Control Systems
565
(N.O.) and normally closed (N.C.) refer to the device po-
sition with no power applied, where a spring-returning
mechanism exists to drive it to one position or another.
Valves required to have a “fail position” are necessary in
many applications to provide an increased measure of
reliability if control power is lost. In the case of comfort
heating and cooling, the choice is made by asking, “upon a
loss of power, control signal or air pressure, would I rather have
full heat, full cool, or don’t care?” In other cases, there are
other operational issues like freezing, overheating, over-
humidifying, etc. that should be considered. Without the
spring return feature, the actuator will simply remain at
its last position prior to the power interruption. Spring-
return actuators are more costly, and should be used pru-
dently so the added cost is justified.
For large pneumatic cylinder actuators, a measure of
fail-safe control can be provided without the expense of
a spring system. Using an air-to-open/air-to-close actuator
(no spring) and a small spring return air solenoid valve,
the position of the actuator can be relatively assured on
power loss, as long as compressed air remains available.
22.8 INSTRUMENT ACCURACY,
REPEATABILITY, AND DRIFT
22.8.1 Introduction
Like anything else, there are different grades of in-
struments with corresponding costs, so the task of the
specifier is to separate the needs from the wants, and to
balance the performance with the costs. With an aware-
ness of some of the basic considerations and of instrument
grades and selection criteria, good decisions are usually
evident. Leaving the instrument selection entirely up to
the vendor may or may not be the best approach. To the
extent that the “standard offering” instrument portfolio
has good performance, this can save money; however, a
review of the proposed instruments is advised just to be
sure. When reviewing product literature for instrumen-
tation, like any other equipment, it is often as important
what is not said as what is said on a component specification
sheet. For example, if long term drift is not mentioned, ask
yourself, “Why is that?”
22.8.2 Accuracy
In the jargon of instrument calibration and
specifications, there are two important terms: percent of
reading and percent of span. It is not enough to say “±5%”
when specifying a calibration tolerance or instrument ac-
curacy rating. The tolerance should be stated as either
±xx degF, ±xx psi, etc., ±xx% of reading, or ±xx% of span.
Usually the instruments that are rated in terms of “% of
reading” are the higher quality instruments.
The following example illustrates the important dif-
ference between “% of reading” and “% of span” concepts.
Consider a 0-100 psig (span) transmitter that is indicating
10 psig (reading).
Accuracy Spec “+/- 5% of reading,”
Acceptable Range 9.5-10.5 psig
Accuracy Spec “+/- 5% of span,”
Acceptable Range 5-15 psig
22.8.3 Repeatability
Repeatability is self-defining; it is the ability of an
instrument or process to faithfully repeat itself, given
identical conditions. For instrumentation, this is syn-
onymous with precision and is the mark of better grade
instruments. Regarding instrumentation, a general state-
ment is that accuracy can be adjusted, but repeatability is a
function of the instrument quality and cannot be changed.
Repeatability is determined, in large part, by the stability
of the output in the face of environmental changes such
as ambient temperature effect, voltage fluctuation, pres-
sure fluctuation, etc. Instruments whose readings are sus-
ceptible to changes in ambient temperature can be very
problematic if located in areas where the temperature is
expected to change; however, this specification (and the
cost to mitigate it with higher quality instruments) is of
much less concern if located in areas of constant tempera-
ture. Commercial grade pneumatic instruments are usu-
ally susceptible to drift from ambient temperature chang-
es since thermal expansion changes the volume of tubing,
size of orifices, etc. Some lower grade electronic compo-
nents are also affected by ambient temperature changes.
22.8.4 Drift
Drift is an undesirable but inevitable quality for any
instrument. Long-term drift is attributable to many fac-
tors, including normal degradation from age. A general
rule of thumb is that the long term drift, from all sources
combined, should leave the instrument reading within
Figure 22-9. Suggested Tolerances For Commercial Instruments.
566 Energy Management Handbook

reason for a period of five (5) years, to reduce

the need for O/M activities and constant mainte-
nance of the device, leaving it to serve instead of
being served by the facility.
Auto-zero Feature: Some devices, such as
stack gas sensors and very-low range differential
pressure transmitters, periodically re-establish
the zero point of their output span by simultane-
ously providing a zero input condition and auto-
matically adjusting the output to a zero value.

22.9 BASIC CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAMS

22.9.1 Introduction Figure 22-10. Closed-loop Control

Besides control technology and control
mode choices, a basic consideration of control strategy is
whether it is open or closed loop.
22.9.2 Closed-loop Control
The controlled system impacts the measured vari-
able, and process measurement provides feedback to the
controller.
Examples of Closed Loop Control:
• Room thermostat controls a heating water valve to
regulate heat to that room.
• Leaving water temperature sensor for a heat ex-
changer controls the steam inlet valve to that heat
exchanger.
cause variations in actual time required in different
seasons is not considered. For example it may take
(4) hours after a long and cold weekend but only
a half-hour after a single night in spring; however,
the controller is blind to these facts.
• Thermostat in room 1 controls the hot water con-
trol valve serving room 2. In this example, closed-
loop feedback control is changed into open-loop
control due to a design or installation error.
22.10 KEY ELEMENTS OF SUCCESSFULLY
APPLIED AUTOMATIC CONTROLS

22.10.1 Examples of Good and

22.9.3 Open-loop Control
Bad Control Applications
An open-loop control system is characterized as one
Example.
whose output has no impact on the measured variable, so
• BAD. Two thermostats in an exterior room, one
any form of process feedback is impossible.
serving the perimeter heat and the other serving the
Examples of Open Loop Control: VAV cooling box overhead air distribution.
• Automatic reset of hot water temperature
from outside air. A common control strat-
egy, this provides general compensation
based on the common sense notion that
“the colder it gets outside the more heat
we’ll need”; however, it is open-loop since
the outside air temperature is unaffected by
water temperature.
• Starting the building HVAC system one
hour before occupancy. Another common
strategy, this follows the common sense no-
tion that the building will need some time
to warm up (or cool down) after being off
all night or all weekend. It provides gen-
eral compensation for the thermal lag in
the building mass, but it is open-loop, be- Figure 22-11. Open-loop Control
Control Systems 567

Figure 22-12a. Successful Controls Application Checklist (Continued)

• GOOD. One thermostat in a perimeter room se-
quencing the VAV box and perimeter heat, with a
dead band in between to prevent overlap.
22.10.2 Examples of Good and
Bad System Controllability
Example.
• BAD. A single step controller on a 15-ton HVAC
package unit that has one compressor attempting to
maintain a constant 55 degree discharge tempera-
ture. Excessive equipment cycling will result, re-
gardless of controls, with the consequence of poor
control and likely premature equipment failure.
• GOOD. A two-step controller on a 15-ton HVAC
package unit that has two compressors, where
7.5 tons represents a typical part load day for the
building. Cut-in and cut-out are set wider than the
temperature change of each stage, to prevent short-
568 Energy Management Handbook
Figure 22-12b. Successful Controls Application Checklist (Concluded)
cycling. Minimum on-off times further safeguard
equipment from short-cycle damage.
22.10.3 Examples of User-friendly Control
Design Features
In general, try to provide a control design that will
be accepted and will last. Match the system complexity
to the user’s level of sophistication or their willingness
to learn. If it’s too complex, they’ll probably just unplug
it 6 months after start-up. Training will help to raise skill
levels and avoid oversimplification. Be patient, especially
for anything complex. Any type of measurement that al-
lows the user to see the savings created by the new con-
trol system will help spark interest and encourage owner-
ship and buy-in. For the control design to stand the test of
time (e.g. to be sustainable), it must be a good fit for the
customer. See Figure 22-13.
22.11 EXPECTED LIFE OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Be realistic about how long things will last. Nothing
lasts forever. For example, a control project based on a 10-
year life will need to include cost of repairs to be realistic.
Note for the table in Figure 22-14 that life spans shown
vary by manufacturer and grade. This information is of-
fered as a prompt for realistic life cycle cost estimating
when controls are applied.
22.12 CONTROL APPLICATIONS
FOR SAVING ENERGY
Note the common themes throughout the following
list of applications:
• Strive to satisfy most of the people most of the time,
but not all the people all the time (80-20 rule).
• Try not to run any equipment continuously or off-
season.
• Avoid heating, cooling, and lighting areas that are
unoccupied.
• Use “just enough” air pressure, water pressure, etc.
to satisfy the point of use.
• “Just enough” heating and cooling, as determined
by the point of use.
• Use “just enough” ventilation air for the occupants
and to make up the exhaust needs.
• Eliminate simultaneous heating and cooling wher-
ever possible; minimize where unavoidable.
22.13 BASIC ENERGY-SAVING
CONTROL APPLICATIONS
(See Figures 22-15 and 22-16.)