Moderna

C-“ê
î À “•
¥I‰ÆEâŒÆ
êÆ‰ÆÆ
Email: yiouyang@ustc.edu.cn, yeyu@ustc.edu.cn

8 ¹
1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ 1
1 8Ü†N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 8Ü ½Â . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 8Ü Ä $Ž . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 ˜ ~^ 8ÜPÒ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 N , Ü¤ÆÚ(ÜÆ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 d'X, da†© . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 + Ä VgÚ~f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1 + ½ÂÚ~f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 f+Ú+ †È . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 GLn f+: ;.+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 + Ó †Ó . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 f+† 8©) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1 ƒ †Ì‚+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 8Ú 8©) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4 5f+†û+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1 Ù +38Üþ Š^ 43
1 ˜†+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.1 ˜†9ÙL« . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.2 Û˜††ó˜† . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.3 †+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2 +38Üþ Š^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1 ; †-½f+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
i
ii 8 ¹
2.2 G 38Ü X þ Š^† G + SX +Ó 'X . . 54

SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3 +3g þ Š^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.1 †¦Š^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2 ÝŠ^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3 G 3 H þ ÝŠ^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4 Sylow ½n9ÙA^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1 Sylow ½n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2 Sylow ½n A^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5 gd+†+ Ly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1 gd+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 + Ly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6 k•)¤C + ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.1 k•)¤gdC + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2 k•)¤C + ( ½n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1nÙ ‚Ú• 81
1 ‚Ú• ½Â . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1.1 ‚ Vg Ú\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1.2 ½ÂÚ~f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2 ‚ Ó †Ó . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.1 ½Â†{ü~f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.2 ‚Ó Ø†nŽ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.3 ‚Ó •õ;.~f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3 ‚ Ó Ä ½n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.1 nŽ†û‚ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8 ¹ iii
3.2 ‚Ó Ä ½n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3 Ó Ä ½n A^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.4 ¥I•{½n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4 ‚†• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.1 ƒnŽ†4ŒnŽ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.2 ‚ ÛÜz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1oÙ Ïª©) 109

1 •˜Ïª©)‚ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1.1 Ïf, ƒ †ØŒ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1.2 •˜Ïª©)‚ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.3 îAp ‚ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2 pd ê† ²•Ú¯K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3 õ‘ª‚† Gauss Ún . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.1 ‚þ õ‘ª‚ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2 Gauss Ún . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ 129

1 •*ÜÄ nØ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1.1 ~„ • ~f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1.2 “ê*Ü†‡ *Ü . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1.3 “ê*Ü 5Ÿ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.4 • Ó †Ó . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
1.5 “ê4•†“êµ4• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2 º5Šã¯K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
iv 8 ¹
3 “êÄ ½n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4 k•• nØ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
18Ù Galois nØ 149

1 Galois nØ Ì‡½n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1.1 Galois + ½ÂÚ~f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1.2 Œ©õ‘ª†Œ©*Ü . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1.3 5*Ü . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
1.4 Galois nØÄ ½n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2 •§ Galois + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.1 ng•§ © • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.2 ˜„œ¹ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.3 é¡õ‘ª . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3 Galois *Ü ˜ ~f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.1 © *Ü . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.2 Kummer*Ü . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.3 k•• *Ü . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4 •§ ŠªŒ)5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5 Ì‡½n y² . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
SK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
¢ Ú 177
1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
§1.1 8Ü†N
§1.1.1 8Ü ½Â
·‚Äk£ ˜e8Ü ½Â.

ò˜ ØÓ é–˜3˜å, =•8Ü (set), Ù¥ é–¡•8Ü
ƒ (element). 3 Ö¥, ·‚ò¦^Œ i1 A, B, C, . . . 5L«8Ü, ^
i1 a, b, c, . . . 5L«8Ü ƒ. P A •˜‡8Ü. XJ a ´ A ¥
ƒ, K¡ a áu A, P• a ∈ A, ÄKP• a ∈
/ A. ·‚•Œ±ò8Ü A L
«• A = {a | a ∈ A}, Ù¥ a ∈ A Œ±^ A ¥ ƒ÷v Ó5Ÿ“O,
'X`óê8Ü={a• ê | a ≡ 0 mod 2}. 5¿ 8Ü¥ ƒo´Ø-E
.
XJ8Ü A ¥ z˜‡ ƒþ´8Ü B ¥ ƒ, K¡ A ´ B f8
(subset), †óƒ, =e a ∈ A, K a ∈ B. dž·‚P• A ⊆ B ½ B ⊇ A.
Œ±^ã 1.1 5L« A ⊆ B.
XJ8Ü A ⊆ B … B ⊆ A, = a ∈ A …= a ∈ B, ¡ A † B ƒ ,
¿P• A = B. XJ A ⊆ B … A 6= B, ·‚¡ A • B ýf8 (proper
subset), P• A ⊂ B ½öA ( B.
Ø¹?Û ƒ 8Ü¡•˜8 (empty set), P• ∅. d½ÂŒ•, ˜8
∅ ´?Û8Ü f8, …´?Ûš˜8Ü ýf8.
XJ8ÜA ƒ‡êk•, ¡A •k•8 (finite set), Ù ƒ‡ê¡•
8Ü (cardinality ½order of finite set), P•|A|. ƒ‡êÃ• 8Ü,
=Ã•8 (infinite set), § ½Â• ∞.
ã 1.1: 8Ü •¹'X ã 1.2: 8Ü ã 1.3: 8Ü ¿
1
2 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
ã 1.4: 8Ü Ö8A − B ã 1.5: 8Ü Ö8Ac
§1.1.2 8Ü Ä $Ž
˜„5`, 8ÜkXe o«Ä $Ž.

(I) 8Ü A, B •ü‡8Ü, KA † B 8 (intersection)•
A ∩ B := {x | x ∈ A … x ∈ B}.
Œ±^ã 1.2 L«8Ü .

•˜„/, I •8Ü, I ¥z‡ ƒ i éA8Ü Ai , K8Ü Ai (i ∈ I)
•
\
Ai := {x | x ∈ Ai éz‡ i ∈ I ¤á}.
i∈I
(II) 8Ü ¿ 8Ü A, B Xþ¤«, KA † B ¿8 (union)•
A ∪ B := {x | x ∈ A ½ x ∈ B}.
Œ±^ã 1.2 L«8Ü ¿. •˜„/, 8Ü Ai (i ∈ I) ¿•

[
Ai := {x | x ∈ Ai é,‡ i ∈ I ¤á}.
i∈I
XJ Ai üüØ 8•˜8), ·‚¡ Ai •Ø ¿(disjoint union),

S
(=
i∈I
¿P•
F
Ai .
i∈I
(III) 8Ü 8†Ö8 A, B •, ½8Ü U f8, KA é B Ö8
½ 8 (complement)•
A − B := {x | x ∈ A … x ∈
/ B}.
§Œ^ã 1.4 L«. dÖ8½Â, ·‚k

§1.1 8Ü†N 3
A = (A ∩ B) t (A − B).
A 3 U ¥ Ö8•
Ac := {x ∈ U | x ∈
/ A}.
§Œ^ã 1.5 L«.
d½ÂŒ•, XJ A, B •k•8, P |A| • A ƒ‡ê, K A∪B, A∩
B þ•k•8, …
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|. (1.1)
•?˜Ú/, ·‚k
·K1.1 (N½ n). Ai , i = 1, . . . , n •, ½8Ü U k•f8, K

n
X X
|A1 ∪ . . . ∪ An | = (−1)j−1 |Ai1 ∩ . . . ∩ Aij |. (1.2)
j=1 {i1 ,...,ij }⊆{1,...,n}
y². é8Ü‡ên^8B{.
·K1.2. Ai (i ∈ I) •, ½8Ü U f8, K

\ [ c
Aci = Ai . (1.3)
i∈I i∈I
y². ·‚k
\
x∈ Aci ⇐⇒ x ∈ Aci é?¿i ∈ I ¤á
i∈I
/ Ai é?¿i ∈ I ¤á
⇐⇒ x ∈
[ [ c
⇐⇒ x ∈
/ Ai , = x ∈ Ai .
i∈I i∈I
ª y.
(IV) 8Ü (k È 8Ü A † B (k È (Cartesian product)´¤k

ƒé (a, b), Ù¥ a ∈ A, b ∈ B ¤ 8Ü, =
A × B := {(a, b) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
•?˜Ú/, 8Üx Ai (i ∈ I) (k È•
Y
Ai := {(ai )i∈I | ai ∈ Ai }.
i∈I
4 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
5P. ·‚Œ±^˜‡{ü~f5n)8Ü.
• •? ←→ 8Ü,
• •þ Æ) ←→ ƒ,
• •þ ˜‡ÆS | ←→ f8Ü,
• ¤kØë\TÆS | < ←→ Ö8,
• Æ ¤k•? ←→ 8Ü ¤ 8x.
§1.1.3 ˜ ~^ 8ÜPÒ
3 Ö¥, ·‚ò²~¦^Xe8Ü:
• Z+ : ê8Ü;
• N = Z ∪ {0}: g,ê8Ü;
• Z: ê8Ü;
• Q: knê8Ü;
• R: ¢ê8Ü;
• F [X]: F (F = Z, Q, R )þ (˜ ) õ‘ª 8Ü.
§1.1.4 N , Ü¤ÆÚ(ÜÆ
A, B •ü‡8Ü. XJé A ¥z‡ ƒ a, þk•˜ ƒb∈B †

ƒéA, ·‚¡déA• A B N (map), Pƒ•
f : A → B, a 7→ b = f (b).
A ¡• f ½Â•, f (A) = {f (a) | a ∈ A} ⊆ B ¡•f Š• ½”8. b

¡•a ”, a ¡•b ”.
8ÜB ´ê(knê§¢ê ) 8Üž, N f S.þ¡•¼ê (func-
tion).
§1.1 8Ü†N 5
XJé a1 , a2 ∈ A, f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) ž, Kk a1 = a2 , ·‚¡N f

•ü (injective); XJé?¿ b ∈ B, •3 a ∈ A, ¦ f (a) = b, ·‚¡
f •÷ (surjective); XJ f Q´ü , q´÷ , ·‚¡ f •˜˜éA
(one-to-one correspondence), ½V (bijective).
éuN g, g : A → B, XJéu?¿a ∈ A, f (a) = g(a), ¡N f †g
ƒ , P•f = g.
f : A → B, g : B → C •N , KN
g ◦ f : A → C, a 7→ g(f (a))
¡• f † g EÜN (½¢EÜÆ, composition law).
·K1.3 ((ÜÆ). f : A → B Ú g : B → C, h : C → D •8Üm N

,K
(h ◦ g) ◦ f = h ◦ (g ◦ f ).
½Â1.4. S •8Ü. ·‚¡N f : S × S → S, (a, b) 7→ p • S þ ˜

‡ $Ž (binary operation).
5P. 3êÆA^¥, PÒ p = f (a, b) ¿Ø´˜‡é·¨ PÒ. ¢Sþ, ·

‚²~¦^ +, ×, ∗, · ÎÒ5L« $Ž, =

p = ab, a × b, a + b, a ∗ b, a · b, ÃXda.

~1.5. oK$Žþ´ $Ž.
~1.6. P ΣA •8Ü A g ¤kN 8Ü, KN EÜ ¤ ΣA

þ $Ž.
P SA •8Ü A g ¤kV ¤ 8Ü, KN EÜ ¤ SA
þ $Ž.
½Â1.7. 8Ü S þ $ŽXJ÷v^‡é¤k a, b, c ∈ S,
(ab)c = a(bc), (1.4)
K¡T $Ž÷v(ÜÆ (associative law). XJé?¿ a, b ∈ S,
ab = ba, (1.5)
K¡Ù÷v †Æ (commutative law).

6 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
5P. XJ† ^f (a, b) L« $Žab, K(1.4) = ª
f (f (a, b), c) = f (a, f (b, c)),
(1.5) = ª
f (a, b) = f (b, a).
ddŒ±wÑ¦^¦{PÒL« $Ž {'5.
N´wÑ, þ¡~f¥ $Žþ÷v(ÜÆ, N EÜ¿Ø÷
v †Æ. ¯¢þ, ·‚kXeÄ ¯¢:
(ÜÆ´•˜„ 5Æ.
3 Ö¥, ·‚òDƒ‰½8Ü˜‡½ê‡(÷v(ÜÆ) $Ž, l

DƒT8Ü+, ‚½ö• “ê( .
§1.1.5 d'X, da†©
½Â1.8. 8Ü A ¥ ƒm 'X ∼ ¡• d'X (equivalence relation),

XJeãn5Ÿ¤á:
(1) (g‡5) é¤k a ∈ A, a ∼ a.
(2) (é¡5) XJ a ∼ b, K b ∼ a.
(3) (D45) XJ a ∼ b … b ∼ c, K a ∼ c.
½Â1.9. 8Ü A Š•§ ˜ f8Ü Ø ¿, ¡• A ˜‡© (parti-

tion).
∼Áþ ˜‡ d'X. X a ∈ A, P [a] = {b ∈ A | b ∼ a}, =

[a] • A ¥¤k† a d ƒ ¤ f8Ü, K

[a] = [b], XJa ∼ b,
[a] ∩ [b] =
∅, XJa b.
A Œ± •Ø ¿
G
A= [a]. (1.6)
a∈A
§1.1 8Ü†N 7
·‚ ˜‡© . ,˜•¡, XJ A = Ai , ·‚éN´3 A þ½

F
A
i∈I
Â˜‡ d'X:
a ∼ b XJ a, b áuÓ˜‡ Ai ,
a b XJ a, b áuØÓ Ai .
·‚kXe½n
½n1.10. 8Ü A © †Ùþ d'X˜˜éA.
~1.11. ê8Ü Z Œ±© •óê8ÜÚÛê8Ü Ø ¿. ,˜•¡,

3 Z þŒ±½Â d'X: a ∼ b XJ a ≡ b (mod 2), óê8Ü´ 0 ¤
3 da, Ûê8Ü• 1 ¤3 da.
f : A → B •8Üm N . éu b ∈ B, -b ”8Ü f −1 (b) =

{a ∈ A | f (a) = b}. K f −1 (b) • A f8, üüØ , … f −1 (b) = ∅ …
= b∈
/ f (A). ·‚ ©
G
A= f −1 (b), (1.7)
b∈f (A)
·‚¡•8ÜA dN f û½ © . T© û½ d'X=
a ∼ a0 ⇐⇒ f (a) = f (a0 ).
~1.12. ½ÂN f : Z → {0, 1}, Ù¥ f (2n) = 0, f (2n + 1) = 1. KN f

û½ d'XÚ© =†~1.11 ‰Ñ ˜—.
~1.13. f : R2 = R × R → R •¢ê~{N (x, y) 7→ x − y, K f −1 (a)

•†‚ y = x − a. ¢²¡ R2 3N f e´²1†‚å y = x − a (a ∈ R)
¿, dd·‚ R2
˜‡© ÚéA d'X.
S K
SK1.1. B, A (i ∈ I)þ´8ÜΩ f8, Áy:
\ [i [ \
(1) B ( Ai ) = (B Ai ).
i∈I i∈I
8 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
[ \ \ [
(2) B ( Ai ) = (B Ai ).
[ i∈I \ i∈I
(3) ( Ai )c = Aci .
i∈I
\ i∈I
[
c
(4) ( Ai ) = Aci .
i∈I i∈I
SK1.2. f : A → B ´8Ü N , A ´š˜8Ü. Áy:

(1) f •ü ⇔•3 g : B → A, ¦ g ◦ f = 1A ;
(2) f •÷ ⇔•3 h : B → A, ¦ f ◦ h = 1B .
SK1.3. XJ f : A → B, g : B → C þ´˜˜éA, K g ◦ f : A → C •
´˜˜éA, … (g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .
SK1.4. y²N½ n(·K 1.1).
SK1.5. A ´k•8, P (A) ´ A Üf8 (•)˜8) ¤ ¤ 8

x, Áy |P (A)| = 2|A| , †é{`, n 8Ü k 2n ‡f8.
SK1.6. f : A → B ´8Üm N . 38Ü A þXe½Â˜‡'X:

0 0
é?¿ a, a ∈ A, a ∼ a …= f (a) = f (a0 ). Áyù ½Â 'X´˜
‡ d'X.
SK1.7. y² d'X n‡^‡´pƒÕá , •Ò´`, ®•?¿ü‡

dØUíÑ1n‡^‡.
SK1.8. A, B ´ü‡k•8Ü.
(1) A B ØÓN kõ ‡?
(2) A þØÓ $Ž kõ ‡?
§1.2 + Ä VgÚ~f
§1.2.1 + ½ÂÚ~f
‚Äk‰Ñ+ ½Â.
½Â1.14. 8Ü G 9Ùþ $Ž · XJ÷veãn^‡:
(1) (ÜÆ¤á, =é ƒ a, b, c ∈ G, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).

§1.2 + Ä VgÚ~f 9
(2) •3ü (identity element) 1 = 1G , =é?¿ a ∈ G,
a · 1 = 1 · a = a.
ü •¡•N .
(3) G þz‡ ƒ a þk_ (inverse), =•3 ƒ b ∈ G ¦
a · b = b · a = 1.
K¡ (G, ·) •+ (group), $Ž · ¡•+ ¦{ (multiplication).
5P. (1) S.þ, ·‚~~ŽÑ¦{$Ž, ¡ G •+, …P a · b • ab.

(2) XJ (G, ·) =÷v(ÜÆ, ·‚¡ƒ•Œ+ (semigroup); XJ (G, ·)
÷v(ÜÆ…•3ü , ·‚¡ƒ•¹NŒ+ (monoid).
Ö¥ éŒŸÌ, l+Ø ½Âm©, k•• •£, †–

Ö • ˜ÙGaloisnØ, ÑlØm200cc ) {IUâê
Æ[D pdA · ³Û (Évariste Galois§1811c10 25F—
1832c5 31F, ã 1.6) •ŒóŠ. ³Û 3Ø 21• )·
p‰êÆ3e Ÿ˜˜). ¦C½ Ä–“êüŒÄ nØ: +
ØÚ±¦·¶ GaloisnØ. ù nØ´ ““êÚêØïÄ
Ä |Î, ´êÆr•Ä–z I“. ¦ nØ, {y² ˜
„n g•§Šª)Ø•3, ±9£‰ ;AÛJK¥üŒJK:
ØU^†ºÚ 5?¿n © ; ƒê> õ>/Œ±^†ºÚ
5 E …= Tƒê´¤êƒê. ³Û óŠ3)cØ
«@, † 1843câd4‘ (Joseph Liouville) u ¿(@,
1846cd4‘ n3¦ ,“Journal de Mathématiques Pures
et Appliquées Ñ‡.
~1.15. d+ ½Â, + G ˜½•¹ü 1G . ,˜•¡, =dü ¤

8Ü{1} 3¦{1 · 1 = 1 e÷v+ n‡ún, Ïd§ ¤+. ù´•{
ü +.
10 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
ã 1.6: ³Û ”
·K1.16. G •+, Keã5Ÿ¤á:

(1) G ¥ ƒ _ •˜.
(2) ž Æ¤á, =: XJ ab = ac, K b = c; XJ ba = ca, K b = c.
y². (1) XJ b, c • a ∈ G _ ,K
b = b · 1 = b(ac) = (ba)c = 1 · c = c.
(2) XJ ab = ac, K a−1 (ab) = a−1 (ac), d(ÜÆ= b = c.
½Â1.17. XJ+ G ƒ‡êk•, ¡ G •k•+ (finite group), Ù ƒ

‡ê¡• G (order). Ã•+ P•Ã¡.
½Â1.18. XJ+ G þ ¦{$Ž÷v †Æ, ·‚¡ G •C + (a-

belian group), ½¡• †+ (commutative group). ·‚~~^\{ + 5L
«C +G $Ž, ¿òÙþ ü P• 0 ½ 0G , P a _ •
−a.
§1.2 + Ä VgÚ~f 11
ã 1.7: é%‰¦þ C ”
19-V ›c“ êÆU˜, V(ðˆ, Ù¥˜ ´³Û , ,

˜ Ò´é%êÆ[Z d · C (Niels Abel§1802c8 5F—
1829c4 6F). C Ú³Û Ñ´3cV”” žÿ‰Ñ
êÆ¤þK• (J, qÑ´·åõs, =c@². C
±y²Êg•§ Šª) ØŒU5Úéý ¼êØ ïÄ
ª¶. du¦uy•§ (³Û )+ †5Œ±íÑ¦Šúª
•35, {IêÆ[Camille Jordan (e IO. uyö) ò
†+·¶•C +. •VgC , é% ?l2003cåm
©…uC ø, ù´ 8êÆ. •pJ™ƒ˜. ã 1.7 •é
% ?1978cu1±C ”• µ 500ŽK‰¦.
·‚Äk‰ÑC + ˜ ~f.
~1.19. (1) Z, Q, R, C 3\{$Že ¤Ã•C +, 0 •\{ü .

× × ×
(2) Q = Q − {0}, R = R − {0}, C = C − {0} 3¦{$Že ¤C
+, 1 •¦{ü .
~1.20. ê8 Z n •{a8Ü {0̄ = 0 mod n, 1̄, · · · , n − 1} ¤\

{C +, ·‚Pƒ• Z/nZ. 8 XØAO`², 3 Z/nZ ¥, ·‚ò£
Ø ¯ , ò ā † P•a.
AO/, XJ n = p ´ƒê, P Fp = Z/pZ, K Fp ´\{C +. Ó
ž, F×
p = (Fp − {0}, ×) ´¦{C +, ù´Ï•Šâ ê Ó{nØ, X
J a 6≡ 0 mod p, K•3 b ∈ Z, ¦ ab ≡ 1 mod p.
12 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
5P. 3þãü‡~f¥, ·‚¢Sþ‰Ñ • A‡~„~f: knê•

Q, ¢ê• R, Eê• C Úk•• Fp . §‚ Ó:Ñ´: ´\{C
+, Ù¥š" 8Üq ¤¦{C +, …\{Ú¦{÷v© Æ,
= (a + b)c = ac + bc éÙ¥?Û 3 ‡ ƒ a, b, c þ¤á. ù Ó:ò
¤• ½Â, ·‚ò3 Ö •[ ã. 3dƒc, ·‚J •=´•
þã 4 ‡~f.
~1.21. - ζn = exp( 2πi

n
) = cos 2π
n
+ i sin 2π
n
, K8Ü µn = {1, ζn , . . . , ζnn−1 }
´dEê• C þ¤k n gü Š ¤ 8Ü. 3Eê¦{¿Âe, µn ´¦
{C +, ¡• n gü Š+ (group of roots of unity). •?˜Ú/, ü
S = {z ∈ C | |z| = 1} ´¦{C
1
+.
·‚25wš †+ ~f.
~1.22 (˜„‚5+). V ´• F þ n ‘‚5˜m, Ù¥F = Q, R, C

½ Fp . d‚5“êŒ•, ½V þ ˜|Ä, K V þ‚5C†d§3ù|
Äe n • •˜(½. P
Mn (F ) = {F þn • },
GLn (F ) = {F þn Œ_• }.
K Mn (F ) 3Ý \{¿ÂeĆ +, 3¦{¿Âe´¹NŒ+, Ø
´+. GLn (F ) 3Ý ¦{¿Âe ¤+, ·‚¡ƒ•F þ ˜„‚5+
(general linear group). XJ n = 1, K GLn (F ) = F × , = F ¦{+,
§´˜‡ †+; XJ n > 1, K GLn (F ) Ø´ †+. 8 XJØrN•
F , ·‚P˜„‚5+• GLn .
~1.23. o¡NABCD ^=+. •Ä¤k ±o¡NØC ^=C†,

ùpkn«œ¹.
• kü‡º:ØÄ, K•eü‡:•ØÄ, •ð C†.
• k…=k˜‡º: A ØÄ, K n / BCD ¥% O •ØÄ. ^=

C†ÏL^= 2π
3
½ 4π
3
ò B, C, D ^= C, D, B ½ D, B, C, kü
‡C†. òº: A CÄ, K 4 × 2 = 8 «^=C†.
§1.2 + Ä VgÚ~f 13
• XJ¤kº:ÑÄ, Ke A ^= B, K B ØU^= C ½ D (ÄK

D ½ C ØÄ), = B 7,^= A. Ïd C ^= D, D ^= C.
= AB ¥: M † CD ¥: N ë †‚ ±ØÄ. ù œ¹ k
3 «.
¤k o¡^=C†3C†EÜŠ•¦{¿Âe ¤+, ð C†•ü

. Œ± y1 aC†Ú1naC† EÜØ †, o¡N ^=
C†+´12 šC +.
~1.24. •˜„/, S ´˜‡fN, =ØŒØ Ú. ÔN. ±S Ø

C $Ä ¤˜‡+, ¡• S fN$Ä+. ˜„ ó§ØĆ +.
~1.25 (é¡+). A •š˜8Ü. P A g N 8Ü• MA . A

g ˜˜éA¡• A ˜† (permutation). PA ¤k˜†8Ü• SA .
K MA 3N EÜŠ•¦{¿Âe´¹NŒ+ Ø´+, SA ´+, Ùü
•ð N , ·‚¡ SA • A é¡+ (symmetric group) ½˜†+
(permutation group).
AO/, A = {1, 2, . . . , n}, P SA = Sn , K Sn • {1, . . . , n} ¤k˜
† ¤ 8Ü. ·‚• Sn ¥¹k n! ‡˜†. XJ n = 2, K S2 = {id, τ },
Ù¥ τ (1) = 2, τ (2) = 1. N´ y S2 •C +. n > 3 ž, Sn Ø´
†+.
~1.26. ·‚5OŽ˜ek•• Fp ˜„‚5+ GLn (Fp ) .

XJ A = (aij ) ∈ GLn (Fp ), Pαi = (aij )nj=0 •A 1i11•þ. K
α1 6= 0, kp − 1 «ÀJ•ª; α2 Ø3α1 )¤ 1‘ Fp •þ˜m¥, kpn − p
n
«ÀJ•ª; Óné 2 6 i 6 n, αi Ø3dα1 , · · · , αi−1 )¤ i − 1‘ Fp •

þ˜m¥, kpn − pi−1 «ÀJ•ª. A k (pn − 1)(pn − p) · · · (pn − pn−1 )
ŒUÀJ. GLn (Fp ) ´k•+, • (pn − 1)(pn − p) · · · (pn − pn−1 ).
§1.2.2 f+Ú+ †È
k + VgÚ~f, ·‚F"
(1) ïÄ+ ( ,
(2) E•õ + ~f.

14 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
ùžÿ, I‡f+††È Vg.
½Â1.27. G •+. XJ H ´ G f8, …é G ¦{$Ž ¤+, K

¡H ´G f+ (subgroup), P• H 6 G. XJ H 6= G, ¡ H • G ý
f+ (proper subgroup), P• H < G.
~1.28. é?¿+ G, {1} Ú G þ´ G f+, ¡• G ²…f+ (trivial

subgroup).
~1.29. \{+nZ ´ Z f+. ¦{+µn Ú S 1 ´ C× f+. {±1} ´

×
R f+.
d½ÂŒ•, ‡ y H • G f+, •I yXen:, =

(1) 1 ∈ H.
(2) XJ a ∈ H, K a−1 ∈ H.
(3) XJ a, b ∈ H, K ab ∈ H.
·K1.30. f8Ü H T´+ G f+ …= é?¿ a, b ∈ H, ab−1 ∈ H.
y². XJ H 6 G, a, b ∈ H, K b−1 ∈ H, ab−1 ∈ H. ‡L5, a = b ∈ H,

K 1 = aa−1 ∈ H. a = 1, b = a, K 1 · a−1 = a−1 ∈ H. a = a, b = b−1 ,
K a(b−1 )−1 = ab ∈ H. H ´G f+.
n o
~1.31. -H = ( 10 a1 ) a ∈ R , KH ´˜„‚5+GL2 (R) f+. ù´

Ï•
! !−1 !
1 a 1 b 1 a−b
· = .
0 1 0 1 0 1
~1.32 ( ¡N+). P ´ n >/ (n > 3), ± P ØC ¤kf5C

†kü«: ^=Ú‡ , Xã 1.8 ¤«.
P Dn •¤k^=Ú‡ 3EÜ¿Âe ¤ +, K Dn • n >/
é¡+, ¡• ¡N+ (dihedral group). Dn ¤k ƒ•): ð C†,
n − 1 ‡^=, n ‡‡ , •2n +.
du ± n >/ØC z‡f5C†d§ n ‡º: ˜†•˜(
½, ¡N+Dn ´Sn f+.
§1.2 + Ä VgÚ~f 15
(a) ^= (b) ‡
ã 1.8: 5>/ ^=Ú‡
5P. ¡N+3ØÓ©z¥P• Dn ½ D2n . S.þ, AÛÆ[U•^

Dn (rN õ>/ >ê), “êÆ[U•^ D2n (rN õ>/é¡+
).
½Â1.33. G1 , G2 •+, K G1 † G2 (Š•8Ü ) (k È G =

G1 × G2 3¦{$Ž
(g1 , g2 ) · (h1 , h2 ) = (g1 h1 , g2 h2 )
e ¤+: § ü ´ 1G = (1G1 , 1G2 ), ƒ (g1 , g2 ) _´ (g1−1 , g2−1 ). +

G ¡• G1 † G2 †È , ½ö¡•(k È.
5P. (1) d½Âá•+ †È u+ ¦È.

(2) XJ H1 Ú H2 ©O´ G1 Ú G2 f+, K H1 × H2 ´ G1 × G2
f+. AO/, G1 × G2 kf+ {1G1 } × G2 Ú G1 × {1G2 }.
§1.2.3 GLn f+: ;.+
3êÆïÄ¥, •-‡ ã+´˜„‚5+ GLn f+, ¡•;.+

(classical group). 'u;.+ ïÄÚA^0BuêÆ ˆ‡Æ‰©|. d
u˜„‚5+5gu‚5“ê, ‚5“ê•£3ïÄ;.+ žÿåX›©
-‡ Š^. ·‚e¡0 Aa;.+.
(I) AÏ‚5+
F ••, K F þ1 ª• 1 n • 8Ü
SLn (F ) = {A ∈ GL(F ) | det A = 1} (1.8)
¤ GLn (F ) ˜‡f+, ¡• F þ n AÏ‚5+ (special linear

group). , , ·‚-
16 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
(i) Tn (F ) •é ‚ •1 n þn ;
(ii) Diagn (F ) • n Œ_é 8Ü;
(iii) Bn (F ) • n Œ_þn 8Ü.
K§‚þ• GLn (F ) f+, … Tn (F ) 6 SLn (F ), Diagn (F ) 6 Bn (F ).
32 ˜„‚5+ SL2 (R) ¥, ¤k XêÝ ¤f+ SL2 (Z), = Z
þ 2 AÏ‚5+. aq/, N •Œu 1 ê. ·‚E,Œ±3
Z/N Z Xê 2 Ý þ½Â1 ª, Ù¥1 ª• 1 Ý 8Ü
n o
SL2 (Z/N Z) = a b a, b, c, d ∈ Z/N Z, ad − bc = 1 (1.9)
c d
±Ý ¦{Š•¦{, Ò ¤ Z/N Z þ 2 AÏ‚5+. ê 2 †¤

˜„ n ž, ·‚Ò Z þÚZ/N Z þ AÏ‚5+.
(II) +†AÏ +
3 Rn þ‰½IOSÈ
hX, Y i = X T Y,
Ù¥ T L«=˜, K Rn ¤•îAp ˜m. • A ¡• • (orthogonal

matrix) ½ , ´• A ± Rn þ IOSÈØC, =é?¿ X, Y ∈ Rn ,
hAX, AY i = X T AT AY = X T Y,
½=
AT A = AAT = I. (1.10)
dd·‚• : (i) ü Ý ´ ; (ii) ¦È´ ; (iii)

_•´ . Ïd¤k • 8Ü
On (R) := {A ∈ GLn (R) | AT A = AT A = I} (1.11)
¤˜‡+, = R þ n + (orthogonal group). •˜„/, Q•

n ‘¢˜m V þšòzé¡V‚5.. d.5½n, •3 V þ˜|Ä¦
Q dXe/ª‰Ñ:

Ip
Q(u, v) = X T −Iq Y (p + q = n),
§1.2 + Ä VgÚ~f 17
Ù¥ X, Y ••þ u, v 3dÄe ‹I. ¤k ±V‚5. Q ØC Œ_•

8Ü
n o
I Ip
Op,q (R) := A ∈ GLn (R) | AT p −Iq A= −Iq (1.12)
• ¤+, ¡•2Â + (generalized orthogonal group). ·‚¡
SOn (R) := On (R) ∩ SLn (R), (1.13)

SOp,q (R) := Op,q (R) ∩ SLn (R) (1.14)
•AÏ + (special orthogonal group) Ú2ÂAÏ + (generalized

special orthogonal group).
~1.34. n = 2 ž, ·‚k
( ! )
cos θ − sin θ
SO2 (R) = θ∈R ,

sin θ cos θ
( ! )
cos θ − sin θ
O2 (R) = θ∈R .

± sin θ ± cos θ
•?˜Ú/, é˜„ • F, Q ••F þ n ‘‚5˜m V þ šò

zé¡V‚5., ·‚Œ±aq½Â F þ ±V‚5. Q ØC +Ú
AÏ +.
(III) j+ÚAÏj+
V ´ n ‘E‚5˜m, Q ´ V þšòzHermite V‚5., K•3
V ˜|Ä, ¦ Q 3dÄeŒL«Xe:
T
Q(u, v) = Q(X, Y ) = X Y.
• A ¡•j (unitary matrix) ´•§ ± Q ØC, = A ÷v

T T
A A = AA = I. (1.15)
dd·‚• : (i) ü Ý ´j ; (ii) j ¦È´j ; (iii) j _•

´j . Ïd
T T
U(n) := {A | A A = AA = I} (1.16)
18 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
´ GLn (C) ˜‡f+, ¡•j+ (unitary group). § f+
SU(n) = U (n) ∩ SLn (C), (1.17)
¡•AÏj+ (special unitary group).
~1.35. n = 1 ž, U(1) = S 1 = {z ∈ C | |z| = 1}, SU(1) = {1}.

n = 2 ž,
n o
α β
SU(2) = −β̄ ᾱ | α, β ∈ C, |α|2 + |β|2 = 1 .
(IV) "+
V ´¢‚5˜m, Q(x, y) ´ V þ šòz‡é¡V‚5.. d Q
šòz5, ·‚• dim V = 2n •óê, …•3 V ˜|Ä¦
Q(u, v) = X T 0 In

−In 0 Y,
Ù¥ X, Y • u, v 3Äe ‹I. ¤k ± Q ØC • 8Ü, =•+
Sp2n (R) = A | AT 0 In 0 In

−In 0 A= −In 0 , (1.18)
¡•"+ (symplectic group).

5P. XJ A ∈ Sp2n (R), Œ±y² det A = 1, vkAÏ"+ `{.
§1.2.4 + Ó †Ó
ïÄ+ 5Ÿ, lØmïÄ+†Ù§+ 'X, ù 'XXÓïÄ8Ü

m 'X˜ , ´d+ƒm N 5û½ . 7L5¿ , +Ø=´8Ü,
§þ¡k¦{$Ž, +†+ƒm N AT ±¦{$Ž. ·‚kXe
½Â.
½Â1.36. G1 † G2 •+, N f : G1 → G2 ¡•+Ó (homomorphis-

m) ´•é?¿ g, h ∈ G1 ,
f (gh) = f (g)f (h).
(5¿ þª†> g · h ´+ G1 ¥ ¦{$Ž, m> f (g) · f (h) ´ G2 ¥

¦{$Ž.)
§1.2 + Ä VgÚ~f 19
X f Š•8ÜN •ü , ¡ f •üÓ (epimorphism). X f •÷

(epimorphism), ¡ f •÷Ó . X f •V , K¡ f •Ó (isomorphis-
m), P• f : G1 ∼
= G2 .
·K1.37. f : G1 → G2 •+Ó , K
(1) +Ó o´òü N ü , =f (1G1 ) = 1G2 .
(2) +Ó o´ò_ N _ , =éug ∈ G1 , f (g −1 ) = f (g)−1 .
y². df (1G1 ) = f (1G1 · 1G1 ) = f (1G1 ) · f (1G1 ), 2dž Æ= (1).

eg ∈ G1 , K
f (g) · f (g −1 ) = f (g · g −1 ) = f (1G1 ) = 1G2 ,
f (g −1 ) = f (g)−1 , (2) y.
·‚5w˜ +Ó ÚÓ ~f.
~1.38. XJH ´G f+, K•¹N i : H → G, h 7→ h •+Ó , …´

üÓ .
~1.39. 1 ªN det : GLn (F ) → F × , A 7→ det A ´+ ÷Ó .
~1.40. ·‚½Â ϕ : Z/nZ → µn , m̄ = m mod n 7→ ζnm , K ϕ ´+Ó .
~1.41. éu σ ∈ Sn , ·‚½Â Aσ ∈ GLn Xe

   
x1 xσ−1 (1)
   
 x2   x −1 
   σ (2) 
Aσ  .  =  .  ,
 ..   .. 
   
xn xσ−1 (n)
K Aσ = (aij ) • (0, 1) Ý ,…
(
1 ej = σ −1 (i),
aij =
0 eØ,.
N σ 7→ Aσ • Sn GLn üÓ . dd·‚Œ±Àé¡+ Sn •˜„

‚5+ GLn f+, Aσ •¡•˜†Ý .
20 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
~1.42. j+S 1 = U(1) ÚAÏ + SO2 (R) Ó ,Ó N •
e2πiθ 7→ cos θ − sin θ

sin θ cos θ .
~1.43. R×
+ •¤k ¢ê ¤ ¦{+, K•ê¼ê
exp : R → R×
+, x 7→ ex
´+Ó . Ù_•éê¼ê
log = ln : R×
+ → R, y 7→ ln y.
3+ØïÄ¥, ²~¬òÓ À•ƒÓ, ½ö`3Ó ¿Âe˜ . ,

˜•¡, •¬¯9Ó +ƒmŒ± Eõ «Ó . ·‚k
½Â1.44. +Ó X´+ G g Ó , K¡• G gÓ (automor-

phism).
·K1.45. (1) + G ¤kgÓ 3EÜN Š•¦{e ¤+, ¡• G

gÓ +, P• AutG.
(2) X ϕ : G → H • G HÓ . KG H ¤kÓ • ϕAutG =
{ϕ ◦ f | f ∈ AutG}.
y². (1) •I y+Ø3ún=Œ, ù Ñ´w, .

f ϕ
(2) Äk, ϕ ◦ f : G → G → H • G H Ó . ,˜•¡, X
0 −1 0
ϕ • G → H Ó , K ϕ ◦ϕ : G → H → G • G gÓ .
ϕ0 = ϕ ◦ (ϕ−1 ◦ ϕ0 ) ∈ ϕAutG.
S K
SK2.1. - A ´?¿˜‡8Ü, G ´˜‡+, Map(A, G) ´ A G ¤
kN 8Ü, é?¿ü‡N f, g ∈ Map(A, G), ½Â¦È f g ´ù N
: é?¿ α ∈ A, f g(α) = f (α)g(α). Áy Map(A, G) ´+.
SK2.2. l²¡ g ¼êXJ ±²¡þ?Ûü: ål, K¡• å

N . y² åN Ñ´V , …¤k åN 3¼êEÜ¿Âe ¤+.
§1.2 + Ä VgÚ~f 21
SK2.3. G ´+, x, y ∈ G. y²: (x−1 )−1 = x … (xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 .
SK2.4. äe¡= 2 • 8Ü3Ý ¦{¿Âe ¤+:

(1) ( ab cb ) , ac 6= b2 .
(2) ( ac ab ) , a2 6= bc.
(3) ( a0 cb ) , ac 6= 0.
(4) ( ac db ) , a, b, c, d ∈ Z, ad 6= bc.
SK2.5. y²8Ü n≥1 µn 3Eê¦{¿Âe ¤+.

S
SK2.6. XJ A ´+ G f+, B ´+ H f+, y²A × B ´G × H

f+. Þ~`²Ø´¤k Z × Z f+Ñ´Xd .
SK2.7. (G, ·) ´+. y² Gop = (G, ◦), a ◦ b = b · a ´˜‡+, ¡• G

‡+.
SK2.8. G ´˜‡¹NŒ+, y² G ¥ Œ_ 8Ü G× ¤+.
SK2.9. - G ´ n k•+, a1 , a2 , . . . , an ´+ G ?¿ n ‡ ƒ, Ø˜
½üüØÓ. Áy: •3 ê p Ú q, 1 6 p 6 q 6 n, ¦
ap ap+1 · · · aq = 1.
SK2.10. 3óê + G ¥, •§ x2 = 1 okóê‡).
SK2.11. (1) y SLn (F ), Tn (F ), Diagn (F ), Bn (F ) þ• GLn (F ) f

+, … Tn (F ) 6 SLn (F ), Diagn (F ) 6 Bn (F ).
(2) y On (R), Op,q (R), Sp2n (R) þ• GLn (R) f+.
(3) y U(n) ´ GLn (C) f+.
SK2.12. Áy+ G ?¿õ‡f+ E´ G f+.
SK2.13. A Ú B ©O´+ G ü‡f+. Áy: A ∪ B ´ G f+

…= A 6 B ½ B 6 A. |^ù‡¯¢y²: + G ØUL•ü‡ýf
+ ¿.
SK2.14. A, B ´+ G ü‡f+. Áy AB ´ G f+ …=
AB = BA.
22 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
SK2.15. A Ú B ´k•+ G ü‡š˜f8. e |A| + |B| > |G|, y

² G = AB. AO/, XJ S ´ G ˜‡f8, |S| > |G|/2. y²é?¿
g ∈ G, •3 a, b ∈ S ¦ g = ab.
SK2.16. (1) (½ Z ¤kf+.

(2) (½ Z/nZ ¤kf+, Ù¥ n ∈ N, n > 2 .
SK2.17. y²: N f : G → G, a 7→ a−1 ´ G gÓ …= G´

C +.
SK2.18. G1 , G2 , G3 •+, y²:

(1) G1 × G2 ∼= G2 × G1 ;
(2) (G1 × G2 ) × G3 ∼= G1 × (G2 × G3 ).
SK2.19. ée¡z˜œ/, (½ G ´ÄÓ uH ÚK È.

×
(1) G = R , H = {±1}, K = R×
+.
(2) G = Bn (F ), H = Diagn (F ), K = Tn (F ).
(3) G = C× , H = S 1 , K = R×
+.
SK2.20. y²knê\{+ Q Ú¦{+ Q× ØÓ .
SK2.21. (1) - G ´¢êé (a, b), a 6= 0 8Ü. 3 G þ½Â
(a, b)(c, d) = (ac, ad + b).
Áy G ´+.
(2) y² G Ó u GL2 (R) f+
H = ( a 1b ) | a ∈ R× , b ∈ R

SK2.22. + G gÓ α ¡•vkØÄ:, ´•é G ?¿ ƒ g 6= 1,

α(g) 6= g. XJk•+ G äk˜‡vkØÄ: gÓ α … α2 = 1, y²
G ˜½´Ûê C +.
SK2.23. (1) G ´Ûê k•+, α ∈ Aut(G) … α2 = 1. -
G1 = {g ∈ G | α(g) = g}, G−1 = {g ∈ G | α(g) = g −1 }.

§1.3 f+† 8©) 23
y²: G = G1 G−1 … G1 ∩ G−1 = 1.

(2) G ÷vé?¿ g ∈ G, •3 h ∈ G ¦ h2 = g, Kþã(ØE,
¤á. ddy²:
(i) ?Û F þ Ý Œ± ¤é¡ Ú‡é¡ ƒÚ, Ù¥ F =
Q, R, C.
(ii) ?Û¼ê f : R → R Œ± ¤Û¼êÚó¼êƒÚ.
§1.3 f+† 8©)

3þ¡˜!·‚‰Ñ +†f+ ½Â†äN~f. 3 !, ·‚b
G •?¿(Ä–)+, ·‚5ïÄ§þ¡ f+†§g 'X.
§1.3.1 ƒ †Ì‚+
½Â1.46. G ´+, g ´ G ¥ ƒ, d g )¤ f+=´•¹ g •

f+. ·‚^ hgi 5L«§. Ó , X S ⊆ G • G f8Ü, Kd S ¥
ƒ)¤ f+¡• S )¤ f+, P• hSi.
·‚Äk?Ø hgi ¥ ƒ, d+ ún, §7•¹
(i) g k = g · · · g, k ‡ g ƒ¦.
(ii) 1 = g 0 .
(iii) g −k = g −1 · · · g −1 , k ‡ g −1 ƒ¦.
,˜•¡, d(i),(ii),(iii) ¤k ƒ ¤ 8Ü (´ G f+.
hgi = {g k | k ∈ Z}, d? g k ŒUƒÓ.
½Â1.47. + G ¥ ƒg ´•÷v g k = 1 • ê, dž¡ g •

k k• . Xù k Ø•3, ¡ g •Ã¡Œ, dž¡ g •Ã• .
Ún1.48. X g • k k• , K gn = 1 …= n ≡ 0 mod k, g i = g j
…= i ≡ j mod k. dž, g )¤ f+ hgi = {1, g, . . . , g k−1 } ´k
k•+.
X g •Ã• , Kéu êi 6= j, þk g i 6= g j .
24 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
y². X g • k k• , n = kq + r, 0 ≤ r < k. X r 6= 0, K g r 6= 1.
g n = g kq+r = (g k )q · g r = g r 6= 1. X r = 0, K g n = g kq = 1. nþ=y²
gn = 1 …= n ≡ 0 mod k. du g i = g j …= g i−j = 1, •
du i ≡ j mod k. dué?¿ n, n = kq + r, g = g , n r
1, g, · · · , g k−1
ü
üØÓ, hgi = {g n | n ∈ Z} = {1, g, . . . , g k−1 }.
g •Ã• ž, g i = g j ⇔ g i−j = 1 ⇔ i − j = 0, = i = j.
½Â1.49. X G = hSi, ¡ G d S )¤. X S •k•8, ¡ G •k•)¤

+ (finitely generated). AO/, X G d˜‡ ƒ g )¤, ¡ G •Ì‚+
(cyclic group), g • G ˜‡)¤ (generator).
d½Â•Ì‚+7´ †+. •?˜Ú/, ·‚k
½n1.50. G •Ì‚+.
(1) X G •k•+, Ù • n, K G ∼
= Z/nZ.
(2) X G •Ã•+, K G ∼
= Z.
y². g•G )¤ . ½Â
ϕ : Z → G, k 7→ g k .
´• ϕ •÷Ó .
G •Ã•+ž, dÚn 1.48, X i 6= j, K g i 6= g j , ϕ •üÓ . Ï
d ϕ •Ó .
G•n k•+ž, ϕ p Ó Z/nZ → G, k mod n 7→ g k . dÚ
n 1.48, dÓ Qüq÷, •Ó .
½n1.51. G •Ì‚+, g • G )¤ ,K
(1) X G •Ã•+, K G )¤ • g ½ g −1 .
(2) X G • n k•+, K G )¤ 8Ü•
{g k | 0 ≤ k < n, (k, n) = 1}.
(3) G gÓ +

Z/2Z, X G •Ã•+;
AutG ∼
=
(Z/nZ)× , X G • n k•+,
…G z‡gÓ ò)¤ N•)¤ .

§1.3 f+† 8©) 25
y². (1)Ú(2): ƒh = g a ´ G )¤ …= g = hb é,‡ b ∈ Z

¤á. g ab = g. X G •Ã•+, K ab = 1, a = ±1, = h = g ½ g −1 .
XJ G • n, K ab ≡ 1 mod n, ¤± (a, n) = 1.
(3): X f : G → G •gÓ , g •)¤ , K G = {f (g k ) = f (g)k | k ∈
Z}, f (g) •´G )¤ . ·‚½ÂN ϕ Xe:
(i) X G •Ã•+,

1, X f (g) = g;
ϕ : AutG → {±1}, f 7→
−1, X f (g) = g −1 .
(ii) X G •n,
ϕ : AutG → (Z/nZ)× , f 7→ a mod n X f (g) = g a .
K ϕ Qüq÷, … ϕ(f1 f2 ) = ϕ(f1 ) · ϕ(f2 ), = ϕ •+Ó .
±e·‚ Gń Ì‚+. ½§ ˜‡)¤ g. Kéu?Û

ƒ a ∈ G, •3 ê k ¦ a = g k , …¤k÷v^‡ k ¤ n ˜‡Ó
{a. ·‚½Â
logg : G → Z/nZ, a 7→ k, (1.19)
ù´Ì‚+ƒm Ó , =k
logg 1 = 0, logg (ab) = logg (a) + logg (b). (1.20)
·‚¡ k = logg a • a 'u g lÑéê (discrete logarithm). êÆ3&E

S A^¥•-‡ ˜‡Ø%¯KÒ´
¯K1.52 (lÑéê¯K). ®•Ì‚+ G Ú)¤ g. é ƒ a ∈ G,

XÛ¦ a 'u g lÑéê?
·K1.53. G •n Ì‚+, g ´G ˜‡)¤ , a ∈ G. K•§xk = a

3G ¥k) …= d = (k, n) | logg a. … d^‡¤áž, •§ kd ‡
).
26 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
y². x = g y . K•§xk = a k) du•3y, ¦ g ky = g logg a , =ky ≡

logg a mod n k). Šâ êÓ{nØ=•, •§xk = a 3G ¥k) …=
d = (k, n) | logg a.
logg a
d | logg a ž. Ó{•§ky ≡ logg a mod n )•y ≡ d
c mod nd ,
c logg a+in
Ù¥c • kd n
m
_, xk = a kd ‡)g y , Ù¥y = d
(0 ≤ i <
d).
§1.3.2 8Ú 8©)
H ´+ G f+.
½Â1.54. éu a ∈ G, 8Ü aH = {ah | h ∈ H} ¡• G 'u H m 8

(right coset), Ha = {ha | h ∈ H} ¡• G 'u H † 8 (left coset).
Ún1.55. 8 aH † bH ‡oØ , ‡o-Ü. … aH = bH …=

−1 −1
b a ∈ H (½ a b ∈ H). Ón Ha † Hb ‡oØ , ‡o-Ü. … Ha = Hb
…= ab−1 ½ ba−1 ∈ H.
y². X aH ∩ bH 6= ∅. - ah1 = bh2 , K b−1 a = h2 h−1

1 ∈ H. dž
ah = ah1 (h−1 −1
1 h) = bh2 (h1 h) ∈ bH,
bh = bh2 (h−1 −1
2 h) = ah1 (h2 h) ∈ aH,
aH = bH. ÓnŒ † 8œ/.
dÚn 1.55, {ai H | i ∈ I} • G 'u H ¤km 8 ¤ 8Ü,

=ai H L¤kG 'uH m 8, …üüØ . K
G
G= ai H (1.21)
i∈I
•G ˜‡© .
½Â1.56. {ai | i ∈ I} ¡• G ˜‡m 8“L X (right coset represen-

tatives).
§1.3 f+† 8©) 27
Ón, X {Hbj | j ∈ J} • G 'u H ¤k† 8 ¤ 8Ü, K

{bj | j ∈ J} ¡• G ˜‡† 8“L X. 5¿ , {bj | j ∈ J} •† 8
“L X …=
G
G= Hbj (1.22)
j∈J
•G © .
Ún1.57. XJ {ai | i ∈ I} ´ G 'u H †(m) 8“L X, K {a−1

i |
i ∈ I} ´ G 'u H m(†) 8“L X. AO/, X G 'u H †½
m 8“L Xk•, K†!m 8“L Xþk•, … êƒÓ.
y². Ï•Š•8Ü
(aH)−1 = {(ah)−1 | h ∈ H} = {h−1 a−1 | h ∈ H} = Ha−1 .
Ún y.
½Â1.58. + G 'uf+ H •ê (index) (G : H) ´• G 'u H

8“L ‡ê. X 8“L ‡êÃ•, ·‚5½ (G : H) u ∞.
½n1.59 (.‚KF½n). X G •k•+, K
|G| = |H| · (G : H) (1.23)
5P. XJ5½ ∞ · ê = ∞ · ∞ = ∞, K G •Ã•+ž(1.23)•¤á.
y². d(1.21), ·‚k
X X
|G| = |ai H| = |H| = |H| · |I| = |H| · (G : H).
i∈I i∈I
½n y.
28 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
ã 1.9: .‚KFƒ2
ÙÅ-´´ · .‚KF(Joseph-Louis Lagrange§1736c1 25F

¨1813c4 10F) ´{I7¿Œ|¾êÆ[ÚU©Æ[, 3ê
Æ, ÔnÚU© +•‰Ñ éõ-Œ z, ¦ ¤Ò•)·
‚Ù• ‡È©.‚KF¥Š½n"3©Ù Réflexions sur la
résolution algébrique des équations ¥, .‚KF`²XJò n
õ‘ª n ‡Cþ^¤k n! ‡˜†Š^, õ‘ª‡ê
o´ n! Ïf. ù‡ê¢SþÒ´õ‘ª -½f+ H 3é¡
+ Sn •ê, = 8©) ‡ê. ùÒ´.‚KF½n å .
Nã 1.9ńikp (Pantheon) ¥.‚KF2.
.‚KF½n´+Ø¥1˜‡-‡½n, §kéõ-‡íØ.
íØ1.60. G •k•+, x ∈ G, K x|G| = 1, = ƒx o´+ G

Ïf.
y². ù´du ƒx uf+hxi .
íØ1.61. ƒê +þ´Ì‚+.
y². g 6= 1, g ∈ G, K g 7• p. G = {1, g, . . . , g p−1 } ∼

= Z/pZ.
§1.3 f+† 8©) 29
ã 1.10: ¤ê 2
íØ1.62 (¤ê ½n). p ´ƒê, Ké¤k† p pƒ ê a,
ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p.
y². ù´du a ∈ F×
p ØF×
p p − 1.
™D · · ¤ê(Pierre de Fermat, 1601c8 17F— 1665

c1 12F), ´••Œ ’{êÆ[, ¦éêØ, ‡È©, )ÛA
ÛÚVÇØ ïáÑRk z. 3êØþ¤êŒ½n¯¤±•,
¤ê ½nkX•õ ¢SA^. ^+Ø *: ó, ¤ê
½n9Ùí2/ªî.½nÑ´.‚KF½n íØ. 3¤ê
2 (ã 1.10) þ, •XXe©i: “3d?u1865c1 13FS:
™D · · ¤ê, Edit½Æ¬Æ Ú#ÑêÆ[, Ï¦ ½n
n n
a + b 6= c (n > 2) n
ª¶u-. ”
íØ1.63. G•n Ì‚+, Kéu?¿ d | n, d ≥ 1, G ¥k•˜ d

n n
Ì‚+ {1, x , . . . , x
d d
(d−1)
}, Ù¥ x • G )¤ . df+•´Ì‚+.
30 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
n n
y². Äk´ y {1, x d , . . . , x d (d−1) } ´ G d Ì‚f+. ,˜•¡,
H ´G d f+, y ∈ H. P y = xa , du y ê Ø d, y d = xad = 1.
n
¤± ad = kn, y = x d k .
íØ1.64. éu?¿ ê n, ke ð ª:
X
n= ϕ(d). (1.24)
1≤d|n
y². ·‚é n Ì‚+ ƒU ©a, K • d ƒ)¤•˜ d

Ì‚f+. du d Ì‚+¥ k ϕ(d) ‡)¤ (½n 1.51), Tk ϕ(d)
‡ ƒ • d.
P
n = d|n ϕ(d).
Ún1.65. XJ+ G ¥?Û ƒ x • 1 ½ö 2, K G •C +.
y². du x • 1 ½ 2, K x = x−1 , é a, b ∈ G,
ab = a−1 b−1 = (ba)−1 = ba,
Ïd G •C +.
~1.66. ·‚5?Ø˜e 4 + G œ¹. XJ G ¥•¹ 4 , K

7•Ì‚+. ÄK§ ƒ þ´ 1 ½ö 2, §Ć +, 7•
{1, a, b, ab} /ª, Ù¥ a2 = b2 = 1 … ab = ba. K G † Z/2Z × Z/2Z Ï
LN a 7→ (1, 0), b 7→ (0, 1) Ó . ·‚P Z/2Z × Z/2Z = K2 , ¡• Klein
+.
™ | Ž d · Ž 4 Ï(Felix Klein, 1849c4 25F– 1925

c6 22F, ã 1.11) ±¡E xÉŠ3-.êÆ Ú£/
ª¶u-, ¦òxÉŠŒÆï ¤•19-V" þ‡-V30c
“-.êÆ ¥%. ÈT˜¦, ¦1872cuL O =Šj
+(Erlangen Program) éuêÆïÄ K•cÙ , Ù¥Ž4
ÏmM5 gŽ´: AÛÆ©ad§ C†+û½. ld± é
¡+ gŽr?AÛÚÔnïÄ c÷. Š `² ´, 100c
+ êÆïÄc÷ K=[j+(Langlands Program) •lØm
Ž4Ï† \4éu ¼êÚgÅ¼ê mM5óŠ.
§1.3 f+† 8©) 31
ã 1.11: Ž4Ï”
½n1.67. šC + • ê• 6.
y². XJ G • 2, 3, 5, =•ƒê, díØ 1.61, G •C +. X G

´4, þ¡~f`² G •C +. ·‚• S3 • 6 …§ØĆ
+. nþ¤ã,šC + • ê• 6.
duLagrange ½n•´ G 'u H 8©) ˜‡íØ, † ¦^

8©)úª
G
G= gi H, (1.25)
i∈I
·‚k•?˜Ú A^.
½n1.68. + K 6 H 6 G, … (G : K) k•, K
(G : K) = (G : H) · (H : K).
5P. Lagrange ½n, =•þã½n3 K = {1}, G •k•+ AÏœ/.

32 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
y². G 'uH ±9H 'uK † 8©)©O•

G G
G= gi H, H= hj K.
i∈I j∈J
K
[
G= gi hj K.
(i,j)∈I×J
•?˜Ú, XJ gi hj K = gi0 hj 0 K, K gi H ∩ gi0 H 6= ∅, ¤± i = i0 , hj K =

hj 0 K, ¤± j = j 0 . =
G
G= gi hj K,
(i,j)∈I×J
•Ø ¿, {gi hj : i ∈ I, j ∈ J} • G 'u K † 8©), ¤±
(G : K) = (G : H) · (H : K).
½n y.
½n1.69. G •k•+, H † K • G f+, K

(1) |H| · |K| = |HK| · |H ∩ K|.
(2) (G : H ∩ K) 6 (G : H)(G : K), … Ò¤á …= HK = G. X
J (G : H) † (G : K) pƒ, K Ò¤á.
y². Äky²(2). 5¿ (2) ¥ Ø ª du |H ∩ K| · |G| ≥ |H| · |K|.

du |HK| ≤ |G|, d(1), Ø ªáy, … Ò¤á …= |HK| = |G|, =
HK = G. du (G : H) †
(G : K) þ´ (G : H ∩ K) Ïf, XJ§‚pƒ, K Ò7¤á.
éu(1), H ∩ K = L, - {xi | i = 1, · · · , m} • H 'u L † 8
“L X, {yj | j = 1, · · · , n} • K 'u L m 8“L X, K
m
[ n
[ [
HK = xi L Lyj = xi Lyj .
i=1 j=1 i,j
·‚•Iy²þã 8üüØ =Œ. XJ xLy = x0 Ly 0 , K (x0 )−1 xL =

Ly 0 y −1 , (x0 )−1 x ∈ K … y 0 y −1 ∈ H. Ïd (x0 )−1 x ∈ L … y 0 y −1 ∈ L, =
x = x0 … y = y 0 .
§1.3 f+† 8©) 33
S K
SK3.1. ! !
0 −1 0 1
A= , B= .
1 0 −1 −1
Á¦A, B, AB ÚBA 3GL2 (R) ¥ .
SK3.2. y²+¥ ƒa ≤2 …= a = a−1 .
SK3.3. a, b´+G ü‡ ƒ, a ´7…a3 b = ba3 . y²ab = ba.
SK3.4. (1) G ´k•C +. y²:

Y Y
g= a.
g∈G a∈G
a2 =1
(2) y²Wilson½n: Xp ´ƒê, K(p − 1)! ≡ −1 mod p.
SK3.5. y² f = x1 , g = x−1
x
)¤˜‡¼ê+, Ü¤{K´¼ê Ü¤, §
Ó u ¡N+ D3 .
SK3.6. (1) S 1 ?¿k• f+þ•Ì‚+.

(2) Q Ø´Ì‚+, § ?¿k•)¤f+Ñ´Ì‚+.
∗
(3) p ´˜‡ƒê,
n
G = {x ∈ C | •3 n ∈ N ¦ xp = 1}
?¿ýf+Ñ´k• Ì‚+.
SK3.7. a Ú b ´+ G ƒ, ê©O´ n Ú m, (n, m) = 1 …

ab = ba. Áy habi ´ G mn Ì‚f+.
SK3.8. Gń k•+. eé n z˜Ïf m, G ¥–õ•k˜‡

m f+, K G ´Ì‚+.
SK3.9. Þ˜‡Ã•+ ~f, § ?¿ êØ• 1 f+Ñkk••ê.

34 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
SK3.10. (1) G Ć +, H ´G ¥¤kk• ƒ ¤ 8Ü. y

²H ´G f+.
(2)∗ Þ~`²þã(Øéu˜„+Ø (.
SK3.11. (1) G ´Ûê C +. y²d ϕ(x) = x2 ½Â N

ϕ : G → G ´˜‡gÓ .
(2)∗ í2(1) (J.
SK3.12. (1) ¦knê\{+ Q gÓ + Aut(Q).

(2) ¦ ê\{+ Z gÓ + Aut(Z).
(3) OŽ Klein + gÓ +.
(4) ¦š"knê¦{+ Q× gÓ + End(Q× ).
SK3.13. £‰e ¯K:

(1) p´ƒê, p•˜ +´Ä˜½¹kp ?
(2) 35 +´Ä˜½Óž¹k5 Ú7 ƒ?
(3) ek•+ G¹k 10 xÚ6 y, @o+ G AT÷vŸ
o^‡?
SK3.14. XJH †K ´G f+… pƒ, y²H ∩ K = 1.
SK3.15. Rm • m ‘¢•þ˜m, A ´?¿ n × m ¢Ý , W = {X ∈

Rm | AX = 0}. y²‚5•§ AX = B )˜m½ö´˜8, ½ö´ Rm (
Š•\{+)'uW 8.
SK3.16. H Ú K ©O´k•+ G ü‡f+, HgK = {hgk | h ∈

H, k ∈ K}. Áy:
|HgK| = |H| · |K : g −1 Hg ∩ K|.
SK3.17. a, b ´+ G ?¿ü‡ ƒ. Áy: a Ú a−1 , ab Ú ba kƒÓ

.
SK3.18. f : G → H ´+Ó . XJ g´ G k• , K f (g)

Øg .
§1.4 5f+†û+ 35
SK3.19. A ´+ G äkk••ê f+. Áy: •3 G ˜| ƒ

g1 , . . . , gn , §‚QŒ±Š• A 3 G ¥ m 8“L X, qŒ±Š• A 3
G ¥ † 8“L X.
SK3.20. (1) y² SLn (R) d1ãÐ Ý I + aEij (i 6= j) )¤, Ù¥

Eij 1 (i, j) • 1, Ù¦ • 0.
(2) y² GLn (R) d1ãÐ Ý Ú1naÐ Ý )¤.
∗
(3) y² SL2 (Z) Œ±d S = ( 01 −1
0 ) Ú T = ( 11 10 ) )¤.
§1.4 5f+†û+
·‚3þ!½Â + G 'uÙf+ H † 8©)
G
G= gi H = {gH | g ∈ G}.
i∈I
P G/H = {gi H | i ∈ I} • G ¤k† 8 ¤ 8Üa. £Á3‚5“

ê¥, XJ W ´ V f˜m, Kû˜m
V /W = {v + W | v ∈ V },
§Äk´\{f+ W 'u+ V 88Üa. , 3þ¡Œ±½Â‚5˜

m ( , l kû˜m Vg. g,, ·‚F" G/H äk V /W kû
+( , Ù¦{U U« G ¦{. XJ‡d‘^‡¤á, ·‚I‡é?¿
a, b ∈ G, k
aHbH = abH.
dž38Ü¿Âþ,
aHbH = {ah1 bh2 | h1 , h2 ∈ H},
é h1 , h2 ∈ H, I•3 h ∈ H, ah1 bh2 = abh, = h1 b = b(hh−1

2 ). ¤±, ‡¦
G/H þkg, ¦{( , ·‚I‡^‡:
é?¿ b ∈ G, k Hb = bH ½ d^‡ b−1 Hb = H ¤á.

36 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
½Â1.70. G ´+, x ∈ G. é?¿ g ∈ G, gxg −1 ¡• x Ý , ½ö

¡x †x0 = gxg −1 Ý (conjugate).
½Â1.71. f+ N ¡• G 5f+ (normal subgroup), ´•é¤k g ∈ G

−1
k g N g = N . džP N C G.
d½ÂN´ y Ý'X´ d'X, …f+ N ´ G 5f+ …

= N ¥?¿ ƒ ¤k Ý Ñ3 N ¥, = N ´G ¥˜ Ýa ƒ¿.
~1.72. (1) XJG Ć +, Kgxg −1 = x é¤kg ∈ G ¤á, x ´§

¤3 Ýa•˜ ƒ, ÏdG ?Ûf+Ñ´ 5f+.
(2) •?˜Ú`, éu?¿+G, ƒx ¤3 Ýa•k˜‡ ƒ …=
§† G ¥¤k ƒÑ †. ¤kù ƒ ¤ 8Ü´G 5f+( ë
•4.4), ¡•G ¥% (center), P•Z(G).
·‚5w˜‡~„ 5f+~f.
½Â1.73. ϕ : G → H ´+Ó .
(1) N ϕ Ø (kernel)•
ker ϕ = {g ∈ G | f (g) = 1}.
(2) N ϕ ” (image)•
imϕ = {h ∈ H | •3g ∈ G, f (g) = h}.
·K1.74. ϕ : G → H ´+Ó , K ker ϕ ´ G 5f+, imϕ ´ H

f+.
y². d ϕ(g1 g2 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(g2 ), ·‚k
ϕ(1) = 1, ϕ(g)−1 = ϕ(g −1 )
a, b ∈ ker ϕ, K
ϕ(ab−1 ) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b)−1 = 1,
ab−1 ∈ ker ϕ, ker ϕ ´ G f+.

§1.4 5f+†û+ 37
g ∈ G, a ∈ ker ϕ, K
ϕ(g −1 ag) = ϕ(g)−1 ϕ(a)ϕ(g) = ϕ(g)−1 ϕ(g) = 1,
¤± g −1 ag ∈ ker ϕ,
g −1 (ker ϕ)g ⊆ ker ϕ,
ker ϕ ⊆ g(ker ϕ)g −1 .
dé¡5 g −1 (ker ϕ)g = ker ϕ, ¤± ker ϕ ´ G 5f+.

XJ h1 , h2 ∈ imϕ, - ϕ(g1 ) = h1 , ϕ(g2 ) = h2 , K
ϕ(g1 g2−1 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(g2 )−1 = h1 h−1

2 ,
¤± h1 h−1
2 ∈ imϕ, imϕ ´ H f+.
~1.75. 1 ªN det : GLn (C) → C× Ø´ SLn (C), SLn (C) ´

GLn (C) 5f+.
y3 N C G, K G 'u N † 8•
G/N = {aN | a ∈ G} = {N a | a ∈ G},
…
aN bN = a(bN )N = abN.
P a = aN, ½Â¦{
a · b = ab.
dþãín, G/N ¤•˜‡+, ¡• G 'u H û+ (quotient group).

P
π : G → G/N, a 7→ a = aN,
K π ´+ ÷Ó , … ker π = N. ·‚kXe-‡5P:
5P. XJ N ´ G 5f+, K•3+Ó ϕ, ¦ N = ker ϕ; ‡ƒ, X

J N ´+ G ,˜+ +Ó ϕ Ø, K N ´ G 5f+. ·‚~~
|^d‘5Ÿ5ÏéÚ ½+ G 5f+.
38 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
~1.76. (1) d‚5“êŒ•, †¤kŒ_Ý ÑŒ † Ý ´êþÝ

xIn (x ∈ F ), ddŒ• {xIn | x ∈ F × } ´˜„‚5+ GLn (F ) ¥%, §é
A û+P• PGLn (F ), ¡• K˜„‚5+.
(2) SL2 (Z) 'uÙ¥%{±I2 } û+P•PSL2 (Z), =Z þ 2 KA
Ï‚5+. d+´ “êÆïÄ•Í¶ ˜‡+ƒ˜, •¡• + (modular
group).
y3·‚?Ø+Ø¥•-‡½n:
½n1.77 (Ó Ä ½n). ϕ : G → H •+ Ó ,Kϕp Ó
ϕ : G/ ker ϕ → imϕ
ϕ(g) = ϕ(g)
•+Ó .
y². (i) ·‚Äky² ϕ ´ûÐ½Â , =§ ½Â† g À Ã'. ¯¢

þ, e g ker ϕ = g 0 ker ϕ, K g 0 = ga, a ∈ ker ϕ, ¤± ϕ(g 0 ) = ϕ(ga) = ϕ(g).
(ii) ϕ ´Ó . XJ g 1 , g 2 ∈ G/ ker ϕ, K
ϕ(g1 g2 ) = ϕ(g1 g2 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(g2 ) = ϕ(g 1 )ϕ(g 2 ).
(iii) ϕ ´üÓ . XJ ϕ(g 1 ) = ϕ(g 2 ), K ϕ(g1 ) = ϕ(g2 ), g2 =

g1 (g1−1 g2 ) ∈ g1 ker ϕ, = g 2 = g 1 .
(iv) ϕ ´÷Ó ´w, .
d(i)-(iv), ½n y.
íØ1.78. ϕ : G → H •+Ó ,K
(1) ϕ ´üÓ …= ker ϕ = {1}.
(2) ϕ ´÷Ó …= G/ ker ϕ ∼
= H.
~1.79. (1) N R → S 1 , x 7→ e2πix Ø´ Z, ”Ò´ S 1 , dÓ Ä

½n +Ó R/Z ∼= S 1.
(2) éu• F , 1 ªN p Ó GLn (F )/SLn (F ) ∼
= F ×.
§1.4 5f+†û+ 39
~1.80. (1) +Ó ϕ : SL2 (Z) → SL2 (Z/N Z),

! !
a b a mod N b mod N
7→
c d c mod N d mod N
•÷Ó , ÙØ•
n o
Γ(N ) = a b ∈ SL2 (Z) a ≡ d ≡ 1 mod N, b ≡ c ≡ 0 mod N , (1.26)

c d
¡•ÌÓ{f+ (principal congruence subgroup). dÓ Ä ½n, Γ(N )

´SL2 (Z) 5f+, …SL2 (Z)/Γ(N ) ∼= SL2 (Z/N Z).
(2) N > 2. •Ä+Ó τ : Γ(N ) → SL2 (Z) → PSL2 (Z). Kker τ =
Γ(N ) ∩ {±I2 } = {I2 }, τ ´üÓ . dd·‚Œ±òÌÓ{f+ Γ(N ) À
• +PSL2 (Z) f+.
dÓ Ä ½n, ·‚Œ± éõ-‡ (J. ·‚5w˜eÙ¥˜

(J.
½n1.81. N ´G 5f+. P M • G ¥•¹ N ¤kf+ 8

Ü, M • G = G/N ¤kf+8Ü, =
M = {M | N 6 M 6 G},
M = {M | M 6 G = G/N }.
KN α : M → M, M 7→ M/N •˜˜éA.
y². Äk, XJ N C G, Ké¤k N 6 M 6 G, N C M , M/N ´ G/N

f+, = α ´½ÂÐ .
éu M ∈ M, P β(M ) = {g ∈ G | g ∈ M }, K β(M ) ⊇ N , …du M
•+, Ïd β(M ) •´+, β´M M N .
y3·‚•Iu
αβ(M ) = M , βα(M ) = M
=Œ, ù´w, .
40 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
½n1.82. XJ N C G, H 6 G, K
(H ∩ N ) C H, N C NH 6 G
…
N H/N ∼
= H/H ∩ N.
y². du N C G, Kéu a1 h1 , a2 h2 ∈ N H,
a1 h1 (a2 h2 )−1 = a1 h1 h−1 −1 −1

2 a2 = a1 a2 h ∈ N H,
N H 6 G, … N C N H.
y3·‚½ÂÓ
ϕ : H → N H/N, h 7→ h = hN,
g, ϕ •÷Ó , …
ker ϕ = {h | ϕ(h) = 1} = {h | h ∈ N } = H ∩ N.
dÓ Ä ½n
(H ∩ N ) C H
…
N H/N ∼
= H/H ∩ N.
½ny..
½n1.83. XJ N C G, M C G … N 6 M , K
G/N
G/M ∼
= .
M/N
y². Äk½ÂÓ
ϕ : G/N → G/M, gN 7→ gM.
d N 6 M • ϕ •÷Ó , …
ker ϕ = {gN | gM = M } = {gN | g ∈ M } = M/N,
dÓ Ä ½n,
G/N
G/M ∼
= .
M/N
½ny..
§1.4 5f+†û+ 41
S K
SK4.1. - G = {(a, b) | a ∈ R× , b ∈ R}, ¦{½Â•
(a, b)(c, d) = (ac, ad + b).
Áy: K = {(1, b) | b ∈ R} ´ G 5f+… G/K ∼

= R× .
SK4.2. y²1 ª• ¢Ý |¤ G = GLn (R) f8 H ¤˜

‡ 5f+, ¿£ãû+G/H.
SK4.3. G ´+, N C M C G.
(1) XJ N C G, K N C M ;
(1) XJ N C M , K N ´Ä˜½´ G 5f+?
SK4.4. Áy:
(1) + G ¥% Z(G) ´ G 5f+.
(2) + G •ê• 2 f+˜½´ G 5f+.
SK4.5. y²È+ G × G0 f8 G × 1´˜‡† GÓ 5f+, …

G × G0 /G × 1 ∼
= G0 .
SK4.6. e G/Z(G) ´Ì‚+, K G Ć +.
SK4.7. Gi (1 ≤ i ≤ n) •+, K
(1) C(G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn ) = C(G1 ) × C(G2 ) × · · · × C(Gn );
(2) G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn •C + …= z‡ Gi þ•C +.
SK4.8. G •+.
(1) éu x ∈ G, y²N σx : g 7→ xgx−1 ´ G gÓ . σx ¡•S
gÓ (inner automorphism).
(2) - I(G) L«¤k σx : x ∈ G |¤ 8Ü. ÁyI(G) Áut(G)
f+. I(G) ¡•SgÓ +.
(3) y²I(G) ∼
= G/Z(G).
SK4.9. f : G → H ´+Ó , M 6 G. Áy f −1 (f (M )) = KM , ùp
K = ker f .
42 1˜Ù + Ä Vg†5Ÿ
SK4.10. M, N • G 5f+. e M ∩ N = {1}, Ké?¿ a ∈ M ,

b ∈ N , ab = ba.
SK4.11. N C G, g ´+ G ?¿˜‡ ƒ. XJ g Ú |G/N | p

ƒ, K g ∈ N.
SK4.12. n •Ûêž, y² On (R) ∼

= SOn (R) × Z/2Z.
1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
êÆïÄé–¥, ~~I‡ïÄ8Ü 5Ÿ, 8Ü ¿Ø´ á ,

l“ê *: ó, +38Üþ Š^´ïÄ8Ü •Ì‡“ê•{.
·‚Äk‰Ñ½Â.
½Â2.1. X ´8Ü, G •+. G 3 X þ Š^ (The action of G on the

set X)´•N
G × X → X, (g, x) 7→ g · x,
÷v^‡
(1) é?¿ x ∈ X, 1 · x = x.
(2) ((ÜÆ) é?¿ x ∈ X, g, h ∈ G,
g(hx) = (gh)x.
dž, ·‚½¡ X • G-8 (G-set).
§2.1 ˜†+
·‚Äk±˜†+ (é¡+) Sn Š•~f5•Ä˜e+38Üþ Š
^. - Xn = {1, . . . , n}, K Sn = SXn g,Š^3 Xn þ.
§2.1.1 ˜†9ÙL«
é˜† σ ∈ Sn , ·‚˜•¡Œ±^ü1ª5L« σ, =
!
1 2 ··· n
σ= . (2.1)
σ(1) σ(2) · · · σ(n)
,˜•¡, ·‚Œ±^, ˜«•ª5L« σ:
½Â2.2. k 6 n, {a1 , . . . , ak } ⊆ Xn , ˜† σ ¡•˜‡ k Ó† (k-cycle),

´•
• σ(a1 ) = a2 , σ(a2 ) = a3 , . . . , σ(ak ) = a1 ;
43
44 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
• éu i ∈ Xn − {a1 , . . . , ak }, σ(i) = i.
džP σ = (a1 , . . . , ak ).
AO/, 2 Ó†•¡Šé† (transposition).
5P. (1) ?Û˜‡1 Ó†Ñ´ð ˜†, =Sn ¥ ü 1.

(2) k Ó† (a1 a2 · · · ak ) = (a2 · · · ak a1 ) = · · · = (ak a1 a2 · · · ak−1 ).
½Â2.3. XJ {a1 , . . . , ak }∩{b1 , . . . , bj } = ∅, ¡Ó† (a1 a2 · · · ak ) † (b1 b2 · · · bj )

Øƒ (disjoint).
½n2.4. (1) Øƒ Ó†Œ †, =XJ σ = (a1 · · · ak ), τ = (b1 · · · bj ) Øƒ

, K στ = τ σ.
(2) ?¿˜† σ ∈ Sn þŒ •üüØƒ Ó† ¦È, …3ØOk
gS œ¹e•ª•˜.
y². (1) σ = (i1 i2 · · · ik ), τ = (j1 j2 · · · jl ), K
στ (i1 ) = σ(i1 ) = i2 = τ σ(i1 )

···
στ (ik ) = σ(ik ) = i1 = τ σ(ik )
στ (j1 ) = σ(j2 ) = j2 = τ σ(j1 )
···
στ (jl ) = σ(j1 ) = j1 = τ σ(jl )
στ (α) = α = τ σ(α), ∀α ∈
/ {i1 , . . . , ik , j1 , . . . , jl }
στ = τ σ.
(2) éu σ ∈ Sn , ½ i, K8ÜTi = {σ k (i) | k ∈ Z} ⊆ Xn ´k•8,
•3 σ k1 (i) = σ k2 (i), k1 6= k2 , ¤± σ k1 −k2 (i) = i. - mi •• ê¦
σ (i) = 1, K
mi
Ti = {σ k (i) | k ∈ Z} = {i, σ(i), . . . , σ mi −1 (i)}.
du Xn = Ti •Ø ¿, …ù«•ª•˜. ·‚k
F
i∈I
Y
σ= (i σ(i) · · · σ mi −1 (i)),
i∈I
§2.1 ˜†+ 45
…•ª•˜.
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
~2.5. éu σ = , K σ = (1 6)(2 4 3)(5) = (1 6)(2 4 3).
6 4 2 3 5 1
~2.6. éu n, ˜†+Œ±Xe•[‰Ñ.
(1) éu n = 2, S2 = {1, (12)}.
(2) éu n = 3, S3 = {1, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)}.
(3) éu n = 4, K
S4 = {1, (12), (13), (14), (23), (24), (34),

(123), (132), (124), (142), (134), (143), (234), (243),
(1234), (1243), (1324), (1423), (1342), (1432),
(12)(34), (14)(23), (13)(24)}.
du k Ó† (i1 · · · ik ) ¥=‡ ƒ˜3Ä Ø´ Ÿ , òi1 , · · · ik ùk

‡:•^ž gSþ!˜˜3ž¨þ, Kk Ó†Œ±w‰´òž¨^ž =
Ä Ý 2π/k, Ù_•Ò´_ž¨=ÄƒÓ Ý. =k
Ún2.7. X σ = (i1 · · · ik ) • k Ó†, K σ • k, … σ −1 = (ik ik−1 · · · i1 ).
½Â2.8. σ ∈ Sn . σ •Ø Ó†¦Èž, k Ó† ‡ê• λk , K¡ σ

. • 1 2 ···n .
λ1 λ2 λn
d. ½Â, ê λ1 , . . . , λn ≥ 0, ÷v•§
n
X
iλi = n. (2.2)
i=1
¤±Sn ¥˜† . ‡ê=•÷v (2.2) šK ê| λ1 , . . . , λn ‡ê.

3|ÜêÆ¥, ù ê|¡• ên ˜‡© (partition). . ©
‡ê¡•© ¼ê, ~^p(n) L«.
~2.9. dp(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 5 •˜†+ S2 , S3 ÚS4 ¥ ƒ .©

Ok2, 3 Ú5 «, ù†~ 2.6 ˜—.
·K2.10. ˜† σ † σ 0 .ƒÓ …= σ † σ 0 3 Sn ¥ Ý, =•3

τ ∈ Sn , σ 0 = τ στ −1 . ˜†+Sn ¥ Ýa ‡ê u© ¼êp(n).
46 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
y². σ = (i1 · · · ik )(j1 · · · jl ) · · · , K
τ στ −1 = (τ (i1 ) · · · τ (ik ))(τ (j1 ) · · · τ (jl )) · · · ,
§ .† σ ˜—.
‡L5, X σ = (i1 · · · ik )(j1 · · · jl ) · · · ), σ 0 = (i01 · · · i0k )(j10 · · · jl )0 · · · ). -
!
i1 · · · ik j1 · · · jl · · ·
τ=
i01 · · · i0k j10 · · · jl0 · · ·
K τ στ −1 = σ 0 , = σ † σ 0 Ý.
§2.1.2 Û˜††ó˜†
·K2.11. (1) ?Ûk Ó†Œ± •k − 1 ‡é† ¦È.

(2) Sn dé†)¤. •˜„/, Sn Œdé† (12), (13), . . . , (1n) )¤.
y². (1) ù´du(i1 · · · ik ) = (i1 ik )(i1 ik−1 )(i1 i2 ).

(2) duz‡˜†Ñ´Ó† ¦È, d(1), Sn dé†)¤. duéz
‡é†
(ij) = (1i)(1j)(1i),
Sn Œdé† (12), (13), . . . , (1n) )¤.
f = f (x1 , . . . , xn ) ´ Zn Z n Cþ¼ê, éu σ ∈ Sn ½Â
σ(f )(x1 , . . . , xn ) = f (xσ(1) , . . . , xσ(n) ). (2.3)
σ(f ) •´ Zn Zþ n Cþ¼ê.
~2.12. n = 3, σ = (123), f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x23 − x1 , K
σ(f )(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x21 − x2 .
Ún2.13. ·‚k
(1) X σ = 1, K σ(f ) = f .
(2) X σ, τ ∈ Sn , K στ (f ) = σ(τ (f )).
(3) X f, g • n Cþ¼ê, c • ~ê, K
σ(f + g) = σ(f ) + σ(g), σ(cf ) = cσ(f ).

§2.1 ˜†+ 47
y². (1), (3) 3‰Öö.

(2) ˜•¡,
στ (f )(x1 , . . . , xn ) = f (xστ (1),...,xστ (n) ).
,˜•¡, dτ (f )(x) = f (xτ (1) , . . . , xτ (n) )
σ(τ (f ))(x) = f (xσ(τ (1)) , . . . , xσ(τ (n)) ) = f (xστ (1) , . . . , xστ (n) ).
στ (f ) = σ(τ (f )).
½n2.14. •3•˜ +Ó ε : Sn → {±1}, ¦ é¤ké† τ k
ε(τ ) = −1.
y². - ∆(x1 , . . . , xn ) = (xi − xj ). XJ σ ´ i ‡é† È, ¦^Ú

Q
1≤i<j≤n
n 2.13 ²OŽ=
σ∆ = (−1)i ∆.
AO/, τ ∆ = −∆ é¤ké† τ ¤á. - ε(σ) = (−1)i , d στ (∆) = σ(τ (∆))

k ε(στ ) = ε(σ)ε(τ ). ε •+Ó .
•˜5w,, Ï•¤k˜†þdé†)¤.
d½n•, ˜‡˜† ¤é†¦Èž, é†‡ê Ûó5ØC. ·‚kX

e½Â.
½Â2.15. XJ˜† σ •óê‡é† ¦È, ¡ σ •ó˜† (even permuta-

tion). XJ σ •Ûê‡é† ¦È, ¡ σ •Û˜† (odd permutation).
e¡·K‰Ñ˜†Ûó5 ˜‡{ü ½:
n
·K2.16. XJ˜† σ ∈ Sn .•1λ1 2λ2 · · · nλn , Kσ Ûó5†
P
λi (i−1)
i=1
Ûó5˜—.
y². ù´duz‡k Ó†þ´k − 1 ‡é† ¦È.

48 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
§2.1.3 †+
½Â2.17. Sn ¥¤kó˜† ¤ f+, = ker ε, ¡• n †+ (alter-

nating group), P• An .
dÛó˜† ?Ø=•, An ´ Sn 5f+, • n!

2
.
½Â2.18. vkš²… 5f+ +¡•ü+ (simple group).
~2.19. •{ü ü+´ƒê +. ¯¢þ, ƒê +´=k C ü+.

X G Ć +, 1 6= g ∈ G. g •n pń ƒÏf, K hg n/p i
´G p 5f+. ‡¦ G •ü+, K7k G = hg n/p i.
!•{SNò—åuy²eãÍ¶½n:
½n2.20. An (n > 5) ´ü+.
5P. A2 = {1}, A3 •3, w,Ñ´ü+. A4 Ø´ü+, ¯¢þ
{1, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)} C S4 ,
g,•´ A4 5f+.
Galois |^½n 2.20 y² Êg±þõ‘ªvk¦Šúª, ù´+Ø
) I“. ·‚ò318Ù ã Galois Í¶(J.
Ún2.21. An d 3 Ó†)¤.
y². ¯¢þ, ·‚k




 1 X (ij) = (rs),

(ij)(rs) = (jsi) X j = r, i 6= s,


(ris)(ijr) X {i, j} =

6 {r, s}.
Ún y.
Ún2.22. XJ n > 3, Kéu 3 Ó† (ijk) Ú (i0 j 0 k 0 ), •3 γ ∈ An , ¦
γ(ijk)γ −1 = (i0 j 0 k 0 ).
§2.1 ˜†+ 49
y². d·K 2.10, •3 γ ∈ Sn , ¦
γ(ijk)γ −1 = (i0 j 0 k 0 ).
XJ γ ´Û˜†, r, s 6= i0 , j 0 , k 0 , K (rs)γ ∈ An , … (rs)γ(ijk)γ −1 (rs)−1 =

(i0 j 0 k 0 ).
½n 2.20 y². {1} 6= N C An . ·‚‡y² N = An . d 5f+½

−1
Â•, X x ∈ N , K gxg ∈ N, dÚn 2.21 ÚÚn 2.22. ·‚•Iy²
N ¥•¹˜‡ 3 Ó†.
1 6= σ ∈ N , … σ ± Xn ¥¦ŒUõ ƒØÄ. ·‚y² σ TÐ
CÄn‡ ƒ, =• 3 Ó†.
Äk5¿ σ – CÄn‡ ƒ, ·‚•Iy²XJ σ CÄ‡L n
‡ ƒ, K•3 σ 0 ∈ N CÄ ƒ‡ê' σ . P σ •Øƒ Ó†ƒÈ, …
••Ó†3†>.
(i) XJ σ ••Ó†•é†, K
σ = (a1 a2 )(a3 a4 ) · · · .
- τ = (a3 a4 a5 ), K
τ στ −1 σ −1 = (a3 a4 a5 ) ∈ N.
(ii) XJ σ ••Ó†•Ý > 3, K σ – CÄ 5 ‡ ƒ.
• σ = (a1 a2 a3 a4 ) · · · . - τ = (a2 a3 a4 ), K
τ στ −1 σ −1 = (a1 a2 a3 ) ∈ N.
• σ = (a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 · · · ) · · · . - τ = (a2 a3 a4 ), K
τ στ −1 σ −1 = (a2 a3 a5 ) ∈ N.
• σ = (a1 a2 a3 )(a4 a5 · · · a6 ) · · · , σ • CÄ 6 ‡ ƒ. - τ = (a2 a3 a4 ), K
τ στ −1 σ −1 = (a1 a4 a2 a3 a5 ) ∈ N,
…•õCÄ 5 ‡ ƒ.
50 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
nþ¤ã, ½n y.
S K
SK1.1. r˜† σ = (456)(567)(761) ¤Øƒ Ó† È.
SK1.2. † y²˜† (123)(45) † (241)(35) Ý.
SK1.3. ?Ø˜† !
1 2 ··· n
σ=
n n − 1 ··· 1
Ûó5.
SK1.4. ˜‡˜† u§ Ó†L«¥ˆ‡Ó† •Ý • ú ê.

n
SK1.5. y² Sn ¥.• 1λ1 2λ2 · · · nλn ˜† k n!/ λi !iλi ‡. ddy
Q
i=1
²
X 1
n
Q = 1.
λi >0
λ1 +2λ2 +···+nλn =n
λi !iλi
i=1
SK1.6. Á(½ Sn (n > 2) Ü 5f+.
SK1.7. ˜† σ †ê n(σ) ½Â•8Ü{(i, j) | σ(i) > σ(j) i < j}

.
n
(1) y² n(σ) = {j | σ(j) > i … j < σ −1 (i)}.
P
i=1
(2) y²˜† σ Œ± • n(σ) ‡é† ¦È. ˜† Ûó5Ú§
†ê Ûó5ƒÓ.
SK1.8. (1) Áy A5 ¥˜† .• 15 , 22 · 11 , 31 · 12 Ú 51 .

(2) y² A5 ¥.• 22 · 11 ˜† Ý, .• 3 · 12 ˜†• Ý.
(3) Á¦ A5 ¥.• 51 ˜† Ýa.
(4) ddy² A5 ´ü+.
SK1.9. Áy: n ≥ 3ž, Z(Sn ) = 1.
SK1.10. Áy A4 vk 6 f+.
§2.2 +38Üþ Š^ 51
SK1.11. ÁOŽ:
(1) S6 ¥ 2 ‡ê.
(2) A8 ¥ •Œ ƒ‡ê.
SK1.12. OŽ Sn ¥¦?¿•IÑCÄ ˜† ‡ê.
SK1.13. y² n ≥ 2 ž, An ´ Sn •˜ •ê• 2 f+.
SK1.14. n > 2 ž, (12) Ú (123 · · · n) ´ Sn ˜|)¤ .
§2.2 +38Üþ Š^
§2.2.1 ; †-½f+
·‚2£ ˜e+38Üþ Š^ ½Â.
½Â2.23. X ´8Ü, G •+. G 3 X þ Š^´•N
G × X → X, (g, x) 7→ g · x,
…÷v^‡
(1) é?¿ x ∈ X, 1 · x = x.
(2) ((ÜÆ) é?¿ x ∈ X, g, h ∈ G,
g(hx) = (gh)x.
dž, ·‚½¡ X • G-8.
½Â2.24. XJ X • G-8, x ∈ X. K
Ox = Gx = {gx | g ∈ G} ⊆ X (2.4)
¡• x ¤3 ; (orbit). XJ•3 x ∈ X ¦ Ox = X, ¡ G 3 X þ
Š^Œ[ (transitive).
d½Â• X þØÓ ; Øƒ , … X ´ G Šê¤k; Ø

¿. dd·‚Œ±½Â X þ d'X
x∼y XJ •3 g ∈ G, y = gx, = y ∈ Ox .
52 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
- {Ox | x ∈ I} • X þ¤k; ¤ 8Ü, K

G
X= Ox . (2.5)
x∈I
é x ∈ X, -
Gx = {g ∈ G | gx = x}, (2.6)
= G þ¤kŠ^3 x þ²… ƒ 8Ü, N´ y Gx ´ G f+.
½Â2.25. X • G-8, x ∈ X. Gx ¡• x -½f+ (stabilizer).
~2.26. H •þŒ²¡ {z ∈ C | im z > 0}. K+ G = SL2 (R) Š^3 H

þ: éu γ = ( ac db ) ∈ G, -
az + b
γz = . (2.7)
cz + d
dOŽ´• G 3 H þ Š^´Œ[ , … i -½f+´ SO2 (R).
~2.27. M ´²¡þf5$Ä ¤ +. ·‚d)ÛAÛ• M ´d²

£!^=†‡ )¤. XJ3²¡þïá‹IX, K M ¥˜‡ ƒŒ±X
dLÑ ! ! ! !
x cos θ − sin θ x x0
7−→ + .
y ± sin θ ± cos θ y y0
AO/, ^=•
! ! !
x cos θ − sin θ x
ρθ : 7−→ ; (2.8)
y ± sin θ ± cos θ y
²£• ! ! !
x x x0
τP : 7−→ + , Ù¥ P = (x0 , y0 ); (2.9)
y y y0
‡ • ! !
x x
r: 7−→ . (2.10)
y −y
K M Š^3²¡þ :8þ, ²¡þ †‚8þ, Ú²¡þ n /8þ.
XJ X ´²¡þ :8, K M 3 X þ Š^´Œ[ , … : O
-½f+´ MO = O2 (R), = +.
§2.2 +38Üþ Š^ 53
~2.28. H 6 G, G/H = {aH | a ∈ G} ´ G 'u H † 8 8

Ü, K
G × G/H → G/H, (g, aH) 7→ gaH
´ G 3 G/H þ †¦Š^, ·‚¡• G 'u H †p L« (left induced

representation). N´wÑ G 3 G/H þ Š^´Œ[ , …éu 8H∈
G/H, -½f+ GH = H.
~2.29. G = R, X • R þëY¼ê 8Ü. éu f ∈ X, a ∈ R, ½Â
a ◦ f (x) = f (x + a).
K\{+ R Š^3ëY¼ê8Üþ. 5¿ :
(1) f -½f+ Gf = R …= f ´~Š¼ê.
(2) f -½f+ Gf = tZ (t > 0) …= f •• ±Ï t ëY
±Ï¼ê.
·K2.30. X ´ G-8, x ∈ X, Ox ´ x ¤3 ; , -½f+ Gx • G

f+ H. K•3g, V
ϕ : G/H → Ox , aH 7→ ax.
dN †G Š^ƒU, =éu g ∈ G, ϕ(gaH) = gϕ(aH).
y². Äk, XJ aH = bH, K b = ah, bx = ahx = ax, ϕ ½Â† a À

Ã'. ,d½Â, ϕ † G ƒU. Ùg, XJ ax = bx, K x = a−1 ax = a−1 bx,
¤± a−1 b ∈ H, = aH = bH, ϕ ´ü . qdu ϕ w,´÷ , ϕ´
V .
íØ2.31 (Oêúª). X • G-8.

(1) XJ x ∈ X, K |Ox | = [G : Gx ].
(2) XJX •k•8, K
X X
|X| = |Ox | = [G : Gx ]. (2.11)
x∈I x∈I
y². d·K 2.30, |Ox | = |G/Gx | = [G : Gx ], (1)¤á. (2) d(1) 9(2.5)

= .
54 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
·K2.32. X • G-8, x ∈ X, x0 = ax ∈ Ox , K
(1) {g ∈ G | gx = x0 } = aGx .
(2) Gx0 = aGx a−1 = {g ∈ G | g = aha−1 , h ∈ Gx }.
y². (1) 5¿ gx = x0 = ax …= a−1 gx = x, = a−1 g ∈ Gx , †óƒ

g ∈ aGx .
(2) gx0 = x0 …= gax = ax, = a−1 gax = x, ½= a−1 ga ∈ Gx ,
g ∈ aGx a−1 .
~2.33. 3~ 2.27 ¥, éu²¡þ ?¿˜: P , -½f+
MP = τp O2 (R) τP−1 = τP O2 (R) τ−P .
~2.34. ¡N+ Dn • 2n. ¯¢þ, Dn 3 n >/ n ‡º:þ

Š^Œ[, … ½,˜º: ƒTÐ•ü‡: ü Ú÷Ldº:Úé¡
¥% †‚ ‡ .
§2.2.2 G 38Ü X þ Š^† G + SX +Ó 'X
X ´ G-8, éu g ∈ G,
ρg : X −→ X, x 7−→ gx
´X V , ¯¢þ ρg−1 ´ ρg _. ρ ∈ SX (X é¡+). dd, ·‚

kN
ρ : G −→ SX , g 7−→ ρg , (2.12)
¿…d gh(x) = g(h(x)), ·‚k ρgh = ρg ρh , ρ •+Ó . ·‚¡ ρ •+
Š^p Ó ½ö` ρ • G ˜‡L«.
‡L5, ‰½+Ó ρ : G → SX , Ké g ∈ G, x ∈ X, - gx = ρ(g)x, K
·‚½Â + G 3 X þ Š^.
·‚5?Ø˜e ρ Ø. XJ ρg = 1, Kéu¤k x ∈ X, gx = x, =
g ∈ Gx , ¤±
\
ker ρ = Gx . (2.13)
x∈X
dÓ Ä ½n, ·‚ üÓ
.\
ρ̄ : G Gx −→ SX . (2.14)
x∈X
§2.2 +38Üþ Š^ 55
~2.35. H ´G f+, G/H • H † 88Ü, K G 3 H þ †

p L« p N •
ρ : G −→ SG/H ,
ÙØ• ker ρ = gHg −1 .
T
g∈G
·K2.36. GL2 (F2 ) ∼

= S3 .
y². -•þ˜m V = F22 = {0, e1 , e2 , e1 + e2 }, K GL2 (F2 ) ÏLv 7→ Av Š
^3 V þ, •Š^3 X = V − {0} þ, dd·‚kÓ
ρ : GL2 (F2 ) → S3 .
XJ ρA = 1, K Ae1 = e1 , Ae2 = e2 , A = I, ¤± ρ ´üÓ . du

|GL2 (F2 )| = |S3 | = 6, ρ ´Ó .
S K
SK2.1. + G 38Ü Σ þ Š^´D4 ,N ´G 5f+, K Σ
3 N Šê z‡; kÓ õ ƒ.
SK2.2. X ´R þ¤k¼ê 8Ü. y
a ◦ f (x) = f (ax) (a ∈ R× )
‰Ñ¦{+R× 3X þ Š^, ¿(½¤k-½f+•R×

+ ¼êf .
SK2.3. 8Ü A ⊆ Rn é¡+´•ò A N•g ¤kfNC†

+.
(1) ¦ •/, Ø •/ ••/, Ø •/ !/, é¡+.
(2) ¦ o¡N, á•N, l¡N, › ¡N, ›¡N é¡
+ˆkõ ƒ? ùÊ‡é¡+ ¥´ÄkÓ ?
SK2.4. + G Š^38ÜΣ þ. - t L« Σ 3 G Šê ; ‡ê,

é?¿ g ∈ G, f (g) L« Σ 3 g Šê ØÄ:‡ê. Áy
X
f (g) = t|G|.
g∈G
ùÒ´`, G z‡ ƒ3 Σ þ Š^²þ¦ t ‡ ƒØÄ.

56 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
SK2.5. ~ 2.26 p SL2 (Z) 3 H þ Š^. = : -½f+š²

…? kA‡ù ; ?
SK2.6. + H Š^3+ N þ, …z‡ ƒg∈H p N þ +Ó

, =k+Ó ϕ : H → Aut(N ). -8Ü G = N × H, ½Â$Ž
(x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 · ϕ(y1 )(x2 ), y1 y2 ).
(1) y² G ¤•˜‡+, ¡• N Ú H Œ†È (semidirect product),

P• G = N o H.
(2) N Ó u G ˜‡ 5f+, H Ó u G ˜‡f+. dd`²
þã½Â du
N C K, G 6 K, K = N G, N ∩ G = {1},
dž H 3 N þ Š^•SgÓ .
(3) y² G/N ∼
= H.
(4) y² Sn = An o h(12)i, Ù¥ n > 3.
SK2.7. o¡N 4 ‡º:^ 4 «ôÚ/Ú, ¦ý ØÓ /Ú •Y

‡ê.
§2.3 +3g þ Š^
§2.3.1 †¦Š^
G •+, K+ ¦{g,p G 3g þ Š^
G × G → G, (g, x) 7→ gx, (2.15)
dŠ^¡•†¦Š^ (action by left multiplication). ddp Ó G → SG .

duéu x ∈ G, gx = x …= g = 1, Gx = {1}, ρ •üÓ . dd,
·‚k
½n2.37 (Caylay). z‡k•+þ´é¡+ f+. XJ G • n, K G

´ Sn f+.
§2.3 +3g þ Š^ 57
5P. du n! ‘X n OŒ ×„OŒ, ù‡½n3¢S¥ Š^ØŒ.
·K2.38. G • 2n, Ù¥ n •Ûê, K G k•ê• 2 f+, G

Ø´ü+.
y². •Ä G †¦L« ρ : G ,→ S2n , K·‚Œ±ò G À• S2n f+.

- H = G ∩ A2n , K
(G : H) 6 (S2n : A2n ) = 2.
·‚‡y² (G : H) = 2, = G ¥•3Û˜†.
¯¢þ, du G ¥÷v x2 = 1 ƒ•óê, G ¥•3 2 σ,
§3 G †¦Šê ; 7• {a, σ(a)} /ª,
σ = (a1 σ(a1 ))(a2 σ(a2 )) · · · (an σ(an ))
• n ‡é† ¦È, •Û˜†. y.

H 6 G, (G : H) = 2. - g ∈
/ H, K G = H gH, ¤±
F F
Hg = H
Hg = gH, H • G 5f+. G Ø´ü+.
§2.3.2 ÝŠ^
+ég Š^¥, •k¿Â Š^´ ÝŠ^ (action by conjugation),

=N
G × G → G, (g, x) 7→ gxg −1 . (2.16)
N´ yþãŠ^ (´+ Š^. éu x ∈ G, ·‚P
• Z(x) = Gx = {g ∈ G | gxg −1 = x} = {g ∈ G | gx = xg},
• Cx = Ox = {x0 ∈ G | x = gxg −1 }.
f+ Z(x) ´ G ¥¤k†x Œ † ƒ 8Ü, ¡• x ¥%zf (cen-

tralizer), Cx = x ¤3 Ýa (conjugate class).
d¥%zf ½Â, ·‚•+ G ¥% Z(G) =
\
Z(G) = Z(x) = {g ∈ G | gx = xg, é?¿ x ∈ G ¤á}. (2.17)
x∈G
2dª (2.13), §Ò´ ÝŠ^¤p Ó π : G → SG Ø ker π.

díØ 2.31 Oêúª, ·‚k
58 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
·K2.39. G •k•+, K
(1) |G| = |Cx | · |Z(x)|.
(2) a•§¤á:
X X
|G| = |Cx | = |Z(G)| + |Cx |. (2.18)
G ¥ Ýa |Cx |6=1
y². •I‡y²a•§ 1 ‡ ª. ù´du ƒ x ∈ Z(G) …=

{x} = Cx , ½½ Z(x) = G.
·‚e¡‰Ña•§ ˜ A^.
½Â2.40. XJk•+ G ´ƒê p •˜, K¡ G • p + (p-group).
·K2.41. p + ¥%š²….
y². du p ´ |G| •˜ƒÏf, •´¤k |Cx | (Cx 6= {x}) ƒÏf.

d (2.18), p Ø |Z(G)|, ¤± Z(G) š²….
Ón, dúª (2.18), Œ±y² (3ŠöS):
·K2.42. G • p +, X ´k• G-8, … p - |X|, K•3 x ∈ X, é¤

k g ∈ G, gx = x, = X ¥•3 G Šê ØÄ:.
·K2.43. p2 + G 7•C +.
y². - Z • G ¥%. Z 6= G, d·K 2.41, Z š²…, |Z| = p. -

x∈G / Z, K Z ⊆ Z(x) … x ∈ Z(x),
x∈ |Z(x)| > p. ¤± Z(x) = G,
·‚ x ∈ Z, gñ. u´b Ø¤á, ¤± Z = G, = G •C +.
·K2.44. p2 +½•Ì‚+, ½•ü‡ p Ì‚+ ¦È.
y². XJ G ¥•¹ p2 , K G •Ì‚+. ÄK G ¥¤kšü

þ• p. - 1 6= x ∈ G, … y ∈ G\hxi. K hxi ∩ hyi = {1}. •ÄN
ϕ : Z/pZ × Z/pZ → G, (m, n) 7→ xm y n .
·‚N´ y ϕ •Ó . XJ ϕ(m, n) = 1, K xm = y −n ∈ hxi ∩ hyi,

m = n = 0, ¤± ϕ •üÓ . du |Z/pZ × Z/pZ| = p2 = |G|, ¤± ϕ •Ó
.
§2.3 +3g þ Š^ 59
§2.3.3 G3H þ ÝŠ^
H •G f+. - XH = {gHg −1 | g ∈ G}, = XH •¤k† H

Ý + 8Ü. 5¿
XH = {H} …= H C G. (2.19)
G 3 XH þ ÝŠ^•
G × XH −→ XH
(g, aHa−1 ) 7−→ gaHa−1 g −1 = (ga)H(ga)−1 .
·‚N´ y, G 3 XH þ Š^Œ[.
½Â2.45. H 'u G 5zf (normalizer)•
NG (H) = {g ∈ G | gHg −1 = H}, (2.20)
=• H 3 ÝŠê -½f+.
dOêúª (2.11), ·‚k
|G| = |NG (H)| · |XH |,
dúª (2.19)k
NG (H) = G …= H C G. (2.21)
- π : G → SXH • G 3 XH þ ÝŠ^p Ó ,K
\ \
ker π = GaHa−1 = aNG (H)a−1 . (2.22)
a∈G a∈G
~2.46. XJ (G : N ) = p, … p • |G| • ƒÏf, K N C G.
y². •Ä G 3 N † 8L«, ·‚ +Ó
ρN : G → Sp .
ÙØ ker ρN = a−1 N a C N . ·‚k

T
a∈G
60 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
• dÓ Ä ½n, G/ ker ρN • Sp f+, (G : ker ρN ) ´ p ! Ïf;
• |G| vk u p ƒÏf;
• p = (G : N ) ´ (G : ker ρN ) Ïf.
p = (G : ker ρN ) … N = ker ρN .
S K
SK3.1. (½ GL2 (F5 ) ¥ ( 10 02 ) Ýa .
SK3.2. p ´ƒê, G ´ p •˜ +. Áy G f+¥š 5f+

‡ê˜½´ p ê.
SK3.3. - G ´ü+, XJ•3 G ýf+ H ¦ [G : H] 6 4, K

|G| 6 3.
SK3.4. H ´Ã•+ G k••êýf+, K G ˜½¹k˜‡k••

ê ý 5f+.
SK3.5. y²GLn (R) þn Ý ¤ f+†en Ý ¤ f+

Ý.
SK3.6. y²·K 2.42.
SK3.7. ˜„‚5+ GLn (C) Ø¹k•êk• ýf+.
SK3.8. - G ´ ê• 2n m +, Ù¥ m ´Ûê. XJ G ¹k˜‡ 2n

ƒ, K G ¹k˜‡•ê• 2n 5f+.
SK3.9. òSn À• GLn (R) ˜†Ý ¤ f+. (½ Sn 3 GLn (R)¥

5zf.
SK3.10. ¦é¡+ S3 gÓ + Aut(S3 ).
SK3.11. α ´k•+ G gÓ . e α rz‡ ƒÑC §3 G ¥

Ý ƒ, =é?¿ g ∈ G, g Ú α(g) Ý, K α ƒÏfÑ´ |G|
Ïf.
§2.4 Sylow ½n9ÙA^ 61
SK3.12. p ´ |G| • ƒÏf. e p f+ A C G, K A 6 Z(G).
SK3.13. - G = GLn (C), T = Tn (C) • G ¥é ‚ •1 þn

¤ f+. (½ NG (T ), ZG (T ) Ú T ¥% Z(T ).
SK3.14. N C G, M ´ G f+… N ≤ M , K NG (M )/N = NG (M ),

ùp G = G/N , M = M/N .
SK3.15. Áyk•+ G ˜‡ýf+ Ü Ýf+ØUCX ‡+ G.

(ØéÃ•+´Ä¤á?
SK3.16. K´+ G ˜‡ 2 5f+, … G = G/K. C ´G

˜‡ Ýa. S´ C 3 G ¥ _”. y²e ü«œ/ƒ˜7¤á:
(1) S = C ´üÕ˜‡ Ýa… |C| = 2|C|"
(2) S = C1 C2 dü‡ Ýa|¤… |C1 | = |C2 | = |C|"
S
SK3.17. (1) e G/Z(G) ´Ì‚+, y² G •C +, š †k•+

G ¥% Z(G) •ê > 4.
(2) XJ G • n k•+, t • G ¥ Ýa ‡ê, c = nt . y² c = 1
½ö c 6 85 .
§2.4 Sylow ½n9ÙA^
!ò?Øk•+Ø¥•Ì‡ ˜‡½n: Sylow ½n.
§2.4.1 Sylow ½n
G•n k•+. p•n ˜‡ƒÏf, P n = pr m, Ù¥ p †

m pƒ. ˜‡g, ¯K´, G ¥´Ä¹k p ? •?˜Ú/, G ¥´Ä
•3 pr f+?
½Â2.47. • pr f+¡• G Sylow pf+ (Sylow p-subgroup).
½n2.48 (Sylow 1˜½n). G ¥•3 Sylow pf+.
y². X • G ¥¤k pr f8 ¤ x, =
X = {U ⊆ G | |U | = pr }.
62 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
K
mpr mpr · (mpr − 1) · · · (mpr − pr + 1)

N = |X| = = .
pr 1 · 2 · · · pr
du i † mpr − i(1 6 i 6 pr − 1) p Ø gê˜ , ·‚k (p, N ) = 1.
•Ä G 3 X þ†¦Š^, 7•3˜‡; , Ø” • OU (U ∈ X),
|OU | † p pƒ. dOêúª (2.11), U = GU x ´ GU ˜ 8 ¿,
S
x∈U
|GU | ´ p •˜. dúª (2.11), |GU | · |OU | = |G|, du |GU | ´ p ˜,
|OU | † p pƒ, |GU | = p , ¤± GU ´ G
r
Sylow pf+.
½n2.49 (Sylow 1 ½n). K •G f+, … p ØK ,H ´

0 −1 0
G ˜‡ Sylow pf+. K•3 H = gHg ¦ H ∩K ´ K Sylow
f+.
y². ·‚• G 3 X = G/H = {gH | g ∈ G} þ †¦Š^Œ[, …é

−1
u x = aH ∈ X, § -½f+´ aHa .
òG3X þ Š^•› K 3X þ Š^. du |X| = m, •3
K-; Ox , |Ox | † p pƒ, dž Kx = Gx ∩ K = aHa−1 ∩ K, § •p
˜g. d |Ox | · |Kx | = |K|, Kx TÐ• |K| p Ü©, = Kx ´ K
Sylow pf+.
d Sylow 1 ½n, ·‚k
íØ2.50. (1) XJ K 6 G ´ p +, K K ´ G ,‡ Sylow pf+ H

f+.
(2) ¤k G Sylow pf+ Ý.
y². (1) du K ´ p +, Ïd K Sylow p f+´g , H 0 ∩ K = K,

= K 6 H 0.
(2) H, H1 • G ü‡ Sylow pf+. d Sylow 1 ½n, •3 H 0 =
gHg −1 ¦ H 0 ∩ H1 = H1 , du |H1 | = |H|, ·‚k H1 = H 0 = gHg −1 ,
§† H Ý.
½n2.51 (Sylow 1n½n). -XH = {aHa−1 | a ∈ G}, …P
N (p) = |XH | = G Sylow p f+ ‡ê. (2.23)
K N (p) ≡ 1 mod p.
y². ·‚• G 3 XH þ ÝŠ^Œ[, … N (p) = (G : N ), Ù¥

N = NG (H). ·‚ò XH ©)• H 3Ùþ ÝŠ^ ; . XJ; ¥
•k˜‡ ƒ Hi , K H 6 NG (Hi ). ,˜•¡, Hi C NG (Hi ) ´ NG (Hi ) •
˜ Sylow pf+, H = Hi . ù`²=•¹˜‡ ƒ ; •k {H}.
éuÙ¦; OHi , du
|OHi | · |NG (Hi ) ∩ H| = |H|
… NG (Hi )∩H ´ H ýf+, p | |OHi |. nþ¤ã, N (p) ≡ 1 mod p.
þ¡ Sylow 1˜, 1 , 1n½n~~nÜ•Xe½n:
½n2.52 (Sylow ½n). G •k•+, Ù • pr m, Ù¥ (m, p) = 1, K

(1) G ¥•3 Sylow pf+, = • pr f+.
(2) ¤k G ¥ Sylow pf+ Ý.
(3) G Sylow pf+‡ê N (p) ≡ 1 mod p … N (p) | m.
´ ‘F · Fâ( Ludwig Sylow, 1832c12 12F¨1918

c9 7F, ã 2.1) ´é%êÆ[, •Ïú?p¥êÆ “. 1862c
3Žpd0SZæŒÆ(ycdºŒÆ) “‘ù“, Ç³Û
nØž, ¦JÑ ¯K•ª —¦uyFâf+ÚFâ½n, F
â½n31872cuL. Fâ„s 8cžmÚ¢4d · o(Sophus
Lie, o+o“ê uyö) ˜å?6C êÆ 8.
§2.4.2 Sylow ½n A^
Sylow ½n3ïÄk•+ ( ¥åX'…Š^. ·‚Äky²˜‡Ú

n.
Ún2.53. H, K ´+ G 5f+, …÷v^‡ HK = G, H∩K = {1}.

∼
K G = H × K.
y². h ∈ H, k ∈ K, K
khk −1 h−1 = (khk −1 )h−1 ∈ H … khk −1 h−1 = k(hk −1 h−1 ) ∈ K.

64 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
ã 2.1: Fâ”
khk −1 h−1 = 1, = hk = kh. P
ϕ : H × K → G, (h, k) 7→ hk,
ϕ((h1 , k1 )(h2 , k2 )) = ϕ(h1 h2 , k1 k2 )

=h1 h2 k1 k2 = h1 k1 h2 k2 = ϕ(h1 , k1 )ϕ(h2 , k2 ),
ϕ ´+Ó . d HK = G, ϕ •÷Ó . e hk = 1, K h = k −1 ∈
H ∩ K, h = k = 1, ϕ •üÓ , ¤± ϕ •Ó .
~2.54. 150 +Ø´ü+. ¯¢þ, Äk N (5) = 1 ½ 6. XJ N (5) = 1,

K G Ø´ü+. XJ N (5) = 6, H •G ˜‡ Sylow 5f+, K G 3
H † 8Š^p Ó
ρ : G → S6 .
du 150 - 6!, ker ρ 6= {1}, Ïd ker ρ • G š²… 5f+.

·K2.55. p, q •ØƒÓ Ûƒê, K

(1) pq +Ø´ü+.
(2) p2 q +•Ø´ü+.
y². duƒê˜g+kš²…¥%, §‚þØ´ü+. Ø”b p 6= q.

(1) Ø” p < q, Kd N (q) = 1 ½ p … N (q) ≡ 1 mod q k N (q) = 1,
= Sylow pf+´ G 5f+.
(2) XJ p > q, KÓþín N (p) = 1, G Ø´ü+. XJ p < q, K
N (p) = 1 ½ q … N (q) = 1 ½ p2 (du p 6≡ 1 mod q, N (q) ØŒU up).
XJ N (q) = p , K G ¥k p ‡ q
2 2
Ì‚+, G q ‡ê• p (q − 1),
2
G ¥ p ˜g •õk p2 ‡, = N (p) = 1.
½n2.56. • k•šC ü+ G Ó u A5 , =
(1) XJ |G| < 60, G Ø´šC ü+.
(2) XJ |G| = 60 … G •šC ü+, K G ∼
= A5 .
y². (1) ·‚®•

(i) ƒê +þ´Ì‚+(íØ 1.61);
(ii) ƒê˜g(gê> 2) +Ø´ü+(·K 2.41);
(iii) pg, p2 q +(p, q •ØƒÓ Ûƒê) Ø´ü+(·K 2.55);
(iv) 2m(m •Ûê) +Ø´ü+(·K 2.38).
•I•Ä n = |G| = 24, 36, 40, 48, 56.
(a) n = 24 = 23 · 3, K N (2) = 1 ½ 3. e N (2) = 3, H•G Sylow
2 f+. G 3 XH þ ÝŠ^p Ó ρ : G → S3 . du ρ Ø´²…Ó ,
… 24 > 6, ker ρ 6= {1} ´ G 5f+, G šü. ÓnŒ n = 48
œ/.
(b) n = 36, K N (3) = 1 ½ 4. G 3 Sylow 3 f+þ ÝŠ^ Ó
ρ : G → S4 . du ρ Ø´²…Ó , … 36 > 24, ker ρ 6= {1} ´ G
5f+, G šü.
(c) n = 40, K N (5) | 8 … N (5) ≡ 1 mod 5, ·‚k N (5) = 1.
(d) n = 56 = 7 × 8, N (7) = 1 ½ 8, N (2) = 1 ½ 7. XJ N (7) = 8, K
G¥7 ƒk 8 × (7 − 1) = 48‡, Ù§ ƒ•k 8‡, N (2) = 1, G
Ø´ü+.
66 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
(2) ·‚y3b |G| = 60 … G •šC ü+.

(a) G ¥vk•ê 6 4 f+. ¯¢þ, XJ [G : H] = m, KG 3 H
† 8þ L«p š²…Ó ρ : G → Sm . XJ m 6 4, K ker ρ 6= {1}
•G š²… 5f+.
(b) ·‚äó G ¥k•ê• 5 f+ H, = |H| = 12. ¯¢þ, •Ä G
Sylow 2 f+, d(a)… G ´ü+•, N (2) = 5 ½15.
XJ N (2) = 5, KŒ H • Sylow 2 f+ 5zf.
XJ N (2) = 15, du N (5) = 6 … N (3) = 10, G ¥ 5 Ú3 k
24 + 20 = 44 ‡ ƒ, 7•3 G Sylow 2 f+ P1 , P2 , K = P1 ∩ P2 6= {1}.
y3•Ä P1 , P2 )¤ + H, Kdu P1 , P2 þ•C +, H C CG (K) 6= G.
P1 6= H, H •U´ 12 ½ 15, d(a)• H •U´ 12 +.
(c) •Ä G 3 H † 8þ L«, Kkš²…Ó ρ : G → S5 ,
ker ρ = {1}, =ρ •üÓ . ÏdG Ó u S5 ˜‡ 60 f+ M . d
6 M ∩ A5 C A5 • M = A5 .
{1} =
S K
SK4.1. e p ´ |G| ƒÏf, K+ G 7k p ƒ.
SK4.2. ‰Ñ GLn (Fp ) ˜‡ Sylow pf+, ¿¦Ñ GLn (Fp ) ¥Sylow p f

+ ‡ê.
SK4.3. Gń +, p ´ n ƒÏf. y²•§ xp = 1 3+ G ¥

) ‡ê´ p ê.
SK4.4. y² 6 šC +•k S3 .
SK4.5. y² 150, 148, 200 +Ø´ü+.
SK4.6. ¦é¡+ S4 gÓ + Aut(S4 ).
SK4.7. N ´k•+ G 5f+. XJ p Ú |G/N | pƒ, K N •¹

G ¤k Sylow pf+.
§2.5 gd+†+ Ly 67
SK4.8. G ´k•+, N ´ G 5f+, P ´ G ˜‡ Sylow pf

+. y²:
(1) N ∩ P ´ N Sylow pf+;
(2) P N/N ´ G/N Sylow pf+;
(3) NG (P )N/N ∼
= NG/N (P N/N ).
SK4.9. - P1 , . . . , PN ´k•+ G Ü Sylow pf+. XJé?¿ i 6= j,

ok
|Pi : Pi ∩ Pj | > pr ,
K N ≡ 1(mod pr ).
SK4.10. y²: e G • n = pe a, Ù¥ 1 ≤ a < p, … e ≥ 1, K G ˜

½ký 5f+.
SK4.11. - G ´8Ü Σ þ ˜†+, P ´ G Sylow pf+, a ∈ Σ. X

J pm Ø |Ga|, K pm Ø |P a|.
SK4.12. - G ´8Ü Σ þ ˜†+. é?¿ a ∈ Σ, P ´-½f+

Ga Sylow pf+, ∆ ´; Ga 3 P Šê ÜØÄ: 8Ü. y²
NG (P ) 3 ∆ þ Š^´D4 .
SK4.13. + G ´ 24 +…Ù¥%²…, y² G Ó u S4 .
SK4.14. y²: vk 224 ü+.
SK4.15. P ´G Sylow pf+… NG (P ) ´ G 5f+. y² P

´G 5f+.
§2.5 gd+†+ Ly
§2.5.1 gd+
S •?¿8Ü. ·‚Ï"d S 5)¤˜‡+ F (S).

Äk, ·‚5wdi1)¤i L§: ò˜Gi1Gå5, Ò ¤ ˜
‡i. Xda', Œ±@• F (S) ´d S ¥ ƒŠ•i1)¤ i N,
duI‡3 F (S) þ + ( , Ïd
68 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
(i) F (S) þI‡k¦{. XJ w1 = x1 · · · xn , w2 = y1 · · · ym , K¦{´

ò w1 † w2 Géå5,
w1 · w2 = x1 xn y1 · · · ym .
(ii) F (S) ¥z‡iI‡k_ . AO/, X x1 ∈ S, K x−1

1 ∈ F (S) …
éu xi ∈ S ∪ S −1 , x1 · · · xn ∈ F (S).
(iii) F (S) ¥I‡kü . §†?ÛÙ§i w Géå5„´ w.
d(i)-(iii),
F (S) = {1} ∪ {x1 x2 · · · xn | xi ∈ S ∪ S −1 , 1 6 i 6 n}. (2.24)
ùp„k˜‡¯K. d(ÜÆ•/X
w = · · · xaa−1 y · · ·
iAT† w0 = · · · xy · · · ˜ , •Ò´Œ±ž Ù¥i1G aa−1 {

z. 3˜‡i¥Œ±kØÓ {z•ª, ~X
w = x−1 x(yy −1 )x−1 yz → x−1 (xx−1 )yz → x−1 yz

w = (x−1 x)yy −1 x−1 yz → (yy −1 )x−1 yz → x−1 yz
½Â2.57. i w ¡•{zi(½¡Q i), XJ w ¥vk/X a−1 a(a ∈

S ∪ S −1 ) iG.
·K2.58. é˜‰½ i, k•˜ {z(Q )/ª.
y². ·‚éi •Ý n Š8B{. XJ n = 1, K§’½´{zi. 3˜„

œ¹e, XJ w = · · · xx−1 · · · /ª. ·‚•Äò w C•{zi L§.
−1
(i) XJ31 i Úž xx , ·‚Œ±ò1 i Ú† 11Ú, ž
i •Ý• n − 2. d8Bb Œ •˜{z/ª.
(ii) XJ31 i Ú, x ½ x−1 ¥k˜‡žK, K1 i − 1 Úž7•
· · · x−1 (xx−1 ) · · · ½ · · · (xx−1 )x · · ·
/ª, džž x−1 x †ž xx−1 J´˜ , ·‚q8( (i) œ

/.
§2.5 gd+†+ Ly 69
½Â2.59. ·‚¡ w ∼ w0 , XJ w † w0 kƒÓ {z/ª.
·K2.60. XJ w ∼ w0 , u ∼ u, K wu ∼ w0 u0 .
y². w0 • w † w 0 {z/ª, u0 • u † u0 {z/ª, K wu ²{z

Œ w0 u0 (Ø˜½´{zi!), Ón w0 u0 {z w0 u0 , wu ∼ w0 u0 .
d·K 2.60, ·‚kXe½Â
½Â2.61. +
F (S) = {1} ∪ {x1 x2 · · · xn | xi ∈ S ∪ S −1 } (2.25)
¡•d S )¤ gd+ (free group), Ù¦{•i Gé, …ü‡iƒ

…= §‚kƒÓ {z/ª. XJ S k•, ¡ F (S) •k•)¤gd+
(finitely generated free group).
~X S = {a}, K F (S) = hai = {an | n ∈ Z} •Ã•Ì‚+. XJ

|S| > 2, F (S) •Ã•šC +.
½n2.62 (gd+ •5Ÿ). G •+, S •8Ü, f : S → G •8Üm

N , K f Œ±•˜*¿•+Ó ϕ : F (S) → G.
y². é w = a1 · · · an , ai ∈ S ∪ S −1 , •I½Â
ϕ(a1 · · · an ) = ϕ(a1 ) · · · ϕ(an )
… 
f (ai ), e ai ∈ S,
ϕ(ai ) =
f (a−1 )−1 , e a ∈ S −1 .
i i
K ϕ ••˜ òÿ f +Ó .
3½n 2.62 ^‡¥ S ⊆ G, XJ S )¤ G, K ϕ : F (S) → G ´+

÷Ó , = G • F (S) û+. AO/
(1) S = G, ·‚ G ´gd+ û+.
(2) XJ S k•, = G •k•)¤+, K G ´k•)¤gd+ û+.
nþ¤ã, ·‚k½n
½n2.63. z‡+Ñ´gd+ û+, z‡k•)¤+Ñ´k•)¤gd+

û+.
70 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
§2.5.2 + Ly
G •+, Šâ½n 2.63, •38Ü S ⊆ G ¦ G ´gd+ F (S)

û+, = G = F (S)/N . XJ G ´k•)¤ , ·‚Œ±b S •k•8.
½Â2.64. XJ G = F (S)/N , K G Ly (presentation)P•
hS | r = 1, Ù¥ r ∈ N i.
AO/, XJ R = {r1 , · · · , rn } ⊆ N …•¹ R • 5f+• N , K G

Ly•
G = hS | r1 = r2 = · · · = rn = 1i.
S¥ ƒ¡• G )¤ (generator), N ¥ ƒ(½ R ¥ ƒ) ¤
)¤ )¤'X (relation).
~2.65. Ì‚+ Z/nZ ∼

= hai/han i, l Œ±Ly• ha | an = 1i.
~2.66. ¡N+ Dn Ly. Äk ¡N+k)¤ σ(^=), τ (‡ ), Ù

¥ σ = τ = 1 … (στ ) = 1. - S = {σ, τ }, K S ,→ Dn p
n n 2
F (S) →
Dn ÷Ó ϕ. - N = ker ϕ, K·‚k σ , τ , (στ ) ∈ N . - K ´d
n 2 2
σ n , τ 2 , (στ )2 )¤ 5f+, K K ⊆ N , =k
F (S)/K F (S)/N Dn .
,˜•¡, F (S)/K ¥ ƒþŒ • σ i τ j (0 6 i 6 n − 1, 0 6 j 6 1) /

ª, |F (S)/K| 6 2n, ¤k·‚7k K = N , u´
Dn = hσ, τ | σ n = τ 2 = (στ )2 = 1i.
·‚e¡5?Ø+ G † f+.
½Â2.67. G •+. éu a, b ∈ G, a, b † f (commutator) [a, b] ½Â

• aba−1 b−1 . d G ¥¤k† f)¤ f+¡• G † f+ (commuta-
0
tor subgroup), P• G = [G, G].
·K2.68. (1) G0 ´ G 5f+, G/G0 •C +.

(2) A •C +, ϕ : G → A •÷Ó , K ker ϕ ⊇ G0 , … ϕ p
Ó
ϕ : G/G0 → A, ϕ(g) = ϕ(g).
§2.5 gd+†+ Ly 71
5P. d·KŒ• G/G0 ´ G •ŒC û+.
y². (1) ·‚k

g[a, b]g −1 = [ga, b][b, g],
G0 C G. d a b a−1 b−1 = 1, a b = b a, = G/G0 Ć +.

(2) d ϕ •Ó •
ϕ([a, b]) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b)ϕ(a)−1 ϕ(b)−1 = 1,
[a, b] ∈ ker ϕ, G0 C ker ϕ, ¤±·‚k
ϕ : G → G/G0 → G/ ker ϕ → A,
p Ó ϕ : G/G0 → A.
·K2.69. ϕ : F (S) → G •÷Ó . K ϕ p ÷Ó
ϕ : F (S)/F (S)0 → G/G0 , ϕ(g) = ϕ(g).
y². ·‚kÓ
ϕ : F (S) → G → G/G0 ,
2d·K 2.68(2) á .
d·K 2.69 Œ•, XJ G Ly•
G = hS | r1 = r2 = · · · = rn = 1i,
KG/G0 Ly•
G/G0 = hS | r1 = r2 = · · · = rn = 1, xy = yx, é?¿ x, y ∈ Si.
AO/, F (S)/F (S)0 Ly•
F (S)/F (S)0 = hS | xy = yx, é?¿ x, y ∈ Si.
·‚ò3e!•[?Ød+.
S K
72 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
SK5.1. y²½í€: ü‡)¤ gd+Ó uü‡Ã•Ì‚+ È.
SK5.2. F ´ x, y )¤ gd+.
(1) y²ü‡ ƒ u = x2 Ú v = y 3 )¤ F ˜‡f+, §Ó u u, v
þ gd+.
(2) y²n‡ ƒ u = x2 , v = y 2 Ú z = xy )¤ F ˜‡f+, §Ó
u u, v, z þ gd+.
SK5.3. e n • Ûê,¦y: D2n ∼

= Dn × Z/2Z.
SK5.4. e n ≥ 3, An × Z/2Z † Sn ´ÄÓ ?
SK5.5. G = G1 × · · · × Gn , H • G f+. ¯ H ´Ä˜½/X

H = H1 × · · · × Hn , Ù¥ Hi 6 Gi , 1 6 i 6 n.
SK5.6. G1 Ú G2 ´ü‡š †ü+. y² G1 × G2 š²… 5f+

•k G1 Ú G2 .
SK5.7. y² 5 · 7 · 13 +˜½´Ì‚+.
SK5.8. (1) ¦Ñ é¡+.

(2) ¦Ñ¥ é¡+.
(3) Á¦Ñ ÎN é¡+.
SK5.9. ‰½ü‡Y²²¡, 3º¡kn‡:, §‚3.¡k ÝK. rº

¡ n‡:†.¡ ÝK©O^nŠØƒ -fë å5, …zŠ-f
†ü²¡ƒm z˜‡Y²¡TÐƒ ˜g, ù nŠ-f¡•˜‡ 3-G
f. ‰½ü‡ 3-Gf a, b, ò b ˜3 a e¡ë å5 ˜‡# Gf, ¡
•aÚb ¦{. Áy²¤k 3-Gf ¤˜‡+, ¿(½§ Ly.
SK5.10. Gdn‡ ƒ)¤, G f+ A äkk••ê. ¦y: A

Œ±d 2n[G : A] ‡ ƒ)¤.
SK5.11. - G = G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn , …é?¿ i 6= j, |Gi | Ú |Gj | pƒ.

y² G ?¿f+ H Ñ´§ f+ H ∩ Gi (i = 1, 2, · · · , n) †È.
§2.6 k•)¤C + ( 73
§2.6 k•)¤C + (
§2.6.1 k•)¤gdC +
½Â2.70. +
Z(S) = F (S)/F (S)0 = hS | xy = yx, x, y ∈ Si (2.26)
¡•d S )¤ gdC + (free abelian group).

XJ S •k•8, ¡ Z(S) •k•)¤gdC + (finitely generated
free abelian group).
½Â2.71. S •8Ü, †Ú (direct sum) Z ½Â•

L
x∈S
M
Z = {(ax )x∈S | ax ∈ Z …•kk•‡ ax 6= 0}.
x∈S
d½Â• Z 3\{¿Âe ¤C +, … S •k•8ž, Z∼

L L
=
x∈S x∈S
Z|S| .
½n2.72. (1) Z(S) ∼

L
= Z.
x∈S
(2) XJ m 6= n, K Zm † Zn ØÓ .
y². -
M
f : S −→ Z, x 7−→ ax = (ax,y )y∈S
x∈S
•N , Ù¥ ax,x = 1 … ax,y = 0 XJ x 6= y. dgd+ •5Ÿ(½n

2.62), f Œ±•˜*¿•÷Ó
M
ϕ : F (S) −→ Z.
x∈S
2du Z Ć +, d·K 2.68, ·‚ ÷Ó

L
x∈S
M
ϕ : Z(S) −→ Z.
x∈S
74 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
d Z(S) ½Â, ?Û Z(S) ¥ ƒŒ± ¤ xα1 1 · · · xαnn /ª, Ù¥ αi ∈

Z, xi üüØÓ,
ϕ(xα1 1 · · · xαnn ) = α1 ax1 + · · · + αn ax−n .
ϕ(xα1 1 · · · xαnn ) = 0 du α1 , · · · , αn = 0, = xα1 1 · · · xαnn = 1, ϕ •üÓ

, ¤±
∼
M
ϕ : Z(S) −→ Z.
x∈S
(2) XJ m 6= n, …kÓ τ : Zm → Zn , K τ ((kZ)m ) = (kZ)n é¤k

k > 2 ¤á, τ p Ó
∼
Zm /(kZ)m −→ Zn /(kZ)n .
þª†> ƒ‡ê u k m , m> ƒ‡ê u k n , gñ!
d½n 2.72, á•
íØ2.73. k•)¤gdC + Z(S) Ó u Z|S| , …3Ó ¿Âe, Z(S)

d |S| •˜(½.
½Â2.74. k•)¤gdC + Z(S) )¤ S ¡• Z(S) ˜|Ä

(basis), |S| ¡• Z(S) • (rank), P• rank Z(S).
5P. XJ S = {x1 , · · · , xn }, KZ(S) ¥?Û ƒþŒ•˜ ¤ xα1 1 · · · xαnn ,

αi ∈ Z /ª, e {y1 , · · · , yn } • Z(S) ,˜|Ä, K
α α
yj = x1 1j x2 2j · · · xαnnj (αij ∈ Z)
…
β β
xj = y1 1j y2 2j · · · ynβnj (βij ∈ Z).
-Ý A = (αij ), B = (βij ) ∈ Mn (Z), K AB = BA = I, =Ý A 3Mn (Z)

¥k¦{_ B.
§2.6 k•)¤C + ( 75
§2.6.2 k•)¤C + ( ½n
·‚b G ´k•)¤C +, P G $Ž•\{.
½n2.75. G ´k•)¤gdC +, H • G š"f+, K H •

´k•)¤gdC +, … rank(H) 6 rank(G). •äN/`, •3 G
˜|Ä {x1 , · · · , xn }, ê r 6 n, ê d1 | d2 | · · · | dr , ¦ H ´±
{d1 x1 , · · · , dn xn } •Ä gdC +.
y². -8Ü
I = {s ∈ Z | •3G ˜|Äy1 , · · · , yn , α ∈ H, α = sy1 + k2 y2 + · · · + kn yn }.
·‚5¿ XJ H 6= 0, K I 6= 0 …
• XJ s ∈ I, n ∈ Z, Kns ∈ I. l I ¥k ê.
• du {y2 , y1 , · · · , yn } •´˜|Ä, k2 ∈ I. Ón ki ∈ I.
dd, - d1 • I ¥• ê, K•3 α ∈ H, Ä {y1 , y2 , · · · , yn } ¦

α = d1 y1 + k2 y2 + · · · + kn yn . - ki = qi d1 + ri (0 ≤ ri < d1 ), K
α = d1 (y1 + q2 y2 + · · · qn yn ) + r2 y2 + · · · rn yn .
du {y1 + q2 y2 + · · · qn yn , y2 , · · · , yn } „´˜|Ä, ri ∈ I. d d1 •
5• ri = 0. =•3 α ∈ H, Ä {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } ¦ α = d 1 x1 .
·‚y3é G •Š8B. XJ n = 1, ½nw,¤á. b é• < n
ž½n¤á, é H 6 G, - G1 = hy2 , · · · , yn i, ·‚äó
H = hαi ⊕ (H ∩ G1 ).
¯¢þ, du x1 , y2 , · · · , yn • G Ä, hx1 i ∩ G1 = {0}, hαi ∩ (H ∩ G1 ) =

{0}. qe x ∈ H,
x = k1 x1 + k2 y2 + · · · + kn yn ,
du k1 , · · · , kn ∈ I, d1 | k1 , x ∈ hαi + (H ∩ G1 ), äóy..
y3XJ G1 ∩ H = {0}, K H = hd1 x1 i, ½n¤á. XJG1 ∩ H 6= {0},
K G1 ∩ H ´k•)¤gd+ G1 f+. du rankG1 = n − 1, d8Bb ,
76 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
•3 G1 ˜|Ä {x2 , · · · , xn }, d2 | d3 | · · · dr , ¦ H = hd2 x2 , · · · , dr xr i,

K {x1 , · · · , xn } • G ˜|Ä, ¦ {d1 x1 , · · · , dr xr } • H Ä, …d I
5Ÿ, d1 | d2 , ½ny..
½n2.76. k•)¤C + A þkXe(
A∼
= Zr ⊕ Z/m1 Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z/ms Z,
Ù¥ m1 | m2 | · · · | ms • ê.
y². F (S) → A •÷Ó , Ù¥ S •k•8. Kd A •C +, ϕ p

÷Ó
ϕ : Z(S) → A.
K ker ϕ ´ Z(S) f+. d½n 2.75, •3 Z(S) ˜|Ä {x1 , · · · , xn } 9

ê m1 | m2 | ms , ¦ {m1 x1 , · · · , ms xs } ´ ker ϕ Ä,
A = Z(S)/ ker ϕ = Zn−s ⊕ Z/m1 Z ⊕ · · · Z/ms Z.
½ny..
½Â2.77. A ´k•)¤C +, ½Â§ Ûf+ (torsion subgroup)
At = {a ∈ A | a k•}. (2.27)
N´wÑ At (´ A f+, …éu+
Zr ⊕ Z/m1 Z ⊕ · · · Z/ms Z,
ÙÛf+• Z/m1 Z ⊕ · · · Z/ms Z = T . dþã½n, ·‚k
íØ2.78. (1) A = At ⊕ Af , Ù¥ Af ´k•)¤gdC +.

(2) A ∼
= B …= At ∼ = Bt … rankAf = rankBf .
y². ϕ:A∼
= Zr ⊕ T, - Af = ϕ−1 (Zr ), At = ϕ−1 (T ), K At • A Û
f+, … Af ••• r gd+.
(2) d(1)á .
§2.6 k•)¤C + ( 77
½n2.79. A 6= {0} •k•C +, K

(1) A ∼
= Z/m1 Z ⊕ · · · Z/ms Z, ê m1 | · · · | ms d A •˜(½.
(2) A ∼
= Z/p1 1 Z ⊕ · · · Z/pt t Z, Ù¥ p1 , · · · , pt •ƒê, … pα1 1 , · · · , pαt t
α α
d A •˜(½.
y². du A k•, K A = At vkÃ• , A k(1) /ª, qd¥I

•{½n, XJ m = pα1 1 · · · pαs s , K
Z/mZ ∼
= Z/pα1 1 Z ⊕ · · · Z/pαs s Z.
A k(2) /ª. ·‚I‡y²•˜5.

Äk·‚y²(2) •˜5. du A Ć +, § ¤kf+Ñ´
5f+, ·‚k
M
A= Ap = Ap1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Apt
p
/ª, Ù¥ Ap ´ A Sylow p f+, Ø”b A ´ p +, ·‚‡

y²
A∼
= Z/pα1 Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z/pαr Z (α1 6 · · · 6 αr ) (2.28)
•˜. XØ,, -
A∼
= Z/pβ1 Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z/pβr0 Z (β1 6 · · · 6 βr0 ). (2.29)
0
•Ä A/pA, (2.28)`² |A/pA| = pr , (2.29)`² |A/pA| = pr , r = r0 . ·
‚é k Š8By² αk = βk . XJ α1 = β1 , · · · , αk−1 = βk−1 αk < βk , K
d(2.28), |p A/p
αk αk+1
A| 6 p r−k
, d(2.29), |p A/p
αk αk+1
A| = p r−k+1
, gñ.
αk = βk , =(2.28)†(2.29)/G˜ , (2) •˜5y..
éu(1) •˜5, é?Û p, •Ä A Sylow pf+. d(2)
Ap ∼
= Z/pα1 Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z/pαr Z, α1 6 · · · 6 αr .
d(1),
Ap = (Z/m1 Z)p ⊕ · · · ⊕ (Z/ms Z)p
du m1 | m2 | · · · | ms , … (Z/mZ)p •Ì‚+, 7k
(Z/ms Z)p = Z/pαr Z, (Z/ms−1 Z)p = Z/pαr−1 Z, ....
dd, ms , ms−1 , · · · þ•˜(½.

78 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
½Â2.80. þã½n¥ {pα1 1 , · · · , pαt t } ¡• A Ð Ïf|, Ù¥ ƒ¡•

Ð Ïf (elementary divisors); {m1 , · · · , ms } ¡• A ØCÏf|, Ù¥
ƒ¡•ØCÏf (invariant factors).
·‚Œ±nÜþã½n
½n2.81 (k•)¤C + ( ½n). (1) A •k•)¤C +,

K
A∼
= Zr ⊕ Z/m1 Z ⊕ · · · Z/ms Z
∼
= Zr ⊕ Z/pα1 1 Z ⊕ · · · Z/pαt t Z
Ù¥
(i) r ¡• A •, d A •˜(½.
(ii) 1 < m1 | m2 | · · · | ms d A •˜(½.
(iii) {pα1 1 , · · · , pαt t } d A •˜(½.
(2) k•)¤C +A†B Ó …= Ù•ƒÓ, …ÙÐ Ïf
½ØCÏf•ƒÓ.
~2.82. ·‚5?Ø˜e8 +G ( .
(1) C +. džÐ ÏfŒUk3 «œ¹: {8}, {2, 4} Ú{2, 2, 2},
k3 «8 C +: Z/8Z, Z/4Z ⊕ Z/2Z ÚZ/2Z ⊕ Z/2Z ⊕ Z/2Z.
(2) šC +. XJG¥k8 , KG ´Ì‚+; XJÙ ƒ •
•1 Ú2, KG •C +(Ún 1.65). ·‚Œ±b x ´G ˜‡4 ,
K(G : hxi) = 2, hxi ´G 5f+(·K 2.38). -y ∈ G − hxi, KG =
{xi , xi y | i = 0, 1, 2, 3}.
•Ä ƒy −1 xy ∈ hxi. du§†x Ó , y −1 xy = x ½öx3 . dux
−1 −
†y Ø †, y xy = x = x . XJy
3
•2, K
G = hx, y | x4 = y 2 = 1, yxy = x−1 i ∼

= D4 .
XJy •4, K
G = hx, y | x4 = y 4 = 1, y −1 xy = x−1 i.
§2.6 k•)¤C + ( 79
·‚•Ä4 ê+
( ! ! !)
i 0 0 1 0 i
Q8 := ±I, ± , ± , ± . (2.30)
0 −i −1 0 i 0
KG †Q8 ÏLN x 7→ ( 0i −i
0
0) Ó
0 1
), y 7→ ( −1 .
nþ¤ã, 3Ó ¿Âe 8 šC + kü‡: D4 ÚQ8 .
~2.83. 1500 C + A ( . d1500 = 22 × 3 × 53 , § Ð Ï

f|kXeŒU: {2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 5}, {4, 3, 5, 5, 5}, {2, 2, 3, 5, 25}, {4, 3, 5, 25},
{2, 2, 3, 125}, {4, 3, 125}, k8«C +, Ù • 1500.
S K
SK6.1. ò 33 +©a. ò18 +©a.
SK6.2. k•)¤C + G ´gdC + …= G z‡š"

ƒÑ´Ã• ƒ.
SK6.3. (1) knê¦{+ Q+ ´gdC +, Üƒê´§ ˜|Ä.

(2) Q+ Ø´k•)¤ .
SK6.4. (1) Q Ø´gdC +.

(2) Q ?¿k•)¤ f+Ñ´Ì‚+, Q Ø´Ì‚+.
SK6.5. G ´k•)¤ gdC +, rank(G) = r. XJ g1 , g2 , · · · , gn

´G ˜|)¤ ,K n ≥ r.
SK6.6. A •k•C +, éu |A| z‡ Ïf d, A þk d f

+Ú d û+.
SK6.7. H ´k•C +A f+, Kk A f+Ó u A/H.
SK6.8. XJk•C + A Ø´Ì‚+, K•3ƒê p ¦ A kf+Ó

u (Z/pZ)2 .
SK6.9. ¦Ñ Z/mZ ⊕ Z/nZ ØCÏfÚÐ Ïf.

80 1 Ù +38Üþ Š^
SK6.10. ¦Ñ Z/2Z ⊕ Z/9Z ⊕ Z/35Z ØCÏfÚÐ Ïf.
SK6.11. n• ê, ¯kõ ‡n C +?
SK6.12. p ´˜‡ƒê, ¯ Z/p2 Z ⊕ Z/p3 Z kõ ‡ p2 f+?
SK6.13. C× z‡k•f+Ñ´Ì‚+. dd¦Ñ Z/nZ C× ¤k

+Ó .
SK6.14. G, A, B þ•k•C +. XJ G ⊕ A ∼
= G ⊕ B, K A ∼
= B.
SK6.15. k•)¤C + G •• 1, f : G → Z •÷Ó , K

A∼
= Z ⊕ ker f , = ker f ´ G Ûf+.
SK6.16. k•)¤gdC +kŸo •5Ÿ?
SK6.17. Áy: k•)¤C + G ´gdC + …= G z‡

š" ƒÑ´Ã• ƒ.
SK6.18. ò Fp þ n ‘•þ˜m Fnp Š•\{+.

(1) Á¦ Fnp ¥ pn−1 f+ ‡ê.
(2) y² Fnp ¥ pk f+ ‡ê u pn−k f+ ‡ê.
1nÙ ‚Ú•
§3.1 ‚Ú• ½Â
§3.1.1 ‚ Vg Ú\
3Ð êØ ÆS¥, ·‚ÆS ü‡8Ü:

(1) Z : ¤k ê ¤ 8Ü;
(2) F [x] : • F þ õ‘ª8Ü, Ù¥ F = Q, R, C ½ Fp .
ùü‡8Üþk\{Ú¦{$Ž, …÷v^‡:
(i) 3\{$ŽeĆ +;
(ii) ¦{$Ž÷v(ÜÆ, …•3ü 1;
(iii) \{Ú¦{$Ž÷v© Æ.
Ó , 3‚5“ê¥, • F þ n Ý Mn (F ) 3Ý \{Ú¦{¿Âe
•÷vþã5Ÿ(i)-(iii).
- α ∈ C, ·‚•Ä C þ f8Ü
Z[α] = {a0 + a1 α + · · · + an αn | a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ Z}.
Ó , ·‚k Z[α] ÷v5Ÿ(i)-(iii), džkü«œ¹

√
(a) •3õ‘ª f (x) ∈ Z[x], f (α) = 0. ~X α = −1, K α2 + 1 = 0.
·‚¡ α •“ê (algebraic element).
(b) Ø•3õ‘ª¦ α •§ Š, ·‚¡ α •‡ (transcendental
element).
ù ~f, þ•‚ ~f.
§3.1.2 ½ÂÚ~f
½Â3.1. 8Ü R ¡•(¹N)‚(ring with identity), ´• R þ•3\{Ú¦

{ü«$Ž, …
(1) R 'u\{•C +, ·‚P§ \{ü • 0;
(2) R 'u¦{÷v(ÜÆ…kü 1 (= R •¦{¹NŒ+);
(3) \{Ú¦{$Ž÷v© Æ, =é?¿ λ, a, b ∈ R,
λ(a + b) = λa + λb, (a + b)λ = aλ + bλ. (3.1)
81
82 1nÙ ‚Ú•
XJ¦{÷v †Æ, K¡ R • †‚(commutative ring). XJR − {0} ´

¦{C +, ¡R •• (field).
·‚e¡ Þ•õ~f.
~3.2. R = {0}, …Ùþ\{Ú¦{•0 + 0 = 0 · 0 = 0, KR ¤‚, ¡•

"‚, P•0. ù´•{ü ‚.
~3.3. ·‚3ƒc¤ù • Q, R, C ½ Fp , þ÷vþã• ½Â. du•¥

– k2 ‡ ƒ, F2 ´•{ü •.
~3.4. R • †‚, K R þ n • 8Ü Mn (R) 3Ý \{Ú¦{

¿Âe ¤‚. XJ n = 1, K M1 (R) = R. XJ n > 2, Mn (R) •š †
‚.
~3.5.
H = {a + bi + cj + dk | a, b, c, d ∈ R},
Ù¥ i2 = j 2 = k 2 = −1, ij = −ji = k, jk = −kj = i, ki = −ik = j, K H

¤‚, ¡• R þ o êN (quaternion). H Ø´ †‚. § f8Ü
H(Q) = {a + bi + cj + dk | a, b, c, d ∈ Q}
•´š †‚, ¡• Q þ o êN.

éuo êN H, § š" þŒ_(ë„SK1.2), du H Ø´
†‚, H Ø´•. ·‚¡aquH ÷v^‡š" þŒ_ š †‚•
N (skew field), ½¢ŒØ“ê (division algebra).
~3.6. -
n o
α β
H0 = −β̄ ᾱ | α, β ∈ C ,
K H0 3Ý \{Ú¦{e ¤š †‚. § f8Ü

n o
0 α β
H (Q) = −β̄ ᾱ | α, β ∈ Q(i)
•´š †‚.
§3.1 ‚Ú• ½Â 83
ã 3.1: M— îVg1
%í · M— îù¬(Sir William Hamilton§ 1805c8 4F

¨1865c9 2F), O =êÆ[, ÔnÆ[9U©Æ[. M—
îu1843cuyo ê, ùŃ(ŒØ‚) 1˜‡~f. M—
î^›õcžm, }ÁòEê(Š•2‘¢²¡) í2 3‘œ/,
™ ¤õ, •ª3o‘œ/¦ME o ê. ¦+o ê¿
™XM— î¤ýÏ@ •É†EêÓ J1, o ê3Ä
:êÆïÄ„´kXé-‡¿Â, ¿ 2•A^3OŽÅã/Æ,
››nØ, &Ò?n, ; åÆ, Ì‡ûL«^=†••. Nã
3.1´2003c•VgM— î )200±cO = ?u1 10 î
Vg1.
·K3.7. R •‚, K
(1) é?¿ a ∈ R, 0 · a = a · 0 = 0.
(2) éu n • ê, a ∈ R, P na • n ‡ a ƒÚ, P −na • na
\{_ . Ké n ∈ Z, a, b ∈ R, ·‚k (na)b = a(nb) = nab.
(3) éuR ¥ ƒai (1 ≤ i ≤ m) Úbj (1 ≤ j ≤ n), K
X X XX
ai bj = ai b j .
i j i j
84 1nÙ ‚Ú•
y². (1) ·‚k 0 · a = (0 + 0) · a = 0 · a + 0 · a, 0 · a = 0. Ón a · 0 = 0.

(2) Äk n = 0 œ/=(1). Ùg, d na = (n − 1)a + a = (n + 1)a − a,
2é n ‰V•8B=Œ.
(3) i ‡ê• 1 ž, é j ‰8B, ‡y ª=•m© Æ. éu˜„
œ¹ i, ¦^†© Æ8( i−1 œ¹, , |^8Bb .
íØ3.8. XJ 1 = 0, K R = 0.
y². a ∈ R, K a = a · 1 = a · 0 = 0.
dþã·K, ·‚á•k
½n3.9 (Úî ‘ª½n). R• †‚. Ké ênÚ ƒx, y ∈ R,

ok
n n
n
X X n
(x + y) = Cnk xk y n−k = xk y n−k . (3.2)
k=0 k=0
k
y². d·K 3.7 (3) ‰8B, ·‚k

n
Y 2 X
X 2 2
X
(ai1 + ai2 ) = ··· a1i1 a2i2 · · · anin .
i=1 i1 =1 i2 =1 in =1
X- a11 = a21 = · · · = an1 = x, a12 = a22 = · · · = an2 = y, K

a1i1 a2i2 · · · anin = xk y n−k …= i1 , · · · , in TÐk ‡•1, n − k ‡•2.
Ü¿Óa‘= (3.2).
5P. ¯¢þ•‡xy = yx, Kª (3.2) o¤á.
½Â3.10. XJ R •‚, a, b • R ¥š" … ab = 0, ¡ a •‚ R †"

Ïf (left zero divisor), b •‚ R m"Ïf (right zero divisor). XJ a Q
´†"Ïfq´m"Ïf, ¡ a • R "Ïf(zero divisor).
5P. XJ R • †‚, K†"Ïf, m"ÏfÚ"Ïf´˜‡Vg.
½Â3.11. XJ R •‚, a ¡•†Œ_(left invertible) ´••3 b ∈ R, ba =

1, dž¡ b • a †_ (left inverse). Ó , a ¡•mŒ_ (right invert-
ible) , ´••3 c ∈ R, ac = 1, dž¡ c • a m_ (right inverse). XJ
a Q´†Œ_ , q´mŒ_ , ¡ a •Œ_ (invertible) , •¡ a • R ¥
ü (unit).
§3.1 ‚Ú• ½Â 85
Ún3.12. (1) XJ a Œ_, K a †_ um_…•˜, P• a−1 .

(2) ‚ R ¥ ü 8Ü ¤˜‡+, ¡• R ü + (group of units),
×
P• U (R) ½ R .
y². (1) XJ ba = ac = 1, K b = b(ac) = (ba)c = c.

(2) du 1 ∈ U (R), …XJ a, b ∈ U (R), K
abb−1 a−1 = b−1 a−1 ab = 1,
ab ∈ U (R). q´• a−1 ∈ U (R), U (R) •+.
~3.13. •½öNF ü +F × = F − {0}, §‚ «OćöĆ +,

öš †.
~3.14. R • †‚, K n Ý ‚ Mn (R) ü +¡•R þ n ˜

„‚5+, P• GLn (R).
½Â3.15. XJ †‚ R vk"Ïf, ¡ R • ‚(integral domain).
d½Âw,••7• ‚, ·‚k•¹'X:
•( ‚( †‚ ( ‚.
Ún3.16. †‚ R • ‚ …= ž Æ¤á, =e a 6= 0, ab = ac, K

b = c.
y². w,. 3‰Öö.
~3.17. ‚ Z/6Z ¥, 2 · 3 = 4 · 3 = 0, 2, 3, 4 • Z/6Z "Ïf. {1, 5}

• Z/6Z ü +, Z/6Z Ø´ ‚.
~3.18. éuα ∈ C, Z[α] ´ ‚, Ø´•. éuα ´‡ , N´w

−1
Ñα ∈
/ Z[α], Z[α] Ø´•. éuα •“ê , y²I‡• ˜Ú•£.
~3.19. R • †‚, Ké A ∈ Mn (R), ·‚Œ±X‚5“ê¥@ ½Â

A Š‘Ý A∗ 9 A 1 ª det A, KX det(A) ∈ U (R), ·‚k
1 1
A∗ =
A· A∗ · A = I.
det A det A
‡ƒ, e A Œ_, K det A · det A−1 = 1 ∈ R, det A Œ_, =·‚k
α ∈ U (Mn (R)) …= det A ∈ U (R), dž U (Mn (R)) = GLn (R).
n > 2 ž, Mn (R) Ø´ †‚, •Ø´ ‚(=¦ R • ‚).
86 1nÙ ‚Ú•
½Â3.20. ‚ R f8Ü T ¡• R f‚ ´• T = 0 ½ö T 3 R \
{Ú¦{¿Âe ¤‚.
Ó ,•F f8Ü E ¡• F f• ´• E 3 F \{Ú¦{¿
Âe ¤•.
d½Â•, XT 6= 0, K8Ü T ´ R f‚ …= T ´R \{f

+…3 R ¦{¿Âe´¹NŒ+. š˜f8 E ´• F f• …=
E´F \{f+… E − {0} ´ F × = F − {0} ¦{f+.
~3.21. H(Q) ´ H f‚.
Ún3.22. (1) XJ R1 , R2 • R f‚, K R1 ∩ R2 • R f‚;

(2) Ó , XJ (Ri )i∈I • R f‚, K Ri •´ R f‚. ·‚¡
T
i∈I
Ri • Ri (i ∈ I)
T
.
i∈I
y². d½Âá .
½Â3.23. R1 , R2 •‚. K R1 † R2 (Š•8Ü ) (k È R = R1 ×R2

3\{Ú¦{$Ž
(x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ),
(x1 , x2 ) · (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 y1 , x2 y2 )
e ¤+: § ¦{ü ´ 1R = (1R1 , 1R2 ), " 0R = (0R1 , 0R2 ), ƒ

(x1 , x2 ) K ´ (−x1 , −x2 ). ‚ R ¡• R1 † R2 †È , ½ö¡•(k
È.
5P. duéu?Ûx ∈ R1 , y ∈ R2 , þk
(x, 1) · (1, y) = 0.
ü‡š"‚ †È˜½Ø´ ‚. AO/, • †È(Š•‚ ó) ˜½Ø

´•.
S K
§3.1 ‚Ú• ½Â 87
SK1.1. n>2´ ê.
(1) ‚ Z/nZ ¥ ƒ a Œ_ ¿‡^‡´ (a, n) = 1.
(2) e p •ƒê, K Z/pZ ••. e n > 2 Ø•ƒê, K Z/nZ Ø´
‚.
SK1.2. y²H ¥?Ûš" þ¦{Œ_.

√
SK1.3. d>1• ê. |^ R = Z[ −d] ⊆ C `² R ´ ‚¿(½
R ü +.
SK1.4. A Ć +, End(A) ´+ A ÜgÓ ¤ 8Ü. é

u f, g ∈ End(A), ½Â
(f + g)(a) = f (a) + g(a), (f · g)(a) = f (g(a)) (a ∈ A).
y² End(A) éuþã$Ž´¹N‚, ¿¦Ñ§ ü +.
SK1.5. G ´¦{+, R •¹N‚. ½Â8Ü

X
R[G] = { rg g | rg ∈ R, ¿…•kk•õ‡ rg 6= 0}.
g∈G
38Ü R[G] þ½Â

X X X X X X X
rg g + tg g = (rg + tg )g, ( rg g)( tg g) = ( rg0 tg00 )g,
g∈G g∈G g∈G g∈G g∈G g∈G g 0 g 00 =g
(1) ¦y: þ¡½Â \{Ú¦{´8Ü R[G] ¥ $Ž, ¿… R[G]

dd/¤‚, ¡•+ G 3‚ R þ +‚.
(2) R[G] ´ †‚ …= R ´ †‚… G Ć +.
(3) XJ‚ R ü • 1R , + G ü • e, K 1R e ´+‚ R[G]
ü .
(4) Œ±ò R g,/w¤´ R[G] f‚.
(5) Á(½ Z[Z/2Z] ÚR[Z] ü +, Ù¥ R • ‚.
SK1.6. - R = {a = (a1 , a2 , . . .) | an ∈ Z, 0 6 an 6 pn − 1, an ≡
an+1 mod pn }. a, b ∈ R, ½Â
a + b = c, 0 6 cn 6 pn − 1, cn ≡ an + bn mod pn ,
88 1nÙ ‚Ú•
a + b = d, 0 6 dn 6 pn − 1, dn ≡ an bn mod pn .
(1) R ¤•˜‡¹N †‚, ¡• p ? ê‚, P• Zp .

(2) Z Œg,w¤´ Zp f‚.
(3) Á(½ Zp ü +.
√ √
SK1.7. d ∈ Q× − (Q× )2 . y² Q[ d] = {a + b d | a, b ∈ Q} ´ C
√
f•. ¿(½ Q[ d] Üf•.
SK1.8. R •‚, a ∈ R. ¦y {r ∈ R | ra = ar} • R f‚.
SK1.9. U ´˜‡8Ü. S ´ U Üf8 ¤ 8x, = S = {V |

V ⊆ U }. éu A, B ∈ S, ½Â
A − B = {c ∈ U | c ∈ A, c ∈
/ B},
A + B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A), A · B = A ∩ B.
¦y (S, +, ·) ´¹N †‚.
SK1.10. R •‚. XJz‡ ƒ a ∈ R þ÷v a2 = a, ¡ R •Ù

(Boole) ‚. ¦y:
(1) Ù ‚ R 7• †‚, ¿… a + a = 0R (éz‡ a ∈ R);
(2) SK 1.9 ¥ ‚ S ´Ù ‚.
SK1.11. š"k• ‚7••.
SK1.12. ‚ R ¥ ƒ a ‰˜" , ´••3 ê m, ¦ am = 0.

(1) y² R ´ †‚ž, e a Ú b þ•˜" ƒ, K a + b •´˜"
ƒ.
(2) XJ R Ø• †‚ž, (1) ¥(Ø´ÄEÎ¤á?
(3) y²XJ x ˜", K 1 + x ´ü .
SK1.13. a, b ´¹N‚ R ¥ ƒ, K 1 − ab Œ_ du 1 − ba Œ_.
SK1.14. ¹N‚¥, ƒekõu˜‡m_, K§7kÃ•õ‡m_.

§3.2 ‚ Ó †Ó 89
SK1.15. - C(R) L« ÜëY¢¼ê f : R → R |¤ 8Ü. ½Â
(f + g)(a) = f (a) + g(a), (f g)(a) = f (a)g(a), ∀f, g ∈ C(R), a ∈ R.
y² C(R) dd¤•¹N †‚. C(R) ´Ä• ‚? ´Ä¹k˜" ? ü

+´Ÿo?
SK1.16. D •k•N. y²é?¿ a ∈ D, a|D| = a.
§3.2 ‚ Ó †Ó
§3.2.1 ½Â†{ü~f
½Â3.24. R1 , R2 •‚. N f : R1 → R2 ¡•‚Ó ´•e ^‡¤á:

(1) f (1) = 1, =f ò¦{ü N ü .
(2) é?¿ g, h ∈ R1 ,
f (g + h) = f (g) + f (h), f (gh) = f (g)f (h).
X f Š•8ÜN •ü , ¡ f •üÓ
, •¡•i\. X f •÷ ,
¡ f •÷Ó . X f •V , K¡ f •Ó , P• f : R1 ∼
= R2 .
5P. •k^‡(2) ¤áØU y(1) ¤á. XN

!
x 0
R −→ M2 (R), x 7−→
0 0
÷v^‡(2) Ø÷v^‡(1).
3˜ ©z¥, ‚Ø˜½¹N, dž‚Ó ½Â¥•b (2). Œ±y
², XJ R1 , R2 ¹N, f : R1 → R2 •÷ , …(2)¤á, K f (1) = 1.
d‚Ó ½Â, ·‚á•k
·K3.25. f : R1 → R2 •‚Ó , Kf (0) = 0, f (−g) = −f (g) (g ∈ R1 ),

…f (g −1 ) = f (g)−1 (Xg ∈ R1× Œ_). ‚Ó p ü +Ó : R1× → R2× .
90 1nÙ ‚Ú•
~3.26. 3þ!¥, ·‚½Â o êNH † H0 . -
f : H −→ H0

a + bi + cj + dk 7−→ −αβ̄ ᾱβ ,
Ù¥ α = a + bi, β = c + di, K f ´ H H0 Ó . 8 ·‚òH † H0

Ów–. 5¿ þãÓ p H(Q) †H0 (Q) Ó .
~3.27. m, n • ê, R •‚, K
f : Mm (R) × Mn (R) −→ Mm+n (R)

(A, B) 7−→ ( A0 B0 )
•‚ üÓ . XJ R • †‚, K f p + üÓ
GLm (R) × GLn (R) −→ GLm+n (R).
~3.28. P Aut(R) •¤k R g Ó , = R gÓ 8Ü, K

Aut(R) 3N EÜ¿Âe ¤+. ·‚5(½ Aut(R). ϕ ∈ Aut(R),
K
(i) ϕ(1) = 1, ϕ(−1) = −1;
(ii) nϕ( n1 ) = ϕ(n · n1 ) = 1, ϕ( n1 ) = n1 ;
(iii) ϕ( m
n
) = mϕ( n1 ) = m
n
.
ϕ |Q = id.
XJ x − y > 0, K
√
ϕ(x − y) = ϕ( x − y)2 > 0,
= ϕ(x) > ϕ(y), Œ é?¿ x ∈ R, ϕ(x) = x, = ϕ = id, ¤± Aut(R) ´

²…+.
5P. Aut(C) Ø´²…+, 'X` z 7→ z̄ ´ C gÓ . ¯¢þ, Aut(C)

´Ã•+.
§3.2 ‚ Ó †Ó 91
§3.2.2 ‚Ó Ø†nŽ
ϕ : R1 → R2 •‚Ó .
½Â3.29. Ó ϕ Ø (kernel)•8Ü
ker ϕ = {x ∈ R1 | ϕ(x) = 0}. (3.3)
du ϕ(0) = 0, ker ϕ o•¹ ƒ0, §Ø´˜8. ·‚N´ y ker ϕ

÷ve ü^5Ÿ:
(1) é?¿ x, y ∈ ker ϕ, x ± y ∈ ker ϕ;
(2) é?¿ x ∈ ker ϕ, a ∈ R1 , ax † xa ∈ ker ϕ.
AO/, ker ϕ éu\{Ú¦{µ4. XJ 1 ∈ ker ϕ, K R1 = ker ϕ, =é¤

k a ∈ R1 , ϕ(a) = 0. 2du ϕ(1) = 1, =3 R2 ¥, ·‚k 0 = 1, = R2 = 0,
•Ò´`
·K3.30. XJ ϕ : R1 → R2 Ø ker ϕ = R1 , K R2 = 0.
üØþãœ¹, K ker ϕ ´ R1 ýf8.
½Â3.31. š˜8Ü I ⊆ R ÷v5Ÿ

(1) é?¿ x, y ∈ I, x ± y ∈ I;
(2) é?¿ a ∈ R, x ∈ I, K ax, xa ∈ I.
K¡ I • R nŽ (ideal).
du I š˜, x ∈ I, K 0 = x − x ∈ I. qw, {0} † R þ÷vnŽ
½Â, ·‚¡ƒ• R ²…nŽ (trivial ideal). XJ I 6= R, ¡ I • R
ýnŽ (proper ideal).
~3.32. ker ϕ ´ R1 ¥ nŽ, …XJ R2 6= 0, ker ϕ • R ýnŽ.
~3.33. F ••. XJ I 6= 0, - x ∈ I, K 1 = x−1 x ∈ I. ddŒ ,é

?¿ a ∈ F, a · 1 ∈ I, = I = F . •þ nŽþ´²…nŽ.
~3.34. éu‚ Z, nZ ´§ nŽ. •?˜Ú/, du 0 Ú nZ ´\{+ Z

¤kf+, ŠânŽ ½Â, I 7´ R \{f+, Z ¤knŽ•
0 Ú nZ.
92 1nÙ ‚Ú•
·K3.35. Ó ϕ : R1 → R2 •üÓ …= ker ϕ = 0.
y². du0 ∈ ker ϕ é?¿‚Ó ¤á, 7‡5w,. ,˜•¡, XJ

ϕ(x) = ϕ(y) … x 6= y, K 0 6= x − y ∈ ker ϕ, = ker ϕ 6= 0.
x •‚ R ¥ ƒ, enŽ I •¹ x, dnŽ½Â, 7k
Rx ⊆ I, xR ⊆ I, RxR ⊆ I,
=k Rx + xR + RxR ⊆ I. du Rx + xR + RxR Ò´˜‡nŽ, ·‚

¡ƒ•dx )¤ nŽ (ideal generated by x).
½Â3.36. ‚ R ¥d˜‡ ƒ)¤ nŽ¡•ÌnŽ (principal ideal).

e R ´ †‚, K Rx = xR = RxR = Rx + xR + RxR, ·‚P
(x) = Rx • x )¤ ÌnŽ. Œ±wÑ (0) = {0}, R = (1) þ´ÌnŽ. X
J I d x1 , . . . , xn )¤, P I = (x1 , . . . , xn ).
½Â3.37. XJ ‚ R ¥ nŽþ´ÌnŽ, K R ¡•ÌnŽ ‚ (princi-

pal ideal domain, {¡ PID).
~3.38. ê‚ Z ¥¤knŽþ´ÌnŽ, Z ´ PID.
·K3.39. F ••, K F [x] • PID.
y². I • F [x] ¥ š"nŽ, f ´ I ¥š"õ‘ª¥gê•$ . X

J deg f = 0, K f = a •~êõ‘ª, 1 = a−1 a ∈ I, ¤± I = (1) = F [x].
XJ deg f > 0, éu?¿ g ∈ I, d‘{Ø{k
g = f q + r, r = 0 ½ deg r < deg f.
du g ∈ I, f q ∈ I, r = g − f q ∈ I. d f gê•$5• r = 0, = g ∈ (f ).
I = (f ) •ÌnŽ.
5P. dy²Œ•, õ‘ª ‘{Ø{å '…Š^. d•{éu˜„‚þ

õ‘ª, X Z[x] ¿Ø·^. ¯¢þ, (2, x) Ø´ Z[x] þ ÌnŽ, = Z[x]
Ø´ÌnŽ ‚.
§3.2 ‚ Ó †Ó 93
§3.2.3 ‚Ó •õ;.~f
(I) Z R ;‰Ó .
‚ R 6= 0. 3 R ¥, XJ ê n > 0, ·‚3 Ù1˜!½Â
nx = x + · · · + x • n ‡ x ƒ\; XJ n < 0, ½Â nx = −(−nx). K
ϕ : Z → R, n 7→ n · 1R
•‚ Ó . - ker ϕ • ϕ Ø, K ker ϕ • Z nŽ, ·‚k ker ϕ = (0)

½ nZ.
½Â3.40. XJ ker ϕ = (0), Kéu¤k ê k, k · 1R 6= 0. XJ ker ϕ =

nZ, K n •• ê, ¦ n · 1R = 0 (n > 2), nx = n1R · x = 0 · x = 0.
½Â3.41. XJ ker ϕ = (0), ¡‚ R A (characteristic)• 0; XJ ker ϕ =

nZ (n > 2), ¡ R A • n,. P R A • charR.
·K3.42. XJ R • ‚, K charR = 0 ½ p, Ù¥ p •ƒê.
y². XJ charR = n = n1 · n2 •Üê, K n · 1R = n1 1R · n2 1R = 0,

n1 1R = 0 ½ n2 1R = 0, † n • 5gñ.
~3.43. ‚ Z/nZ (n > 2) A • n. AO/, XJ n = p •ƒê, Z/pZ =

Fp ••(g,´ ‚!), A • p.
(II) õ‘ª DŠN .

R• †‚, R[x] • R þ õ‘ª‚, K R ´ R[x] f‚, Pi •
g,‚Ó R → R[x]. ,˜•¡, ·‚k
·K3.44. ϕ : R → R0 •‚Ó .
(1) é?¿ α ∈ R0 , •3•˜‚Ó Φ : R[x] → R0 , ¦ ϕ = Φ ◦ i, …
Φ(x) = α.
(2) •?˜Ú/, é α1 , . . . , αn , •3•˜‚Ó
Φ : R[x1 , . . . , xn ] → R0
¦ ϕ = Φ ◦ i, Ù¥ i •‚Ó R → R[x1 , . . . , xn ].
94 1nÙ ‚Ú•
y². ·‚•y²(1), (2) y²aq.

Äk, XJ ϕ = Φ ◦ i … Φ(x) = α, K
X X
Φ: an xn 7→ ϕ(an )αn
n n
•˜(½. ·‚•‡y²þãN •Ó , ù‡Œ±† y.
5P. (1) XJ R0 = R, ϕ •ð N , K Φ : R[x] → R •DŠN P (x) 7→

P (α).
(2) ϕ : R → R1 •‚Ó , EP ϕ •EÜÓ R → R1 → R1 [x].
α = x, K·‚kN Φ : R[x] → R0 [x], Ù3 R þ •›• ϕ.
~3.45. R = Z, ϕ : Z → Fp = Z/pZ, K·‚ Ó Φ : Z[x] →

Fp [x], f (x) 7→ f (x) mod p.
íØ3.46. X = (X1 , . . . , Xm ), Y = (Y1 , . . . , Yn ), K
R[X, Y ] ∼
= R[X][Y ].
y². dÓ ϕ : R ,→ R[X][Y ] 9·K 3.44·‚
Φ : R[X, Y ] → R[X][Y ], Ù¥ Φ(Xi ) = Xi , Φ(Yj ) = Yj .
dÓ ψ : R[x] ,→ R[X, Y ], - αi = Yi , ·‚ Ó Ψ : R[X][Y ] →

R[X, Y ]. •I y Ψ ◦ Φ = id, Φ ◦ Ψ = id.
~3.47. - α ∈ C, K ϕ : Z ,→ Z[α] ´‚ Ó . A^·K 3.44, ·‚

‚Ó Φ : Z[x] → Z[α], P (x) 7→ P (α).
Äk Φ ´÷Ó . •?˜Ú/, XJ α •‡ , K ker Φ = 0. Φ
´üÓ , ·‚ Ó Z[x] ∼
= Z[α].
XJ α •“ê , K ker Φ 6= 0, Φ Ø´üÓ .
S K
√
SK2.1. y² ‚ Z[ d] ?Û˜‡š"nŽÑ•¹˜‡š" ê.
§3.2 ‚ Ó †Ó 95
√
SK2.2. (½ Aut(Q[ d]), d ∈ Q× − (Q× )2 Ú Aut(Z/mZ).
SK2.3. y²Eê• C Œi\ ‚ M2 (R) ¥.
SK2.4. ¦e ‚Ó Ø )¤ :
(1) R[x, y] → R : f (x, y) 7→ f (0, 0);
(2) R[x] → C : f (x) 7→ f (2 + i);
√
(3) Z[x] → R : f (x) 7→ f (1 + 2);
(4) C[x, y, x] → C[t] : x 7→ t, y 7→ t2 , z 7→ t3 .
SK2.5. ¦‚Ó ϕ : C[x, y] → C[t]; x 7→ t + 1, y 7→ t3 − 1 Ø K. y²

C[x, y] z˜‡•¹ K nŽ I ÑŒ±d2‡ ƒ)¤.
SK2.6. I, J ´‚ R nŽ. ¦y:

(1) IJ = { nk=1 ak bk | ak ∈ I, bk ∈ J} •´‚ R nŽ, … IJ ⊆ I ∩ J;
P
(2) I + J •´‚ R nŽ, ¿…§TÐ´•¹ I Ú J • nŽ;

(3) I = nZ, J = mZ(n, m > 1) ´ ê‚ Z ü‡nŽ. ¦IJ, I +
J, I ∩ J.
SK2.7. I ´ †‚ R ¥ nŽ. ½Â
√
I = {r ∈ R | •3 n > 1, ¦ rn ∈ I}.
√
(1) I ´ R nŽ.
√
(2) I = R …= I = R.
p√ √
(3) I = I.
√ p√ √ √ √ √ √
(4) I + J = I + J, I ∩ J = I ∩ J = IJ.
SK2.8. R •¹N‚. 8Ü C(R) = {c ∈ R | éuz‡ r ∈ R, rc = cr}

‰‚ R ¥%.
(1) C(R) ´ R f‚, Ø˜½´ R nŽ.
(2) XJ F ••, (½ Ý ‚ Mn (F ) ¥%.
SK2.9. y²•kk•‡nŽ ‚ R ´•.
SK2.10. f : R → S ´‚Ó . XJ R Ń,¦y f ½ö´"Ó ,½

öí\.
96 1nÙ ‚Ú•
SK2.11. I1 , · · · , In , · · · þ´‚R nŽ, ¿… I1 ⊆ I2 ⊆ · · · ⊆ In ⊆ · · · .

∞
¦y8Ü Ii •´‚ R nŽ.
S
i=1
SK2.12. (1) R •¹N †‚. ¦y‚ Mn (R) ¥z‡nŽþk/ª

Mn (I), Ù¥ I ´ R ,‡nŽ;
(2) e F ••, K Mn (F ) ´ü‚, =vkš²…nŽ.
( ! )
a 0
SK2.13. ¦y T = | a, b, c ∈ Z ´‚ M2 (Z) f‚. Á(½‚
b c
T ¤knŽ.
SK2.14. z É²¡þ˜:, f Ú g •3 z : X ¼ê. e f Ú g

3 z ˜‡m •Sƒ ,¡f Úg d. - Oz •¤k3 z ? X ¼ê
da, K Oz 'u¼ê\{Ú¦{¤•˜‡‚. (½§ ü +Ú¤k
nŽ.
§3.3 ‚ Ó Ä ½n
§3.3.1 nŽ†û‚
R •‚, I ´ R ˜‡nŽ, dnŽ 5Ÿ• I ´ R \{f+,

R/I ´\{û+. XJ a − b ∈ I, P a = b mod I.
½n3.48. - I ´‚ R nŽ, K
(1) R̄ = R/I þ•3•˜ ‚( ,¦ π : R → R̄, a 7→ ā = a + I ´
‚ ÷Ó .
(2) ker π = I.
y². •Iy²3 R̄ þ ¦{ ā b̄ = ab † ā, b̄ “L a, b À Ã', Ù

§ý.
XJ ā1 = ā, b̄1 = b̄, K a − a1 ∈ I, b − b1 ∈ I, ab − a1 b1 = (a − a1 )b +
a1 (b − b1 ) ∈ I, = ab = a1 b1 .
5P. (1) 3û+ G/N ½Â¦{ž, ·‚k aN · bN = abN •8Üm

ª. R/I ¦{¥, Š•8Ü (a + I)(b + I) ⊆ ab + I, Ø˜½ƒ .
§3.3 ‚ Ó Ä ½n 97
(2) S • R \{f+, R/S •û+. XJ3 R/S þ½Â¦{

ā b̄ = ab, ¦ R/S •‚, K S 7• R þ nŽ. ¯¢þ, é?¿ a1 = a
mod S, b1 = b mod S, Kd a1 b = ab • (a1 − a)b ∈ S. d ab = ab1 •
a(b − b1 ) ∈ S. S ÷vnŽ ^‡.
§3.3.2 ‚Ó Ä ½n
½n3.49. f : R → R0 •‚Ó , K
(1) ker f ´ R nŽ, imf ´ R0 f‚.
(2) Ó f = i ◦ f¯ ◦ π, =
π f¯ i
f: R −→ R/ ker f −→ imf −→ R0 , (3.4)
Ù¥ π •g,÷Ó , i •g,üÓ ,
f¯ : R/ ker f −→ imf, ā 7−→ f (a) (3.5)
•Ó .
y². •Iy² f¯ : R/ ker f → imf •‚Ó . Äk, d+ Ó Ä ½n

• f¯ ´½ÂûÐ \{+ Ó . •I`² f¯ ÷v f¯(1̄) = 1 9 f¯(ā b̄) =
f¯(ā)f¯(b̄) =Œ, ù Ñ´w, .
½n3.50. J •‚ R nŽ, R̄ = R/J, π •g,‚Ó R → R̄, K

(1) R ¥•¹ J nŽ8Ü† R̄ ¥ nŽ8Ü±Xe•ª˜˜éA:
I 7→ π(I), I¯ 7→ π −1 (I).
¯
(2) XJ I éA R̄ ¥ ¯ K R/I ∼
nŽ I, ¯
= R̄/I.
y². éu(1), •Iy
(i) XJ I ⊇ J ´ R ¥ nŽ, K π(I) ´ R̄ ¥ nŽ.
(ii) XJ I¯ ´ R̄ ¥ ¯ ´ R ¥ nŽ(g,•¹ J!).

nŽ, K π −1 (I)
¯ = I,
(iii) ππ −1 (I) ¯ π −1 π(I) = I.
98 1nÙ ‚Ú•
(i) y²´w, . éu(ii), I¯ ´ R̄ nŽ. •Ä

π ϕ
¯
R −→ R̄ −→ R̄/I.
K ϕ ◦ π •÷Ó , …
¯ = π −1 (I),
ker(ϕ ◦ π) = {r ∈ R | π(r) ∈ ker ϕ = I} ¯
π −1 (I) ¯ ∼
¯ • R ¥nŽ, … R/π −1 (I) ¯ =·‚y²
= R̄/I, (ii)9½n (2).
(iii)d8ÜN 5Ÿ, ·‚Äkk π −1 (π(I)) ⊇ I … π(π −1 (I))¯ ⊆ I.
¯ = I.
2d π ´÷ , • π(π −1 (I)) ¯ •Iy² π −1 (π(I)) ⊆ I.
x ∈ π −1 (π(I)), K•3 y ∈ I, π(x) = π(y), π(x − y) = 0, =
−1
x − y ∈ J ⊆ I, ¤± x = y + (x − y) ∈ I, = π (π(I)) = I.
§3.3.3 Ó Ä ½n A^
~3.51. Z[i]/(1 + 3i) Ó u Z/10Z.

¯¢þ, •ÄN ϕ : Z → R = Z[i]/(1 + 3i), 1 7→ 1̄. ·‚y² ϕ ´
÷ , … ker ϕ = 10Z. du3 R ¥, 1 + 3i = 0, =k ī = −3̄, ϕ ´÷
. ϕ(n) = n̄ = 0, K n = (1 + 3i)(x + yi), ' Xê• n = x − 3y …
3x + y = 0, n = 10x, = ker ϕ = 10Z.
~3.52. ‚R A •ƒê p, K ϕ : Z → R p Fp ⊆ R …é¤k

x ∈ R, px = 0. XJ R A • 0, Kk Z ⊆ R, XJ R ••, Kk Q ⊆ R.
éuA p ‚, ·‚k
·K3.53. é?¿ x, y ∈ R, (x + y)p = xp + y p .
y². dÚî ‘ª½n

p−1
p p
X
p p i p−i
(x + y) = x + y + xy .
i=1
i
p
qdu p | é 1 6 i 6 p − 1 ¤á, ·K y.

i
íØ3.54. R •A p ‚, K σ : R → R, x 7→ xp •‚ R gÓ ,
… σ •üÓ .
§3.3 ‚ Ó Ä ½n 99
5P. σ ¡• R (ýé) FrobeniusN (Frobenius map).
~3.55. C[x, y]/(xy) ∼

= I, Ù¥
I = {(p(x), q(y)) | p(0) = q(0)} ⊆ C[x] × C[y].
·‚5y²ù˜¯¢. DŠN C[x, y] → C[x], f (x, y) 7→ f (x, 0) •÷ ,

ÙØ• (x), =·‚k C[x, y]/(x) ∼
= C[x], Ón, C[x, y]/(y) ∼ = C[y], Ó
C[x, y] −→ C[x] × C[y]

f (x, y) 7−→ (f (x, 0), f (0, y))
Ø• (xy), Ù”= I.
§3.3.4 ¥I•{½n
½n3.56. R •‚, I1 , . . . , In • R nŽ, … i 6= j ž, Ii + Ij = R,

K
n
R/I1 ∩ · · · ∩ In ∼
Y
= R/Ii .
i=1
y². ·‚Äky²
I1 + I2 · · · In = R.
d I1 + I2 = R 9 I1 + I3 = R, K
R = (I1 + I2 )(I1 + I3 ) = (I1 + I2 )I1 + I1 I3 + I2 I3 = I1 + I2 I3 .
d8B• I1 + I2 I3 · · · In = R.
1 ∈ R, K•3 a ∈ I1 , b ∈ I2 I3 · · · In , a + b = 1,
b = 1 mod I1 , b = 0 mod I2 , . . . , b = 0 mod In .
Ón, é?¿ i, ·‚k xi ∈ R, …
xi = 0 mod Ii , xi = 0 mod Ij (XJ j 6= i).
y3•ÄÓ
Y
ϕ : R −→ R/Ii
i
x 7−→ (x mod I1 , . . . , x mod In ).

100 1nÙ ‚Ú•
K ker ϕ = I1 ∩ · · · ∩ In . éu (ā1 , . . . , ān ) ∈ R/Ii , K- x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 +

Q
i
· · · + an xn , K ϕ(x) = (ā1 , . . . , ān ), ϕ ´÷Ó . dÓ Ä ½n, ½n
y.
ã 3.2: 5šfŽ²6/“ˆ ã 3.3: 5Ž{Úm6²“
5P. ¥I•{½n(Chinese Remainder Theorem)´¥I<éêÆïÄ #

Ñ z, q¡•šf½n, g¥I “êÆ¶Í5šfŽ²6(ú o!Ê
-V)òe126K: “8kÔØ•Ùê, nnêƒ• , ÊÊêƒ•n, ÔÔê
ƒ• , ¯ÔAÛ? ” ^“ê Šó, =¦ ê x, ¦
x ≡ 2 mod 3, x ≡ 3 mod 5, x ≡ 2 mod 7.
dþã½n y², •‡k¦Ñ x1 , x2 , x3 ¦
x1 ≡ 1 mod 3, x1 ≡ 0 mod 5, x1 ≡ 0 mod 7,
x2 ≡ 0 mod 3, x2 ≡ 1 mod 5, x2 ≡ 0 mod 7,
x3 ≡ 0 mod 3, x3 ≡ 0 mod 5, x3 ≡ 1 mod 7,
·‚Œ x1 = 70, x2 = 21, x3 = 15, K
x ≡ 2x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 mod (3 × 5 × 7) ≡ 23 mod 105.
d){=²ŠêÆ[§Œ 35Ž{Úm6(1593c)¤ó:
§3.3 ‚ Ó Ä ½n 101
n<Ó1Ô›D,
Êärsö˜{,
Ôfì Œ ,
Øz"ÊB •.
S K
SK3.1. y² †‚ R ¥ Ü˜" ƒ|¤ 8Ü N = Nil(R) ´‚ R
nŽ, ¿…û‚ R/N ¥•k" ƒ´˜"nŽ.
SK3.2. I ´¹N †‚ R ¥ nŽ. ¦yk‚Ó :
Mn (R)/Mn (I) ∼
= Mn (R/I).
SK3.3. f : R → S ´‚ Ó . I Ú J ´‚ R Ú S nŽ, ¿…
f (I) ⊆ J, UXe•ªŠû‚ƒm N :
f¯ : R/I → S/J, a 7→ [f (a)],
Ù¥éu a ∈ R, ā = a + I • R/I ¥ ƒ, [f (a)] = f (a) + J • S/J

¥ ƒ.
(1) y²þãN f¯ ´ûÐ½Â , ¿…´‚Ó ;
(2) y² f¯ ´‚Ó …= f (R) + J = S ¿… I = f −1 (J).
SK3.4. (R, +, ·) ´¹N‚. éu a, b ∈ R, ½Â
a ⊕ b = a + b + 1, a b = ab + a + b.
y² (R, ⊕, ) •´¹N‚, ¿…†‚ (R, +, ·) Ó .
SK3.5. (1) ÌnŽ‚ z‡Ó ”•´ÌnŽ‚.

(2) ¦y Z/mZ(m > 1) ´ÌnŽ‚.
SK3.6. S, Ri (i ∈ I) þ•‚, R = Ri ´Ri (k È.

Q
i∈I
(1) - πi : R → Ri , (aj )j∈I 7→ ai , y² πi •‚Ó . ù ‚Ó ¡
• KÝ .
(2) éuz‡ i ∈ I, ϕi : S → Ri þ•‚Ó . ¦y•3•˜ ‚Ó
ϕ : S → R, ¦ éuz‡i ∈ I, þkπi ◦ ϕ = ϕi .
102 1nÙ ‚Ú•
SK3.7. D • ‚, m Ú n •pƒ ê. a, b ∈ D, XJ am = bm ,
an = bn , y² a = b.
SK3.8. I1 , . . . , In ´‚ R nŽ…
(1) I1 + · · · + In = R;
(2) éuz‡ i(1 6 i 6 n), Ii ∩ (I1 + · · · + Ii−1 + Ii+1 + · · · + In ) = (0).
n
y² R ∼
Q
= Ii .
i=1
SK3.9. ‚ R ¥ ƒ e ‰˜ ƒ, ´• e2 = e. XJ e qáu‚ R
¥%, K¡ e •¥%˜ ƒ. R ´¹N‚, e • R ¥%˜ ƒ. y
²
(1) 1 − e •´¥%˜ ƒ.
(2) eR Ú (1 − e)R þ´ R nŽ, ¿… R ∼
= eR × (1 − e)R.
SK3.10. I, J ´‚ R nŽ,÷v I + J = R, 9 IJ = 0.
(1) y²: R ∼
= R/I × R/J;
(2) £ãéAuù‡†È©) ˜ ©
SK3.11. ‚ R ¥˜ 8Ü {e1 , . . . , en } ‰ , ´• i 6= j ž,
ei ej = 0. R, R1 , . . . , Rn Ñ´¹N‚. Ke ü‡^‡ d:
(1) R ∼
= R1 × · · · × Rn ;
(2) R äk ¥%˜ 8Ü {e1 , · · · , en }, ¦ e1 + · · · + en = 1R ,
∼
¿… ei R = Ri (1 6 i 6 n).
§3.4 ‚†•
3‚ØïÄ¥, •Ð?n ïÄé–g,´•. ddŒ± êÆ¥ü

ŒÄ:Æ‰ƒ˜ ‚5“ênØ. ÏdXÛ E•´‚Ø¥˜‡-‡¯K.
ò ¦Ùg, du•ÁÏ ‚, ·‚ÄkŒ±•ÄXÛl †‚
‚, =éu †‚ R, ·‚•ÄnŽ I, ¦ R/I ´ ‚. ·‚Ùg2•
ÄXÛd ‚ •.
§3.4 ‚†• 103
§3.4.1 ƒnŽ†4ŒnŽ
·‚Äk•Ä Z þ ƒê p, §éAunŽ pZ, …Ùû‚ Z/pZ = Fp

´•. dÐ êØŒ•, p ÷vXe5Ÿ:
(i) (îAp Ún) XJ p | ab, K p | a ½ p | b.
(ii) XJnŽ pZ ⊆ I ⊆ Z, K I = Z ½ I = pZ.
dü‡5Ÿ, =éAuƒnŽÚ4ŒnŽ ½Â.
½Â3.57. †‚ R þ ýnŽ p ¡• R ƒnŽ, XJéu a, b ∈ R, ab ∈

p, K a ∈ p ½ b ∈ p.
‚ R þ¤kƒnŽ 8ÜP• SpecR, ¡• R ƒÌ.
½Â3.58. †‚ R þ ýnŽ m ¡• R 4ŒnŽ, ´•XJnŽ J %

m, K J = R.
‚ R þ¤k4ŒnŽ 8ÜP• MaxR, ¡• R 4ŒÌ.
5P. SpecR († MaxR)´• “êAÛ¥•-‡ Vg, 38 êÆï

Ä¥¬²~‘ .
·K3.59. R• †‚, Ke ^‡ d:
(1) p ´ R ƒnŽ;
(2) XJnŽ I1 I2 ⊆ p, K I1 ⊆ p ½ I2 ⊆ p;
(3) R/p ´ ‚.
y². (1) =⇒ (2). XJ I1 * p, I2 * p, K•3 a ∈ I1 \p, b ∈ I2 \p, …

ab ∈ I1 I2 ⊆ p, † p ´ƒnŽgñ.
(2) =⇒ (3). XJ ā · b̄ = 0 ∈ R/p, K ab ∈ p, = (a)(b) ⊆ p, (a) ⊆ p
½ (b) ⊆ p. ¤± ā = 0 ½ b̄ = 0, = R/p ¥vk"Ïf.
(3) =⇒ (1). XJ ab ∈ p, K ab = 0 ∈ R/p, ā = 0 ½ b̄ = 0, = a ∈ p
½ b ∈ p.
·K3.60. R • †‚, Ke ^‡ d
(1) m ´ R 4ŒnŽ.
(2) R/m ´•.
104 1nÙ ‚Ú•
y². (1) =⇒ (2). ·‚Äky²XJ 0 ´ R 4ŒnŽ, K R ••. ¯¢

þ, é?¿ x ∈ R, x 6= 0, 0 $ (x), (x) = R, =•3 y ∈ R, xy = 1, ¤± x
Œ_, R ••.
éu˜„œ¹, du R/m ¥ nŽ† R ¥•¹ m nŽ˜˜éA(½
n 3.50), e m •4ŒnŽ, (0) ´ R/m ¥ 4ŒnŽ, ¤± R/m ´•.
(2) =⇒ (1). XJ R/m ••, K 0 ´ R/m 4ŒnŽ, m´R¥
4ŒnŽ.
íØ3.61. 4ŒnŽÑ´ƒnŽ, = SpecR ⊇ MaxR.
~3.62. éu ê‚ Z, Z/nZ ´ ‚ …= n •ƒê, dž Z/nZ ••,
Spec Z = {0} ∪ MaxZ = {0, pZ | p•ƒê}.
~3.63. F ••, R = F [x]. d·K 3.39 Œ•R þ nŽ•0 ½ö(f (x)).

du R • ‚ Ø´•(x ØŒ_), 0 • R ƒnŽ Ø´4ŒnŽ.
R/(f (x)) ´ ‚ …= f (x) •ØŒ õ‘ª, dž R/(f (x)) ´•. ¯
¢þ, 0 6= ū(x) ∈ R/(f (x)), K (u(x), f (x)) = 1, •3 v(x), g(x), ¦
u(x)v(x) + f (x)g(x) = 1, ¤± ū(x) · v̄(x) = 1̄, ū(x) Œ_,
Spec F [x] = {0} ∪ MaxF [x] = {0, (f (x)) | f (x)•F [x]þÄ˜ØŒ õ‘ª}.
AO/, F = C, d“êÆÄ ½n(·‚ò3§5.3 y²), f (x) 7k

x − α, α ∈ C /ª, =
Spec C[x] = {0} ∪ {(x − α) | α ∈ C}.
~3.64. R = Z[x], K p = (2) ´ R þ ƒnŽ Ø´4ŒnŽ. ¯¢þ,

(2) $ (2, x) $ R, (2, x) ´ R þ 4ŒnŽ.
éu˜„ †‚ R, ´Ä˜½•34ŒnŽQ? ù‡¯K £‰, I‡

^ 8ÜØ¥ ÀJún, ½öÙ d/ªZorn Ún.
Ún3.65 (Zorn Ún). 3?Û˜š˜ S8¥, e?Û Sf8Ñkþ

., Kd S8S7,•34Œ ƒ.
§3.4 ‚†• 105
·K3.66. a 6= R ´ †‚ R ¥ ?¿nŽ, K a •¹3 R ¥,4Œn

Ž m ¥.
y². X • R ¥¤k•¹ a …Ø uR nŽ 8Ü. KŠâ•¹'

X, X ´˜‡ S8. XJ {bi } ´Ù¥˜‡ S8, K 1 ∈ / bi é¤k i ¤
á, / b = bi , = b ´¤kbi þ.. dZornÚn, X ¥•34Œ
S
1∈
m 6= R, §˜½´4ŒnŽ.
§3.4.2 ‚ ÛÜz
‚ ÛÜz, =´d ‚D ˜‡• F , ¦ D•F f‚. ·

‚Œ±a'd ê‚ Z knê• Q L§.
(i) ·‚I‡ m ∈ Z\{0} Œ_, 1
m
.
(ii) é 1
m
S\, ©ê n
m
.
n1
(iii) ü‡©êŒUƒ , = m n
= m1
XJ m1 n = mn1 .
(iv) ©ê \{†¦{.
dd= • Q, …dN n 7→ n1 , Z À• Q f‚.
éu ‚ D, ·‚kÓ L§. •Ä8Ü
D × (D − {0}) = {(r, s) | r ∈ D, s ∈ D − {0}}.
·‚3Ùþ½Â'X
(r, s) ∼ (r0 , s0 ) XJ r0 s = rs0 .
N´ y ∼ ´ d'X. - rs L« (r, s) ¤3 da(©ê), -

nr o
K= r ∈ D, s ∈ D − {0} (3.6)

s
•¤k da 8Ü.
½n3.67. 8Ü K 3$Ž
r r0 rs0 + r0 s r r0 rr0
+ 0 = , · 0 = 0 (3.7)
s s ss0 s s ss
e ¤•, § " 0 = 10 , ü 1 = 11 , …
(1) f : D → K, a 7→ a
1
´üÓ (i\).
(2) ϕ ´‚ D •F i\, K•3•˜ • i\ ψ : K → F
¦ ϕ = ψ ◦ f.
106 1nÙ ‚Ú•
5P. d(1), Œ±ò D w¤ K f‚, d(2)Œ±@• K ´•¹ D •

f•.
½Â3.68. • K ¡• ‚ D û• (quotient field).
½n y². ÄkI‡y² K þ \{$Ž†¦{$Ž†“L À Ã

'. ·‚é\{y². XJ
r1 r2 r10 r20
= , = ,
s1 s2 s01 s02
=
r1 s2 = r2 s1 , r10 s02 = r20 s01 .
K
r1 r10 r1 s01 + r10 s1 r2 r20 r2 s02 + r20 s2
+ 0 = , + 0 = .
s1 s1 s1 s01 s2 s2 s2 s02
du
(r1 s01 + r10 s1 )s2 s02 = r1 s2 s01 s02 + r10 s02 s1 s2
=r2 s1 s01 s02 + r20 s01 s1 s2 = s1 s01 (r2 s02 + r20 s2 ),
\{ ½Â†“L À Ã'.
y K ´• Ù¦^‡aq. e¡y²(1)Ú(2).
(1) y²: ´ y f ´Ó ,…
r
0
ker f = r ∈ D = = {0},

1 1
f ´üÓ .
(2) y²: - ψ : K → F, ψ( rs ) = ϕ(r)ϕ(s)−1 , K ψ †“L À Ã', …
´‚(l ´•) Ó . du ψ Ø´"Ó , ker ψ = 0, Ïd ψ ´• i
\. N´ y ψ = ϕ ◦ f.
·‚y² ψ •˜5. Äk ψ( 1r ) = ϕ(r), Ùg ψ( 1s · 1s ) = ϕ(s) · ψ( 1s ),
ψ( rs ) = ϕ(r)ϕ(s)−1 .
±þd ‚ Ùû• •{, ¡•ÛÜz (localization) •{. ¯¢þ,

éu8Ü S ⊆ D\{0}, e§÷v^‡(i) 1 ∈ S, (ii) XJ a ∈ S, b ∈ S, K
ab ∈ S(= S • D\{0} þ¦{¹NŒ+), K·‚Ó Œ± E ‚
r
S −1 D = { r ∈ D, s ∈ S},
s
§3.4 ‚†• 107
¦ D ´ S −1 D ‚. ù 8ÜS ¡•¦{8. 3™5 “êÆSÚ

ïÄ¥, ÛÜz•{òå é-‡ Š^.
S K
SK4.1. R ´¹N †‚, p1 , . . . , pm • R ƒnŽ A•R nŽ.
XJ A ⊆ p1 ∪ · · · ∪ pm , K7•3,‡ i(1 6 i 6 m), ¦ A ⊆ pi .
SK4.2. ¹N †k•‚ ƒnŽ7´4ŒnŽ.
SK4.3. †‚ R ¥¤kƒnŽþ•¹ Nil(R).
SK4.4. p ´¹N †‚ R ƒnŽ, I1 , . . . , In ´ R nŽ. XJ

Tn
p = i=1 Ii , K p 7 u,‡ Ii .
SK4.5. f : R → S ´‚ ÷Ó , K = ker f .
(1) e p ´ R ƒnŽ¿… p ⊇ K, K f (p) •´ S ƒnŽ;
(2) e q ´ S ƒnŽ, K f −1 (q) •´ R ƒnŽ;
(3) S ¥ ƒnŽÚ R ¥•¹ K ƒnŽ´˜˜éA . ò“ƒn
Ž”U¤“4ŒnŽ”KdØä•¤á.
SK4.6. I ´‚ R nŽ, ¦y R/I ¥ƒnŽþŒ ¤/ª p/I, Ù¥

p ´ R ¥ƒnŽ¿…•¹ I. ddy² †‚ R ƒÌ SpecR † R/Nil(R)
ƒÌ SpecR/Nil(R) ˜˜éA.
SK4.7. m > 2. (½ Spec(Z/mZ), Max(Z/mZ).
SK4.8. (½‚ Z[x]/(x2 + 3, p) ( , Ù¥ p = 3, 5.
SK4.9. (½e¡z‡‚ 4ŒnŽ:

2
(1) R × R; (2) R[x]/(x ); (3) R[x]/(x2 − 3x + 2); (4) R[x]/(x2 + x + 1).
SK4.10. £ã‚ Z[x]/(x2 − 3, 2x + 4) Ú Z[i]/(2 + i).
SK4.11. y² Zp ´ PID, …•k•˜ 4ŒnŽ pZp .
SK4.12. R ´‚, m ´ R ˜‡nŽ. b R z‡Øáu m ƒ

´ R ¥ ü . y² m ´ R •˜4ŒnŽ.
108 1nÙ ‚Ú•
SK4.13. D • ‚, K ´ D û•. 8Ü S ⊆ D •¦{8, =÷v

^‡
(i) 0 ∈
/ S, 1 ∈ S;
(ii) é x, y ∈ S, K xy ∈ S.
½Â nm o
−1
S D= | m ∈ D, n ∈ S ⊆ K.
n
y²:
(1) S −1 D ´ K ¥•¹ D f‚.
−1 −1
(2) S D ¥ ƒnŽ7k S p = {m
n
| m ∈ p, n ∈ S} /ª, Ù¥ p
´D ƒnŽ.
(3) SpecS −1 D †8Ü {p ∈ SpecD | p ∩ S = ∅} ˜˜éA.
(4) D = Z, p = pZ, S = Z − p, K Z/p = Z/pZ Ó u S −1 Z/S −1 p.
(5) p´D ƒnŽ, S = Z − p. ¯Ûž D/p Ó u S −1 D/S −1 p?
SK4.14. R ´©ª•• F ‚, p ´ R ƒnŽ. R 3p ? ÛÜ

z Rp ´• F f‚(R − p)−1 R = { ad | a, d ∈ R, d ∈
/ p}. Á(½ Rp ¤k
4ŒnŽ.
1oÙ Ïª©)
§4.1 •˜Ïª©)‚
3 Ù, ·‚b R ´(¹N) †‚.
! 8 ´ò Z þ ÏfVgÿÐ R þ, ¿&?Ù¥ ƒ Ïª
©).
§4.1.1 Ïf, ƒ †ØŒ
½Â4.1. a, b ∈ R. XJ b = ax, ¡ a ´ b Ïf (divisor ½factor), b

á (multiple), P• a | b.
XJ a | b … b | a, ¡ a † b ƒŠ (associate), P• a ∼ b.
XJ b = ax … x Ø´ü ,¡a´b ýÏf (proper divisor).
·K4.2. a, b ∈ R, u ∈ U (R) = R× , K
(1) a | b …= (b) ⊆ (a), a ∼ b …= (b) = (a).
(2) u ∼ 1 ´¤k r ∈ R Ïf. XJ r Ø´ü , K u ´ r ýÏf.
(3) XJ a = bu, K a ∼ b. XJ R • ‚, K‡ƒ½,.
(4) e R • ‚, a • b ýÏf, K (b) $ (a). ‡ƒ½,.
y². (1)-(2) d½Âá•.

(3) XJ a = bu, K b = au−1 , ¤± a | b … b | a, a ∼ b. e R • ‚,
a ∼ b, K a = bx, b = ay, ¤± axy = a. e a = 0, K b = 0, a = b · 1. XJ
a 6= 0, K xy = 1, x ∈ U (R).
(4) XJ b = ax, x Ø•ü ,Ka∈
/ (b). ÄK a = by, xy = 1 (du
a 6= 0, ÄK a = b = 0), x •ü .
‡ƒ, e (b) $ (a), - b = ax, K x Ø•ü , ÄK a ∼ b, (b) = (a). d
u u ∈ U (R) ´¤k ƒ Ïf, ·‚¡Ù•²…Ïf (trivial divisor).
½Â4.3. (1) / U (R), p 6= 0, XJ p | ab, K p | a ½ p | b, K¡ p •ƒ

p∈
(prime element).
(2) / U (R), a 6= 0, XJ a vkš²…ýÏf, K¡ a •4Œ
a ∈
(maximal element).
109
110 1oÙ Ïª©)
~4.4. 3‚ Z ¥, ƒ = 4Œ = {±p | p •ƒê}.
·K4.5. R• ‚, K
(1) p •ƒ …= (p) •ƒnŽ.
(2) a •ØŒ …= nŽ (a) • R ¥ÌnŽ8Ü¥ 4Œ .
(3) ƒ 7´ØŒ .
(4) XJ R • PID, KØŒ •´ƒ .
y². (1) e p •ƒ , e ab ⊆ (p), K ab = px, p | ab, p | a ½ p | b, ¤±

(a) ⊆ (p) ½ (b) ⊆ (p), (p) •ƒnŽ. ‡ƒ, e (p) •ƒnŽ, e p | ab, K
(ab) ⊆ (p), (a) ⊆ (p) ½ (b) ⊆ (p), p | a ½ p | b, = p •ƒ .
(2) a •ØŒ . e (a) $ (b), K b • s ýÏf, a vkš²
…ýÏf, b ∈ U (R), (a) •4Œ .
‡ƒ, e (a) •4Œ . XJ s •ØŒ , e•3 a = bx, b • a ý
Ïf, K (a) $ (b). (b) = R, b ∈ U (R) •²…ýÏf.
(3) d(2), •Iy (p) •4Œ . e (p) $ (b), K p = bx, p|b½
p | a. e p | b, K (b) j (p), K (b) = (p) ØŒU. x = py, p = pby. d r •
‚, by = 1, b •ü , Ïd (p) •4Œ .
(4) XJ R • PID, K R ¥¤knŽþ´ÌnŽ, =`²4Œ a )¤
nŽ (a) •4ŒnŽ, (a) •ƒnŽ. d(1)• (a) •ƒ .
§4.1.2 •˜Ïª©)‚
½Â4.6. R • ‚, …÷vXeü^‡
(1) (Ïª©)•3) é?¿ a ∈ R, a Ø´ü , K a = c1 c2 · · · cn , Ù¥ ci •

ØŒ .
(2) (Ïª©)•˜) XJ a = c1 c2 · · · cn = d1 d2 · · · dm , Ù¥ ci , dj •ØŒ

, K m = n, …²LT üS ci ∼ di , = (ci ) = (di ).
K¡ R ••˜Ïª©)‚(uniquely factorization domain, {¡ UFD).
·‚Äk‰Ñü‡Ø´ UFD ‚ ~f.

§4.1 •˜Ïª©)‚ 111
~4.7. - F ••, R = F [x1 , x2 , . . .], Ù¥ x2n+1 = xn , K
x1 = x22 = x43 = · · · .
Ïª©)Ø•3.
√ √ √
~4.8. R = Z[ −5], K 6 = 2 · 3 = (1 + −5)(1 − −5). ·‚5`² 2,
√ √
3, 1 + −5, 1 − −5 þ´ R ¥ ØŒ .
√ √ √
N : R → N, N (a + b −5) = (a + b −5)(a − b −5) = a2 + 5b2 , K
(i) N (x) = 0 …= x = 0. N (1) = 1.
(ii) N (xy) = N (x)N (y).
(iii) N (x) = 1 …= (, XJ xy = 1, K N (xy) = 1,

x ∈ U (R).
√ √
N (x) = 1. ‡ƒ, e N (x) = 1, Kx = a + b −5 _•a − b −5 ∈ R.
5¿ N (2) = 4, XJ 2 = xy, K N (x)N (y) = 4. XJ x, y þØ´ü ,

√
K7k N (x) = N (y) = 2, = x = a + b −5 ÷v a2 + 5b2 = 2. d•§v
√ √
k ê), 2 ´ØŒ . ÓnŒ 3, 1 + −5, 1 − −5 ´ØŒ .
dd=• R Ø´ UFD.
√ √ √
du 2 | (1 + −5)(1 − −5), 2Ø Ø 1± −5, 2 Ø´ƒ .
·‚• ØŒ Ø´ƒ ~f.
½Â4.9. R • †‚, a, b ∈ R. XJ•3 d ∈ R ÷v

(1) d ´ a † b úÏf, = d | a … d | b.
0
(2) XJ d ´ a † b úÏf, K d0 | d.
K¡ d ´ a, b •ŒúÏf (greatest common divisor), P• (a, b).
5¿ XJ a, b •ŒúÏf d •3, K ud •´ a, b •ŒúÏf,

= d Ø´•˜û½ , nŽ (d) ´•˜(½, =ƒŠ¿Âe d •˜.
Ún4.10. 3 ‚ R ¥•ŒúÏf•3. a, b, c ∈ R.
(1) c(a, b) ∼ (ca, cb).
(2) XJ (a, b) ∼ 1, (a, c) ∼ 1, K (a, bc) ∼ 1.
112 1oÙ Ïª©)
y². (1) - (a, b) ∼ d, K cd | ca, cd | cb, cd | (ca, cb). ‡L5, du

c | ca, c | cb, c | (ca, cb).- (ca, cb) ∼ cd0 , d cd0 | ca, ·‚k d0 | a, Ón
k d0 | b, d0 | d, cd0 | cd. ¤± c(a, b) ∼ (ca, cb).
(2) d (a, b) ∼ 1, (ac, bc) ∼ c. q (a, ac) ∼ a,
(a, bc) ∼ ((a, ac), bc) ∼ (a, (ac, bc)) ∼ (a, c) ∼ 1.
Úny..
½n4.11. R • UFD, K R ÷v5Ÿ

(1) (ìA5Ÿ) R þ ÌnŽ (a1 ) ⊆ (a2 ) ⊆ · · · ⊆ (an ) ⊆ · · · 7-
½, =•3 N, (aN ) = (aN +1 ) = · · · = (an ), é¤k n > N ¤á.
(2) R þ ØŒ þ´ƒ .
(3) éu R þ?Ûš" a, b, •3•ŒúÏf.
y². (1) 5¿ e (a) $ (b), Xò a ¤ r ‡ØŒ ÏfƒÈ, K b ‡o

´ü , ‡o b ¤ØŒ ÏfƒÈž, ØŒ Ïf‡ê u r. ddŒ•,
e a1 ´ r ‡ØŒ ÏfƒÈ, K± (a1 ) m© ÌnŽ •õk r ‡ i ÷v
(ai ) $ (ai+1 ), =ÌnŽ 7,-½.
(2) p´R¥ ØŒ … p | ab, P ab = px, P
a = c1 · · · cm , b = d1 · · · dn ,
Ù¥ ci , dj •ØŒ , KdÏª©) •˜5, p ∼ ci ½ dj é,‡ i, j ¤

á, p | a ½ p | b, Ïd p ´ƒ .
(3) e a ½ b •ü , Kw, (a, b) ∼ 1. ÄKò a Ú b ‰Ïf©)
a = upe11 · · · perr , b = vpf11 · · · pfrr ,
Ù¥ u, v ∈ U (R), ei , fj > 0, p1 , · · · , pr ´ R ¥*dØƒŠ ØŒ . -

gi = min{ei , fi }. - d = pg11 · · · pgrr . ·‚y² d ´ a Ú b ˜‡•ŒúÏf.
0
Äk, ØJwÑ d ´ a † b úÏf. e d ´ a † b úÏf. e
ØŒ 0
p | d , K p 7†,‡ pi ƒŠ, 0
d Œ± •d= wpt11 · · · ptrr . P
a = d0 x, =
wpt11 · · · ptrr · x = upe11 · · · perr .
§4.1 •˜Ïª©)‚ 113
d©)•˜5 ti 6 ei . Ón ti 6 fi , ti 6 gi , ¤± d0 | d, = d • a † b
•ŒúÏf.
½n4.12. e R • ‚, Ke ^‡ d
(1) R • UFD.
(2) ½n 4.11 ¥ (1) Ú (3)¤á.
(3) ½n 4.11 ¥ (1) Ú (2)¤á.
y². (1) =⇒ (2). dþã½n®y.

(2) =⇒ (3). p •ØŒ . XJ p - a, K (p, a) ∼ 1. ÓnXJ p - b,
K (p, b) ∼ 1. (p, ab) ∼ 1, ¤± p - ab, = p •ƒ .
(3) =⇒ (1). Äky²äó: R ¥z‡ ƒa∈
/ U (R) þŒ©)•k•
õ‡ØŒ ƒÈ. XJ a ØŒ , äóg,¤á, ÄK a = a1 b1 , a1 , b1 •
a š²…ýÏf. XJ a1 , b1 þØŒ , Käó¤á. ÄK a1 ½ b1 kš²
…ýÏf a2 , ·‚Œ± ÌnŽ
(a) $ (a1 ) $ (a2 ) $ · · · .
dìA5Ÿ, ù‡L§ØUÃ•UY. a Œ±©)¤k•‡ØŒ ƒÈ.

y3e a = p1 · · · ps = q1 · · · qt . d p1 ´ƒ , p1 | a, K p1 Ø,‡ qi .
Ø” q1 = p1 x, d q1 ØŒ , K x 7´ü , p1 ∼ q1 , Ø” p1 = q1 ,
¤± p2 · · · ps = q2 · · · qt . dd8BŒ ©) •˜5.
½n4.13. z‡ PID Ñ´ UFD.
y². ·‚•Iy²ìA5Ÿ, =e
(a0 ) ⊆ (a1 ) ⊆ · · · ⊆ (an ) ⊆ · · · ,
K•3 N , ¦ (an ) = (aN ) é¤k n > N ¤á.

-I = (an ), K I ´ R ¥ nŽ. - I = (a),
S S
(a) = (an ).
n∈N n∈N
a ∈ (aN ), K (a) ⊆ (aN ). w, (aN ) ⊆ (a),
(aN ) = (a) = (aN +1 ) = · · · = (an ).
½ny..
114 1oÙ Ïª©)
5P. R • UFD. e (a, b) ∼ 1, K¿Ø˜½•3 u, v ¦ ua + vb = 1. ~

X Z[x] ´ UFD. 2†x •ŒúÏf´ 1, ¿Ø•3 u, v ∈ Z[x], 2u +
xv = 1.
•?˜Ú/, XJ R ´ UFD, …÷v^‡: é?¿ a, b ∈ R , •3
u, v ∈ R, ¦ ua + vb = d = (a, b), = (d) = (a, b). K R ¥¤kk•)¤
nŽÑ´ÌnŽ. ·‚¡ R • Bezout ‚ (Bezout ring).
§4.1.3 îAp ‚
R = Z ½ F [x], Ù¥ F ••, K R •ÌnŽ ‚. £ ˜e3y

² R •PID ž, ·‚é R ¥ ƒDƒ Œ : 3 R = Z ž´ýéŠ, 3
R = F [x] ž´õ‘ª gê. ·‚ Xy²é?¿ f, g 6= 0, •3‘{Ø{
f = gq + r, ¦ r = 0 ½ö r î‚' g . dd·‚y² R • PID.
òù‡Vgí2, ·‚Ò Xe½Â.
½Â4.14. R • ‚. XJ•3¼ê
ϕ : R − {0} → N+ ,
é?¿ a, b ∈ R … a 6= 0, •3q, r ∈ R ¦ b = aq + r …½ö r = 0 ½ö

ϕ(r) < ϕ(a), K¡ R •îAp ‚ (Euclidean domain, {¡ ED).
îAp (Euclid, ú c300c†m) ? 5AÛ 6´‰

Æ¤þ•-‡ ÍŠƒ˜, † 100cc„´ÆSAÛÆ IO
á, §´Äuî‚Ü6íngŽ ïå5 Ü•‰ÆNX
. ¥I‰Æƒ¤±vkuÐÑ5˜@î‚Ü6NX, éŒ§Ý
þ†¥I “"yù«Ü6g‘Ôök—ƒ'X. 5AÛ 6
Ø==ï îAp AÛÆ, îAp „3Ù¥‰Ñ • P
…–8›©k Ž{: •ŒúÏª îAp Ž{, y² ƒ
ê Ã•5ÚîAp Ún, l 3 Ÿþ‰Ñ ŽâÄ ½n
Ú ê‚´îAp ‚ y². @31607c,5AÛ 6ÒdM
1éÚ|ç›€È¤¥©, xÚ•2„Q²c[ÆSL5AÛ
6, ˜Šþ öw,¿™Ž ^ƒ5mé¬œ. ã 4.1 ´Ú9
ŒÆg,¤ÆÔ,¥• îAp H”, ã 4.2 ´M1éÚ|
ç›1607c€ÈÑ‡ 1˜‡¥©È 5AÛ 6Ä•.
§4.1 •˜Ïª©)‚ 115
ã 4.1: îAp H” ã 4.2: M1é, |ç›È5AÛ 6

Ä•
·K4.15. ED Ñ´ PID, • UFD.
y². I 6= 0 ´îAp ‚R nŽ. a 6= 0, a ∈ I … ϕ(a) • . ·

‚y² I = (a). ¢Sþ, XJ b ∈ I, K b = aq + r, ϕ(r) < ϕ(a) ½ r = 0. d
u r = b − aq ∈ I, d a • 5, r = 0, b = aq ∈ (a), I = (a).
√
~4.16. Z[ −1] ´îAp ‚.
¯¢þ, -
√
ϕ : Z[ −1] −→ N
√ √ √
a + b −1 7−→ a2 + b2 = (a + b −1)(a − b −1).
√ √ √
e α, β ∈ Z[ −1], - α
β
= x + y −1 ∈ Q[ −1]. - x0 , y0 ∈ Z, ¦
|x − x0 | 6 21 , |y − y0 | 6 1
2
, K
√ √
α = (x0 + y0 −1)β + ((x − x0 ) + (y − y0 ) −1)β = qβ + r.
1
ϕ(γ) = ϕ(β)((x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 ) 6 ϕ(β) < ϕ(β).
2
√
Z[ −1] ´ ED.
116 1oÙ Ïª©)
S K
SK1.1. R • UFD , a, b, c • R ¥š" ƒ. y²:
(1) ab ∼ (a, b)[a, b];
(2) e a | bc, (a, b) = 1, K a | c.
SK1.2. R • PID. y²:

(1) (a) ∩ (b) = ([a, b]), ¿… (a) ∩ (b) = (a)(b) …= (a, b) = 1;
(2) •§ ax + by = c 3 R ¥k) (x, y) ¿‡^‡´ (a, b) | c.
SK1.3. D´ ‚ Ø´•, K D[x] Ø´ PID.
SK1.4. R• ‚, a, b ∈ R − 0, a ∼ b. ¦y:
(1) e a •ØŒ , K b ••ØŒ ;
(2) e a •ƒ , K b ••ƒ .
SK1.5. a •ÌnŽ ‚ D ¥š" . ¦y: e a •ƒ ,K D/(a) •

•; e a Ø´ƒ , K D/(a) Ø´ ‚.
SK1.6. e = ‚´ PID? = ‚´ ED?

√ √
(1) Z[ −2], Z[ −3].
(2) R[x, y].
√
−1+ −3
(3) Z[ω], Ù¥ ω = 2
.
SK1.7. D ´ PID, E ´ ‚, ¿… D ´ E f‚, a, b ∈ D − {0}. X

J d ´ a Ú b 3 D ¥ •ŒúÏf, y² d •´ a Ú b 3 E ¥ •Œú
Ïf.
§4.2 pd ê† ²•Ú¯K
√
½Â4.17. ‚ Z[ −1] ¡•pd ê‚ (domain of Gauss integers), Ù¥
ƒ¡•pd ê (Gauss integer), Ùƒ ¡•pdƒê (Gauss prime).
√
dþ!Œ•pd ê‚ Z[ −1] ´ ED, • PID. 3 !¥, ·‚P
√
ϕ : Z[ −1] −→ N
√
a + b −1 7−→ a2 + b2 .
§4.2 pd ê† ²•Ú¯K 117
√ √
Ún4.18. pd ê‚ ü + U (Z[ −1]) = {±1, ± −1}.
√ √
y². ƒ x ∈ U (Z[ −1]) …= ϕ(x) = 1, x = a + b −1 •ü
…= a2 + b2 = 1, = a = ±1, b = 0 ½ a = 0, b = ±1.
½n4.19. (1) p •ƒê, K p ½•pdƒê½•ü‡ Ý pdƒêƒ

È, = p = ππ̄.
(2) π •pdƒê, K ππ̄ ½•ƒê, ½•ƒê ²•.
(3) ƒê p •pdƒê …= p ≡ 3 mod 4.
(4) p •ƒê, Ke ^‡ d:
(i) p •ü‡ Ý pdƒêƒÈ.
2 2
(ii) p = a + b , a, b ∈ Z.
(iii) x2 ≡ −1 mod p k ê), = ( −1
p
) = 1.
(iv) p ≡ 1 mod 4 ½ p = 2.
y². (1) e p = π1 · · · πn •pdƒêƒÈ, K p2 = ϕ(p) = ϕ(π) · · · ϕ(πn ).

du ϕ(πi ) > 1, ϕ(πi ) = p ½ p2 . ·‚k n = 1 ½ 2. e n = 1, p ´pd
ƒê. e n = 2, K ϕ(π1 ) = ϕ(π2 ) = p, p = ϕ(π1 ) = π1 π̄1 .
(2) p | ϕ(π) = ππ̄. e p ´pdƒê, K p | π ½ p | π̄, 3 ˜«œ
¹ p̄ = p | π, 2
p | ππ̄. p ´ü‡ƒ
2
ƒÈ, ππ̄ ½,. dÏª©)•˜
5, p2 = ππ̄ · ε, ε •ü . p2 > 0, ππ̄ > 0, ε = 1, p2 = ππ̄ = ϕ(π).
e p Ø´pdƒê. d(1), p = π1 π̄1 | ππ̄, Ó d©)•˜5, π1 π̄1 =
ππ̄ = p.
(3) ·‚•‡yXJ p ≡ 3 mod 4, K p ´pdƒê, ,˜•¡ y²
d(4)=•. XJ p Ø´pdƒê, K
√
p = ππ̄ = ϕ(π) = a2 + b2 , π = a + b −1,
K p ≡ 0, 1, 2 mod 4, = p 6≡ 3 mod 4.
(4) (i) ⇐⇒ (ii). w,.
(ii) =⇒ (iii). XJ p = a2 + b2 , K 0 < b2 < p. c̄ = b̄−1 ∈ Fp , K
a2 c2 ≡ −1 mod p.
p−1
(iii) ⇐⇒ (iv). XJ p •Ûƒê, K ( −1
p
) = (−1) 2 , ( −1
2
) = 1,
( −1
p
)=1 du p ≡ 1 mod 4 ½ p = 2.
118 1oÙ Ïª©)
√ √ √
(iii) =⇒ (i). d p | x2 + 1 = (x + −1)(x − −1), ´ p - x + −1,
√
p - x − −1, ·‚• p Ø´ƒ . d(1), p 7´ ÝpdƒêƒÈ.
½n4.20. n > 2 ƒ©)´ 2α pβ1 1 · · · pβs s q1γ1 · · · qtγt , Ù¥ p1 , . . . , ps ≡ 1

mod 4, q1 , . . . , qt ≡ 3 mod 4. K n ´ü‡ ê ²•Ú …= γ1 , . . . , γt
•óê, dž k 4(β1 + 1) · · · (βs + 1) é ê (x, y) ÷v n = x2 + y 2 .
√
y². n = x2 + y 2 …= n = aā, Ù¥ a = x + iy ∈ Z[ −1]. ò n ¤
pdƒ ƒÈ, ·‚k
n = ε(1 + i)2α π1β1 π̄1β1 · · · πsβs π̄sβs · q1γ1 · · · qtγt ,
Ù¥ ε •ü . òa ¤pdƒêƒÈ, Kk
0 γ0 γ0
a = ε1 (1 + i)α π1β11 π̄1β12 · · · πsβs1 π̄sβs2 · q1 1 · · · qt t ,
0 γ0 γ0
ā = ε̄1 (1 − i)α π1β12 π̄1β11 · · · πsβs2 π̄sβs1 · q1 1 · · · qt t ,
Ù¥ ε1 •ü . dÏª©) •˜5, n = aā …=
2α0 = 2α, β11 + β12 = β1 , ··· , βs1 + βs2 = βs ,
2γ10 = γ1 , ··· , 2γt0 = γt ,
= γ1 , · · · , γt •óê. dž β11 (9β21 )k β1 + 1 «ŒUÀJ, . . ., βs1 (9βs2 )k

βs + 1 «ŒUÀJ, ε1 k 4 «ÀJ, =) ‡ê• 4(β1 + 1) · · · (βs + 1).
S K
SK2.1. p ´Ûƒê, p ≡ 1 (mod 4). XJ (a, b) ´Ø½•§ x2 + y 2 = p
˜| ê), K§ Ü ê)• (x, y) = (±a, ±b), (±b, ±a).
√ √
SK2.2. ò 60 Ú 81 + 8 −1 3‚ Z[ −1] ¥©)¤ØŒ ƒÈ.
SK2.3. Á¦•§ x2 + y 2 = 585 ¤k ê).
SK2.4. |^ © •{ïÄXe¯K:
(1) éu ê n, x2 + 2y 2 = n Ûžk ê)? kõ | ê)?
(2) éu ê n, x2 + xy + y 2 = n Ûžk ê)? kõ | ê)?
§4.3 õ‘ª‚† Gauss Ún 119
§4.3 õ‘ª‚† Gauss Ún

§4.3.1 ‚þ õ‘ª‚
·‚b R• †‚, R[x] •Ùõ‘ª‚. õ‘ª f (x) ∈ R[x]. e

f 6= 0, P f (x) = an x + an−1 x
n n−1
+ · · · + a0 (an 6= 0), ·‚¡ f gê
(degree)• n, ¿P• deg f , ¡ an • f (x) Ä‘Xê (leading coefficient).
ef Ä‘Xê• 1, ¡ f •Ä˜õ‘ª. e f = 0 •"õ‘ª, P deg f =
−∞.
‚R¥ ƒ a 3 R[x] ¥ ”¡•~Šõ‘ª. 5¿ f (x) •~Šõ
‘ª …= deg f ≤ 0.
·K4.21. f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x], K

(1) deg(f + g) 6 max{deg f, deg g}.
(2) deg(f g) 6 deg f + deg g, …XJ f (x) ½ g(x) Ä‘XêØ•"Ï
f, K Ò¤á. AO/, e R • ‚, K ªð¤á.
y². w,. 3ŠöS.
·K4.22. e D • ‚, K D[x] •´ ‚, … U (D[x]) = U (D), = ö

ü +ƒÓ.
y². e f (x), g(x) ∈ D[x] …þØ• 0, K f (x) · g(x) Ä‘Xê= f (x) †

g(x) Ä‘XêƒÈ, •Ø•0, ¤± f (x)g(x) 6= 0. e f (x) ∈ U (D[x]). -
f (x)g(x) = 1, K deg f = deg g = 0, = f (x) = a0 , g(x) = b0 •š"~Š¼
ê, … a0 b0 = 1, U (D[x]) ⊆ U (D). ,˜•¡, U (D) ⊆ U (D[x]) w,.
·‚• XJ F ••, Kéuõ‘ª f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x] …g(x) 6= 0, •

3•˜ õ‘ª q(x), r(x) ∈ F [x], ¦ deg r < deg g, …
f = qg + r,
=‘{Ø{¤á. d‘{Ø{·‚Œ±í F [x] ´îAp ‚, •´

PID Ú UFD. éu‚ õ‘ªœ/, ·‚kXe·K, Ùy²†•þ œ/
˜—.
120 1oÙ Ïª©)
·K4.23. e f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x], … g(x) Ä‘Xê3 R ü +¥, K•

3•˜ õ‘ª q(x), r(x) ÷v^‡
f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x), deg r(x) < deg g(x). (4.1)
íØ4.24 ({ê½n). f (x) ∈ R[x], c ∈ R, K•3•˜ õ‘ª q(x), ¦
f (x) = q(x)(x − c) + f (c). (4.2)
c • f (x) Š …= (x − c) | f (x).
y². dž g(x) = x − c, deg r(x) < 1, r(x) •U•~Šõ‘ª,

r(x) = r(c) = f (c) − q(c)(c − c) = f (c).
íØ4.25 (.‚KF). D, E • ‚, … D ⊆ E. K D[x] þ š"õ‘

ª f (x) 3 E ¥–õk deg f ‡ØÓŠ.
y². e c1 , . . . , cr • f (x) 3 E þ Š, K f (x) = (x − c1 )q1 (x). d (c2 −

c1 )q1 (c2 ) = f (c2 ) = 0 • q1 (c2 ) = 0, q1 (x) = (x − c2 )q2 (x). dd4í•
f (x) = (x − c1 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cr )qr (x).
du deg qr > 0, deg f (x) = r + deg qr (x), ¤± r 6 deg f .
5P. E †5^‡7ØŒ . ~X3o êN H ¥, x2 + 1 kÃêõ‡

Š ai + bj + ck (a2 + b2 + c2 = 1).
n
·K4.26. D •UFD, F •Ùû•, f (x) = ai xi (an 6= 0) • D þ š
P
i=0
"õ‘ª. e u = c
d
∈ F (Ù¥c, d ∈ D …(c, d) = 1) • f (x) Š, K c | a0
… d | an .
y². d f (u) = 0 •
n
X
ai ci dn−i = 0.
i=0
¤± c | a0 dn … d | an cn . d (c, d) = 1 • c | a0 … d | an .
§4.3 õ‘ª‚† Gauss Ún 121
D, E • ‚, D ⊆ E. f (x) = an xn + · · · + a0 ∈ D[x]. ·‚P
f 0 (x) = nan xn−1 + (n − 1)an−1 xn−2 + · · · + a1 , (4.3)
¡• f (x) /ª‡û (formal derivative). éu c ∈ E, c ¡• f (x) n-

Š (root of multiplicity n), ´•
f (x) = (x − c)n g(x) … g(c) 6= 0. (4.4)
½n4.27. D, E • ‚, D ⊆ E. f (x) ∈ D[x], c ∈ E.

(1) e c • f (x) n -Š, K f (c) = · · · = f (n−1) (c) = 0, … f (n) (c) 6= 0.
e D •A " ‚, K‡ƒ•¤á.
(2) XJ D ••, … (f, f 0 ) = 1, K f (x) 3 E þÃ-Š.
y². (1) d/ª‡û ½Â, ·‚•

(a) e f (x) ∈ D[x] ⊆ E[x], f (x) Š• E þõ‘ª /ª‡û u f (x)
Š• D þõ‘ª /ª‡û.
(b) (f + g)0 = f 0 + g 0 , (f g)0 = f 0 g + f g 0 .
e c • f (x) n -Š, K f (x) = (x − c)n g(x),
f 0 (x) = n(x − c)n−1 g(x) + (x − c)n g 0 (x)

= (x − c)n−1 (ng(x) + (x − c)g 0 (x)),
Œ• c ´ f 0 (x) n − 1 -Š. d8Bb •
f (c) = · · · = f (n−1) (c) = 0, f (n) (c) 6= 0.
‡ƒ, e f (c) = · · · = f (n−1) (c) = 0, f (n) (c) 6= 0, ò f (x) ¤ x−c õ‘

ª
f (x) = b0 + b1 (x − c) + b2 (x − c)2 + · · · + bm (x − c)m ,
K
f (m) (c)
f (c) = b0 , f 0 (c) = b1 , . . . , = bm ,
m!
¤± b0 = · · · = bn−1 = 0, bn 6= 0,
f (x) = (x − c)n (bn + bn+1 (x − c) + · · · + bm (x − c)m−n ) = (x − c)n g(x)
… g(c) = bn 6= 0.
(2) d(1)á .
122 1oÙ Ïª©)
§4.3.2 Gauss Ún
n
D • UFD, f (x) = ai xi (an 6= 0) ´ D þš"õ‘ª.
P
i=0
½Â4.28. Xê a0 , a1 , . . . , an •ŒúÏf¡• f NÈ (content), P•

c(f ). e c(f ) ∼ 1, ¡ f • õ‘ª (primitive polynomial).
d½ÂŒ•
f = c(f ) · f1 , Ù¥ f1 • õ‘ª. (4.5)
…3ƒŠ¿Âe, þª•˜, =X f = c · g … g • õ‘ª, K c ∼ c(f ).
·K4.29 (Gauss Ún). D • UFD. f (x), g(x) ∈ D[x] …š", K
c(f g) = c(f ) · c(g). (4.6)
AO/, õ‘ª ¦È• õ‘ª.
y². d f g = c(f )c(g)f1 g1 • c(f g) = c(f )c(g)c(f1 g1 ), ·‚•Iy² c(f1 g1 ) =

1, = õ‘ª ¦È• õ‘ª.
n
X m
X
f1 = ai x i , g1 = b j xj ,
i=1 i=1
K f1 g1 = ck xk , Ù¥ ck = ai bj . éu D þƒ p, d p - c(f1 ), •
P P
k i+j=k
3 s, ¦ p | ai é i < s ¤á p - as . Ó •3 t, p | bj éu j < t ¤á
p - bt . éu
cs+t = a0 bs+t = · · · + as−1 bs+1 + as bt = as+1 bt−1 + · · · + as+t b0 ,
d p - as b t p - cs+t . ck •ŒúÏf• 1, = c(f1 g1 ) = 1.

§4.3 õ‘ª‚† Gauss Ún 123
ã 4.3: Ie¦þ pd ã 4.4: 5ŽâïÄ6µ¡
k · 6p pF · pd(Carl Friedrich Gauss, 1777c4 30F

¨1855c2 23F) ¡•“êÆ f”, ÊH@•´êÆ¤þ•
•Œ êÆ[, 3êÆ z‡+•ÑkmM5 z. 1801cÑ
‡ 5ŽâïÄ6(Disquisitiones Arithmeticae) ´êÆ¤þ•-
‡ ÍŠƒ˜, §I“Xy“êØ mà. ·‚ÆSL Ð ê
Ø•£Ú Ö‚ nØÜ©(•˜Ïª©)‚, pd ê‚) é
õ•£ÑÑuTÖ. pd3Ø 18•žy² p>/Œ±ÏL†
2n
ºÚ 5 E …= p´¤êƒê(=/X2 +1 ƒê), ù
•r¦¦ÀJêÆŠ•ïÄ••. ³Û nØ‰Ñ º5Šã
¯K {)‰, üŒêÆUâ gŽ3d ®. ¢Ã ´, ¦
+pd´ ž••Œ ‰Æ[, c” C Ú³Û óŠ
¿vk ¦ -À. ã 4.3 ´Vgpd )200±cž¬Ì
Iu1 e¦. ã 4.4 ´5ŽâïÄ6 µ¡.
d Gauss Ún, ·‚á•kXe(J.
Ún4.30. D • UFD, F • D û•, f, g ∈ D[x] • õ‘ª, K f

† g 3 D[x] ƒŠ …= f † g 3 F [x] þƒŠ.
y². e f = αg, α ∈ F × , - α = a
b
, a, b ∈ D pƒ, K bf = ag,
124 1oÙ Ïª©)
b = c(bf ) ∼ a = c(ag), = α ∈ D× .
Ún4.31. D • UFD, F • D û•, K f (x) 3 D[x] ¥•ØŒ

…= f (x) ÷ve ü^‡ƒ˜:
(1) f (x) = p • D þ ØŒ .
(2) f (x) …3 F [x] ¥ØŒ .
y². e deg f = 0, K f (x) ØŒ du f (x) = p 3 D þØŒ . y3

deg f > 1.
e f (x) 3 F [x] ¥ØŒ …• õ‘ª. f (x) = g(x)h(x) ∈ D[x],
K g(x) ½ h(x) 3 F [x] ¥Œ_, Ø” • g(x), K g(x) ∈ F × . q g(x) ∈
D[x], g(x) ∈ D − {0}. d c(f ) = g · c(h), g(x) ∈ U (D) = D× .
‡ƒ, e f (x) ∈ D[x] ØŒ , d f (x) = c(f ) · f1 (x) • c(f ) = 1, f (x)
• õ‘ª. e f (x) = g(x)h(x) ∈ F [x], -
a c
g(x) = g 0 (x), h(x) = h0 (x),
b d
Ù¥ a, b, c, d ∈ D, g 0 (x), h0 (x) ∈ D[x] , K bdf (x) = acg 0 (x)h0 (x), 3
D ¥ bd ∼ ac, = f (x) ∼ g 0 h0 .
½n4.32 (Gauss). XJ D • UFD, K D[x] •´ UFD. l n õ‘ª‚

D[x1 , . . . , xn ] þ• UFD.
y². ·‚kyÏf©) •35, y•˜5.
•35: f (x) ∈ D[x]. ·‚é f (x) gêŠ8By² f (x) • D[x] ¥Ø

Œ ¦È.
e deg f = 0, K f (x) ∈ D. d D • UFD • f (x) Œ± •ØŒ
ƒÈ. e deg f > 1, d f (x) = c(f ) · f1 (x). ·‚Œ±b f (x) ,K
deg f = 1 ž f (x) •ØŒ , KdÚn 4.31, f (x) • D[x] þØŒ ,Ä
K f (x) = g(x)h(x) 3 F [x] þŒ . Ó dÚn 4.31, f (x) = g 0 (x)h0 (x) 3
D[x] þŒ . d c(f ) = 1 Œ• g 0 (x), h0 (x) • õ‘ª. d8Bb •
f (x) • D[x] ¥ØŒ ƒÈ.
•˜5: e
f (x) = c1 · · · cr g1 (x) · · · gs (x) = d1 · · · dr0 g10 (x) · · · gs0 0 (x)

§4.3 õ‘ª‚† Gauss Ún 125
• f (x) ØŒ Ïª©), Ù¥ c1 , . . . , cr , d1 , . . . , dr0 ∈ D ØŒ , g1 (x), . . . ,

gs (x), g10 (x), . . . , gs0 0 (x) • D[x] þgê> 1 ØŒ õ‘ª, Kd
c(f ) = c1 · · · cr = d1 · · · dr0
• r = r0 …²N†gS c1 ∼ d1 , . . ., cr ∼ dr , g1 (x) · · · gs (x) ∼

g10 (x) · · · gs0 0 (x). dÚn 4.30, §‚3 F [x] ¥•ƒŠ. d F [x] ¥Ïª©
) •˜5• s = s0 , …²N†gS gi (x) † gi0 (x) 3 F [x] ¥ƒŠ, 2d
Ún 4.30, §‚3 D[x] ¥•ƒŠ.
e¡·‚‰Ñ D[x] ¥õ‘ª•ØŒ õ‘ª ˜« O•{.
½n4.33 (Eisenstein O{). D •UFD,
f (x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ∈ D[x].
e•3 D þØŒ p, ¦ p | ai (0 6 i 6 n − 1), p2 - a0 , K f (x) •

D[x] ¥ØŒ õ‘ª.
m l
y². e f (x) = g(x)h(x), Ù¥ g(x) = bi xi , h(x) = cj x j . ' Ä‘
P P
i=1 j=0
Xê, • m + l = n … bm cl = 1, = bm , cl • D ¥ü , Ø” g(x) †
h(x) Ä˜. ' ~ê‘Xê, ·‚k p | b0 c0 … p - b0 c0 . Ø” 2
p | bi é¤
k i < k ¤á, K
ak = bk c0 + bk−1 c1 + · · · + b0 ck .
e m < n, K k < n. d½n^‡, ·‚k p | ak . ,˜•¡ p - bk c0

p | bi cj (i < k), p - ak , gñ. m = n, = f (x) ØŒ .
5P. Ó y²·Au f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 , p - an , p | ai (0 6 i 6

n − 1) p 2 - a0 œ/.
xp −1
~4.34. p •ƒê, f (x) = x−1
= 1 + x + · · · + xp−1 , K
p−1
(x + 1)p − 1 p−1
X p p−k−1
g(x) = f (x + 1) = =x + x
x k=1
k
÷v Eisenstein O{ ^‡, g(x) ´ØŒ õ‘ª, l f (x) •´ Z[x]

þ ØŒ õ‘ª.
126 1oÙ Ïª©)
- D = Z, F = Q, KGauss ÚnkXe¢SA^
½n4.35. Xêõ‘ª f (x) ØŒ …= §Š•knXêõ‘ªØ

Œ , …ÙXê •Œú ê• 1. †óƒ, f (x) ∈ Z[x], K f (x) =
g(x)h(x), Ù¥ g(x), h(x) ∈ Z[x] …gê > 1 …= f (x) = g 0 (x)h0 (x), Ù
¥ g 0 (x), h0 (x) ∈ Q[x] …gê > 1.
S K
SK3.1. y²·K 4.21.
SK3.2. R ´‚, f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ R[x]. y²:

(1) f (x) Œ_ …= a0 ∈ U (R), … a1 , . . . , an ∈ Nil(R).
(2) f (x) ˜" …= a0 , a1 , . . . , an þŒ_.
(3) f (x) ´"Ïf …= •3 0 6= a ∈ R, ¦ af (x) = 0.
SK3.3. D • UFD, F • D û•. f (x) • D[x] ¥Ä˜õ‘ª. y

²: f (x) 3 F [x] ¥ z‡Ä˜õ‘ªÏf7áu D[x].
SK3.4. ò xn − 1 (3 6 n 6 10) 3 Z[x] ¥ŠƒÏf©).
SK3.5. F ••, d : F [x] → F [x] •‚5N , eéu?¿ f, g ∈

F [x], d(f g) = (df )g + f (dg), K¡ d •F [x] þ ˜‡‚5 f. žéÑ F [x]
þ¤k‚5 f.
SK3.6. D ´ ‚ Ø´•, ¦y D[x] Ø´ÌnŽ ‚.
SK3.7. f (x) ´ Q[x] ¥ÛgØŒ õ‘ª, α Ú β ´ f (x) 3 Q ,

‡*•¥ü‡ØÓ Š, ¦y α + β ∈
/ Q.
SK3.8. R ´¹N‚. ½Â8Ü
X+∞
R[[x]] = { an xn | an ∈ R(n = 0, 1, 2, . . .)},
n=0
§4.3 õ‘ª‚† Gauss Ún 127
+∞
z‡ ƒ an x n ‰ R þ'u x /ª˜?ê. ½Â
P
n=0
X X X
an x n + bn x n = (an + bn )xn ,
X X X X
( an xn )( bn x n ) = ( ai bj )xn .
i+j=n
(1) R[[x]] éuþã\{Ú¦{/¤¹N‚, ‰‚ R þ'u x /ª

˜?ê‚;
(2) e R • †‚, K R[[x]] •´ †‚;
(3) õ‘ª‚ R[x] Œg,w¤´ R[[x]] f‚;
∞
R ´¹N †‚, f (x) = ai xi ∈ R[[x]], K f (x) Œ_ …=
P
(4)
i=1
a0 R×.
(5) e R ••, K R[[x]] ´ PID …•k•˜ 4ŒnŽ m. ¦Ñ R[[x]]
¤knŽ.
SK3.9. Á(½ R[x] Ú Z[x] ¤kƒnŽÚ4ŒnŽ.
SK3.10. Á(½‚ Z[x] Ú‚ Q[x] gÓ +.
SK3.11. c0 , . . . , c n ´ ‚ D ¥üüƒÉ n+1 ‡ ƒ, d0 , . . . , dn

´ D ¥?¿ n + 1 ‡ ƒ. y²:
(1) 3 D[x] ¥–õ•3˜‡gê 6 n õ‘ª f (x), ¦ f (ci ) =
di (0 6 i 6 n);
(2) XJD ••, K(1) ¥¤ã õ‘ª´•3 .
SK3.12. äe ƒ´Ä• Z[x], Q[x], R[x], C[x], Z[[x]] ¥ Œ_ ?

´Ä•ØŒ ?
(1) 2x + 2; (2) x2 + 1; (3) x + 1; (4) x2 + 3x + 2.
SK3.13. ui xi ∈ Z[x] •Ä 1 õ‘ª, p •ƒê, ± a L« a ∈ Z

P
f=
3‚ g,Ó Z → Fp ƒe ”, - f (x) = ai xi ∈ Zp [x].
P
(1) ¦y: eé,‡ƒêp, f (x) 3Fp [x] ¥ØŒ , K f (x) 3Z[x] ¥Ø

Œ .
(2) e f (x) Ø´ Z[x] ¥Ä 1 õ‘ª, ¯(1) ¥(Ø´Ä¤á?
128 1oÙ Ïª©)
SK3.14. F ••, a, b ∈ F … a 6= 0. y² f (x) 3 F [x] ¥ØŒ …

= f (ax + b) 3 F [x] ¥ØŒ .
SK3.15. y²ü‡ õ‘ª3Q[x] ¥pƒ …= §‚3Z[x] ¥)¤

nŽ¹k˜‡ ê.
n
SK3.16. ai xi ∈ Z[x], deg f = n. e•3ƒê p Ú ê
P
f (x) =
i=0
k (0 < k < n), ¦ :
p - an , p - ak , p | ai (0 ≤ i ≤ k − 1), p2 - a0 .
¦y f (x) 3 Z[x] ¥7•3gê ≥ k ØŒ Ïf.
SK3.17. D ´ ‚, 0 6= f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ D[x]. e

(a0 , a1 , · · · , an ) = 1, K f (x) 3 D[x] ¥ØŒ ©)e•3K7•˜.
1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
§5.1 •*ÜÄ nØ
§5.1.1 ~„ • ~f
·‚£ ˜e• F ´ãAO ‚, = F ´ ‚…Ùü + F× =

F − {0}, =Ùš" þŒ_.
~5.1. e• F A •0, KÓ Z → F, 1 7→ 1F Œ±*¿•• üÓ

Q ,→ F , = Q Œ±À• F f•. e F ⊆ C, ·‚¡ F •ê• (number
field). ~X¢ê• R =•ê• ˜‡~f.
~5.2. XJ• F A • p, KÓ Z→F p • üÓ Fp ,→ F . A

O/, XJ F ƒ‡êk•, ¡ F •k•• (finite field).
~5.3. F ••, x •™½ .F þ kn¼ê• (rational function field)

f (x)
F (x) = F þõ‘ª‚ F [x] û•, § ƒŒ±P• g(x)
, Ù¥ f (x), g(x) ∈
F [x] … g(x) 6= 0.
þãn‡~f3• nØ¥åX-‡Š^, ·‚ò²~¦^ §‚.
§5.1.2 “ê*Ü†‡ *Ü
3Ú?Vgc, ·‚Äkw˜‡~f. - F = Q, K = C. éu α ∈ C, k
ü«œ¹: (i) α = e ½ π 9aqœ/. džé¤kš"õ‘ª f (x) ∈ Q[x],
√
f (α) 6= 0; (ii) α = 2 ½ ζn 9aqœ/. dž•3š"õ‘ª f (x) ∈ Q[x],
f (α) = 0. ùü«œ¹`² •*Ü¥ü« ƒ: ‡ †“ê („1n
Ù§3.1.1).
½Â5.4. XJ• F ´• K f•, ¡ K ´ F *Ü (extension), P•

K/F .
XJ K/F ••*Ü, α ∈ K, P F (α) • K ¥•¹ F † α • f
•. •?˜Ú/, S ⊂ K )¤ f•P•F (S).
129
130 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
• nØl Ÿþ ó´ïÄ•*Ü nØ. K/F ••*Ü, α ∈ K.

•Ä‚Ó
ϕ : F [x] → K, g(x) 7→ g(α).
du K ´•, g,•´ ‚, ker ϕ ´ F [x] þ ƒnŽ. ùkü«œ/:
(i) ½ö ker ϕ = (0);
(ii) ½ö ker ϕ = (f (x)), f (x) ´ F [x] ¥Ä˜ØŒ õ‘ª.
3œ/(i), ϕ p • üÓ
g(x) g(α)
ϕ : F (x) → K, 7→ .
h(x) h(α)
∼
d imϕ = F (α), F (x) −→ F (α). 3œ/(ii), ϕ p •Ó
∼
F [x]/(f (x)) −→ F (α), x 7→ α.
dž
F (α) = F [α] = {g(α) | g(x) ∈ F [x]}.
½Â5.5. α • F ,*•¥ ƒ. XJé¤k 0 6= f (x) ∈ F [x], f (α) 6=

0, ¡ α • F þ ‡ (transcendental element), ½¢ α 3 F þ‡
(transcendental). XJ•3 0 6= f (x) ∈ F [x], f (α) = 0, ¡ α • F þ “ê
(algebraic element), ½¢ α 3 F þ“ê (algebraic).
dþã©Û, ·‚á•k
∼
·K5.6. XJ α 3 F þ‡ , K F (α) −→ F (x). XJ α 3 F þ“ê, K
•3 F [x] þÄ˜ØŒ õ‘ª f (x),
∼
F [x]/(f (x)) −→ F (α) = F [α].
5P. þã f (x) ¡• α 3 F þ • õ‘ª (minimal polynomial), ½¢Ø

Œ õ‘ª (irreducible polynomial). XJg(x) ∈ F [x] …g(α) = 0, K¡g(x)
• α 3 F þ z"õ‘ª.
5¿ • õ‘ª7,´z"õ‘ª Ïf. ¯¢þ, d‘{Ø{Œ
g(x) = q(x)f (x) + r(x), Ù¥deg r(x) < deg f (x). K r(x) •´ α 3 F þ
z"õ‘ª. X r(x) 6= 0, d f (x) ØŒ 5, (f (x), r(x)) = 1 •´ α z
"õ‘ª, ùØŒU.
§5.1 •*ÜÄ nØ 131
½Â5.7. K/F ••*Ü. XJ•3 α ∈ K 3 F þ‡ , ¡ K/F •‡

*Ü (transcendental extension). XJé¤k α ∈ K, α 3 F þ“ê, ¡
K/F •“ê*Ü (algebraic extension).
XJ K = F (α1 , . . . , αn ), ¡ K/F •k•)¤*Ü (finitely generated
extension). AO/, XJ K = F (α), ¡ K/F •ü*Ü (simple extension).
§5.1.3 “ê*Ü 5Ÿ
K/F ••*Ü, K3• \{Ú† F ¦{¿Âe, K ´ F þ

‚5˜m.
½Â5.8. •*Ü K/F *Ügê (degree of extension), P• [K : F ], ´•

K Š• F -‚5˜m ‘ê dimF K.
XJ K/F *Ügêk•, ¡ K/F •k•*Ü (finite extension), Ä
K¡ K/F •Ã•*Ü (infinite extension).
d‚5“ênØ, ·‚á•k
·K5.9. XJ K = F (α) ´ F þ ü“ê*Ü, f (x) • α • õ‘ª.

K
[K : F ] = deg f = n.
dž {1, α, . . . , αn−1 } ´ K/F ˜|Ä. ‡ƒ, e [F (α) : F ] < +∞, K α

3 F þ“ê.
½n5.10 (gêúª). K ⊇ M ⊇ F ••*Ü, K
[K : F ] = [K : M ] · [M : F ]. (5.1)
y². e K/M ½ M/F •Ã•*Ü, K Òw,¤á. ÄK [K : M ] = m,

[M : F ] = n. - {α1 , . . . , αm } • K Š• M -‚5˜m Ä, {β1 , . . . , βn } •
M Š• F -‚5˜m Ä, Ké?¿ x ∈ K,
m
X m X
X n
x= ai α i = ( aij βj )αi
i=1 i=1 j=1
Xm Xn
= aij αi βj , ai ∈ M, aij ∈ F,
i=1 j=1
132 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
x • {αi βj | 1 6 i 6 m, 1 6 j 6 n} F -‚5|Ü. ,˜•¡, XJ

m X
X n
aij αi βj = 0,
i=1 j=1
m Pn n
K ( aij βj )αi = 0. d {α1 , . . . , αm } ‚5Ã'•é¤k
P P
i, aij βj = 0.
i=1 j=1 j=1
d {β1 , . . . , βn } F -‚5Ã'• aij = 0.
nþ¤ã {αi βj | 1 6 i 6 m, 1 6 j 6 n} ´ K Š• F -‚5˜m Ä,
[K : F ] = mn = [K : M ] · [M : F ].
gêúª (5.1) kéõA^.
íØ5.11. [K : F ] = n, α ∈ K, K [F (α) : F ] | n, = α 3 F þ • õ
‘ª gê n Ø.
íØ5.12. XJ p •ƒê, [K : F ] = p, α ∈ K, α ∈
/ F , K K = F (α).
·K5.13. k•*Ü=•k•)¤“ê*Ü.
y². XJ K/F •“ê*Ü. - {α1 , . . . , αn } • K ˜| F -Ä, K K =

F (α1 , . . . , αn ). du {1, αi , . . . , αin } ‚5ƒ', αi 3 F þ“ê, K/F
´k•)¤ “ê*Ü.
‡ƒ, XJ K = F (α1 , . . . , αn ), … α1 , . . . , αn 3 F þ“ê, Kd½n
5.10,
[K : F ] = [F (α1 , . . . , αn ) : F (α1 , . . . , αn−1 )] · · · · · [F (α1 ) : F ] < +∞.
·Ky..
½n5.14. K ´F *•, K K ¥ F -“ê 8Ü ¤ K f•.
y². α, β ∈ K, α, β 3 F þ“ê, K [F (α, β) : F ] < +∞, éu

γ = α ± β, αβ ½ αβ −1 , F (γ) ⊆ F (α, β), [F (γ) : F ] < +∞, Ïd γ 3 F
þ“ê.
½n5.15. XJ• K 3 M þ“ê, M 3 F þ“ê, K K 3 F þ“ê.

§5.1 •*ÜÄ nØ 133
y². α ∈ K, K α 3 M þ“ê, K•3
αn + an−1 αn−1 + · · · + a1 α + a0 = 0, ai ∈ M.
= α 3 F (a0 , a1 , . . . , an−1 ) þ“ê. du a0 , . . . , an−1 3 F þ“ê,
[F (α, a0 , a1 , . . . , an−1 ) : F ] < +∞,
=α3F þ “ê.
§5.1.4 • Ó †Ó
½Â5.16. K, K 0 • F *•. •Ó ϕ : K → K 0 ¡• F -Ó (F -
isomorphism), ´• ϕ 3 F þ •›•ð N . XJ K = K 0 , ¡ ϕ ••
K F -gÓ (F -automorphism).
·K5.17. ϕ : K → K • F -gÓ , f (x) ∈ F [x]. e α ∈ K, f (α) = 0,

=α∈K ´f Š, K f (ϕ(α)) = 0, = ϕ(α) ∈ K 0 ´ f Š.
n
y². - f (x) = ai x i , ai ∈ F . K
P
i=1
n
X n
X
i
0 = ϕ(f (α)) = ϕ(ai α ) = ai ϕ(α)i = f (ϕ(α)).
i=1 i=1
·Ky..
∼
·K5.18. XJ ϕ : F (α) −→ F (β), Ù¥ϕ(α) = β … ϕ|F = id, K α † β
3F þkƒÓ ØŒ õ‘ª.
y². f (x) ´ α • õ‘ª, g(x) ´ β • õ‘ª. •Ä ϕ : F (α) →

F (β), d·K 5.17• f (β) = 0, = g(x) | f (x). 2•Ä ϕ−1 : F (β) → F (α)
• f (x) | g(x), f (x) = g(x).
5P. e=k F (α) = F (β), α † β ØŒ õ‘ªŒ±ƒ éŒ, §‚

gê7Lƒ (ë„·K 5.9).
134 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
§5.1.5 “ê4•†“êµ4•
½Â5.19. • F ¡•“êµ4• (algebraically closed field), ´• F [x] þ

ØŒ Ïfþ´˜gÏf; †óƒ, ´•e f (x) ∈ F [x], … deg f > 0, K•
3 α ∈ F , f (α) = 0.
XJ K/F •“ê*Ü… K ´“êµ4•, K¡ K • F “ê4•
(algebraic closure),
½n5.20. é‰½ • F , F “ê4••3… (3Ó ¿Âe) •˜.
y². ky•˜5. K1 , K2 • F ü‡“ê4•. L • K1 ¥ •

Œf•¦ •3•i\ ϕ : L → K2 … σ|F = id. ·‚y² L = K1 . eØ
,, α ∈ K1 \L, K α 3 F þ“ê, •3 L þ“ê. - f (x) • α 3
F þ • õ‘ª, g(x) • α 3 L þ • õ‘ª, K g(x) | f (x). du
ϕ(f (x)) = f (x) • K2 þ˜gÏª ¦È, K ϕ(g(x)) 3 K2 þ©)•˜g
ÏªƒÈ. - β • ϕ(g)(x) ˜‡Š, K
ϕ : L(α) → ϕ(L)(β) ,→ K2 , α 7→ β
´• i\, ù† L •Œ5gñ, L = K1 . du ϕ(K1 ) ⊆ K2 … F þ

¤kgê > 1 õ‘ª3 ϕ(K1 ) ¥kŠ. ϕ(K1 ) = K2 , = ϕ •Ó .
•35 y²: ·‚Äkb eã½n 5.21 ¤á. dd, Œ± E˜G
•
E1 ⊂ E2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ En · · ·
¦ En [x] ¥?ÛgêŒu0 õ‘ª3En+1 ¥ÑkŠ. -E •¤kEn ¿,

KE g,´˜‡•: XJx, y ∈ E, K•3n ¦ x, y ∈ En , x + y, xy ∈ En .
·‚Xd½Âx †y \{Ú¦{, w,ù†n ÀJÃ', dd‰Ñ E
•( . E[x] ¥?ÛgêŒu0 õ‘ª Xêo3,‡En ¥, Ïd3En+1
¥kŠ, l 3E ¥kŠ, E ´“êµ4•.
½n5.21. éu?¿• F , •3•*Ü E/F , ¦ F þ?Ûgê > 1 õ

‘ª3 E þþkŠ.
•y²½n 5.21, ·‚ÄkkXeÚn:

§5.1 •*ÜÄ nØ 135
Ún5.22. F ••. é?¿gê > 1 õ‘ª f (x) ∈ F [x], •3 F *

• L, ¦ f (x) 3 L þkŠ.
y². Ø” f (x) Ä˜ØŒ , K L = F [x]/(f (x)) ••. N σ : F → L,

a 7→ a ´• i\, … f (x) 3 L þkŠ x mod f (x).
½n 5.21 y². éu F [x] þz˜‡gê > 1 õ‘ª f (x), ·‚éA

˜™½ Xf . - S •¤k Xf ¤ 8Ü, Ïd S † F [x] ¥gê > 1
õ‘ª8Ü˜˜éA. - F [S] •F þd S )¤ õ‘ª‚. - I • F [S] ¥
¤k f (Xf ) )¤ nŽ. ·‚y² I 6= (1). ÄK•3 g1 , . . . , gn ∈ F [S],
g1 f1 (Xf1 ) + g2 f2 (Xf2 ) + · · · + gn fn (Xfn ) = 1.
•{üå„, P Xi = Xfi . du g1 , . . . , gn •õ•k•õCþõ‘ª. Ø”

P• X1 , . . . , XN (N > n), K·‚k
n
X
gi (X1 , . . . , XN )fi (Xi ) = 1.
i=1
L•F k•*Ü, Ù¥ f1 , . . . , fn 3 F þkŠ. Ø” αi ´ fi Š.

éu i > n, - αi = 0, Kò α1 , . . . , αN “\þª, ·‚ 0 = 1, ØŒU!
I Ø´ F [S].
- m • F [S] ¥•¹ I ˜‡4ŒnŽ, K E = F [S]/m ••, F ,→ E,
… F [x] ¥z‡gê > 1 õ‘ª3 E ¥þkŠ.
S K
SK1.1. F/K •• *Ü, u ∈ F ´ K þ Ûg“ê ƒ. ¦y K(u) =
K(u2 ).
2πi
SK1.2. p •ƒê, ¦*Ü Q(ζp )/Q Ú Q(ζ8 )/Q gê, Ù¥ ζn = e n
•ng ü Š. é˜„ n, *Ü Q(ζn )/Q gê´õ ?

√ √
SK1.3. ¦ ƒ 2 + 3 3• K þ 4 õ‘ª, Ù¥
√ √
(1) K = Q; (2) K = Q( 2); (3) K = Q( 6).
136 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
√ √ √ √
SK1.4. y² Q( 2, 3) = Q( 2 + 3).
SK1.5. F/K •• “ê*Ü, D • ‚… K ⊆ D ⊆ F . ¦y D •

•.
SK1.6. u áu• F ,‡*•, ¿… u 3 F þ“ê. XJ f (x) •

u3F þ 4 õ‘ª, K f (x) 7• F [x] ¥ØŒ . ‡ƒ, e f (x) ´
F [x] ¥Ä 1 ØŒ õ‘ª, ¿… f (u) = 0, K f (x) • u 3 F þ 4 õ
‘ª.
SK1.7. K/F ••*Ü, a ∈ K. e a ∈ F (am ), m > 1, K a 3 F þ“

ê.
SK1.8. K(x1 , . . . , xn ) ń õ‘ª‚K[x1 , . . . , xn ] û•. e u ∈

/ K, K u 3 K þ‡
K(x1 , . . . , xn ), u ∈ .
SK1.9. K ••, u ∈ K(x), u ∈

/ K. y² x 3 K(u) þ“ê.
SK1.10. - K = Q(α) Ù¥ α ´•§ x3 −x−1 = 0 ˜‡Š. ¦ γ = 1+α2

3Q 4 õ‘ª.
√
SK1.11. a´ knê…Ø´ Q ¥ê ²•. y²[Q( 4 a) : Q] = 4.
SK1.12. u ´õ‘ª x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 3 ˜‡Š.

(1) ¦y [Q(u) : Q] = 3.
(2) Áò u4 , (u + 1)−1 , (u2 − 6u + 8)−1 L«¤ 1, u, u2 Q-‚5|Ü.
SK1.13. x ´Q þ ‡ … u = x3 /(x + 1), ¦ [Q(x) : Q(u)].
SK1.14. Á Ñ • Fp ˜‡ 2 gØŒ õ‘ª f (x). u ´ f (x)

˜‡Š, Ñ F2 (u) Ü ƒ±9§‚ \{LÚ¦{L.
SK1.15. M/K •• *Ü, M ¥ ƒ u, v ©O´ K þ m gÚ n

g“ê ƒ. F = K(u), E = K(v).
(1) ¦y [F E : K] 6 mn.
(2) XJ (m, n) = 1, K [F E : K] = mn.
§5.2 º5Šã¯K 137
SK1.16. F •A p •, p •ƒê. c ∈ F .
(1) y² xp − x − c 3 F [x] ¥ØŒ …= xp − x − c 3 F ¥ÃŠ.
(2) echarF = 0 ž, Á¯(1) ¥(Ø´ÄE,¤á?
√
SK1.17. F •A Ø• 2 •, y² F z‡ g*Üþk/ª F ( a), a ∈
F . XJ charF = 2, K(Ø´Ä¤á?
SK1.18. K = Q(α) • Q ü*Ü, Ù¥ α 3 Q þ“ê. y²

|Aut(K)| 6 [K : Q].
§5.2 º5Šã¯K
3 !, ·‚A^•*Ü•£5£‰ ;AÛ¥ º5Šã¯K. ^5
‰Šó5`:
½Â5.23. ‰½E²¡þ: 8Ü, §•) :±9: (1, 0), K²e¡•{

:!†‚Ú ¡•Œ E (constructible) :!†‚Ú :
(i) ë üŒ E:Š†‚.
(ii) ±˜Œ E:• %L,˜Œ E:Š .
(iii) Œ E†‚ƒm! ƒm½†‚† :•#Œ E:.
XJ (a, 0) •Œ E:, ¡ a ∈ R •Œ Eê (constructible number).
Ún5.24. ²LŒ E: A ŒŠ†‚†®•Œ E†‚ l R†.
y². ©ü«œ¹:
(i) A ∈ l. - B • l þ,˜Œ E:, ± A • %L B Š l u
: C. ± B, C • %©OL C, B Š u: D, K†‚ AD † l R†(ã
5.1).
/ l. ± A •
(ii) A ∈ %, Œ E•Ý•Œ»Š l u B, C, ± B, C
• %©OL C, B Š u: D, K†‚ AD † l R†(ã 5.2).
/ l, KŒL: A Š†‚ l0 † l ²1.

Ún5.25. XJ A ∈
y². L A Š l R‚ l0 , L A Š l0 R‚ l0 , K l0 † l ²1.
138 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
ã 5.1: L†‚þ˜:ŠR‚ ã 5.2: L†‚ ˜:ŠR‚
Ún5.26. ‰½ B 9L B †‚ l. éuE²¡þ?üŒ E: O, A, Œ
3lþ E: C, ¦ |BC| = |OA|.
y². XJ OA Ø3 l þ, KXã 5.3 ¤«, L A, B ©OŠ†‚²1u

OB, OA, u: D, ± B • %L D Š l u C, K |BC| = |BD| =
|OA|. XJ OA 3 l þ, ·‚Œ±,é˜^†‚ l0 , ²ügŠã=Œ.
ã 5.3: E½•‚ã
Ún5.27. XJ (a, b) •Œ E:, K a, b •Œ Eê.
y². du x ¶•Œ E†‚, L (a, b) Š x ¶ R‚= (a, 0), 2dÚn

5.26 = : (b, 0).
·K5.28. Œ Eê 8Ü F ¤R f•.
y². dÚn 5.26 • F =•¤kŒ E:üüm ålÚƒ‡ê.

Äkd (0, 0), (1, 0) •Œ E:, 0 ∈ F … 1 ∈ F.
e α, β ∈ F , K −α ∈ F w,¤á, α + β dÚn 5.26 •w,¤á,
•‡y² αβ ∈ F … α−1 ∈ F . ·‚Ø” α, β > 0, Ky²Xã 5.4 ¤«.
§5.2 º5Šã¯K 139
ã 5.4: ¦ÈÚ_
√
Ún5.29. XJ ¢ê α ∈ F , K α ∈ F.
y². Xã 5.5.
ã 5.5: ¦²•Š
Ún5.30.
Ai = (ai , bi ) (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) É²¡4:…Ù‹I3• K ¥.
√
KÏL§‚Š†‚† :‹I‡o3 K ¥, ‡o3 K( r) ¥, Ù
¥ r ∈ K.
y². L Ai † Aj †‚•
(ai − aj )(y − bj ) = (bi − bj )(x − aj ).
± Ai • %L Aj •
(x − ai )2 + (y − bi )2 = (aj − ai )2 + (bj − bi )2 .
?Ø§‚ := Ún.
½n5.31. a1 , . . . , am •Œ E¢ê, K•3•*Üó
Q = F0 ⊆ F1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Fn = K,
Ù¥
140 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
(1) K ⊆ R.
(2) a1 , . . . , am ∈ K.
√
(3) Fi+1 = Fi ( ri ), ri ∈ Fi \Fi2 .
‡ƒ, e Q ⊆ F1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Fn = K, …(3) ¤á, K K ¥ ƒŒ E.
y². dþ¡¤ Ñ Ún9 E 5K= .
íØ5.32. XJ a ∈ R Œ E, K a 3 Q þ“ê…•3 ê r ≥ 0,
[Q(a) : Q] = 2r . (5.2)
íØ5.33. ØŒU^º5Šã5?¿n © .
y². ·‚•Iy² 60◦ ØŒº5n ©=Œ. ÄkN´wÑ 60◦ Œ±º5

ŠÑ, ù´Ï• cos 60◦ = 1
2
•Œ Eê. ´éu θ = 20◦ = π9 , cos 3θ = 12 ,
u´ cos θ • õ‘ª• 4x3 − 3x + 21 , [Q(cos θ) : Q] = 3 Ø´ 2 ˜.
n
íØ5.34. p •ƒê. e p >/Œ±^†º 5 E, K p = 22 + 1
• Fermat ƒê (Fermat prime).
5P. _·K•¤á, §´ Galois nØ íØ(·K 6.38).
y². - ζp = cos 2π
p
+ i sin 2π
p
, ζp + ζp−1 = 2 cos 2π
p
,K
[Q(ζp ) : Q(ζp + ζp−1 )] = 2.

p−1
[Q(ζp ) : Q] = p − 1, [Q(cos 2π
p
) : Q] = 2
. díØ 5.32, p >/Œ
E du p − 1 = 2 , = p = 2 + 1. e m kÛÏf m0 , m = m0 r, K
m m
n
2r + 1 | p, = p Ø•ƒê. p = 22 + 1 • Fermat ƒê.
S K
SK2.1. e = þŒ±º5ŠÑ?
p4
√ √ √
(1) 3 + 5 8; 5
(2) √37−4 ; (3) 2 + 5 7; (4) x5 − 3x2 + 6 Š.
SK2.2. y²Œ±º5n © 45◦ Ú 54◦ Ý .
SK2.3. )û ““J”K— •¯K.
SK2.4. 3 6 n 6 10 • ê, K n >/´ÄŒº5ŠÑ?
§5.3 “êÄ ½n 141
§5.3 “êÄ ½n
3 !, ·‚y²Xe ½n, =¤¢“êÄ ½n.
½n5.35 (“êÄ ½n). f (x) ∈ C[x] •gê > 1 õ‘ª, K•3

x0 ∈ C ¦ f (x0 ) = 0.
y². ½n duy²•3 x0 ∈ C, |f (x0 )| = 0. ·‚•Iy²Xeü‡Ú

n.
Ún5.36. XJ x0 ∈ C, f (x0 ) 6= 0, K |f (x0 )| Ø´ |f (x)| • Š.
Ún5.37. XJ f (x) Éõ‘ª, K |f (x)| 3 C þ,: x0 ?ˆ • Š.

√ iθ
Ún 5.36 y². Äk, éu?¿ c ∈ C, = c = reiθ , K α = k
re k ´õ
‘ª xk − c Š.
ò x ^ x + x0 “O, Ø”b x0 = 0. ò f (x) ¦± f (0)−1 , Ø”
f (0) = 1. ·‚‡y² 1 Ø´ |f (x)| • Š. P
f (x) = 1 + axk + xk+1 g(x), a 6= 0.
αk = −a, ò x ^ αx “O, K
f (x) = 1 − xk + xk+1 g(x).
¤± xv ž,
|f (x)| 6 |1 − xk | + |xk+1 g(x)|

= 1 − xk + xk+1 |g(x)|
= 1 − xk (1 − x|g(x)|) < 1,
Ún y.
Ún 5.37 y². e f (x) = an xn + · · · + a0 ,
|f (x)| an−1 a0
lim n
= lim |an + + · · · + n | = |an |,
|x|→+∞ |x| |x|→+∞ x x
142 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
|x| → +∞ ž, |f (x)| → +∞, R > 0, ¦ |x| > R ž, |f (x)| >

|f (0)|. K
min |f (x)| = min |f (x)|,
x∈C |x|6R
ö´Œ±ˆ (duk.4«•þ ëY¼êk•Œ• Š).
S K
SK3.1. y² C[x] 4ŒnŽ†E²¡þ :˜˜éA. R[x] 4ŒnŽ
Œ±g,/éA E²¡þ Ÿo?
§5.4 k•• nØ
¤¢k••, = ƒ‡êk• •. dž¡k•• ƒ‡ê•k••
(order of finite field). e K •k••, K K A 7,´,‡ƒê p,
k Fp ,→ K • K f•. [K : Fp ] = n, K K ´ Fp þ n ‘•þ˜m,
n
|K| = p . ·‚kXeÚn:
Ún5.38. k•• þ•ƒê•˜.
~5.39. α • F2 þØŒ õ‘ª x2 + x + 1 Š, K F2 (α) ´ 4 k•

•, § 4‡ ƒ• 0, 1, α, 1 + α. du F2 [x] þ gØŒ õ‘ª•k
˜‡, F2 (α) = F4 ••˜ 4 •.
eã½n´k••nØ Ä ½n.
½n5.40. p ´ƒê, q = pr , r > 1.

(1) •3 • q k••.
(2) 3 Fp “ê4• Fp ¥•k•˜ q • {x ∈ Fp | xq = x}, …¤
kq •þÓ u§.
(3) XJ K • q, K K × ´ q − 1 Ì‚+.
(4) éu?Û q •K ¥ ƒ α, αq = α …
Y
xq − x = (x − α). (5.3)
α∈K
§5.4 k•• nØ 143
(5) Fp þ r gØŒ õ‘ªþ´ xq − x Ïf, …

Y Y
xq − x = f (x). (5.4)
d|r f Ä˜ØŒ
deg f =d
(6) e K, K 0 þ•k••, …Ñ3 Fp ,‰½ “ê4•¥, … |K| = pr ,

|K 0 | = pk , K K ⊇ K 0 …= k | r.
(7) Aut(Fq ) ´d σ : Fq → Fq , x 7→ xp )¤ r Ì‚+.
5P. σ : x 7→ xp ¡• K ýé Frobenius (absolute Frobenius). éu?

¿A p •, σ : K → K, x 7→ xp þ••Ó , §ò K Ó u K (p) = {xp |
x ∈ K} ,→ K.
y². (1) ·‚y² X = {x ∈ Fp | xq = x} • q •.

Äk, du f (x) = xq − x 3 Fp þÃ-Š, |X| = deg f = q. Ùg, e
α, β ∈ X, (α ± β)q = αq ± β q = α ± β, ¤± α ± β ∈ X. (α · β)q = αq β q = αβ,
¤± αβ ∈ X. e α ∈ X, α 6= 0, K (α−1 )q = (αq )−1 = α−1 , ¤± α−1 ∈ X.
dþŒ• X ¤•.
(3) ·‚y²Xe½n.
½n5.41. •þ k•¦{+þ´Ì‚+.
y². G ´• F þ n k•¦{+. du |G| = n, é?¿ x ∈ G, xn =

1. •¥õ‘ª xn − 1 •õk n ‡Š, G = {x ∈ F | xn = 1}. du G
´k•C +, d( ½n
G∼
= Z/n1 Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z/nk Z, n1 | n2 | · · · | nk ,
K G ¥¤k ƒþ‡÷v xnk = 1. F ¥ù ƒ•õk nk ‡, ¤±

n 6 nk , n = nk , G ∼
= Z/nZ •Ì‚+.
(2) •˜5d(3)á .
(4) du K × ´ q − 1
Ì‚+, éu α ∈ K, αq = α. du xq − x •õ
k q ‡Š, α ∈ K •Ù¤kŠ, xq − x =
Q
(x − α).
α∈K
144 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
(5) f (x) ∈ Fp [x], deg f = r, f Ä˜ØŒ , K Fp (α) = Fp [x]/f (x)

•q k••. ·‚k α ´ xq − x Š, f (x) | xq − x. Ó Œy, éu
deg f = d | r, f Ä˜ØŒ , f (x) | x − x, q
k
Y Y
f (x) xq − x.

d|r f Ä˜ØŒ
deg f =d
‡ƒ, e g(x) | xq − x, α • g(x) Š, K αq − α = 0, = Fp (α) =

Fp [x]/(g(x)) = Fpdeg g ⊆ Fq , ¤± Fp (α)× ´ F×
q f+, = pdeg g − 1 | pr − 1.
d (pm − 1, pn − 1) = p(m,n) − 1 • deg g | r.
nþŒ• xq − x ¤kÄ˜ØŒ Ïf• f (x), deg f = d | r, f Ä˜Ø
Œ . du xq − x Ã-Š, § ¤kØŒ Ïf•Ã-Š. ¤±
Y Y
xq − x = f (x).
d|r f Ä˜ØŒ
deg f =d
(6) XJ K ⊇ K 0 , K K 0× ´ K × f+, pk − 1 | pr − 1. d
(pm − 1, pn − 1) = p(m,n) − 1 • k | r.
‡ƒ, e k | r, K
k r
K 0 = {x ∈ Fp | xp = x} ⊆ K = {x ∈ Fp | xp = x}.
(7) Äk σ : Fq → Fq , x 7→ xp •• Fq gÓ . Ùg, e ϕ : Fq → Fq
•gÓ , d ϕ(0) = 0, ϕ(1) = 1, ·‚• ϕ|Fp = id. - Fq = Fp (α), Ù¥ α
• F×
q )¤ . - f (x) • α • õ‘ª, deg f = r, …
ϕ(f (α)) = f (ϕ(α)) = 0,
r−1
= ϕ(α) •´ f (x) Š. qdu σ ∈ Aut(Fq ), σ(α) = αp , . . . , σ r−1 (α) = αp
r−1
•´ f (x) Š. du f (x) | xq − x Ã-Š, α, αp , . . . , αp • f (x) ¤k
Š, =
r−1
f (x) = (x − α)(x − αp ) · · · (x − αp ).
k
¤± ϕ(α) = αp = σ k (α), ϕ = σk .
§5.4 k•• nØ 145
5P. (1) dþ¡½n y², ·‚• XJ f (x) • Fp þÄ˜ d gØŒ

õ‘ª, α • f (x) Š, K
r−1
f (x) = (x − α)(x − αp ) · · · (x − αp ). (5.5)
(2) e Fp • Fp “ê4•, K
[
Fp = Fpr
r∈N
… Fp r ⊆ Fp m …= r | m.
~5.42. α, β • Fp [x] ¥ x2 − 2, x2 − 3 Š. Á¦ p = 5, 7 ž, α + β
÷v • õ‘ª.
). p = 5 ž, x2 − 2 Ú x2 − 3 þ´ØŒ õ‘ª, F5 (α) = F52 =

F5 (β) = F5 (α, β). e α2 = 2, K (2α)2 = 3, β = ±2α. ¤± α + β = 3α
½ −α, Ù• õ‘ª• x − 3 ½ x − 2. 2 2
p = 7 ž, 32 = 2, α = ±3, α + β = ±3 + β, ÙØŒ õ‘ª•

(x ∓ 3)2 − 3 = x2 ± x − 1.
3¢SA^¥, ~~I‡ ½ Z[x] þõ‘ª´ÄŒ , dž·‚ke¡

{ü¯¢.
·K5.43. e õ‘ª f (x) ∈ Z[x] Œ , K f¯(x) = f (x) mod p ∈ Fp [x]

Œ . e f¯(x) • Fp [x] þØŒ õ‘ª, K f (x) • Z[x] þØŒ õ‘
ª.
·‚-#y²˜e Eisenstein O{.
·K5.44 (Eisenstein O{). XJ f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 ∈ Z[x],

p - an , p | ai (0 6 i < n) … p2 - a0 . K f (x) ØŒ .
y². •Ä f (x) = f¯(x) mod p, K f¯(x) = ān xn . e f (x) = g(x)h(x) Œ ,

K f¯(x) = ḡ(x)h̄(x), ḡ(x) = b̄k xk , h̄(x) = c̄l xl , ¤±
g(x) = bk xk + · · · + b1 x + b0 , h(x) = cl xl + · · · + c1 x + c0 .
d p | b0 9 p | c0 • p2 | b0 c0 = a0 , †®•gñ.
146 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
·K5.45. XJ f (x) ∈ K[x] gê• 2 g½ 3 g, K f (x) 3 K[x] þŒ

…= •3 α ∈ K, f (α) = 0.
y². eõ‘ª f (x) Œ , K f (x) = g(x)h(x), … g(x), h(x) gêþŒu

½ u 1. du deg f = 2 ½ 3, g(x) † h(x) 7k˜gê• 1. •3
α ∈ K, f (α) = 0. ‡ƒw,.
S K
SK4.1. E˜‡ 8 •¿ Ñ§ \{LÚ¦{L.
SK4.2. Ñ F2 þ Ügê 6 4 ØŒ õ‘ª, Ñ F3 þ Ü 2 gØ

Œ õ‘ª.
SK4.3. p, l •ƒê, n • ê, Á¦ Fp [x] ¥ ln gÄ˜ØŒ õ‘ª

‡ê.
SK4.4. α12 = 2, α22 = 3. ¦ α1 + α2 3 Q, F5 , F7 þ ØŒ õ‘ª.
SK4.5. f (x) ´ Fp [x] ¥Ä˜ØŒ õ‘ª.

(1) e u • f (x) ˜‡Š, K f (x) k*dØÓ n ‡Š, ¿…§‚
p2 pn−1
• u, u , u , . . . , u
p
;
(2) e f (x) ˜‡Š u •• F = Fp (u) ¦{Ì‚+ F × )¤ ,
K f (x) z‡Š•Ñ´F× )¤ . ù õ‘ª¡• Fp [x] ¥ ng
õ‘ª.
(3) y² Fp [x] ¥ n g õ‘ª k ϕ(pn − 1)/n ‡, Ù¥ ϕ ´î.
¼ê.
n
SK4.6. n > 3 ž, x2 + x + 1 ´ F2 [x] ¥Œ õ‘ª.
SK4.7. (1) y² x4 + x + 1 • F2 [x] ¥ õ‘ª;

(2) Ñ 16 • F16 = F2 [u] ¥•˜ 4 f• Ü ƒ, ùp u ´
x4 + x + 1 ∈ F2 [x] ˜‡Š;
(3) ¦Ñ u 3 F4 þ 4 õ‘ª.
§5.4 k•• nØ 147
SK4.8. (1) y² x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 • F2 [x] ¥ØŒ õ‘ª Ø´

õ‘ª.
(2) - u • x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 ∈ F2 [x] ˜‡Š, Á¯ F16 = F2 (u) ¥
= ƒ´ F16 − {0} ¦{)¤ ?
SK4.9. F ´k••, a, b ∈ F × . ¦y: éz‡ c ∈ F , •§ ax2 + by 2 = c

3• F ¥þk) (x, y).
SK4.10. y²õ‘ª f (x) = x3 + x + 1 Ú g(x) = x3 + x2 + 1 3 F2 þ´

ØŒ . K ´ÏLV\ f ˜‡Š *•, ¿ L ´V\ g ˜
‡Š *•. äN/£ã˜‡l K L Ó .
SK4.11. K ´k••. y² K ¥š" ƒ ¦È• −1.
SK4.12. 3• F3 þ©) x9 − x Ú x27 − x.
SK4.13. p •ƒê, F ´ pn •, G = Aut(F ). éuz‡ a ∈ F , -

X Y
Tr(a) = σ(a), N (a) = σ(a).
a∈G a∈G
y²: (1) Tr : F → Fp ´\{+ ÷Ó ;

(2) N : F × → F×
p ´¦{+ ÷Ó .
SK4.14. F • q = pn •, p •ƒê, H ´ Aut(F ) m f+.

K = {a ∈ F | éz‡ σ ∈ H, σ(a) = a}. y²:
(1) m | n;
(2) K ´ F ¥•˜ pn/m f•.
SK4.15. F • q = pn •. p •ƒê. f (x) • F [x] ¥ØŒ õ‘ª.

y²:
(1) f (x) k-Š …= •3 g(x) ∈ F [x], ¦ f (x) = g(xp );
n
(2) XJ f (x) = g(xp ), Ù¥ g(x) ∈ F [x], ´Ø•3 g̃(x) ∈ F [x] ¦
pn+1
f (x) = g̃(x ), K p | m = deg f , ¿… f (x)
n
k m/pn ‡ØÓ Š,
z‡Š -êþ• pn .
148 1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ
SK4.16. p ´ƒê, q = pn , F • q k••.

(1) ¦+ SLn (F ) .
(2) y² GLn (Fp ) ¥é ‚ • 1 þn ¤ p3 šC +
(5¿p 2
+Ć +).
18Ù Galois nØ
§6.1 Galois nØ Ì‡½n

K ´• F *Ü, P• K/F . 3™ŠAÏ`²ž, ·‚ K/F ´
k•*Ü.
§6.1.1 Galois + ½ÂÚ~f
·‚Äk£Á˜e K F -gÓ ½Â, =e σ ´ K gÓ …σ

3 F þ •›•ð N , K¡ σ • K F -gÓ . 3 Ù¥, ·‚òª
„¦^Xe{ü k^ ¯¢.
Ún6.1. e Fe ••*Ü, … ϕ : K → K
K/F , K/ e ••Ó … ϕ(F ) ⊆ Fe.
e f (x) ∈ F [x], P ϕ(f (x)) = fe(x), Ke α ∈ K • f (x) Š, K α
e = ϕ(α)
7• fe(x) Š.
AO/, e F = Fe, σ • K
K = K, F -gÓ , Ke α ∈ K •
f (x) ∈ F [x] Š, σ(α) 7• f (x) Š.
½Â6.2. K ¤k F -gÓ ¤ 8Ü, 3±EÜ$ŽŠ¦{e ¤ +,

¡• K/F Galois + (Galois group), P• Gal(K/F ) ½ G(K/F ).
√
~6.3. F = Fp (T ) •k•• Fp kn¼ê•, K = Fp ( p T ). du
√
α= pT • õ‘ª• xp − T = (x − α)p , Ù¤k Šþ• α (-ê• p).
e σ ∈ Gal(K/F ), dÚn 6.1 7k σ(α) = α, = σ = 1, Gal(K/F ) = {1}.
~6.4 ( g*Ü). K/F ´ g*Ü (quadratic extension), α ∈ K, α 6∈

F , K K = F (α). α3F þ • õ‘ª• f (x) = x2 + bx + c. XJ
α, α0 • f (x) ü‡Š, K
α + α0 = −b, α · α0 = c,
α0 = −b − α ∈ F (α) = K. - σ • K F -gÓ , KdÚn 6.1, σ(α) =

α ½ α0 . e σ(α) = α, K σ = 1. e α 6= α0 , K Gal(K/F ) = {1, σ}, Ù¥
σ(α) = α0 . e α = α0 , K Gal(K/F ) = {1}.
149
150 18Ù Galois nØ
·‚5?Ø˜e α = α0 œ¹. dž 2α = −b. XJ23 F þŒ_, K

α = −b/2 ∈ F , ØŒU. dž F A • 2 … b = 0, f (x) = x2 + c •
F [x] ØŒ õ‘ª, § Š´ü-Š.
2
éu charF 6= 2 œ/, f (x) = (x + 2b )2 + 4c−b . - D = 14 (b2 − 4c), K
√ √4 √
K = F ( D). dž Gal(K/F ) = {1, σ}, Ù¥ σ( D) = − D.
~6.5 (V g*Ü). ·‚Äkb charF 6= 2. - K = F (α, β), Ù¥

α2 = D1 ∈ F , β 2 = D2 ∈ F . XJ [K : F ] = 4, K¡ K/F •V g*
Ü (biquadratic extension), dž [K : F (α)] = [K : F (β)] = 2, {1, α, β, αβ}
• K ˜| F -Ä. éu?¿ σ ∈ Gal(K/F ), σ(α) = ±α, σ(β) = ±β.
|Gal(K/F )| 6 4, ´ Gal(K/F (α)) = {1, σ}, Ù¥ σ(α) = α, σ(β) =
−β. Gal(K/F (β)) = {1, τ } Ù¥ τ (α) = −α, τ (β) = β. Gal(K/F ) =
{1, σ, τ, στ } ∼
= Z/2Z ⊕ Z/2Z • Klein + K4 .
√
~6.6 (ng*Ü). K = Q( 3 2), F = Q, K [K : F ] = 3, K/F •ng*
Ü (cubic extension). dž Gal(K/F ) = {1}.
3 Ù¥, ·‚òAOy²Xe½n
½n6.7. K/F •• k•*Ü, K |Gal(K/F )| 6 [K : F ].
½Â6.8. ¡•*Ü K/F ´ Galois *Ü, XJ |Gal(K/F )| = [K : F ].
d½Â, ·‚• g*Ü(charF = 2, f (x) = x2 + c Ø )ÚV g*Ü

þ´ Galois *Ü. charF = 2, α ´ØŒ õ‘ª f (x) = x2 + c Šž,
F (α)/F Ø´ Galois *Ü. ~ 6.3 Ú~ 6.6 ¥ *ÜþØ´ Galois *Ü.
du G = G(K/F ) ´ Aut(K) f+, G Š^3 K þ. -
K G = {α ∈ K | ϕ(α) = α é?¿ ϕ ∈ G ¤á}. (6.1)
d½n 6.7, ·‚kXeíØ.
íØ6.9. XJ K/F ´ Galois *Ü, G = Gal(K/F ) ´Ù Galois +, K

KG = F .
y². - L = K G . Äkw,k F ⊆ L, Gal(K/L) ⊆ G. Ùgéu?¿

ϕ ∈ G, ϕ|L = id, ϕ ∈ Gal(G/L). Ïd G = Gal(K/L). d |G| = [K :
F ] 6 [K : F ] • F = L.
§6.1 Galois nØ Ì‡½n 151
3~ 6.3, ~ 6.4, ~ 6.6 ¥, ·‚Œ±uy K/F Galois + u

[K : F ] kü«œ¹. ˜«œ¹´ K ¥ ƒα • õ‘ªk-Š(~ 6.3
†~ 6.4). 1 «œ¹´ α • õ‘ª ŠØ 3 K ¥. dd, ·‚ò?
Øü«œ¹: Œ©*Ü† 5*Ü.
§6.1.2 Œ©õ‘ª†Œ©*Ü
f (x) ∈ F [x] •Ä˜õ‘ª, K f (x) k-Š …= (f, f 0 ) 6= 1 (½

n 4.27). e f (x) ´ØŒ õ‘ª, ù• Óu f 0 6= 0. e
f (x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,
K
f 0 (x) = nxn−1 + (n − 1)an−1 xn−2 + · · · + a1 = 0,
=k charF = p > 0, … ai = 0 XJ p - i. nþ¤ã, ·‚k
Ún6.10. f (x) ∈ F [x] •Ä˜ØŒ õ‘ª. e f (x) k-Š, K charF =

p > 0 … f (x) = g(xp ).
½Â6.11. XJõ‘ª f (x) ∈ F [x] ØŒ ÏfÃ-Š, ¡ f (x) •Œ©

õ‘ª (separable polynomial). ‡ƒ, ¡ f (x) •ØŒ©õ‘ª (inseparable
polynomial).
dþãÚnŒ•, XJ charF = 0, K¤k õ‘ªÑ´Œ©õ‘ª.
½Â6.12. charF = p. XJé?Û α ∈ F , þ•3 β ∈ F ¦ β p = α,

K¡ F • • (perfect field).
~6.13. k••Ñ´ •.
·K6.14. XJ F ´ •, K F þ¤kõ‘ªÑ´Œ©õ‘ª.
y². XJ F ´ •, e
f (x) = g(xp ) = anp xnp + a(n−1)p x(n−1)p + · · · + ap xp + a0 ,
- bpi = aip , K f (x) = (bn xn + bn−1 xn−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0 )p Œ .

152 18Ù Galois nØ
½Â6.15. K/F •“ê*Ü. ¡ α ∈ K •Œ© , XJ§ ØŒ õ

‘ª´Œ©õ‘ª. XJ¤k α ∈ K þ´Œ© , K¡ K/F ´Œ©*Ü
(separable extension). ÄK¡ K/F •ØŒ©*Ü (inseparable extension).
dþ¡ ?Ø, ·‚k
·K6.16. XJ charF = 0 ½ charF = p > 0 F ´ •, K F ?¿

“ê*Üþ´Œ©*Ü.
·‚òy²
½n6.17. k•Œ©*ÜÑ´ü*Ü.
§6.1.3 5*Ü
½Â6.18. f (x) ∈ F [x]. ¡•*Ü K • f (x) 3 F þ © • (splitting

field), XJe ü^‡¤á:
(1) f (x) = (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) · · · (x − αn ), αi ∈ K.
(2) K = F (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ).
e•k(1)¤á, ¡ f (x) 3 K þ© (split).
Ún6.19. ϕ : F → Fe ••Ó , f (x) ∈ F [x] ØŒ . P ϕ(f (x)) = fe(x).

e K/F , K/
e Fe ••*Ü, α ∈ K, f (α) = 0 … α e ∈ K, α) = 0, K•3•
e fe(e
˜ •Ó ϕ1 : F (α) → Fe(e α) ¦
ϕ1 (α) = α
e, ϕ1 |F = ϕ. (6.2)
y². ·‚k F (α) ∼ α) ∼

= F [x]/(f ), Fe(e = Fe[x]/(fe) … ϕ g,p Ó F [x]/(f )
→ Fe[e
x]/(fe),
∼
ϕ1 : F (α) −→ Fe(e
α), e … ϕ1 |F = ϕ.
ϕ1 (α) = α
•˜5d(6.2)á .
·K6.20. f (x) 3 F þ © ••3…•˜.

y². •35: ·‚é f (x) gê n Š8B. n = 1 ´w,¤á, dž©

•= F . é<n õ‘ªþ¤á. f (x) ˜‡ØŒ Ïf• g(x).
e g(x) •‚5Ïf, •‡ K = F =Œ, ÄK- F1 = F [x]/(g(x)) = F (α),
f (x) f (x)
K g(x)
gê < n, •3 g(x)
3 F1 þ © •, d••´ f (x) 3F þ
© •.
•˜5: ·‚•I3Xe·K¥ e … ϕ = id =Œ.
F = Fe, K = K
·K6.21. ϕ : F → Fe ••Ó , f (x) ∈ F [x], fe(x) = ϕ(f (x)). e K, K

e
©O• f (x) † fe(x) 3 F þ† Fe þ © •, K•3Ó
∼
ψ : K −→ K
e … ψ|F = ϕ.
y². ·‚é [K : F ] Š8B. e f (x) •k‚5Ïf, K K = F, K

e = Fe, •
I- ψ = ϕ =Œ. e f (x) kgê> 1 ØŒ Ïf g(x), K ge(x) = ϕ(g(x))
• fe(x) ØŒ Ïf. - α ∈ K • g(x) ˜‡Š, α
e∈K e • ge(x) ˜‡
Š, KdÚn 6.19, •3Ó
∼
α) …ϕ1 |F = ϕ.
ϕ1 : F (α) −→ Fe(e
dž K (½K) e ´ f (x) (½fe(x)) 3 F (α) (½Fe(e

α)) þ © •, … [K :
∼
F (α)] < [K : F ]. d8Bb , •3Ó ψ : K −→ K, e ψ|F (α) = ϕ1 , dž
ψ|F = ϕ.
½Â6.22. “ê*Ü K/F ¡• 5*Ü (normal extension), XJé?¿

α ∈ K, α 3 F þ • õ‘ªþ3 K þ© .
·‚òy²Xe½n.
½n6.23. K/F ´k•*Ü, K K/F ´ Galois *Ü …= K ´,

Œ©õ‘ª f (x) ∈ F [x] © •.
íØ6.24. XJ K/F •k•Œ©*Ü, K K/F •¹3 F , Galois *Ü

¥.
y². duk•Œ©*Ü´ü*Ü, - K = F (α), f (x) • α • õ‘ª.

L • f (x) 3 K þ © •, K L ´ f (x) 3 F þ © •, dþãÚ
n, L/F ´ Galois *Ü.
154 18Ù Galois nØ
íØ6.25. K/F ´ Galois *Ü, L ´Ù¥m•, K K/L •´Galois *

Ü.
y². d½n, K ´,Œ©õ‘ª f (x) ∈ F [x] 3 F þ © •, •´

f (x) 3 L þ © •, ¤± K/L ´ Galois *Ü.
§6.1.4 Galois nØÄ ½n
e¡·‚Œ±•ã Galois nØ Ä ½n.
½n6.26 (Galois Ä ½n). K/F ´ Galois *Ü, G = G(K/F ) •Ù

Galois +, K
(1) N
{G ¤kf+} −→ {K/F ¤k¥m•}

H 7−→ K H
´˜˜éA, Ù_•
L 7−→ G(K/L)
…e H = G(K/L), K
[K : L] = |H|, [L : F ] = (G : H).
(2) þãéAp ˜˜éA
{G ¤k 5f+} ←→ {K/F Galois f*ÜL/F }.
dže H = G(K/L), K
G(L/F ) ∼
= G/H.
S K
SK1.1. F = Fq • q k••, (n, p) = 1, E • xn − 1 3 F þ ©
•. y² [E : F ] u÷v n | q k − 1 • ê k.
SK1.2. F ••, f (x) • F [x] ¥ n gõ‘ª, E • f (x) 3 F þ ©

•. ¦y [E : F ] | n!.
SK1.3. E • x8 −1 3 Q þ © •, K E/Q Ág*Ü? (½ Galois

+ Gal(E/Q).
SK1.4. E/F ´• *Ü. XJéz‡ ƒ α ∈ E, α ∈

/ F, α 3 F þ
þ´‡ ƒ, K¡ E/F ´X‡ *Ü. y²:
(1) F (x)/F ´X‡ *Ü.
(2) éu?¿•*Ü E/F , •3•˜ ¥m• M , ¦ E/M •X‡
*Ü, M/F •“ê*Ü.
SK1.5. F •A 0 •, f (x) • F [x] ¥ gêÄ˜õ‘ª, d(x) =

0
(f, f ). ¦y: g(x) = f (x)/d(x) Ú f (x) kÓ Š,¿… g(x) Ã-Š.
SK1.6. F •A p •, p •ƒê, f (x) • F [x] ¥ØŒ õ‘ª, ¦

y: f (x) ¤kŠþkƒÓ -ê, …ù‡ú -êk/ª pn (n > 0).
SK1.7. E/F •Œ©*Ü, M • E/F ¥m•, ¦y E/M Ú M/F

þ´Œ©*Ü.
SK1.8. F •A p > 0 •, E/F •“ê*Ü. y²éz‡ α ∈ E þ

n
•3 ê n > 0, ¦ αp 3 F þŒ©.
SK1.9. E = Fp (x, y), F = Fp (xp , y p ), p •ƒê. y²:

(1) [E : F ] = p2 ;
(2) E/F Ø´ü*Ü;
(3) E/F kÃ•õ‡¥m•.
SK1.10. (1) e E/F •“ê*Ü, F • •, K E •• •;

(2) e E/F •k•)¤*Ü, E • •, K F •• •;
(3) e E/F •“ê*Ü(Ø7•k•*Ü), ¯(2) ¥(Ø´Ä¤á?
SK1.11. E = Q(α), Ù¥ α3 + α2 − 2α − 1 = 0. y²:

(1) α2 − 2 •´ x3 + x2 − 2x − 1 = 0 Š;
(2) E/Q ´ 5*Ü.
156 18Ù Galois nØ
SK1.12. E/F Ú K/F þ´ 5*Ü, ¦y EK/F •´ 5*Ü.
SK1.13. (1) XJ E/M Ú M/F þ´• 5*Ü, Á¯ E/F ´Ä˜½

• 5*Ü?
(2) XJ E/F ´ 5*Ü, M ´§‚ ¥m•, Á¯ E/M Ú M/F
´Ä˜½• 5*Ü?
SK1.14. E/F •“ê*Ü. y² E/F • 5*Ü …= éu F [x]

¥?¿ØŒ õ‘ª f (x), f (x) 3 E[x] ¥ ¤kØŒ ÏfþkƒÓ g
ê.
§6.2 •§ Galois +
·‚Äk¦^þ!nØ5?Ø•§ Galois +.
§6.2.1 ng•§ © •
F ••. •{üå„, ·‚b charF 6= 3. f (x) = x3 + a2 x2 +

a2
a1 x + a0 . Š£¶C† x = x1 − 3
, ·‚Ø”b f (x) = x3 + px + q.
f (x) • F þ ØŒ Œ©õ‘ª, - K • f (x) © •. -
f (x) = (x − α1 )(x − α2 )(x − α3 ),
K 
 α1 + α2 + α3 = 0


α1 α2 + α2 α3 + α3 α1 = p

= −q

 ααα
1 2 3
·‚k•*Ü
F ⊆ F (α1 ) ⊆ K = F (α1 , α2 , α3 ),
Ù¥ [F (α1 ) : F ] = 3 [K : F (α1 )] = 1 ½ 2. G = G(K/F ), K G Š^
38Ü {α1 , α2 , α3 } þ. e σ ∈ G, σ(αi ) = αi , K σ Š^3 K þ•ð N ,
¤± G 3 {α1 , α2 , α3 } þ Š^´§¢Š^, ·‚kü i : G ,→ S3 .
du S3 ¥•˜ 3 f+´ A3 ,e K = F (α1 ), K G = {1, σ, σ 2 },
7 α3 . e [K : F (α1 )] = 2, K G ∼
Ù¥ σ : α1 7→ α2 → = S3 . -
∆ = (α1 − α2 )(α2 − α3 )(α3 − α1 ) ∈ K. (6.3)

§6.2 •§ Galois + 157
Ke G ∼
= A3 , éu τ = (ij) ∈ S3 , τ ∆ = −∆. ·‚k F 6= F (∆) ⊆ K A3 .
d Galois nØÄ ½n, [K A3 : F ] = (S3 : A3 ) = 2, K A3 = F (∆). e
G = A3 , Ké?¿ σ ∈ A3 , σ∆ = ∆, ¤± ∆ ∈ F .
nþ¤ã, ·‚k
½n6.27. K ´Œ©ØŒ õ‘ª f (x) = x3 + px + q þ © •, K

[K : F ] = 6 …= D = (α1 − α2 )2 (α2 − α3 )2 (α3 − α1 )2 ∈ F × \F ×2 . dž
Gal(K/F ) ∼ = S3 , ÄK Gal(K/F ) = A3 ∼
= Z/3Z.
§6.2.2 ˜„œ¹
charF 6= 2, f (x) • F [x] þÄ˜ n gõ‘ª…Ã-Š. - K ´ f (x)

3 F þ © •, K
f (x) = (x − α1 ) · · · (x − αn ), αi ∈ K,
K = F (α1 , . . . , αn ).
- Gal(f ) = Gal(K/F ), K Gal(f ) Š^3 {α1 , . . . , αn } þ, …Š^´§¢ ,

=k
Gal(f ) ,→ Sn .
·‚ò Gal(f ) À• Sn f+.
½Â6.28. D = D(f ) = − αj )2 ¡•õ‘ª f Oª (dis-

Q
16i<j6n (αi
criminant).
d½Âá : õ‘ª f Ã-Š …= Ù Oª D 6= 0.

√
·K6.29. D ∈ F , …f+ Gal(K/F ) ∩ An éA f•• F ( D).
√
Gal(f ) ⊆ An …= D ∈ F.
y². -
Y √
∆= (αi − αj ) = D,
16i<j6n
= D = ∆2 . e σ •Û˜†, K σ(∆) = −∆; e σ •ó˜†, K σ(∆) =

∆. é¤k σ ∈ Gal(K/F ), σ(D) = D, = D ∈ F … Gal(K/F (∆)) =
Gal(K/F ) ∩ An .
158 18Ù Galois nØ
·‚e¡‰Ñ˜‡OŽ D(f ) •{.
Ún6.30. e f (x) = (x − α1 ) · · · (x − αn ), K
n
n(n−1) Y
D = D(f ) = (−1) 2 f 0 (αi ). (6.4)
i=1
y². d f (x) = (x − α1 ) · · · (x − αn ),
n Y
X
0
f (x) = (x − αj ),
i=1 j6=i
¤± f 0 (αi ) =
Q
(αi − αj ),
j6=i
n
Y n(n−1) Y
D(f ) = 2
(αi − αj ) = (−1) 2 f 0 (αi ).
16i<j6n i=1
~6.31. e f (x) = x3 + px + q, K f 0 (x) = 3x2 + p,

3
Y
D(f ) = (3αi2 + p) = −4p3 − 27q 2 . (6.5)
i=1
Ún6.32. e f (x) ØŒ , K Gal(f ) Š^3 {α1 , . . . , αn } þD4.
y². - α1 6= α2 • f ü‡Š, K•3Ó ϕ : F (α1 ) → F (α2 ) ¦

ψ
ϕ|F = id … ϕ(α1 ) = α2 . d·K6.21, ϕ òÿ• K → K, … ψ|F = id, =
ψ ∈ Gal(f ), ψ(α1 ) = α2 .
½n6.33. XJ F = Q, f (x) ´ p gknXêØŒ õ‘ª, … f (x) TÐ

kü‡EŠ, K Gal(f ) = Sp .
y². - K • f (x) © •, α • f (x) ˜‡Š, K p = [Q(α) : Q] | [K :

Q]. Gal(f ) •¹ p , Gal(f ) ⊆ Sp , dp 7• pÓ†.
•ÄE Ý3 K þ •› σ, K σ ½ f (x) ¤k¢Š, …ò f (x)
ü‡EŠé†, = σ 3 Sp ¥´˜‡é†. du Sp d˜‡ p Ó††˜‡é†
)¤(ë„ §2.1, AO´·K 2.11 ÚSK), Gal(f ) = Sp .
5P. ·‚Œ±ò F U• R ?Ûf•, Kþã½nE¤á.

§6.2 •§ Galois + 159
§6.2.3 é¡õ‘ª
E ••, x1 , . . . , xn •™½ . K = E(x1 , . . . , xn ) • E n kn

¼ê•. -
n
X X
p1 = xi , p2 = xi xj , ··· , pn = x1 · · · xn .
i=1 16i<j6n
½Â6.34. õ‘ª
X
pk = xi 1 xi 2 · · · xi k (6.6)
16i1 <i2 <···<ik 6n
¡• x1 , . . . , xn k gÄ é¡õ‘ª (elementary symmetric polynomial).
- F = E(p1 , . . . , pn ), K K ´õ‘ª
f (x) = (x − x1 ) · · · (x − xn ) = xn − p1 xn−1 + · · · + (−1)n pn ∈ F [x]
© •. du f (x) Ã-Š, K/F • Galois *Ü. ·‚e¡5û½

Gal(K/F ). Äk Gal(K/F ) ,→ Sn . - σ ∈ Sn , ·‚½Â σ 3 K þX
eŠ^:
σ(f (x1 , . . . , xn )) = f (xσ(1) , . . . , xσ(n) ),
K σ ∈ AutK … σ(pi ) = pi , = σ ∈ Gal(K/F ), ¤± Sn ⊆ Gal(K/F ),
Gal(K/F ) ∼
= Sn .
·‚k
½n6.35. (1) E(x1 , . . . , xn )Sn = E(p1 , . . . , pn ).

(2) e f (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ E[x1 , . . . , xn ] Sn ½, K•3•˜ õ‘ª
g(p1 , . . . , pn ) ∈ E[p1 , . . . , pn ] ¦
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = g(p1 , . . . , pn ).
5P. ·‚¡ Sn Š^ ½ õ‘ª•é¡õ‘ª (symmetric polynomial).

½n¥(2)=´`²¤ké¡õ‘ªþŒ•˜L•Ä é¡õ‘ª õ‘ª.
160 18Ù Galois nØ
y². (1) dþã`²á= .

(2) Äky²•35, ·‚é n Š8B. n = 1 žw,. éu < n
¤á. e f (x1 , . . . , xn ) Sn ½, K f (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 0) Sn−1 ½. d8
Bb
f (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 0) = g 0 (p01 , . . . , p0n−1 ),
Ù¥ p0i = pi (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 0). •Ä
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) − g 0 (p1 , . . . , pn−1 ) = f 0 (x1 , . . . , x − n),
K f 0 (x1 , . . . , xn ) Sn ½, … xn = 0 ž, f 0 (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 0) = 0, =

xn |f 0 (x1 , . . . , xn ). dé¡5, xi |f 0 (x1 , . . . , xn ), pn |f 0 (x1 , . . . , xn ). -
0
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = pn h(x1 , . . . , xn ), K
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = g 0 (p1 , . . . , pn−1 ) + pn h(x1 , . . . , xn ),
h(x1 , . . . , xn ) •é¡õ‘ª. 5¿
deg g 0 (p1 , . . . , pn−1 ) = deg g 0 (p01 , . . . , p0n−1 ) 6 deg f,
·‚k deg h 6 deg f , é deg f 2Š8B= .

2y•˜5. ·‚‡y² p1 , . . . , pn Ø•3“ê'Xª, =e
X
ai1 ,...,in pi11 · · · pinn = 0, ai1 ,...,in ∈ E,
K ai1 ,...,in = 0. ·‚é n Š8B. n = 1 žd x1 ‡ 5=•. eé un

¤á, Kéu n œ/, xn = 0, K
X
ai1 ,...,in (p01 )i1 · · · (p0n )in = 0, p0i = pi (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , 0).
d8Bb ai1 ,...,in−1 ,0 = 0,

X X i n−1 in −1
ai1 ,...,in pi11 · · · pinn = pn ai1 ,...,in pi11 · · · pn−1 pn .
in >1
2Š˜g8B(é ai1 ,...,in pi11 · · · pinn •p‘gêŠ8B), =•é in > 1 ž,

P
ai1 ,...,in = 0.
§6.2 •§ Galois + 161
½n6.36. t1 , . . . , tn •™½ , F = E(t1 , . . . , tn ),
f (x) = xn − t1 xn−1 + t2 xn−2 + · · · + (−1)n tn ∈ F [x].
K f (x) ´ F þ ØŒ Œ©õ‘ª. - K • f (x) 3 F þ © •, K
Gal(K/F ) ∼
= Sn .
y². s1 , . . . , sn • f (x) Š, K
F (x) = xn − t1 xn−1 + t2 xn−1 + · · · + (−1)n tn = (x − s1 ) · · · (x − sn ),
K = E(t1 , . . . , tn )(s1 , . . . , sn ) = E(s1 , . . . , sn ).
- K̃ = E(x1 , . . . , xn ), Ù¥ x1 , . . . , xn •™½ , F̃ = E(p1 , . . . , pn ), Kd½

n 6.35, Gal(K̃/F̃ ) = Sn . du t1 , . . . , tn •™½ , •3‚Ó
σ : E[t1 , . . . , tn ] → E[p1 , . . . , pn ], ti 7→ pi .
du x1 , . . . , xn •™½ , •3‚Ó
τ : E(x1 , . . . , xn ) → E(s1 , . . . , sn ), xi 7→ si .
K τ σ(ti ) = τ (pi ) = ti , = τ σ = 1, σ •üÓ . qw, σ •÷Ó , σ

•Ó , §p Ó σ : F → F̃ . d·K6.21, σ *¿••Ó ρ : K → K̃,
∼
Gal(K/F ) −→ Gal(K̃/F̃ ) = Sn . du
[K : F ] = [F (s1 , . . . , sn ) : F ]
Yn
= [F (s1 , . . . , si ) : F (s1 , . . . , si−1 )] 6 n!,
i=1
[K : F ] = |Gal(K/F )| = n!, f (x) ŠüüØÓ, … [F (s1 ) : F ] = n,

f (x) •ØŒ Œ©õ‘ª.
S K
162 18Ù Galois nØ
SK2.1. F •¢ê• R f•. f (x) • F [x] ¥ngØŒ õ‘ª. y

²e d(f ) > 0, K f (x) kn‡¢Š; e d(f ) < 0, K f (x) •k˜‡¢Š.
SK2.2. F Á • 2 •. ¦ f (x) 3 F þ Galois+, Ù¥

(1) f (x) = x3 + x + 1; (2) f (x) = x3 + x2 + 1.
SK2.3. (½ f (x) 3• F þ Galois +, Ù¥

√ √
(1) f (x) = x4 − 5, F = Q, Q( 5), Q( −5).
(2) f (x) = x4 − 10x2 + 4, F = Q.
(3) f (x) = x5 − 6x + 3, F = Q.
SK2.4. p •ƒê, a ∈ Q, xp − a • Q[x] ¥ØŒ õ‘ª. y² xp − a

3Qþ Galois +Ó u p • Fp þ 2 ˜„‚5+ GL2 (Fp ) f+
( ! )
k l
| l, k ∈ Fp , 0 6= k ∈ Fp .
0 1
√ √
SK2.5. y² Q( 4 2(1 + −1)/Q óg*Ü; ¿¦Ñ§ Galois+.
SK2.6. ?˜k•+þ´,‡•þŒ©õ‘ª Galois+.
§6.3 Galois *Ü ˜ ~f
3 !, ·‚ò•[ùã Galois *Ü ˜ ~f.
§6.3.1 © *Ü
F ••, n • ê, …e charF = p > 0, K p - n. •Äõ‘ª

f (x) = xn − 1 3 F þ © • K, ·‚- ζn • f (x) ˜‡Š…é?¿
1 6 i < n, ζni 6= 1, = ζn ´¤¢ n g ü Š (primitive roots of unity),
K {ζni | 0 6 i 6 n − 1} • f (x) ¤kŠ. K = F (ζn ), õ‘ª
n−1
Y
n
x −1= (x − ζni ) (6.7)
i=0
•Œ©õ‘ª.
§6.3 Galois *Ü ˜ ~f 163
éu?¿ σ ∈ Gal(K/F ), σ d ζn ”•˜(½. σ(ζn ) = ζna , Ké?

¿ 1 6 i < n, ζni 6= 1, d ζni 6= 1 • ζnai 6= 1, = (a, n) = 1. ·‚k+Ó
Gal(K/F ) → (Z/nZ)× , σ 7→ a mod n.
dÓ w,•üÓ , Gal(K/F ) ŒÀ• (Z/nZ)× ˜‡f+.
~6.37. F = Q, n = pm , Ù¥m ∈ N, p •Ûƒê. ·‚y²
[Q(ζpm ) : Q] = ϕ(pm ) = |(Z/pm Z)× |, (6.8)
Gal(Q(ζpm ) : Q) ∼
= (Z/pm Z)× .
¯¢þ, ζpm ÷võ‘ª
m
xp − 1 m−1 m−1 m−1
Φpm (x) = pm−1 = xp (p−1) + xp (p−2) + · · · + xp + 1.
x −1
qd Eisenstein O{ Φpm (x + 1) ´ØŒ õ‘ª, Φpm (x) •ØŒ .

¤±
[Q(ζpm ) : Q] = deg Φpm (x) = ϕ(pm ).
5P. Œ±y², é˜„ n,
Gal(Q(ζn )/Q) ∼
= (Z/nZ)× .
n = p •Ûƒê, ·‚5?Ø˜e Q(ζp ) f•. dž Gal(Q(ζp )/Q) ∼

=
p−1
(Z/pZ)× • p − 1 Ì‚+. - σ •Ù)¤ ,Kσ 2 = −1 ´ Galois +
¥•˜ 2 , Ïd7•E Ý3 Q(ζp ) þ •›. f+ {1, −1} éA
f•7•¹ Q(ζp + ζp−1 ). ,˜•¡, ζp 3 Q(ζp + ζp−1 ) þ ØŒ õ‘ª
x2 − (ζp + ζp−1 )x + 1 • gª. [Q(ζp ) : Q(ζp + ζp−1 )] = 2. qdu
[Q(ζp ) : L] = 2, ¤± L = Q(ζp + ζp−1 ).
,˜•¡, hσ 2 i ´ Gal(Q(ζp )/Q) •˜•ê• 2 f+, §éAu Q
˜‡ g*Ü M . •Ä
p−1
Y
p−1 p−2
f (x) = x +x + ··· + 1 = (x − ζpi ),
i=1
164 18Ù Galois nØ
K
p−1
Y
D(f ) = (−1) (p−1)/2
f 0 (ζpi ).
i=1
(p−1)i
d f (x)(x − 1) = xp − 1 • f 0 (ζpi )(ζpi − 1) = pζp , f 0 (ζpi ) = pζp−i /(ζpi − 1),
p−1
Y
D = (−1) (p−1)/2
f 0 (ζpi ) = (−1)(p−1)/2 pp−2 ∈
/ Q2 ,
i=1
√ p
M = Q( D) = Q( (−1)(p−1)/2 p).
n
·K6.38. p •ƒê, K p >/Œ±º5ŠÑ …= p = 22 + 1 •
Fermat ƒê.
n
y². íØ 5.34 ®²y²Ù7‡5. ‡ƒ, e p = 22 + 1 • Fermat ƒ
ê, K Gal(Q(ζp )/Q) ∼
n n
= Z/22 Z • 22 Ì‚+. d Galois nØ, •3
Q = K0 ⊆ K1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ K2n = Q(ζp ), ¦ [Ki+1 : Ki ] = 2, ζp + ζp−1 Œ
E.
§6.3.2 Kummer*Ü
F ••, ζn ∈ F , …XJ charF = p, K p - n. éu ƒ a ∈ F ,

√
•Ä f (x) = xn − a © • K. XJ α = n a • f (x) ˜‡Š, K
{ζni α | 0 6 i 6 n − 1} • f (x) ¤kŠ, =
n−1
Y
n
f (x) = x − a = (x − ζni α)
i=0
•Œ©õ‘ª. K = F (α, ζn ) ´ F Galois *Ü, ·‚¡d/ª

Galois *Ü• Kummer *Ü (Kummer extension).
e σ ∈ Gal(K/F ), K σ(α) = ζni α é,‡ 0 6 i 6 n − 1 ¤á. ·‚½Â
N
ϕ : Gal(K/F ) −→ Z/nZ
σ 7−→ i mod n.
d στ (α) = σ(τ (α)) Œ• ϕ •+ üÓ , Gal(K/F ) ´Ì‚+ Z/nZ

˜‡f+.
§6.3 Galois *Ü ˜ ~f 165
§6.3.3 k•• *Ü
F = Fq • q k••, K q = pf , p •ƒê. X [K : F ] • n gk
•*Ü, K K ∼
n
= Fqn • q n •, §´õ‘ª xq − x © •, K/F ´
Galois *Ü. dk•• Ä ½n, K/Fp • nf gÌ‚+, § ˜‡)¤
´ Frobenius N σp : x 7→ x . ·‚k
p
Gal(K/F ) = ker(Gal(K/Fp ) → Gal(Fq /Fp ))

= hσpf i ∼
= Z/nZ.
S K
SK3.1. F ••, c ∈ F , p •ƒê.
(1) charF = p ž, y² xp − c 3 F [x] ¥ØŒ …= xp − c 3
F ¥ÃŠ.
(2) charF 6= p ž, y² F k p ‡ØÓ p gü Š. ddy²
xp − c 3 F [x] ¥ØŒ …= xp − c 3 F ¥ÃŠ.
SK3.2. Á¦Ñ Kummer *Ü Galois +.
SK3.3. E • x4 − 2 3 Q þ © •.
(1) Á¦Ñ E/Q Ü¥m•.
(2) Á¯= ¥m•´ Q Galois *Ü? = •*d Ý?
SK3.4. E • x4 − 2 3 F5 þ © •. Á¦Ñ E/F5 Galois +Ú

Ü¥m•.
SK3.5. éu n = 8, 9, 12, ¦Ñ G = Gal(Q(ζn )/Q), ¿ ÑG Üf+

Ú§‚éA Q(ζn )/Q ¥m•.
SK3.6. n>2• ê, y² Q(ζn ) ∩ R = Q(ζn + ζn−1 ).
SK3.7. p ´ƒê, ( ap ) • Legendre ÎÒ. pdÚ

X a
g= ζpa . (6.9)
a∈Fp
p
166 18Ù Galois nØ
y²:
ζpa = 0.
P
(1)
a∈Fp
(2) g · g = p, Ù¥ g ´ g E Ý.
p
(3) g = ± (−1)(p−1)/2 p.
(4) Q(ζp ) k•˜ gf• K = Q(g).
§6.4 •§ ŠªŒ)5
Galois nØ •Ð•-‡ A^´^5£‰˜„ n g•§´Äk¦Š
úªù˜ ;êÆ¯K. Galois •gŽ=´òd¯KÏL Galois nØ
Ä ½n, =†•+Ø¯K.
·‚Äkk½Â:
½Â6.39. • *Ü¡•Šª*Ü (radical extension)´• K = F (d), Ù¥

√
dn = a é,‡ a ∈ F ¤á, †óƒ, = K = F ( n a), a ∈ F .
½Â6.40. F ••, f (x) • F [x] þÄ˜õ‘ª, deg f > 1, K • f (x) 3

F þ © •. •§ f (x) = 0 ¡• F þŠªŒ) (radical solvable)´••
3Šª*ÜS
F = F0 ⊆ F1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Fn
¦ K ⊆ Fn .
e•3Šª*ÜS , ¦ F1 = F, Fn = K, ¡ K/F kŠª*Ü©
(radical extension towel).
! Ì‡½n´:
½n6.41. XJ charF = 0, f (x) 3 F þŠªŒ) …= f (x) 3 F þ

Galois + Gal(f ) •Œ)+.
•y²d½n, ·‚Äk£ ˜eŒ)+ ½ÂÚ5Ÿ.
• k•+ G ´Œ)+ (solvable group)´••3 5f+S
Gn = {1} C Gn−1 C · · · C G1 = G
¦ Gi /Gi+1 þĆ +.
§6.4 •§ ŠªŒ)5 167
• dk•C + ( ½n, þã^‡ du Gi /Gi+1 ´ƒê Ì‚+.
• G •Œ)+ …= é,‡ 5f+ N C G, N † G/N þ•Œ)+.
• Œ)+ f+Úû+þ´Œ)+.
dué¡+ Sn n > 5žØ´Œ)+, n 6 4 ž•Œ)+. dþã½n,

·‚á•k Galois Í¶½n.
½n6.42. charF = 0, n > 5, t1 , . . . , tn •™½ , K˜„•§
f (x) = xn − t1 xn−1 + · · · + (−1)n tn = 0
3• F (t1 , . . . , tn ) þŠªØŒ).
y². ·‚3½n 6.36 ®²y² Gal(f ) ∼

= Sn .
·‚b charF = 0. • y²½n 6.41, ·‚I‡kA‡Ún.
Ún6.43. XJ ζp ∈ F , K/F ´ p gÌ‚*Ü, K K/F • Kummer *Ü,

=k K = F (d), dp ∈ F .
y². c ∈ K\F , K K = F (c). - Gal(K/F ) = hσi, K σ p = 1. -

ci = σ i−1 (c) ∈ K. -
di = c1 + c2 ζpi + · · · + cp ζp(p−1)i ∈ K,
K σ(di ) = ζp−i di , k σ(dpi ) = dpi . du

 
1 1 ··· 1
 
 ζp ζp2 · · · ζpp−1 
(d1 , · · · , dp ) = (c1 , · · · , cp )  .  = (c1 , · · · , cp )A.
 
 .. .. .. ..
 . . . 

2(p−1) (p−1)2
ζpp−1 ζp · · · ζp
A ∈ Mp (F ) … det A 6= 0 (d‰ „1 ª 5Ÿ).
(c1 , · · · , cp ) = (d1 , · · · , dp )A−1 .
du c1 , · · · , cp Ø3 F ¥, ˜½•3 di ∈ K di ∈
/ F. d = di , K
K = F (d), dp ∈ F .
168 18Ù Galois nØ
Ún6.44. E/F •• *Ü, K f (x) 3 E þ Galois +Ó uÙ3 F

þ Galois + f+.
y². K = F (α1 , . . . , αn ) ´ f (x) = (x−α1 ) · · · (x−αn ) 3 F þ © •,

K KE = E(α1 , . . . , αn ) • f (x) 3 E þ © •. éu σ ∈ Gal(KE/E),
σ(αi ) = αj ∈ {α1 , . . . , αn },
σ(K) = K, ¤±
ϕ : Gal(KE/E) → Gal(K/F ), σ 7→ σ|K
•+Ó . e ϕ(σ) = 1, K σ|K = id. qdu σ|E = id, σ|KE = id, =

σ = 1. ϕ •üÓ .
5P. e K/F • Galois *Ü, E/F ••*Ü. Ó y²Œ• KE/E •

Galois *Ü… Gal(KE/E) 6 Gal(K/F ).
Ún6.45. e E/F •k•*Ü, N • E 3 F þ 54•, K E/F •¹

3F Šª*Ü©¥ …= N/F •¹3 F Šª*Ü©¥.
y². ¿©5w,. ‡ƒ, e•3Šª*Ü©
F = F1 ⊆ F2 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Fn
¦ Fn ⊇ E. Fi = Fi−1 (di ), dm
i
i
∈ Fi−1 . ·‚•Iy² Fn 3 F þ
54• M/F •3Šª*Ü©.
fi (x) ´ di 3 F þ ØŒ õ‘ª, di1 = di , . . . , dij •§ ¤kŠ,
K M = F (di j). - M1 = F1 , Mi = Mi−1 (di1 , . . . , dij ). •‡y² Mi /Mi−1
•3Šª*Ü©=Œ. éu i = 2, ·‚k
F1 ⊆ F (d2 ) ⊆ F (d21 , d22 ) ⊆ · · · ⊆ F (d2j ) = M2 .
du dn2j2 ∈ F1 , þã•*ÜS •Šª*Ü©. é˜„ i, e dij = σ(di ),

Ù¥ σ ∈ Gal(M/F1 ), K σ(Fi−1 )(dij )/σ(Fi−1 ) •Šª*Ü. du Mi−1 ⊇
σ(Fi−1 ), Mi−1 (dij )/Mi−1 •Šª*Ü, =k Mi /Mi−1 dŠª*Ü©.
k XþO , ·‚Œ±y²½n 6.41.

§6.4 •§ ŠªŒ)5 169
½n 6.41 y². E ´ f (x) 3 F þ © •. E ⊆ K … K/F kŠ

ª*Ü©
F = F1 ⊆ F2 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Fn = K,
Ù¥ Fi = Fi−1 (di ), dni i ∈ Fi−1 . ·‚‡y² Gal(f ) = Gal(E/F ) Œ).

ÄkdÚn 6.45, ·‚Œ±b K/F • Galois *Ü, •Iy² Gal(K/F )
•Œ)+. - N •¤k ni ¦È, ζ = ζn , - Fi0 = Fi (ζ), K F10 /F1 •©
*Ü, Fi0 /Fi þ• Kummer *Ü. §‚þ´ Galois *Ü, …Ù Galois +Ć
+. du K/F ´ Galois *Ü, K ´,õ‘ª g(x) 3 F þ © •, K
K(ζ) ´ g(x) · (xN − 1) 3 F þ © •, K(ζ)/F = Fn0 /F •´ Galois
*Ü. ·‚k
{1} = Gal(Fn0 /Fn0 ) C · · · C Gal(Fn0 /F10 ) C Gal(Fn0 /F1 )
•Œ) , Gal(K(ζ)/F ) •Œ)+. ÏdÙû+ Gal(K/F ) † Gal(E/F )

•´Œ)+.
‡ƒ, e Gal(E/F ) •Œ)+. - n = [E : F ], ζ = ζn , KdÚn 6.44,
E(ζ)/F (ζ) ´ Galois *Ü… Gal(E(ζ)/F (ζ)) •Œ)+ Gal(E/F ) f+.
u´k 5Y
{1} C Hn−1 C · · · C H1 = Gal(E(ζ)/F (ζ)),
Ù¥ Hi /Hi−1 •ƒê pi Ì‚+. -ÙéA •*Ü•
F1 = F (ζ) ⊆ F2 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Fn = E(ζ).
K [Fi : Fi−1 ] = pi |n . dÚn 6.43, Fi = Fi−1 (di ) •Šª*Ü, qw, F1 /F

•Šª*Ü,
F ⊆ F1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Fn = E(ζ)
•Šª*Ü©, ¤± f (x) = 0 3 F þŠªŒ).
S K
◦
SK4.1. ò cos 20◦ Ú cos 360
7
L«¤Šª/ª.
170 18Ù Galois nØ
SK4.2. Á Ñng•§ ¦Šúª(Cardano úª): F Á 0 •,
f (x) = x3 − t1 x2 + t2 x − t3 ∈ F (t1 , t2 , t3 )[x]
n‡Š•
t1
x1 = + α + β,
3
t1
x2 = + ωα + ω 2 β,
3
t1
x3 = + ω 2 α + ωβ,
3
Ù¥ p = − 31 t21 + t2 , q = − 27
2 3
t1 + 13 t1 t2 − t3 ,
r
q p
α = 3 − + (q/2)3 + (p/2)3 ,
2
r
q p
β = 3 − − (q/2)3 + (p/2)3 , αβ = −p/3.
2
SK4.3. ¦e •§3Eê• C ¥ Š:
(1) x3 − 2x + 4 = 0;
(2) x3 − 15x + 4 = 0;
(3) x4 − 2x3 − 8x − 3 = 0.
SK4.4. y²•§ xp −x−t = 0 3 Fp (t) þŠªØŒ), ´õ‘ª xp −x−t

3 Fp (t) þ Galois +´Ì‚+. ùL²½n 6.41 ¥“charF = 0” ^‡
˜„´ØU K .
§6.5 Ì‡½n y²
3 Ö, ·‚ò‰Ñ1 §6.1 !¥¤ã A‡Ä ½n y².
½n6.46. k•Œ©*Ü´ü*Ü, =e K/F •k•Œ©*Ü, K•3 γ ∈

K, K = F (γ).
y². - K = F (α1 , . . . , αn ).
e F •k••, K K •´k••. x •Ì‚+ K × )¤ , K K =
F (x). e¡·‚b F •Ã••. d8Bb , ·‚•‡y² F (α, β) = F (γ)
=Œ.
§6.5 Ì‡½n y² 171
- γ 3 F þ ØŒ õ‘ª• f (x), β 3 F þ ØŒ õ‘ª• g(x).

P
r
Y
f (x) = (x − αi ), α1 = α,
i=1
Ys
g(x) = (x − βj ), β1 = β,
j=1
Ù¥ αi , βj 3 f (x)g(x) ,‡© • E ¥, F (α, β)/F •Œ©*Ü, αi ü

üØÓ, βj •üüØÓ. duéu (i, j) 6= (1, 1),
αi + xβj = α1 + xβ1
•õk˜‡), •3 c ∈ F , ¦ é¤k (i, j) 6= (1, 1),
αi + cβj 6= α1 + cβ1 .
- γ = α + cβ, Äkw,k F (α, β) ⊇ F (γ). ,˜•¡, d g(β) = 0, f (γ −

cβ) = 0, g(x) † f (γ−cx) 3 F (γ)[x] þkú Š. d αi +cβj 6= α1 +cβ1 ,
§‚3 E þ•k˜‡ú Š,
(g(x), f (γ − cx)) = x − β ∈ F (γ)[x],
= β ∈ F (γ), α = γ − cβ ∈ F (γ), ¤± F (α, β) ⊆ F (γ).
·K6.47. G ⊆ Aut(K) •k•+, F = K G , β ∈ K. {β1 = β, . . . , βr } =

Gβ •+ G Šê β ; , K β 3 F þ“ê…Ù3 F þ ØŒ õ‘
ª• g(x) = (x − β1 ) · · · (x − βr ).
y². Äké¤k σ ∈ G, d σ(g(x)) = g(x) • g(x) ∈ F [x]. β 3F þ

“ê. - f (x) • β 3 F þ ØŒ õ‘ª, K f (x)|g(x).
,˜•¡, du (x − β)|f (x), (x − βi )|f (x), ¤± g(x)|f (x).
f (x) = g(x).
√ √
~6.48. - K = Q( 2, 3), G = {1, σ, τ, στ }, Ù¥
√ √ √ √
σ( 2) = 2, σ( 3) = − 3,
√ √ √ √
τ ( 2) = − 2, τ ( 3) = 3.
172 18Ù Galois nØ
√ √ √ √
Kβ= 2+ 3 ; • {± 2 ± 3}. β 3 Q = K G þ • õ‘ª•
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
g(x) = (x + 2 + 3)(x + 2 − 3)(x − 2 + 3)(x − 2 − 3)
= x4 − 10x2 + 1.
íØ6.49. XJ K/F ´ Galois *Ü, g(x) ∈ F [x] ØŒ . e g 3 K þk

Š, K g 3 K þ© … g(x) Œ©. = K/F • 5Œ©*Ü.
y². d K/F • Galois *Ü, F = K G . e β ∈ K • g(x) Š, dþã·

K, g(x) = (x − β1 ) · · · (x − βr ) •Œ©õ‘ª, ÙŠ βi ∈ Gβ ⊆ K.
½n6.50. (1) e K/F •k•*Ü, K |Gal(K/F )| 6 [K : F ].

(2) G ⊆ Aut(K) •k•+, F = K G , K [K : F ] 6 |G|. e K/F Œ
©, K Ò¤á.
5P. (1) =1 §6.1 !½n, (2) ´¤¢ Artin Ún.
y². (1) - K = F (α1 , . . . , αn ), Ω • K “ê4•, K F (α1 ) ,→ Ω …

± F ØÄ i\d α1 3 F þ ØŒ õ‘ª Šû½, = F -i\ ‡
ê6 [F (α1 ) : F ]. d8B• K Ω F -i\ ‡ê6 [K : F ]. K
F -gÓ ‡ê u½ u [K : F ], = |Gal(K/F )| 6 [K : F ].
(2) m > n, u1 , . . . , um ∈ K. ·‚y²§‚ F -‚5ƒ'. G =
{g1 = 1, . . . , gn }. du m > n, ‚5•§|
m
X
gi (uj )xj = 0 (1 6 i 6 n) (6.10)
j=1
kš²…) (b1 , . . . , bm ) 6= (0, . . . , 0). (b1 , . . . , bm ) •¤kš")¥š"©

þ• ,N uj † xj gS, Ø” b1 6= 0, K (1, b−1 −1
1 b2 , . . . , b 1 bm ) •
´•§| ), Ø” b1 = 1.
XJ bj ∈ F é¤k j ¤á, i = 1, K u1 , . . . , um ‚5ƒ'. XJ•
3 bj ∈
/ F , Ø” / F = K G , K•3 gk ∈ G, gk (b2 ) 6= b2 . du
b2 ∈
m
X
gk gi (uj )gk (bj ) = 0 (1 6 i 6 n),
i=1
§6.5 Ì‡½n y² 173
{1 = gk (b1 ), gk (b2 ), . . . , gk (bm )} •´•§|(6.10) ), ¤± {0, gk (b2 )−b2 ,

. . . , gk (bm ) − bm } ´(6.10) š"), …š"©þ‡ê' (b1 , . . . , bm ) , g
ñ.
XJ K/F •Œ©*Ü. dü*Ü½n, K = F (β). K β 3 G Šê
½f+ò K ½, • {1}. ¤± |Gβ| = n • β 3 F þ gê, =
[K : F ].
íØ6.51. XJ K/F •Œ©*Ü, K
|Gal(K/F )| | [K : F ].
y². - G = Gal(K/F ) 6 AutK, K K G ⊇ F , K/K G •Œ©*Ü,

|G| = [K : K G ] | [K : F ].
íØ6.52. e G ⊆ Aut(K) •k•+, F = K G , K K/F ´ Galois *Ü…

Gal(K/F ) = G.
y². Äkdu G ¥ ƒþ´ K F -gÓ , G 6 Gal(K/F ). Ùg, d·

K6.47, K þ?Û ƒ3 F þþŒ©, K/F •Œ©*Ü,
|Gal(K/F )| 6 [K : F ] = |G|,
G = Gal(K/F ), K/F • Galois *Ü.
½n6.53. K/F •k•*Ü, Ke ^‡ d:

(1) K/F • Galois *Ü.
(2a) K ´ F [x] þ, ØŒ Œ©õ‘ª © •.
(2b) K ´ F [x] þ,‡Œ©õ‘ª © •.
(2c) K ´ 5Œ©*Ü.
(3a) F = K Gal(K/F ) .
(3b) G ´ Aut(K) k•f+, … F = K G .
y². (1) =⇒ (2c) ´½n 6.50 íØ.

(2c) =⇒ (2b) =⇒ (2a) w,.
(3b) =⇒ (1) =íØ 6.52.
(3a) =⇒ (3b) w,.
174 18Ù Galois nØ
(1) =⇒ (3a) =íØ 6.9.

(2a) =⇒ (1) 3eã·K¥ F = F̃ , ϕ = id, f (x) •ØŒ Œ©õ‘
ª, K = K̃ = .
·K6.54. ϕ : F → F̃ , f (x) ∈ F [x], f (x) 6= 0, f˜(x) = ϕ(f (x)) ∈ F̃ [x].

f (x), f˜(x) ØŒ ÏfÃ-Š, K † K̃ ©O• f (x) † f˜(x) 3 F †
∼
F̃ þ © •, KÓ ψ : K −→ K̃ … ψ|F = ϕ ‡êTÐ• [K : F ].
y². Ø”b f (x) Ã‚5Ïf. dÚn 6.19 •, e α ∈ K • f (x) Š,

g(x) ´ α 3 F þ ØŒ õ‘ª. g̃(x) = ϕ(g(x)), α̃ • g̃(x) Š, K•3
∼ ∼
ϕ1 : F (α) −→ F̃ (α̃) … ϕ1 |F = ϕ. d8B{, =••3Ó ψ : K −→ K̃,
ψ|F = ϕ.
∼
•?˜Ú/, e ψ : K −→ K̃, K ψ(α) 7• g̃(x) Š. ‡ ψ, ·‚k
ϕ1 : F (α) → F̃ (ψ(α)), ù ‡ê• deg g̃ = deg g = [F (α) : F ].
ϕ1
éuz‡ ϕ1 , 5¿ K • f (x) 3 F (α) þ © • K̃ • f˜(x) 3 F̃ (α̃) þ
© •, … [K : F (α)] 6 [K : F ]. ·‚dé [K : F ] Š8Bb , k
[K : F (α)] «ØÓÓ ψ, ¦ ψ|F (α) = ϕ1 , ¤± k [K : F (α)] · [F (α) :
∼
F ] = [K : F ] «Ó ψ : K −→ K̃, ψ|F = ϕ.
Galois Ä ½n y². k þ¡ O , ·‚Œ±y² Galois nØÄ

½n, =
(i) ‰½ L • K/F ¥m•. - H = Gal(K/L), K H 3 L þ Š^
²…, L ⊆ K H . ,˜•¡, du K ´ L Galois *Ü, [K : L] = |H|.
¤± |H| = [K : K H ] = [K : L], L = KH.
(ii) ‰½ H 6 G. - L = K H , H ´ Gal(K/L) f+, |H| > [K :
K ] = [K : L] = |Gal(K/L)|, ¤± H = Gal(K/L) … [L : F ] = (G : H).
H
(iii) XJ H 6 G, σ ∈ G, K+ σHσ −1 éA f•• σL, =k Gal(K/σL)

= σHσ −1 . ¯¢þ, •‡ y Gal(K/σL) ⊇ σHσ −1 , 2dé¡5á .
(iv) XJ H C G ´ G 5f+. - L = K , du H = σHσ −1 ,
H
L = σL é¤k σ ∈ G ¤á. ·‚ +Ó
π : G → Gal(L/F )
… ker π = H, k π̄ : G/H ,→ Gal(L/F ). du (G : H) = [L : F ] >

|Gal(L/F )|, π̄ •Ó , = Gal(L/F ) ∼
= G/H.
§6.5 Ì‡½n y² 175
‡ƒ, e L/F •Galois*Ü, - H = Gal(K/L), du L ´,Œ©õ‘

ª g(x) = (x − β1 ) · · · (x − βk ) ∈ F [x] © •. du σ(g(x)) = g(x) é¤
k σ ∈ Gal(K/F ) ¤á, σL = L, H = σHσ −1 , = H C G.
S K
SK5.1. E = C(t) •kn¼ê•, σ, τ ∈ G = Gal(E/C), Ù¥ σ(t) = ζ3 t,
−1
τ (t) = t . y²:
(1) τ Ú σ )¤ + H ´ G 6 f+;
(2) Inv(H) = C(t3 + t−3 ).
SK5.2. •F A •ƒê p, σ ∈ G = Gal(F (x)/F ), Ù¥ σ(x) = x+1.

- H •d σ )¤ G f+. y² |H| = p. Á(½ Inv(H).
SK5.3. •F A •ƒê p, a ∈ F . XJ xp − x − a 3 F [x] ¥ØŒ

, - α •˜‡Š, y² F (α)/F • Galois *Ü¿OŽÑ§ Galois +.
SK5.4. L Ú M þ´• E f•. y²XJ L/L ∩ M •k• Galois*

Ü, K LM/M ••k• Galois *Ü, ¿…
Gal(LM/M ) ∼
= Gal(L/L ∩ M ).
SK5.5. E/F •k• Galois *Ü, N Ú M •¥m•, E ⊇ N ⊇ M ⊇ F ,

¿… N ´ M 3 F þ 54•. y²
\
Gal(E/N ) = σGal(E/M )σ −1 .
σ∈Gal(E/F )
SK5.6. E/F •k• Galois*Ü. XJé?˜• K(F ( K ⊆ E), K

é F þkƒÓ *Ügê [K : F ], K [E : F ] = p.
√ √ √
SK5.7. (1) y² Q( 2, 3, 5)/Q ´ Galois *Ü, ¿¦Ñ Galois +;
√ √ √
(2) ¦ ƒ 6 + 10 + 15 3 Q þ 4 õ‘ª;
√ √ √ √
(3) y² 6 ∈ Q( 6 + 10 + 15);
√ √ √ √ √
(4) ¦ 2 + 3 3 Q( 6 + 10 + 15) þ 4 õ‘ª.
176 18Ù Galois nØ
¢ Ú
An , 48 Zorn Ún, 104
F -Ó , 133
Œ+, 9
F -gÓ , 133
¹NŒ+, 9
G 3 X þ Š^, 43
G-8, 43, 51 , 109
Z(G), 36 ü Š, 162
Γ(N ), 39 õ‘ª, 122
PGLn (F ), 38 L«, 54
SL2 (Z/N Z), 16 Ly, 70
n-Š, 121
ØCÏf, 78
p +, 58
ØCÏf|, 78
Galois Ä ½n, 154 ØŒ©õ‘ª, 151
ØŒ©*Ü, 152
ED, 114 ØŒ õ‘ª, 130
Fermat ƒê, 140 ~Šõ‘ª, 119

FrobeniusN , 99 ‡ , 130
‡ , 81, 130
Galois *Ü, 150
¦{8, 107
Galois +, 149
Ð Ïf, 78
Klein +, 30 Ð Ïf|, 78
Kummer *Ü, 164
“ê, 130
PID, 92 “ê4•, 134
“êµ4•, 134
Sylow pf+, 61 “êÄ ½n, 141
Sylow 1 ½n, 62 “ê , 81, 130
Sylow 1n½n, 62
d'X, 6
Sylow 1˜½n, 61
N û½ d'X, 7
Sylow ½n, 63
(k È
UFD, 110 ‚, 86
177
178 ¢ Ú
+, 15 Bezout ‚, 114
;.+, 15 ü , 84
ü +, 85
é¡õ‘ª, 159
pd ê‚, 116
é¡+, 43
¹N‚, 81
õ‘ª gê, 119
†‚, 82
$Ž, 5
ŒØ‚, 82
© ,6 îAp ‚, 114
N û½ © , 7 •˜Ïª©)‚, 110
ê, 45 ‚, 85
© ¼ê, 45 ÌnŽ ‚, 92
© , 152 ‚Ó , 89
© •, 152 ‚Ó , 89
© Æ, 81 ü, 89
÷, 89
EÜÆ, 5 † f, 70
pdÚ, 165 Ä, 74
pdƒê, 116 Ä é¡õ‘ª, 159
pd ê, 116
ŠªŒ), 166 4ŒnŽ, 103
Šª*Ü©, 166 4ŒÌ, 103
4Œ , 109
Ý, 36 8Ü, 1
Ýa, 36, 57 Ø ¿, 2
Ý , 36 8Ü ¿, 2
ÝŠ^, 57, 59 8Ü Ö8, 2
; , 51 8Ü (k È, 3
8Ü ,2
¼ê, 4
,1
Ø, 36, 91
˜8, 1
z"õ‘ª, 130 Ã•8, 1
‚ ƒ ,1
¢ Ú 179
k•8, 1 k•*Ü, 131

ýf8, 1 k•)¤*Ü, 131
f8, 1 .‚KF½n
Oêúª, 53 +Ø, 27
Q i, 68 a•§, 58
{zi, 68 lÑéê, 25
nŽ, 91
†+, 48
x )¤ nŽ, 92
†ê, 50
²…nŽ, 91
†Æ, 5
ýnŽ, 91
(ÜÆ, 5
ÌnŽ, 92
ÛÜz, 105, 106

"Ïf, 84
ýé Frobenius, 143
m"Ïf, 84
Œ©õ‘ª, 151 †"Ïf, 84
Œ© , 152
˜ ƒ, 102
Œ E, 137
, 102
Œ Eê, 137
¥%, 102
Œ)+, 166
Œ[Š^, 51 +, 38
SgÓ , 41
*Ü, 129
SgÓ +, 41
‡ *Ü, 131
_
“ê*Ü, 131
Œ_, 84
ü*Ü, 131
mŒ_, 84
g*Ü, 149
m_, 84
Šª*Ü, 166
†Œ_, 84
Œ©*Ü, 152
†_, 84
*Ügê, 131
ng*Ü, 150 Úî ‘ª½n, 84
V g*Ü, 150 ìA5Ÿ, 112
Ã•*Ü, 131 îAp ‚, 114
180 ¢ Ú
Oª, 157 û+, 37

8“L X û•, 106
m, 26 )¤'X, 70
†, 27 )¤ , 24, 70
)¤f+
i\, 89 8Ü, 23
ƒ, 23
+, 9
C +, 10 Ä‘Xê, 119
ü+, 48 Ä˜õ‘ª, 119
ü ,9 ê•, 129
é¡+, 13
¡N+, 14 o êN, 82
†+, 10 ƒnŽ, 103
, 10 ƒÌ, 103
_ ,9 ƒ , 109
+ ¦{, 9 A , 93
Ì‚, 24 N, 82
k•+, 10
k•)¤, 24 Ó
k•)¤gdC +, 73 ‚, 89
k•)¤gd+, 69 +, 19
˜†+, 13 Ó
¥%, 36 +Š^p , 54
gdC +, 73 Ó Ä ½n, 38
gd+, 69 •, 151
N ,9
-½f+, 52
+Ó , 19
+Ó , 19 ‚5 f, 126
ü, 19 ‚5+
÷, 19 Zþ AÏ‚5+, 16
NÈ, 122 Z/N Zþ AÏ‚5+, 16
¢ Ú 181
2ÂAÏ +, 17 kn¼ê•, 129

2Â +, 17 k•)¤+, 24
KAÏ‚5+, 38 k••, 129, 142
K˜„‚5+, 38 k•• , 142
AÏ‚5+, 15 m 8, 26
AÏj+, 18 m 8“L X, 26, 27
AÏ +, 17 •, 82
"+, 18
ƒ, 1
˜„‚5+, 12
j+, 18 5zf, 59
+, 16 5*Ü, 153
ƒŠ, 109 • , 16
”, 36
†Ú, 73
ž Æ, 10
†È
/ª‡û, 121 ‚, 86
+, 15
ÀJún, 104
•ê, 27
Ì‚+, 24
˜†, 13
˜˜éA, 5 k Ó†, 43
˜Ïª©)‚, 110 Øƒ Ó†, 44
Ïf, 109 é†, 44

ü1ª, 43
²…Ïf, 109
ó˜†, 47
ýÏf, 109
Û˜†, 47
N ,4 ., 45
ü ,5 ˜†Ý , 19
½Â•, 4 ˜†+, 43
÷ ,5 •, 74
V ,5 ¥I•{½n, 99
Š•, 4 ¥%zf, 57
j , 17 ¥%˜ ƒ, 102
182 ¢ Ú
ÌnŽ ‚, 92
ÌÓ{f+, 39
f‚, 86
f+, 14
† f+, 70
Ûf+, 76
²…f+, 14
ýf+, 14
5f+, 36
f•, 86
gÓ , 20
gÓ +, 20
•ŒúÏf, 111
• õ‘ª, 130
†¦Š^, 56
† 8, 26
†p L«, 53

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Email: yiouyang@ustc.edu.cn, yeyu@ustc.edu.cn

2.2 G 38Ü X þ Š^† G + SX +Ó 'X . . 54

1oÙ Ïª©) 109

1ÊÙ •*ÜnØ 129

18Ù Galois nØ 149

·‚Äk£ ˜e8Ü ½Â.

ã 1.1: 8Ü •¹'X ã 1.2: 8Ü ã 1.3: 8Ü ¿

ã 1.4: 8Ü Ö8A − B ã 1.5: 8Ü Ö8Ac

˜„5`, 8ÜkXe o«Ä $Ž.

Œ±^ã 1.2 L«8Ü .

(II) 8Ü ¿ 8Ü A, B Xþ¤«, KA † B ¿8 (union)•

Œ±^ã 1.2 L«8Ü ¿. •˜„/, 8Ü Ai (i ∈ I) ¿•

XJ Ai üüØ 8•˜8), ·‚¡ Ai •Ø ¿(disjoint union),

§Œ^ã 1.4 L«. dÖ8½Â, ·‚k

·K1.1 (N½ n). Ai , i = 1, . . . , n •, ½8Ü U k•f8, K

·K1.2. Ai (i ∈ I) •, ½8Ü U f8, K

(IV) 8Ü (k È 8Ü A † B (k È (Cartesian product)´¤k

• ¤kØë\TÆS | < ←→ Ö8,

• F [X]: F (F = Z, Q, R )þ (˜ ) õ‘ª 8Ü.

A, B •ü‡8Ü. XJé A ¥z‡ ƒ a, þk•˜ ƒb∈B †

A ¡• f ½Â•, f (A) = {f (a) | a ∈ A} ⊆ B ¡•f Š• ½”8. b

XJé a1 , a2 ∈ A, f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) ž, Kk a1 = a2 , ·‚¡N f

¡• f † g EÜN (½¢EÜÆ, composition law).

·K1.3 ((ÜÆ). f : A → B Ú g : B → C, h : C → D •8Üm N

½Â1.4. S •8Ü. ·‚¡N f : S × S → S, (a, b) 7→ p • S þ ˜

5P. 3êÆA^¥, PÒ p = f (a, b) ¿Ø´˜‡é·¨ PÒ. ¢Sþ, ·

~1.6. P ΣA •8Ü A g ¤kN 8Ü, KN EÜ ¤ ΣA

(ab)c = a(bc), (1.4)

K¡T $Ž÷v(ÜÆ (associative law). XJé?¿ a, b ∈ S,

K¡Ù÷v †Æ (commutative law).

5P. XJ† ^f (a, b) L« $Žab, K(1.4) = ª

f (f (a, b), c) = f (a, f (b, c)),

3 Ö¥, ·‚òDƒ‰½8Ü˜‡½ê‡(÷v(ÜÆ) $Ž, l

§1.1.5 d'X, da†©

½Â1.8. 8Ü A ¥ ƒm 'X ∼ ¡• d'X (equivalence relation),

(1) (g‡5) é¤k a ∈ A, a ∼ a.

½Â1.9. 8Ü A Š•§ ˜ f8Ü Ø ¿, ¡• A ˜‡© (parti-

∼´Aþ ˜‡ d'X. X a ∈ A, P [a] = {b ∈ A | b ∼ a}, =

·‚ ˜‡© . ,˜•¡, XJ A = Ai , ·‚éN´3 A þ½

½n1.10. 8Ü A © †Ùþ d'X˜˜éA.

~1.11. ê8Ü Z Œ±© •óê8ÜÚÛê8Ü Ø ¿. ,˜•¡,

f : A → B •8Üm N . éu b ∈ B, -b ”8Ü f −1 (b) =

~1.12. ½ÂN f : Z → {0, 1}, Ù¥ f (2n) = 0, f (2n + 1) = 1. KN f

~1.13. f : R2 = R × R → R •¢ê~{N (x, y) 7→ x − y, K f −1 (a)

SK1.2. f : A → B ´8Ü N , A ´š˜8Ü. Áy:

SK1.4. y²N½ n(·K 1.1).

SK1.5. A ´k•8, P (A) ´ A Üf8 (•)˜8) ¤ ¤ 8

SK1.6. f : A → B ´8Üm N . 38Ü A þXe½Â˜‡'X:

SK1.7. y² d'X n‡^‡´pƒÕá , •Ò´`, ®•?¿ü‡

½Â1.14. 8Ü G 9Ùþ $Ž · XJ÷veãn^‡:

(1) (ÜÆ¤á, =é ƒ a, b, c ∈ G, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).

(2) •3ü (identity element) 1 = 1G , =é?¿ a ∈ G,

(3) G þz‡ ƒ a þk_ (inverse), =•3 ƒ b ∈ G ¦

K¡ (G, ·) •+ (group), $Ž · ¡•+ ¦{ (multiplication).

5P. (1) S.þ, ·‚~~ŽÑ¦{$Ž, ¡ G •+, …P a · b • ab.

Ö¥ éŒŸÌ, l+Ø ½Âm©, k•• •£, †–

~1.15. d+ ½Â, + G ˜½•¹ü 1G . ,˜•¡, =dü ¤

·K1.16. G •+, Keã5Ÿ¤á:

(2) XJ ab = ac, K a−1 (ab) = a−1 (ac), d(ÜÆ= b = c.

½Â1.17. XJ+ G ƒ‡êk•, ¡ G •k•+ (finite group), Ù ƒ

½Â1.18. XJ+ G þ ¦{$Ž÷v †Æ, ·‚¡ G •C + (a-

19-V ›c“ êÆU˜, V(ðˆ, Ù¥˜ ´³Û , ,

~1.19. (1) Z, Q, R, C 3\{$Že ¤Ã•C +, 0 •\{ü .