries in diffrent
organizations as senior executives. To carry out our business activities, we have equipped
ourselves with the modern tools and upgraded skilled workforce. Abzan Construction Private
Limited was registered on 31 August, 1992.

Abzan Construction Private Limited's Corporate Identification Number (CIN) is

U45200BR1992PTC005030, Registeration Number is 005030. Their registered address on file is
1/47, New Patliputra Colonypatna, Patna - 800013, Bihar, India. Abzan Construction Private
Limited currently have 3 Active Directors / Partners: Md Tashkeel Kaifi, Syed Mohammad
Naiyer Imam, Mohammad Tanzeem Saifi, and there are no other Active Directors / Partners in
the company except these 3 official

1.1 Marketing Lists for every type of campaign

Direct Mail Campaigns

 Build targeted mailing lists from an industry-leading database of more than 65 million

individuals and 85 million people across 900 industry segments.

 Identify prospects who match your ideal customer profile with up to 50 distinct search
criteria per record - like name, title, or SIC/NAICS/DUNS codes.

 Save time and money by excluding contacts from certain locations or industries that you
already know don’t match your ideal customer profile.
2
 Telemarketing Campaigns

 Build targeted lists to identify more prospects that look like your best customers with
direct phone numbers on-hand for more than 10 million contacts, so you'll spend less time
searching and more time selling.

 Replicate your winning call lists quickly and easily with a system that saves your search
criteria and allows you to exclude previously downloaded contacts.
Email Marketing Campaigns

 Create targeted lists of email addresses and contact information, custom made for your
next campaign.

 Save time as you bypass frustrating gatekeepers and speak directly to decision makers
who hold purchasing authority.

 Save money every time you send an email by enjoying unlimited use of ConnectMail
addresses with no additional usage or rental fees.

3
1.2 ABOUT ABZAN CONSTRUCTION PVT. LIMITED
Escorts Agricultural Machines Limited pioneered farm mechanism by taking the franchise from
U.SO. based Minneapolis Moline, Wisconsin only to market tractors, implements, engines and
other farm equipment. In 1960, it started its own manufacturing from Faridabad. Today Escorts
Agri Machinery Group has a nationwide network with over 600 dealers and 30 area offices.
Their national share stands at 11.10%. The company has developed its own in house state of the
art technology R&D facility. The main focus of R&D facility is to develop new and better
products – products that can offer improved performance with lower fuel consumption and least
maintenance and part requirements.

1.2.1The products (Tractors) which Escorts AMG is making currently are as

follows:-
The above brands are powerful and well accepted. The brand propositions of these have been
designed in a manner that they complement each other in the market place. The three brands are
based on a distinct technology designed to suit varied soil conditions and applications for
agricultural and commercial usage.
The company has institutionalized the ‘proactive approach’ of identifying the latent needs of the
customer and offering the right product design for the right application.
The company’s policies are based on the foundation of Customer Relationship, Dealer
Management and Innovation. Escorts - AMG has Tractor manufacturing capacity of 98,940
tractors / annum which is the highest in Asia at one location.
Its manufacturing operations are divided in three plants ;
1.2.2Industry Overview

Worldwide, the snack foods manufacturing industry generates about $300 billion in revenue.
Europe and the US are the largest markets. Eastern Europe, Latin America, and the Asia/Pacific
region are the fastest-growing snack food markets.
The US snack foods manufacturing industry includes about 500 companies with combined
annual revenue of $27 billion and is expected to grow at a moderate rate over the next two years.
Key growth drivers are expanding conve- nience store sales, tree nut sales, and spicier offerings.

4
Makers of cookies and candy, which are not classified as snack foods, are covered in the Cookie
& Cracker Manu- facturing and Candy Manufacturing industry profiles.
Competitive Landscape
Demand is driven by consumer tastes and health considerations. The profitability of individual
companies de- pends on efficient operations, effective marketing, and a strong sales force. Large
companies have advantages in raw material purchasing, manufacturing efficiencies, distribution,
and marketing budgets. Small operations can com- pete effectively by self-distributing products,
selling online, or marketing snacks as gift items. The industry is highly concentrated: the top 50
companies account for 90 percent of industry revenue.
Snack foods compete for consumer dollars against other “impulse” food items, including cookies
and crackers, baked goods, fruits and vegetables, and fast food.
Products, Operations & Technology
Major products are potato chips (about 30 percent of industry revenue); corn chips, including
tortilla chips (20 per- cent); and bulk nuts (10 percent). Other products include canned nuts,
peanut butter, popcorn, hard pretzels, and other chips. Salty snack foods are found in most
American households. More than half of Americans eat snacks two to three times per day,
according to NPD Group. Potato chips are the most popular US snack, followed by tortilla chips,
popcorn, and pretzels, according to Mintel Consumer Intelligence.

5
1.3 PLANT INTRODUCTION
Salie
nt Features of Boiler Plant

1. General

Type of boiler Single drum tangential firing & reheat type

(water tube)
Type of fuel used Pulverized coal (Main fuel), Heavy oil & L.D.O (for
light up & flame stabilization)
No. Of Mills 06
Type of Mills Pressurized type Bowl Mill
Furnace Balanced draught
P.A Fans 02 (each 60% capacity)
F.D Fans 02 (each 60% capacity)
I.D Fans 03 (each 60% capacity, one standby)
Air heater 02
Types of Air Heater Trisector regenerative
Electrostatic Precipitator 01

2. M.C.R Parameter M.C.R. Value

S.H. Outlet steam flow 375 T/Hr

R.H. stem flow 331 T/Hr
Pressure at S.H. Outlet 141.5 Ata
Temp. at S.H. Outlet 540⁰c
Pressure at R.H. Inlet 37 Ata
Pressure at R.H Outlet 32.9 Ata
Temp. at R.H. Inlet 369⁰c
Temp. at R.H Outlet 540⁰c
Pressure in drum 148.69 Ata
Design pressure 158.0 kg/cm²
Flue gas temp. leaving Economiser 350⁰c
Flue gas temp. leaving Air Heater 142⁰c
Feed Water Temp. before Economizer 235⁰c

1.4 Salient Features of Turbine

6
1. General

Type Of Turbine Reheat

No. Of Cylinders 3(HP,IP &LP)
No. Of LP Heater 05
No. Of HP Heater 02
Deaerator 01(Variable pressure type)
No. Of Extraction pump 03(one standby)
No. Of BFP 02(one standby)

M.C.R. Parameter M.C.R. Value

Rated output 110MW

M.S. Pressure at H.P. turbine inlet 130 Ata
M.s. temp. at H.P. turbine inlet 535⁰c
H.R.H. temp. at I.P. turbine inlet 535⁰c
Turbine speed 3000 rpm
Condenser Vacuum 0.1 kg/cm²(abs)
No. Of Extraction 07
Quality of cooling water 15,400 m³/hr
Salient Features Of Generator

Rating Continuous
Active Output 110 MW
Rated Voltage 11000+/-5%V
Rated Current 7220 A
Power Factor 0.8 lagging
Frequency 50 Hz
Excitation System Static type
Field current at rated output 1335 A
Type of cooling system Hydrogen Cooled
Hydrogen Pressure 2 Ata
No. Of H₂ cooled elements 06
Cooling medium for H₂ Soft water

7
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The working principle of thermal power plant is based on Rankin cycle. A central steam station
basically works on the Rankin cycle. Steam is produced in the boiler, is expanded in the prime
mover (Turbine) and is condensed in a condenser to be fed into the boiler.

1.5 PROCESS OF GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY

1. Coal To Steam

2. Steam To Mechanical power

3. Power Generation, Transmission & Distribution.

Coal To Steam

Coal and water are the primary inputs to a thermal power plant.This process of conversion of
water to steam by using heat energy produced by burning of coal by producing heat takes place
in boiler and its auxiliaries. Coal burns in a furnace located at the bottom part of the boiler. Feed
water is supplied to the boiler drum by boiler feed pumps, where water is heated and converted
into saturated steam. This is further superheated in the super heaters.

Steam To Mechanical Power

This is the most important process of a power plant. The superheated steam produced in the
boiler at high pressure and temperature is feed to the turbine giving up heat energy, which is
transformed into mechanical energy on turbine shaft. Thus, mechanical power is obtained from
the turbine shaft.

8
Power generation, Transmission & Distribution

Mechanical power produced at the shaft of the turbine is used to rotate the rotor of an electrical
generator that produces electrical power. The electric power produced by the generator is
boosted to a high voltage by a generator transformer to reduce transmission losses. This power at
EHV i.e. 400 KV is transmitted and distributed by EHV transmission lines

9
 Chapter 02
Power Generation

10
2.1 Coal To Steam
We are taking coal from coal-yard as Wagon tippler load with the help of motor on which the
conveyer belt is mounted. As Wagon tippler consist of rotor & pinion. The pinion use to rotate
rotor. If in case Wagon tippler not working then mechanically coal is transfer into hopper to the
belt. We supply coal in coal bunker watching the load on control room connected Ammeter &
Voltmeter. Feeder is used to put coal on belt. Small motors are connected to belt for support.
Coal being passed through metal detector after passing through metal detector it is passed
through vibrating screen where coal of 5mm seperated from large coal ane fed to crusher then
magnetic separator to remove iron particle from coal. Then fed to crusher to coal bunker.

2.2 Metal detector placed over conveyer belt

Fig 2.1

From coal bunker coal is supplied, to pulverising mill. There are six coal bunkers supplying coal
to each mill and are located at top of the mills to add in gravity feeding of coal. Each bunker
store coal which can be used for 12 hrs. Coal is supplied to the mill by the four barriers. With the
help of primary air fan we feed coal to pulveriser mill with high pressure of air. There are five
pipes connected to mill from on we feed coal to mill and from other four pipes coal dust comes
out from mill after pulverising. The coal is converted into powered form in the mill. The mill is
ball mill of MTPS power station. With the help of primary air coal dust is feed into

11
ignited boiler. The coal which we are using for thermal power plant is of class c. In boiler heat of
coal is used to convert water into steam. Coal produces heat of 330⁰c and that of super heated
stem is 535 ⁰c.

2.3 Steam To mechanical power

The steam which being produced in the boiler are collected in boiler drum. This boiler drum is
mounted on top of the boiler. From boiler drum steam is passed through super heater. There are
three super heaters between boiler drum and high pressure turbine. Super heaters are used to
remove moisture or water droplets from steam which can decrease efficiency of turbine.

The stem passing through high pressure turbine again given to reheated where steam is reheated
and then used on intermediate turbine from intermediate turbine steam is directly used on low
pressure turbine. The steam which is being used on low pressure goes to condenser where it
cools. The steam heated in reheated at 535⁰c and fed to intermediate turbine of 20 kg/cm² and
then fed to low pressure. And this produces mechanical power on shaft on turbine. Where the
turbine shaft is directly coupled with the alternator rotor.

2.4 Turbine

Fig No. 2.2

12
2.5Types of turbine
2.5.1 HP Turbine

HP turbine is a single flow design with eight stages of balding. Each stages compromises
stationary and moving blades which are positioned into the rotor mounted on the diaphragms,
directs steam into the rotor mounted on the moving blades. HP turbine is double shell
construction comprising inner and outer casing.

H.P steam enters the H.P turbine inner casing through inlet connection are mounted on the top
and bottom outer casing. The steam exhausts through the two branches in the bottom half casing
and returns to the boiler to be reheated to increase the temperature of the steam to 535⁰c so that
the efficiency increases.

2.52 I.P Turbine

Intermediate pressure turbine is a double flow design with seven stages on balding on either side
of central steam inlet. Each stage comprises stationary and moving blades which are positioned
so that the stationary blades mounted on diaphragm, directs the steam into rotor mounted moving
blades. The inner casing , diaphragm carrier ring and outer casing are made in halves bolted
together in the horizontal centre.

2.5.3. L.P Turbine

L.P Turbine is a double flow design with six stages in each of its front and rear flow paths. Each
stage consists of number of stationary blades incorporating in the diaphragm located in the
casing and a set of rotating blades mounted on the rotor disc.

2.6 Power Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Mechanical power produced at the shaft of the turbine is used to rotate rotor. where magnetic
flux produced inside the stator conductor cuts by rotor conductor an electro motive force will be
induced due to Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction and produces electricity with the
speed of 3000rpm and frequency of 50Hz. As generator consists of stator which consist of stator

13
winding and rotor consisting of rotor winding. And we have three phase supply. For cooling
purpose of generator we are using hydrogen which is shielded with oil.

14
 Chapter 3
GENERATOR

3.1 GENERATOR

15
 Fig
3.1

A generator consists of rotor which consists of carbon brushes. The rotor rotates at 3000rpm in
case of any fault if production of plants stops then we have bearing motor which rotates shaft of
turbine continuously and rotor at 65rpm. This is because if shaft doesn’t rotates then due to load
it may bend.

As generator produces 110MW or generates 11kv output. The output of generator is step up to
220kv by using step up transformer or generating transformer. Three phase is fed to station
transformer. There are two station transformer1 and 2 which is step down transformer. Here
220kv is step down to 6.6kv for internal purpose. This 6.6kv is step down to 415v for low rating
motors. At generating transformer we are using lighting arrestor which protects G.T from
lighting. This 220kv is given to grid substation. In grid substation we are using some protective
system before distribution we have Bus isolator, SF6 breaker, Line isolator, CT, lightning
arrestor. Similarly we have two unit auxiliary transformer UAT-1 and UAT-2, which will step
down voltage from 11kv to 6.6kv and it will supply to unit auxiliary board 1BA, 1BB.

16
Similarly station transformer will supply to station board 9BA, 9BB. One unit is tie with other
unit because during the failure of any one of the unit other unit will able to supply.

We are using web trap which changes the frequency 50Hz to 500Hz can be used for
communicate in power plant. As three phase fed to station transformer (Auto transformer) by
step up we fed to switchyard where circuit breaker is closed, when terminal voltage and
frequency matched with the bus bar conductor.

3.2 Transmission
The KBUNL has capacity to generate 220MW of electricity but only one unit is working and the
second unit is under R&M process. We are generating 90Mw out of 110MW and giving to the
substation. The transmission is done through three phase, double circuit system.with the help of
transformer, we are converting 11kv to 220kv and fed to substation. It is then step down to
132kv and feeded to BSEB and local areas.

Equipments used in transmission of power:-

1. Sub- Station

A. Control Room

B. switchyard

3.2.1 Sub-Station
It is the place where power is changed, step down or step up and transmitted to other places. It
consists of various protection equipments, switching circuits etc.

A substation consists of

a) Bus isolators

b) circuit breaker

c) Line isolator

d) Current transformer

e) CVT

f) Lightning arrestor

17
g) Wave trap

3.2.2 Control Room

It is the brain of any sub-station. All the necessary steps about the transmission, protection,
charging etc. are carried out in the control room.

Measuring instruments of the control room:-

a) Relay circuit

b) Fault locator

c) Switch gears

d) Voltmeters

e) Ammeters

f) Power meter

g) CRT screen

h) Battery room

a) Relay circuit A relay is a protective device that operates during faulty

condition and gives command to circuit breaker to trip circuit.

Operating principle

1. Electromagnetic attraction

2. Electromagnetic induction

Components of electromagnetic relay

1. Shaded pole

2. Watt-hour meter

3. Induction cup

4. Single and double induction loop

18
b) Fault locator:- A simple beam relay would measure the current seen by the relay with
the voltage at the relaying point. By comparing these two quantities the relay measure the line
impedence (z=v/i) up to the point of fault.

c) Switch gear:- Switches are used in sub-station as a device for making or breaking the
electric circuit in convenient way i.e just by the simple motion of a knob or a handle to connect
together or disconnect two terminals to which cables are connected. There are two types of
switch gears Air switch and Oil switch.

d) Voltmeter:- It is an instrument, which measures the voltage along the phase. It

actually measures the potential difference between the two points of the conductors.

e) Ammeter:- It is an instrument, which measures the current across the conductor. It is

mounted on the panel board. Where staff on duty can easily watch the readings.

f) Power meter:- These instruments are used to measure the power in standard units i.e
in MW. This instrument is also mounted on the panel board for easy watch for the operating
staff.

g) CRT screen:- It is a computer arrangement in which current information about the

transmission line is seen. The circuit diagram of switchyard and control room is stored in hard
disk. It also displays the current status of the transmission line.

h) Battery room:- This room consists of several batteries and charges for emergency
purpose. When power failure is there, then power is supplied by the battery to keep all the
instrument or devices in ‘on’ status.

19
3.3 Switch yard
It is systematic arrangement of various components, where all the machines or equipments are
connected with each other, looping, step down, step upof transmission line are done here only.

A switchyard consists of following equipments:-

a) Transformer

b) Tower

c) Conductor

d) Insulator

e) Circuit breaker

3.3.1 Transformer:- A transformer is an electrical device which works on the principle of

mutual induction. The autotransformer used in power station. It has three windings primary,
secondary and tertiary. The 220kv voltage is fed as input to primary by step down 132kv fed
MTPS as input.

Fig 3.3.1

20
3.3.2 Tower Tower is the an important part of transmission line. As tower consists of guard
ring. it is located at the bottom of the tower so that any unauthorised person or animal cannot
climb upto the tower.

We have suspension type tower called as ‘A’ type tower. The peak point angle is 0⁰ to 2⁰. In this
type conductor is suspended with an insulator.

B-type : angle lies between (2⁰-15⁰)

C-type : angle lies between (15⁰-30⁰)

D-type: angle lies between (30⁰-60⁰)

3.3.3 Conductor A conductor is very essential equipment which is used for transmission of
power. It is generally made of aluminium. It is hanged on the tower with the help of insulators.
Aluminium cost is cheap and has good conductivity.

Insulator It is made up of porcelain material which is bad conductor of electricity. For

transmission purpose generally PIN-TYPE insulators are used. The capacity of each disk is 20kv.

3.3.4 Circuit breaker These are mechanical devices designed to close or open contact
members thus closing or opening an electrical circuit under normal or abnormal conditions.
These circuit breakers are equipped with trip coil connected to relay, design to open breaker
automatically.

21
3.4 Connection with grid to synchronisation

1. The terminal voltage of alternator must be equal to the bus-bar voltage.

2. The running speed frequency must be equal to the bus-bar frequency.

( Ns=120f/P ) => ( f=PN/120 )

Where, f= frequency

P= no. Of poles

N= speed of alternator

3. The terminal voltage of two conductor must be equal to the two bus- bar terminal to
placed the external resistance to reduce the voltage drop.

Light up process

MTPS Kanti has direct firing system. In this system, a controlled quantity of crushed coal is fed
to each bowl mill (pulveriser) by its respective feeders and primary air is supplied from the
primary air fans which drives the coal as it is being pulverized and transports the pulverized coal
through the coal piping system to the coal burners.

There are six pulverisers out of which four are used and two remains in standby. The raw coal
feeders supply 74TPH of coal to each mill.

The pulverized coal and air discharge from the coal burners is directed towards the centre of
furnace to form fire ball. There are 24 tilting, tangentially fired coal burners fitted at the four
corners of the boiler at elevations. The secondary air heating system supplies secondary air for
combustion in the furnace around the pulverized coal burners and through auxiliary air

22
compartments directly adjacent to the coal burner compartments. There are 12 air-atomizing
ignitors per boiler, which initially ignite the coal and air mixture. Above a predictable minimum
loading condition, the ignition becomes self-sustaining. Combustion is completed as the gases
spiral up in the furnace.

3.4.1 MAIN BOILER COMPONENTS

Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam.
There are two types of boilers3.

a) Fire tube boiler

b) Water tube boiler

The major accessories of a steam-generating unit are listed as follows

 Furnace

 Economiser

 Boiler drum

 Down comers

 Water walls

 Riser tubes

 Super-heaters

 Re-heaters

 De super heaters

Furnace:- A boiler furnace is the first pass of the boiler in which fuel is burned and from
which the combustion products pass to the super heater and second pass of boiler. The
combustion process is a continuous process, which takes place in first pass of boiler and
controlled by fuel input through coal feeders. It is a radiant type and water-cooled furnace and
enclosure is made up of water walls. The furnace is open at the bottom to allow ash/clinkers to
fall freely into the furnace bottom ash hopper.

23
Economiser The function of an economiser in a steam generating plant is to absorb heat from
flue gases and add this as sensible heat to the feed water before the feed water enters the
evaporative circuit of boiler. This increases the efficiency of the boiler.The economiser is placed
in the path of the flue gases leaving the boiler rear gas pass below the rear super heater. The
economiser is continuous ‘unfinned loop type’ and water flows in upward direction and gas
flows in downward directions.

Boiler drum: It is a cylindrical pressure vessel with hemispherical ends. It contains two rows
of cyclone separators, four rows of driver boxes, a perforated feed water distribution pipe, and a
chemical dosing pipe. The boiler drum is located on the upper front of the boiler, it is suspended
from roof steel work by two u-shaped slings.

It forms a part of the water circulating system of the boiler. The drum serves mainly two
functions.

 The first and primary one is that it separates steam from the mixture of the water and
steam discharged into it and to reduce the dissolved solid contents of the steam to below the
prescribed limit of 1 ppm.

 Secondly, the drum houses all equipments used for purification of steam after being
separated from the water. These equipments are known as drum internals.

Down comers Down comer provide a passage for water from the boiler drum to bottom ring
header. From bottom ring header water goes to water walls for heat absorption and conversion
into steam heating. To achive the circulation of water into water walls boiler circulation pumps
are provided in down comers.

Riser tubes A riser is a tube through which the mixture of water and steam pass from an upper
water wall header to the steam drum.

24
3.5 Cooling water circuit
A large quantity of cooling water is required to condense the steam in condenser and in
maintaining a low pressure in it. Cooling water may be taken from the upper side of the river and
after passing through condenser ( where it is heated ).

Where adequate quantity is not available water coming out from the condenser may be cooled
either in cooling pound or cooling tower. The cooling tower having fans which is rotated with
the help of motors. The blades of fen are set at an angle of 13⁰ to 15⁰. More angle of blade cause
more cooling and more current drop. The motor rotates at 1400rpm.

Cooling tower

Fig 3.5

3.6 Types of fan

A fan is a device by which the air is made to flow at required velocity and pressure in a defined
path imparting K.E of its impellers to air/flue gases. This pressure boost is used to create a
draught in the air and flue gases system. Fans mainly perform two functions:

1. They supply air required for combustion in the furnace with required pressure and flow.

25
2. They evacuate the product of combustion i.e. flue gases into the atmosphere via chimney.

3.6.1 P.A fan

The primary air fan supplies heated air to the coal mills known as primary air, to give dry and
pulverized coal to the furnace for efficient combustion. There are two P.A fans per boiler. The
fan impeller is a double inlet, centrifugal wheel with backward curved plate blades.

3.6.2 F.D fan

The forced draught fan system is provided to supply secondary air required for pulverized coal
combustion in the furnace, air for fuel oil combustion and over fire air to minimize NOX
production.

The F.D fan system comprises of two single stage axial flow, constant speed, and auto variable
pitch fans per boiler. These fans provide pressurized atmospheric air to the boiler for
combustion.

3.6.3 I.D fan

The induced draught fan system comprises of three centrifugal double inlet fans per boiler, two
operating and one standby. Each fan unit consist of a backward curved plate bladed impeller,
which is driven by an electric motor through a variable speed hydraulic coupling. The I.D fan
serves the purpose of evacuating the products of combustion or the flue gases in the atmosphere
via chimney.

3.7 Types of pump

3.7.1 Condensate Extraction pump (CEP)

The function of condensate extraction pumps is to pump out the condensate to the generator
through, L.P heaters. The steam from the L.P cylinders exhausts into the condenser shells where
it is constrained to flow across the water tubes, through which cooling water is circulated.

26
3.7. 2 Air extraction pump (AEP)
The function of air extraction pump is to raise and maintain the vacuum conditions in the turbine
main condensers, and to remove air and other non-condensable gases vented to the condensers
from the various parts of the turbine and feed eater heating system.

3.7.3 Boiler feed pump (BFP)

Boiler feed pump is the most critical component of a power plant. It is a rotary machine, which is
coupled to a motor through variable speed coupling or turbo coupling. Under normal conditions
two 50% boiler feed water pump sets are run in parallel to undertake the complete load of
feeding the boiler, while the third 50% pump set is on standby duty.

3.8 Types of turbine

3.8.1 HP Turbine
HP turbine is a single flow design with eight stages of blading. Each stages compromises
stationary and moving blades which are positioned into the rotor mounted on the diaphragms,
directs steam into the rotor mounted on the moving blades. HP turbine is double shell
construction comprising inner and outer casing. H.P steam enters the H.P turbine inner casing
through inlet connection are mounted on the top and bottom outer casing. The steam exhausts
through the two branches in the bottom half casing and returns to the boiler to be reheated to
increase the temperature of the steam to 535⁰c so that the efficiency increases.

3.8.2 I.P Turbine

Intermediate pressure turbine is a double flow design with seven stages on balding on either side
of central steam inlet. Each stage comprises stationary and moving blades which are positioned
so that the stationary blades mounted on diaphragm, directs the steam into rotor mounted moving

27
blades. The inner casing , diaphragm carrier ring and outer casing are made in halves bolted
together in the horizontal centre.

3.8.3 L.P Turbine

L.P Turbine is a double flow design with six stages in each of its front and rear flow paths. Each
stage consists of number of stationary blades incorporating in the diaphragm located in the
casing and a set of rotating blades mounted on the rotor disc.

3.9 Types of heater

3.9.1 High pressure heater (HPH) In the water cycle temperature of feed water from BFP
is increased to approx, 130⁰c by heating it in HP heater. As the heating of feed water in HP
heater is done by the extra steam coming out of the High Pressure Turbine (HPT) hence, it is
named as High Pressure Heater (HPH).

3.9.2 Low pressure heater(LPH) In the water cycle, temperature of condensate from CEP
is raised to approx. 80⁰c by heating it in LP heater is done by the extra steam coming out of the
low pressure turbine(LPT) hence, it is known as low pressure heater.

Unit control desk and panel

The operation of each unit is envisaged from the central unit control room. It is located in the
control bay at 9.0m TG floor. It is adequately illuminated and is centrally air conditioned. For
operation convenience, the control room front wall has complete glass paneling for TG hall view
and the two double doors for entry from TG hall. The control board has a special profile with
three sloping surfaces for mounting a large fascias, instruments and controls. The automatic
control station and drive control switches and indications are located on the first sloping surface.
The process indicators/recorders and ammeters are mounted on the second sloping surface and
the alarm annunciation window fascias are mounted on the top i.e. third sloping surface. The unit
control board are arranged in logical operating sequence from the left to right starting with a) air
and flue gas, b) fuel oil, c) ball mills, d) steam & feed water, e) regenerative system, f) turbine
and g) generator

28
Chapter 4

MOTOR

29
4.1 Motor

Electric motors, ac motors and dc motors, come in many shapes and sizes. Some are standardized
electric motors for general-purpose applications. Other electric motors are intended for specific
tasks. In any case, electric motors should be selected to satisfy the dynamic requirements of the
machines on which they are applied without exceeding rated electric motor temperature.

Fig: 4.1

Power rating

Electric motors offer the horsepower required to drive a machine, which is typically referred to
as electric motor load. The most common equation for power based electric motors on torque and
rotational speed is: hp = (torque X rpm)/5,250.If the electric motor's load is not constant and
follows a definite cycle, a horsepower versus time curve for the driven machine is helpful. From

30
this curve both peak and rms the electric motor's horsepower can be determined. Rms load
horsepower indicates the necessary continuous electric motor rating. Peak load horsepower is not
necessarily an indication of the required electric motor rating. However, when a peak load is
maintained for a period of time, electric motors feature a rating, which usually should not be less
than peak load horsepower.

Duty Cycle

Continuous steady-running loads over long periods are demonstrated by fans and blower. On the
other hand, electric motors installed in machines with flywheels may have wide variations in
running loads. Often, electric motors use flywheels to supply the energy to do the work, and the
electric motor does nothing but restore lost energy to the flywheel. Therefore, choosing the
proper electric motor also depends on whether the load is steady, varies, follows a repetitive
cycle of variation, or has pulsating torque or shocks.

Service factors

A change in NEMA standards for electric motor service factors and temperature rise has been
brought about because of better insulation used on electric motors. For instance, a 1.15 service
factor -- once standard for all open electric motors -- is no longer standard for electric motors
above 200 hp. Increases in electric motor temperature are measured by the resistance method in
the temperature rise table. Electric motors feature a nameplate temperature rise, which is always
expressed for the maximum allowable load. That is, if the electric motor has a service factor
greater than unity, the nameplate temperature rise is expressed for the overload. Two Class-B
insulated electric motors having 1.15 and 1.25 service factors will, therefore, each be rated for a
90°C rise. But the second electric motor will have to be larger than the first in order to dissipate
the additional heat it generates t 125% load. Electric motors feature a service factor, which
indicates how much over the nameplate rating any given electric motor can be driven without
overheating. NEMA Standard MGI- 143 defines service factor of an ac motor as "...a multiplier
which, when applied to the rated horsepower, indicates a permissible horsepower loading which
may be carried under the conditions specified for the service factor..."

Efficiency

Small universal electric motors have an efficiency of about 30%, while 95% efficiencies are
common for three-phase machines. In less-efficient electric motors, the amount of power wasted
can be reduced by more careful application and improved electric motor design. Electric motor's
feature an efficiency level, which also depends on actual electric motor load versus rated load,
being greatest near rated load and falling off rapidly for under and overload conditions.

31
 Chapter 5
CABLE

5.1 INTRODUCTION

32
Power and Control cable Introduction Cables provide a highly reliable and compact method of
transmitting power from its source to its consumer. Cables are installed in open air on racks or
ladders, in the ground, or underwater as in the case of submarine cables. Power at all the voltages
normally encountered in the industry i.e., less than 100 V and up to 33 kV, can be transmitted
efficiently by single and multi-core cables. Over the last 30 years there has been a progressive
improvement in the materials used in the construction of cables, especially in the non-metallic
materials. This has been due to several necessary requirements e.g.,

a) To maximize the conductor temperature and hence the power transmitted.

b) To provide high resistance to mechanical wear and tear, both during the laying of the cables,
and in their on-going use when they may be disturbed in the future.
c) To withstand the effects of chemical attack from their environment e.g., when laid in polluted
ground.
d) To withstand the damaging effects of steady state and transient overvoltage.
e) To withstand the impact of heat from the environment when exposed to fire and high radiant
temperatures.
f) To withstand freezing temperatures and embitterment.
g) To be resistant to ultraviolet light when exposed to bright sunlight.

5.1.1 ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING MATERIALS USED IN THE

CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES

Copper and Aluminium

Copper and aluminium are used in their highly refined form for the power conductors of cables.
The total impurities contained in high conductivity copper should be less than 0.1% and for
aluminium less than 0.5%. The measured conductivity of these metals will have its highest value
when they are annealed. Hard drawn conductors will have conductivity that is several percentage
points lower than the annealed value. Note that castings made of these materials will generally
have conductivity slightly lower than their rolled and drawn forms.

Tin

Tin metal is occasionally specified to provide a thin layer on the outer surface of copper
conductors. Historically this tin layer gave protection against corrosion of the copper surface
from rubber insulation, which contained substances such as sulphur. Large proportions of
sulphur were added during the vulcanizing process to increase the hardness and tensile strength
of the rubber. The modern use of ‘plastic’ insulation instead of rubber compounds means that the
layer of tin is no longer required in most applications. Tin is beneficial in situations where
soldered lugs are used to terminate the copper conductors, although modern methods of crimping

33
lugs onto their conductors has tended to make the use of tin unnecessary. Tin is also used as a
coating for copper armour wires or armour braiding where rubber compounds are used in the
inner or outer sheathing.

Phosphor Bronze

Phosphor bronze is an alloy of mainly copper, 5 to 10% tin and approximately 0.1%
phosphorous. The alloy has superior mechanical strength when compared with copper. It is also
very resistant to corrosion, particularly in the presence of water. Phosphor bronze is used as wire
in the armoring of cables to provide moderate protection against mechanical damage. It is
formed into a tightly woven braid to form a non-magnetic, highly conductive, armoring and
electromagnetic screen. It is a practical alternative to tinned copper braid in many applications
where steel wire should not be used. The alloy is also used in the form of a thin tape for the
purpose of repelling insects e.g., ants, termites and marine teredo worms. The tapes are placed
underneath the main armouring and on top of the inner sheathing. Table 9.2 shows some of the
electrical and physical properties of phosphor bronze.

Galvanised Steel

Galvanised steel is used for the cable armour where a high degree of mechanical protection is
required, and where high pulling forces are experienced during the installation of the cable,
especially in the laying of submarine cables. The armour wires are formed into a helical cage to
give the highest protection or as a braid when flexibility is required during the installation and a
lesser level of protection can be accepted. Mild steel is used for the armouring of cables laid on
land. For submarine cables the material can be specified as carbon steel, which has a higher
tensile strength. The depth of the galvanising is specified in the international standards. The cross
sectional area of each armour wire (in a helix and not in a braid) varies from typically 0.9 mm for
small power and control cables e.g. 1.5 and 2.5 mm2 conductors, to 2.5 mm for 400 mm2 low
voltage high power cables. For submarine cables the wire diameter can be up to 6.0 mm and for
some deep ocean applications two layers of armour wires are used. some of the electrical and
physical properties of mild steel and carbon steel. Steel wire armour as opposed to steel wire
braid has lower electrical impedance for a given length of cable. This is an important benefit in
networks that are solidly earthed at their power source. Some special applications that require as
low an impedance as is practical to achieve in the cable have some of the armour wires replaced
by copper wires. Hence the parallel circuit consisting of the steel and copper wires has a lower
total impedance than the steel wires on their own. The impedance of the armouring, with or
without the copper wires, is predominantly resistive and so the inductive reactance at the power
frequency can therefore be ignored.

34
Lead

Metallic lead is occasionally used as an extruded sheath to provide protection against chemical
corrosion where it is necessary to bury cables in polluted or aggressive soils. Examples of these
are found in chemical plants, refineries, storage tank farms and areas that have high water tables.
The lead is often alloyed with small amounts of tin and antimony to improve its ability to
withstand mechanical fatigue, such as fatigue experienced in long distance transportation to site.
Lead sheathed cables should not be installed where regular cyclic physical movement will be
experienced.

5.2 ELECTRICALLY NON-CONDUCTING MATERIALS USED IN THE

CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES.

Definition of Basic Terminology

Some terms are used loosely in various engineering disciplines e.g. plastic, rubber. However,
they have particular connotations in electrical engineering, especially in the field of cable
manufacturing.

Rubber

Rubber is obtained in two basic forms, natural rubber and synthetic rubber. Natural rubber is the
sap of the particular species of trees called Hevea brasiliensis, which is sticky when at tropical
temperature, reasonably hard at low temperatures and oxidises when exposed to the atmosphere.
Natural rubber is a naturally occurring compound of carbon and hydrogen, and is of little use as a
basic material. It is therefore mixed with other chemical compounds, filler materials such as
carbon black and then vulcanised to produce ‘vulcanised rubber’ or more generally called simply
‘rubber’. The vulcanising process requires sulphur to be added and the application of heat and
pressure. The molecules of rubber are formed in long chains. Individual chains are not bonded to
adjacent chains; hence the chains can slide alongside each other with little resistance to
movement. This gives processed rubber the ability to recover without permanent deformation.

Elastomer

The term ‘elastomer’ is the most appropriate technical term for rubber, and is generally applied
to synthetic rubbers, e.g. ethylene propylene rubber. It derives its name from the well-known
elastic property of rubber. However some non-rubber compounds are also called elastomers if
they exhibit a non deforming elastic property similar to rubber at room temperature, even if the
compound is relatively hard. The two main groups of non-rubber elastomers are thermoplastics,
e.g., polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene and thermosets, e.g., ethylene propylene rubber, cross-
linked polyethylene. These two groups are also covered by the term ‘plastic’.

35
Polymer

A polymeric compound contains several different molecules e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
silicon, chlorine, sulphur. These molecules combine in small groups usually with a carbon
molecule in the middle. The group is repeated linearly many times in the form of a chain.
Polymers can be natural or synthetic materials, which include but are not limited to rubbers,
elastomers and plastics.
When two polymers are combined the resulting compound is called a copolymer.

Plastic

This is a very widely used term to describe typical household, automobile and industrial
components that are moulded from man-made chemical compounds. In the electrical engineering
field the term has a more specific definition, especially where insulation materials are being
described. Plastic materials are those that are formed from synthetic compounds e.g., polymers
or natural compounds that have previously been modified, for example hydrocarbons refined
from crude oil, natural gas or derivatives of ethane, methane and naphtha. By definition the
manufacturing of a plastic component should include a viscous flowing process that usually
requires heat and pressure, for example extrusion or injection moulding. Two important groups
of insulating and sheathing materials that also come within the definition of plastic are the
thermoplastic and thermo set polymeric compounds.

Thermoplastic resins

Thermoplastic resins (elastomers and polymers) are plastics that retain their flexibility and
chemical composition when heat is applied and removed. The applied heat is only sufficient to
steadily melt the resin. The most widely used thermoplastic resins used in cables are polyvinyl
chloride (in various forms), polyethylene (in several forms), polypropylene and
polytetrafluoroethylene. In general these resins in their basic forms do not have sufficiently good
properties to make them attractive as materials for cables. The necessary properties for insulation
are usually different from those required for sheathing and bedding, even though the same basic
resin may be used for these purposes. Other substances are polymerised or mixed with the basic
resin during its manufacture.
These substances are used to improve or provide:-
• High dielectric strength.
• Low dielectric loss angle.
• High insulation resistivity.
• High melting temperature.
• High tensile strength and resistance to mechanical impact.
• Good flexibility.
• Good resistance to ultraviolet light.

36
• Good dimensional stability.
• Long service life.
• Low water absorption.
• Low emission of smoke and acid gases during fire situations.

Thermo set resins

Thermoset resins do not melt when heated, and are irreversibly changed after the heat is
removed. They are produced from a two-stage chemical process. The second stage is called
‘cross-linking’, and is similar to vulcanizing. The process requires heat, pressure, catalysts, or
irradiation, or a combination of these additives to produce the desired material. Thermoplastic
resins can be further processed by ‘cross-linking’ techniques to produce thermosets. The
thermoset elastomers most frequently used for cables are ethylene propylene rubber and cross-
linked polyethylene. Thermosets are widely used as sheet type insulating materials, adhesives,
jointing compounds for cables and solid mouldings such as post insulators.

Commonly Used Insulations for Cables

Mainly three types of insulating materials are used in the industry for insulation of then cables
namely PVC, XLPE and EPR. Conductor maximum continuous temperature in ◦C for PVC is
70C, for XLPE 90C and for EPR 85 to 90C. Max conductor temp ◦C for 5 sec short circuit in
accordance with IEC 502 for PVC is 160C, for XLPE 250C and For EPR is 250C.

5.2.1 Construction of Cable

Conductor

The conductors are usually copper or aluminium. Aluminium is seldom used in the oil industry
because it work hardens during installation, has higher losses, has high volt drop at rated current
and requires special attention during termination.
Copper and aluminium conductors are described in IEC60228 (BS6360), which divides them
into a number of classes. Class 1 applies to single stranded conductors, but these are only used in
sizes normally less than 1.5 mm2, and even then finely stranded conductors are preferred. For
sizes equal to or greater than 1.5 mm2 Class 2 is used, and the lowest number of strands used is 7
for sizes up to 16 mm2 for marine and offshore installations and up to 35 mm2 for onshore
installations. Marine and offshore installations usually require the cable to be more flexible for
handling during laying and smaller bending radii during termination. Higher flexibility can be
obtained by finer stranding as given by Class 5 of the standard is preferred with a maximum of
400 mm2 for single core cables due to difficulties in laying larger sizes. For LV cables having a
cross-sectional area above approximately 25 mm2 the conductors would usually be formed into
sector shaped conductors. In general cable sizes above 400 mm2 are rarely used in the oil
industry.

37
Stranding

Stranding provides flexibility to the cable needed to pull, bend, and terminate it. For most cables,
Class B stranding is sufficient. If extra flexibility is needed, Class C stranding can be specified.
See ASTM B8, B496, or IEC 60228 for additional information. Conductors are available in
concentric round, compressed, compact segmental, bunched and rope lay constructions.
Thermocouple extension cables and some specialty cables are solid conductors.

Coating

Tin or alloy coating of the copper conductors was a standard practice in the cable industry before
the 1970s when manufacturing processes and cable insulation contained sulfur. Today, the
amount of sulfur used is greatly reduced, allowing many manufacturers to offer uncoated copper
conductors. The purchase of cable with uncoated copper conductors can result in cost savings to
the project by having lower conductor resistances and weight on the cable. These savings are
most evident with larger sized cables, e.g., 250 kcmil (120 sq mm) and larger. It is recommended
that 1/0 AWG (50 sq mm) and larger cables be purchased with uncoated conductors to take
advantage of the cost savings. See ASTM B33, B189 or IEC 60228 for additional information.
Conductor Semiconducting Screen.

The purpose of the screen is to reduce the voltage gradient (electric stress) at the surface of the
conductor where it interfaces with the insulation. Otherwise irregularities in the interface could
initiate failure of the insulation in the longer term.

Insulation

The most frequently used insulating compounds are PVC, XLPE and EPR. For most onshore
applications PVC and XLPE are preferred because of economic reasons, and XLPE is becoming
more popular than PVC. Marine and offshore applications tend to prefer XLPE and EPR. EPR is
usually more expensive than XLPE. Both compounds have the advantage that they permit the
conductors to operate at higher temperatures (85 to 90◦C) than those of PVC (70◦C). PVC
compounds can be specially manufactured to tolerate conductor temperatures up to 85◦C. Silicon
rubber can be specified if high conductor temperatures (up to 180◦C), and for even higher
temperatures (up to 260◦C).

Inner Sheath

38
An inner sheath, usually made of extruded polymer, is used to cover the insulation screen, and to
fill in the interstices between the cores of a multi-core cable. It is important to fill the interstitial
spaces for two reasons. Firstly to ensure good circularity and dimensional accuracy of the
finished cable, and secondly to prevent an internal passage within the cable along which
flammable gases could travel. The transmission of such gases along a cable must be eliminated
by design and construction for cables that are used in hazardous areas.

Lead Sheathing

Lead is used as a sheathing material for protecting the cable from chemical attack whilst it is
buried directly in hostile ground conditions, e.g. in chemical and refinery plants.

Armouring

In order to minimise the possible damage to a cable, and to provide a safe path for electrical
earth return currents, it is necessary to specify a metallic armouring. There are several types of
metallic armouring used in the oil industry, i.e. galvanised steel wires (GSWA), aluminium wires
(AWA), tinned copper wire braid (TCUWB), phosphor bronze wire braid (PBWB).

Outer Sheath

Oil industry cables are usually finished with an extruded heavy-duty polymeric sheath such as
PVC, PE. For situations where resistance to heat, oil and flames is necessary it is the practice to
use special elastomerics that are identified as HOFR types. These compounds include EVA,
EMA, CPE, and EPR together with suitable fillers that are used during their curing processes.
BS7655 details the requirements for HOFR cables, and IEC60332 for their fire retardance.

Voltage grade of cable

For cables the AC rms voltages are defined for example in IEC60502, in terms of their line-to-
earth and line-to-line values. Note that occasionally u0 is quoted as the value obtained by
dividing u by 1.732 and rounding to one decimal place.IEC standard rated voltages of power
cables Line-to earth Line-to line Maximum value of the highest voltage voltage system line-to-
line voltage.

Power Cable

39
Power cables supply power to the various plant loads such as motors, heaters, chargers,
transformers, and motor control centers. Low voltage power cable is used for systems rated 1000
V or less. Medium voltage cables are used for systems rated between 1001 V and 69 kV.
Medium voltage cables 8 kV or greater are typically shielded. 5 kV cables may or may not be
shielded. 1/C, 3/C or triplex are the preferred cable constructions that are used for such types of
cables. These cables may be armored if conditions call for it. Conductors may be either copper or
aluminum. Copper is recommended for most installations.

Control Cable

Control cables are used to interconnect protective relays, control switches, push buttons &
contacts from various devices. These cables carry low current levels and are used for intermittent
operation to change the operating status of a utilization device. Control cables are typically of
multi-conductor construction (2/C, 3/C, 7/C, 12/C, etc) and are rated for a minimum of 600 V. In
case the cables are in proximity to high voltage systems (substations etc) and where additional
mechanical protection is specified, 1 kV or 2 kV ratings are used. Control cables are used
without shields except in case of high voltage substations where they are procured with
electrostatic shields.

Instrumentation Cable

Instrumentation cables carry low-level digital or analog signals. Low-level signals are usually
variable voltage or currents from instrumentation systems. Instrument cables are made in pairs or
triads and are typically specified with a 300 V rating. The individual pairs/triads are typically
shielded. A shield may also be provided over all the pairs in a multi-pair cable.

Thermocouple Cable

Thermocouple extension cables are used to connect thermocouples to measuring instruments

(typically, the distributed control system). These are constructed in pairs and are rated for 300 V.
The pairs are also normally shielded similar to the instrumentation cables. Conductor materials
are the same as the thermocouple. Solid conductors are used.

Coaxial/Triaxial Cable

Coaxial/triaxial cables are used when the signal or instrument system requires low attenuation,
lower capacitance, greater bandwidth etc. These are typically specified for low level and /or high
frequency signal applications. The shield on a coaxial cable and the inner shield on a triaxial
cable are referred to as being the second conductor asthey act as a return path for the signal.
Common applications for such cables are data highways, video transmission, and security
systems.

40
Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables are used in similar applications like the coaxial/triaxial cables buthave better
operating characteristics. These cables consist of a glass fiber with a cladding member, enclosed
in a tube, with a strength member and an overall jacket.These cables are free from
electromagnetic interference and immune to lightning and surge voltages.
Cable selection
Cable sizing for Low voltage system
Cable sizing for High voltage system
Voltage Drop Consideration
Let through Energy consideration
Earth fault Loop Impedance consideration
Cable Schedule
Cable interconnection Schedule
Selection and Sizing of Cable Tray
Cable tray schedule
Cable Drum schedule
Conduit Selection
Cable routing Layout
Cable Tagging &Installation details

5. 3 Plant Lighting

5.3.1 Introduction

An electric light is a device that produces light by the flow of electric current. It is the most
common form of artificial lighting and is essential to modern society, providing interior lighting
for buildings and exterior light for evening and night time activities. Most electric lighting is
powered by centrally generated electric power, but lighting may also be powered by mobile or
standby electric generators or battery systems. Battery-powered lights, usually called
"flashlights" or "torches", are used for portability and as backups when the main lights fail. The
two main families of electric light are incandescent lamps, which produce light by
a filament heated white-hot by electric current, and gas-discharge lamps, which produce light by
an electric arc through a gas. The energy efficiency of electric lighting has increased radically
since the first demonstration of arc lamps and the incandescent light bulb of the 19th century.
Modern electric light sources come in a profusion of types and sizes adapted to a myriad of
applications.

5.3.2 Type of Lighting Fixtures

41
  Incandescent light bulb
 Halogen lamp
 Fluorescent lamp
 LED lamp
 Carbon arc lamp
 Discharge lamp

5.3.3 Fundamentals of Plant Earthing Design

 Requirement of Earthing in Industrial Plants

 Earthing Design calculations
 Type of Earthing and Details
 Earthing Installation Details
 Earthing Layout Design
 Power supply System Grounding
 Equipments (Protective) Earthing
 Ground Electrode System
 Lightening Protection Requirement
 Lightening Protection Calculation
 Lightening Installation Details
 Lightening Layout Design
 Material Take Off

In electricity supply systems, an earthing system or grounding system is circuitry which connects

parts of the electric circuit with the ground, thus defining the electric potential of the conductors
relative to the Earth's conductive surface. The choice of earthing system can affect
the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power supply. In particular, it affects the
magnitude and distribution of short circuit currents through the system, and the effects it creates
on equipment and people in the proximity of the circuit. If a fault within an electrical device
connects a live supply conductor to an exposed conductive surface, anyone touching it while
electrically connected to the earth will complete a circuit back to the earthed supply conductor
and receive an electric shock.
Regulations for earthing system vary considerably among countries and among different parts of
electric systems. Most low voltage systems connect one supply conductor to the earth (ground).

42
 A protective earth (PE), known as an equipment grounding conductor in the US National
Electrical Code, avoids this hazard by keeping the exposed conductive surfaces of a device at
earth potential. To avoid possible voltage drop no current is allowed to flow in this conductor
under normal circumstances. In the event of a fault, currents will flow that should trip or blow
the fuse or circuit breaker protecting the circuit. A high impedance line-to-ground fault
insufficient to trip the overcurrent protection may still trip a residual-current device (ground fault
circuit interrupter or GFCI in North America) if one is present. This disconnection in the event of
a dangerous condition before someone receives a shock, is a fundamental tenet of modern wiring
practice and in many documents is referred to as automatic disconnection of supply (ADS). The
alternative is defence in depth, where multiple independent failures must occur to expose a
dangerous condition - reinforced or double insulation come into this latter category.

5.4 Hazardous Area Classification

The hazardous area classification is an important aspect of identifying an area on which selection
and installation of electrical equipment are made. For any project it is very important to classify
the hazardous area properly as it has cost implication to it. If the area is not classified properly
then the selection of electrical apparatus will be improper leading to increased expenses of
project or unsafe work environment. An area can be termed as hazardous or non hazardous
depending upon the type of gas/vapour or dust or fiber is released in a quantity sufficient to
cause ignitable mixture or a possible of flame.

The aim of area classification is to avoid ignition due to the release of gas which may occur time
to time in course of normal operation or failure of equipment.

Article 500 of NFPA 70, National Electrical Code, designates hazardous area as any location in
which a combustible material is or may be present in the atmosphere in sufficient concentration
to produce an ignitable mixture. Article 500 defines three major categories of hazardous location:

(1) Class I ; in which the combustible material is a gas or vapor

(2) Class II ; in which the combustible material is a dust
(3) Class III ; in which the combustible material is a fiber or flying

Electrical classification considers some system/ process failures, the recommended practices for
classification does not take into for all situations that might involve catastrophic failure, or
catastrophic discharge from, process vessels, pipelines, tanks, or systems. Such events are so rare
that it is impractical to design electrical systems for such circumstances.

43
5.4.1 Zone /Division Classification Definitions

Definitions which are more frequently used have been listed below for ease of reference:
Explosive Gas Atmosphere: A mixture with air of flammable materials in the form of gas, vapor,
or mist, in which, after ignition, combustion spreads throughout the unconsummated mixture.
Flammable material:-

Material consisting of flammable vapour, liquid and/or mist.

Combustible Liquids :-

A liquid having a flash point at or above 38°C (100°F).

Flammable (explosive) Limits:-

The lower and upper percentages by volume of concentration of gas in a gas-air mixture that will
form an ignitable mixture.

Flammable (explosive) Range:-

Flammable vapour or gas and air mixture concentrations between the upper and lower explosive
limits.

Class I, Zone O :-

A Class I, Zone O location is a location

(1) in which ignitible concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are present continuously; or
(2) in which ignitible concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are present for long periods

.Class I, Zone 1 :-

A Class I, Zone 1 location is a location (1) in which ignitible concentrations of flammable gases
or vapors are likely to exist under normal operating conditions; or (2) in which ignitable
concentrations of flammable gases or vapors may exist frequently because of repair or
maintenance operations or because of leakage; or (3) in which equipment is operated or
processes are carried on, of such a nature that equipment breakdown or faulty operations could
result in the release of ignitible concentrations of flammable gases or vapors and also cause
simultaneous failure of electrical equipment in a mode to cause the electrical equipment to

44
become a source of ignition; or (4) that is adjacent to a Class I, Zone O location from which
ignitible concentrations of vapors could be communicated, unless communication is prevented
by adequate positive pressure ventilation from a source of clean air and effective safeguards
against ventilation failure are provided.

Class I, Zone 2:

A Class I, Zone 2 location is a location (1) in which ignitible concentrations of flammable gases
or vapors are not likely to occur in normal operation and if they do occur will exist only for a
short period; or (2) in which volatile flammable liquids, flammable gases, or flammable vapors
are handled, processed, or used, but in which the liquids, gases, or vapors normally are confined
within closed containers of closed systems from which they can escape, only as a result of
accidental rupture or breakdown of the containers or system, or as the result of the abnormal
operation of the equipment with which the liquids or gases are handled, processed, or used; or (3)
in which ignitible concentrations of flammable gases or vapors normally are prevented by
positive mechanical ventilation, but which may become hazardous as a result of failure or
abnormal operation of the ventilation equipment; or (4) that is adjacent to a Class I, Zone 1
location, from which ignitible concentrations of flammable gases or vapors could be
communicated, unles s such communication is prevented by adequate positive-pressure
ventilation from a source of clean air, and effective safeguards against ventilation failure are
provided.

5.4.2. Area classification of flammable gas/vapour and liquids

Three grades of release are defined in terms of their likely frequency and duration:

(a) Continuous Grade Release :-

A release that is continuous or nearly so or that occurs for long periods which occur frequently
1000rs/ year, normally leads to Zone 0.

(b) Primary Grade Release :-

A release that is likely to occur periodically or occasionally in normal operation (100 hours/ year)
normally leads to a Zone 1.

45
(c) Secondary Grade Release :-

A release that is not likely to occur in normal operation or may occur for a very short period (10
hours/ year) normally leads to a Zone 2.

Adjacent Hazardous Zones :-

In many locations where a hazardous area is identified and numbered as 0, 1 or 2 the immediate
surroundings are given the next higher number, except for an original Zone 2 area, which
automatically is surrounded by a non-hazardous area. A Zone 0 area is surrounded by a Zone 1
area, which in turn is, surrounded by a Zone 2 area. A Zone 2 area stands alone. During the
preparation of drawings that show the extent and shapes of the areas surrounding a source, it is
usually found that overlapping areas create complicated geometrical shapes, e.g. two adjacent
circular boundaries almost touching each other. In these situations the shapes should be
simplified by using tangent lines. Local pockets within the geometry should be absorbed into a
more uniform shape, especially non-hazardous pockets in Zone 2 geometry. Experience shows
that equipment located in a non-hazardous area that is ‘near’ to a Zone 2 area will usually be of
the same specification as that which is to be installed in the Zone 2 area.
North American hazardous area classification is based on class and divisions, similarity/comparison
between zones and division is given below

5.4.3. Gas group classifications

Gases are classified in accordance to the amount of energy required for ignition. They are denoted
by three digit code, the first two digits may be I or II and third digit is A, B or C.
Types Of Protection For Hazardous Areas
Hazardous source List Preparation
Certification Of Hazardous Area Equipment
Marking Of Equipment Nameplates
Hazardous Area Drawings / Layouts
Preparation

46
5.5 Substation / Switch Yard Design

5.5.1. Introduction

The substation shall be located in a safe area and outside the Risk Zone, close to the load centres.
Consideration shall be given to vehicular traffic or any other factor that might affect the
operation of the substation.
Main Substation floor shall be raised above grade level and the space below the switchgear room
shall be utilized as cable cellar. The cable cellar floor shall be 300 mm above the approach road
level and shall be paved and cemented. The cable cellar shall have a minimum clear height of 2.5
m and shall house all cable trays and their supports. Main Substation shall be pressurised.

A separate entry of 3.0 m with rolling shutter shall be provided for drawing in all equipment for
installation. The main entry for operating personnel shall be preferably provided with double
door system. The substation shall also have an emergency door opening outwards.

An air-conditioned control room shall be provided in the Power Plant for locating the SCAP,
RTCCs, Switchyard Relay and Control Panel and Generator Control and Relay Panels. (However
it is preferred to located SCAP, RTCCs, Switchyard Relay and Control Panel in the Main
Substation)

Two air-conditioned rooms shall be provided in the Main Substation - one for locating the Data
Concentrator(s) and the other for locating Thyristor-controlled heater panels and battery
chargers.
Substation walls adjacent to the transformer bays shall be 355 mm thick in case of brick
construction or 230 mm thick in case of RCC construction.
Push Button shall be provided in each transformer bay for tripping of the feeder breaker.
Substation building shall be without any columns within the switchgear room to ensure optimum
space utilisation.

Battery banks shall be located in a separate adequately ventilated room in the substation
building/ control room building, along with the necessary exhaust system and water connection
with sink. Floor of the battery room and walls up to 1.0 m height shall have acid/ alkaline
resistant protective material coating/ tiling. Light fittings in this room shall be chemical resistant
type. The battery rooms shall be provided with minimum two exhaust fans and louvered opening
in opposite wall/ door.

47
One set of accessories consisting of cell testing voltmeter, spanner, face shield, PVC apron, acid
proof boots & rubber gloves shall be provided in each battery room.
UPS system, battery chargers and other power electronics equipment, e.g. thyristor-controlled
heater panels shall be located in air-conditioned rooms.
Substation shall have firefighting equipment, first aid boxes and other safety equipment as per
statutory requirements. Mats of required voltage rating shall be provided around all switchboards
and panels. Sufficient number of electrical shock treatment chart in English, Hindi and local
language shall be provided.

Equipment like oil-filled transformers, neutral grounding resistors, HV capacitor banks and
series reactors shall be located in bays adjacent to the substation building. All bays shall have
well drained floor, surfaced with gravel or other suitable material. Partition walls between
transformer bays and the ends of the last bays shall be of fire-proof type. Height of the bay shall
be decided so as to facilitate maintenance and easy removal of equipment and meet the
requirements of natural ventilation.

Oil-immersed transformers with oil capacity exceeding 2000 litres, shall be provided with a soak
pit of sufficient capacity to take the whole of the oil of the equipment. Where oil capacity of
transformers exceeds 9000 litres, provision shall be made to drain away the oil to a separate
waste oil tank/ pit located away, through suitable drain pipes of 150 mm or 200 mm diameter.
The substation building shall be sized for housing all equipment like transformers, switchgear
etc. for Phase-II loads also. The substation shall be sized to maintain adequate clearances
between equipment for ease of maintenance.

Minimum vertical clearance above the top of highest equipment shall be minimum 1500 mm
measured from bottom of roof slab and minimum 500 mm measured from the bottom of the
lowest roof beam. However, for the areas with false ceiling, minimum clearance of 1000 mm
shall be provided between false ceiling & top of any equipment.

The requirements defined in the foregoing clauses for electrical equipments located in control
room & other locations shall be applied, as applicable.

The DG set shall be preferably located in a separate building, in a safe area. Exhaust of diesel
engine shall be kept away from the process/ hydrocarbon handling areas. Diesel day tanks shall
be located outside the DG room. Suitable ventilation system shall be provided to avoid
accumulation in the DG room.
The fire prevention and protection system for electrical installations shall conform to OISD-
STD-173.

48
 Chapter 6
Conclusion and References

49
 6.1 CONCLUSION :

I learnt a lot about various aspects of design technique ,single diagram , selection and sizing of
transformer , generator, cable, Farthing , Lightning Protection, Hazard Area Classification,
Preparation of load sheets, Load Scheduling , Plan Of Electrical System, distribution system. I
also practiced what I learnt in the university and applied it on field. Working with Electrical
department enhanced my major understanding .In addition, I gained a good experience in term of
self confidence, real life working situation, interactions among people in the same field and
working with others with different professional background. I had an interest in understanding
basic engineering work and practicing what has been learnt in the class. Also, the training was an
opportunity for me to increase my human relation both socially and professionally. Regular
training and learning opportunities are an investment that will allow employees to prosper and
develop their careers while giving your business a highly skilled workforce and a competitive
advantage in the market.

6.2 REFERENCES

 A text book of Power system., V. K. Mehta

 A text book of Electrical Machine, D.P. Kothari
 www.eeeblogspot.com
 www.electrical4u.in
 www.ieee.org
 www.wikipedia.com

50