steam Turbine Performance

Steam condition limits

Inlet steam conditions should be as close as possible (+/- 5%) to specified

conditions because:
• Power output will decrease
• Exhaust end steam moisture content will increase, causing blade, nozzle and
diaphragm erosion.

Figure 21.2 Steam condition limits

Mollier Diagram or steam tables allow determination of the energy

available in a pound of steam for a specific pressure and temperature.
Figure 21.3 describes the Mollier Diagram and the parameters
involved.

The Mollier Diagram

Describes the energy per unit mass of fluid when pressure and temperature are
known.
• Enthalpy (energy/unit mass) is plotted on Y axis
• Entropy (energy/unit mass degree) is plotted on X axis
• Locating P^, T^ gives a value of enthalpy (H) horizontal and entropy (S)
vertical
• Isentropic expansion occurs at constant entropy (AS = 0) and represents an
ideal (reversible) expansion

Figure 21.3 The Mollier Diagram

Refer to Figure 21.4 which is an enlarged Mollier Diagram.

As an exercise, plot the following values on the Mollier Diagram in this
section and determine the corresponding available energy in BTUs per
pound.

1. Pi = 600 PSIG, Ti = 800°F hi = ^ ^

M
BTU
2. P2 = 150PSIG,T2 = 580°F h2 =
LB M

297
Principles of Rotating Equipment

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Figure 21.4 Mollier steam diagram (Courtesy of Elliott Company)

298
 Steam Turbine Performance

BTU
3. Pi = 1500PSIG,Ti =900°F hi =
LBjvi
BTU
4. P2 = 2 PSIG//0 moisture = 9% h2 =
LBM
Having plotted various inlet and exhaust conditions on the MoUier
Diagram to become familiar with its use, please refer to Figure 21.5
which presents the definitions and uses of steam rate.

Determining steam rate

Uses:
• Determine the amount of steam required per hour
• Determine the amount of potential KW (horsepower)
Required:
• Steam conditions
• Theoretical steam rate table or Mollier Diagram
• Thermal efficiency of turbine
Formula:
• Theoretical steam rate

T.S.R. (LB/HP-HR) = 2545 BTU'S/HP-HR

^nisENTROPIC
• Actual Steam rate

A.S.R. (LB/HP-HR) = ^^^^f^ = ^545 BTU'S/HP-HR

Efficiency AHACTUAL
Turbine efficiency
rrr- . T.S.R.
JS.R. AHACTUAL
Efficiency = ^ ^ = AHisENTROPIC

Figure 21.5 Determining steam rate

Theoretical steam rate

The theoretical steam rate is the amount of steam, in LBS per hour
required to produce one (1) horsepower if the isentropic efficiency of
the turbine is 100%. As shown in Figure 21.5, it is determined by
dividing the theoretical enthalpy Ahj^entropic ii^to the amount of
B T U ' S / H R in horsepower.

299
Principles of Rotating Equipment

Actual steam rate

The actual steam rate is the amount of steam, in LBS per hour, required
to produce one (1) horsepower based on the actual turbine efficiency.
As shown in Figure 21.5, it is determined by dividing the theoretical
steam rate (T.S.R.) by the turbine efficiency. Alternately, if the turbine
efficiency is not known and the turbine inlet and exhaust conditions are
given (P2, T2 or % moisture), the actual steam rate can be obtained in
the same manner as theoretical steam rate but substituting AH^ctuai for
^-'^isentropic •

Turbine efficiency

As shown in Figure 21.5, turbine efficiency can be determined either by

the ratio of T.S.R. to A.S.R. or Ah^ctuai to AHisgntropic-
It is relatively easy to determine the efficiency of any operating turbine
in the field if the exhaust conditions are superheated. All that is
required are calibrated pressure and temperature gauges on the inlet
and discharge and a MoUier Diagram or Steam Tables. The procedure is
as follows:
1. For inlet conditions, determine hj
2. For inlet condition with AS = 0, determine h2idcai
3. For outlet conditions, determine h2actuai
4. Determine Ahjdeai = hi - h2ideai
5. Determine Ah^^t^^i = hi - h2actuai
6. Determine efficiency
Efficiency = -rrf^
*-ideal
However, for turbines with saturated exhaust conditions, the above
procedure cannot be used because the actual exhaust condition cannot
be easily determined. This is because the % moisture must be known.
Instruments (calorimeters) are available, but results are not always
accurate. Therefore the suggested procedure for turbines with saturated
exhaust conditions is as follows:
1. Determine the power required by the driven equipment. This is
equal to the power produced by the turbine.
2. Measure the following turbine parameters using calibrated gauges:
* J-1^ • 1 exhaust
• Tin • Steam flow in (LBS/HR)

300
 Steam Turbine Performance

3. Determine the theoretical steam rate by plotting Pj^, Tj^, Pexhaust ®

AS = 0. and dividing Ahisentropic i^^o the constant.
4. Determine the actual steam rate of the turbine as follows:
Actual Steam Rate (A.S.R.) = ^ ^ p Steam Flow (LB/HR)
^ ^ BHP required by driven equipment
5. Determine efficiency
Etnciency = A~C~D
Figures 21.6, 21.7 and 21.8 present the advice and values concerning
steam turbine efficiencies. The efficiencies presented can be used for
estimating purposes.

Typical steam turbine efficiencies

Quoted turbine efficiencies are external efficiencies, they include mechanical

(bearing, etc.) and leakage losses
Turbine efficiency at off load conditions will usually be lower than rated
efficiency
Typical efficiencies are presented for impulse turbine:
• Condensing multi-stage
• Non condensing multi-stage
• Non condensing single state

Figure 21.6 Typical steam turbine efficiencies

Why steam turbines are not performance tested

When purchasing large steam turbines that do not use proven

components, keep in mind that it will not be cost effective to
performance test the turbine prior to field installation. If the turbine
does not meet predicted output horsepower values, the field
modifications will be lengthy and costly in terms of lost product
revenue resulting from reduced output horsepower. In some cases, the
output power predicted may never be attained. Figure 21.9 presents the
reasons why steam turbines are not performance tested.

301
Principles of Rotating Equipment

RATED BHP
Average efficiency of mullistale turbines (gear loss not included).

Figure 21.7 Efficiency of multistate turbines (Courtesy of IMO Industries)

70

60 te 1.30
150 PSI, 3,600RPM
< 150PSI,1,800RPM
Q:
600 PS I, 3^00 RPM
M 120
O50 CO [—HALF-LOAD STEAM 600 PSI, 1,800 RPM
RATE FACTOR GEARED TURBINE
^ IJOO K ATM. BACK PRESS. (INCL. GEAR LOSS)
150PSI, 3,600RPM
^ 40 300PSI, 3,600RPM
UJ 600PSI, 3,600RPM

LU 30
150 PSI, 1,800RPM
300PSI, 1,800RPM
< 600PSI, 1,800RPM
^ 20

10

20 30 4 0 50 60 7080 100 200 300 400 500

RATED BHP
Average efficiency of single-stage turbines (non-condensing dry
and saturated steam).

Figure 21.8 Efficiency of single-stage turbines (Courtesy of IMO Industries)

302
 steam Turbine Performance

Steam turbine performance testing

Steam turbines are not usually shop performance tested

They are only tested mechanically (vibration, bearing temperatures etc.) at
no load
Because

Performance (steam rate, efficiency) varies directly with steam velocity

Steam velocity varies directly with steam flow
Steam flow varies directly with power requirement because:
Power = AH (energy per unit mass) x mass flow rate
Testing at full load is not cost effective

Figure 21.9 Steam turbine performance testing

Performance curves

The performance curve format for steam turbines is to plot steam flow
on the y axis and produced shaft horsepower on the x axis. Figure
21.10 presents important facts concerning steam turbine performance
curves.

Steam turbine performance curves

• Non-extraction turbines present performance on a Willians-line

• A Willians-line describes the amount of steam flow (throttle flow) required
for a given load at a given speed
• An extraction map describes throttle flow for a given load and extraction
flow
Note: all curves are for a specific set of steam conditions

Figure 21.10 Steam turbine performance curves

In Figure 21.11, a typical performance curve is presented for a single

stage turbine with manual hand valves.

303
Principles of Rotating Equipment

100

90
/
1 1
HAND VALVE OPEN
1 1 /
A
/
y

y
80

§ 70 /
o iANO VA LVE OPE N i

^ yr.
60
/
^ 50 /
^*
O
-i Xy\
u. 40 HAND VA LVE OPE N

ff, 3 0

^ ^ n P F N ARC -
20
/
10

20 30 40 50 60 100
PERCENT LOAD. BHP
Partial-load Willans lines.

Figure 21.11 Typical performance curve for a single stage turbine with manual hand valves (Courtesy
of IMO Industries)

Note that this turbine contains three (3) manual hand valves (x, y, z).
Closing hand valves for low horsepower loads increases the efficiency of
the turbine. However please note that closed hand valves limit the
steam flow through a turbine and therefore the horsepower produced.
Hand valves are not modulating. That is, they are either full open or
fiill closed. Throttling a hand valve will destroy the valve seat and may
damage the valve stem thus rendering it immovable. Normally hand
valves are manually actuated. However, modern electronic governor
systems provide outputs to open or close hand valves based on power
requirements.
Figure 21.12 shows a performance curve for a typical extraction steam
turbine.
This performance curve plots inlet flow and extraction flow vs
produced turbine horsepower. When selecting an extraction turbine,
care must be taken to be sure the turbine produces the horsepower
required during the start-up of the process. The cost of an extraction
steam turbine can be significantly reduced if the exhaust section (L.P.

304
 steam Turbine Performance

300

25 50 75 100 125
TURBINE OUTPUT, PERCENT

Figure 21.12 Performance curve for a typical extraction steam turbine (Courtesy of IMO Industries)

Steam section) size is reduced. Figure 21.12 shows an extraction

turbine capable of producing 100% power with 0% extraction flow.
Usually, extraction turbines are sized to only provide the process start-
up horsepower with 0% extraction. These values may be as low as
50-60% of full load horsepower.

305
This page intentionally left blank
 steam turbine
mechanical
design overview

Introduction
Steam turbine casings
Tlirottle valves
Nozzle ring
Rotor
Nozzle/diaphragm
Shaft end seals
Bearings

Introduction
In this section we will discuss the function of the major components of
a steam turbine. Each major component will be presented, its function
discussed, and the most common problems associated with each
component reviewed.
After discussing each major component, we will focus on blade design
and we'll present information concerning the advantages and
disadvantages of different blade types and stage types. We will then
proceed to discuss blade efficiency considerations and will present an
example to determine the number of blade rows used for both an
impulse and reaction turbine application.
We will conclude this section by discussing the mechanical aspects of
blade design, namely blade root types, blade natural frequencies and
blade loading considerations.

|« 307
Principles of Rotating Equipment

Figure 22.1 Multi-stage extraction condensing turbine (Courtesy of General Electric Company)

Figure 22.1 presents an assembly of a multi-valve, multi-stage,

extraction condensing turbine with the major mechanical components
noted.
The components can be divided into two basic groups, gas path and
mechanical as noted below:
Gas path components Mechanical components
• Steam chest • Rotor
• Throttle valve(s) • Shaft seals
• Nozzle ring • Bearings
• Blade rows • Casing
• Interstage diaphragms
(Nozzles and assemblies)
Details concerning the function and problems encountered with each
major component are as follows:

Steam turbine casings

The function of any expansion turbine casing is defined in Figure 22.2.

All expansion turbine casings, with the exception of single stage
cryogenic expanders are horizontally split. As with turbo-compressor
casings, expansion turbine casings can be distorted by external piping

308
 steam Turbine Mechanical Design Overview

THE FUNCTION OF THE TURBINE CASING IS TO CONTAIN THE

EXPANSION VAPOR AND PROVIDE RIGID SUPPORT FOR THE
BEARINGS AND SEALS. MAJOR PARTS ARE: ADMISSION
SECTION, INTERMEDIATE SECTION AND EXHAUST SECTION.

Figure 22.2 Steam turbine casing (Courtesy of Siemens)

and foundation forces which can result in excessive bearing loads and
rotor misalignment. All of the precautions discussed for turbo-
compressor casings apply to expansion turbine casings.
The only significant operating condition difference between turbo-
compressor and expansion turbine casings is temperature. The
maximum turbo-compressor operating temperature is usually limited to
350°F. Steam turbine casings can operate at inlet temperatures above
900°F. Therefore, the casings must incorporate special design features
to allow for case thermal growth during start-up and shut down.
Special features include; horizontal joint relief (see turbo-compressor
case module) and casing joint bolt tensioning devices (hydraulic or
thermal). Steam turbine joint leaks, particularly on the H.P. end, should
be corrected as soon as possible to prevent permanent joint face
damage from H.P. steam.
Most steam turbine inlet casings are cast while intermediate sections
and either cast or forged. Exhaust sections of back pressure turbines can
be cast, forged or fabricated. Exhaust sections of condensing turbines
are usually fabricated.

309
Principles of Rotating Equipment

SECOND ROTOR
DISC
BLADES
REVERSING
^ -tXJ. LLC
BLADE
ASSEMBLY
r w >>>>>> > ' > > > ' " > > > > > > > > > > > > > ' > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > » > > > > > > > ^ ^ ^ FIRST
FIRS ROTOR
DISC
BLADES

STEAM FROM
GOVERNOR
FIGURE VALVE
ITEM
NUMBER DESCRIPTION QUANTITY
4.7-1 HAND VALVE ASSEMBLY 1
LOCKWASHER 1
NUT 1
FOLLOWER 1
PACKING 1 SET
^ ^ GASKET 1
HANDWHEEL 1

Hand Nozzle Valve Assembly

valve chest

Function: To adjust steam throughput to desired

amount with the minimum of efficiency loss
Figure 22.3 Throttle valves. Top: Single throttle valve (Courtesy of Elliott Co.), Bottom: Multiple
throttle valve (Courtesy of M.H.I.)

310
 steam Turbine Mechanical Design Overview

Throttle valves

The function of single and multiple throttle valves is presented in

Figure 22.3. All inlet throttle valves are specially designed for minimum
pressure drop. Single throttle valves are designed for the normal
operating condition. As a result, pressure drop significantly increases at
low steam flows (horsepower loads). In order to increase turbine
efficiency at low loads, one or more hand valves are used (see Figure
22.3).
Multiple throttle valves are selected such that the pressure drop across
any valve will be minimum.
Problems encountered with throttle valves include valve seat breakage.
Broken valve seat parts can block the nozzle ring reducing first stage
pressure to the turbine. All multi-stage turbines are provided with a
pressure gauge that monitors first stage pressure. Noting the baseline
first stage pressure, for a given load, and trending this parameter will
provide valuable information concerning pressure drop in the throttle
valves and steam passages to the first stage of the turbine.

Nozzle ring

The function of the nozzle ring is shown in Figure 22.4.

In single valve turbines, all the steam is admitted to one dedicated set of
nozzles. If hand valves are provided, an additional set of nozzles is
furnished for each hand valve. In multi-valve turbines, each valve has a
specific passage to a set of nozzles.
The arc of admission is defined as the degrees of a circle that the first
stage nozzles (or control nozzle) occupies. For single stage turbines, a
typical value would be 30°. Multi-valve turbines can have admissions of
180° or full admission (360°) depending on the steam flow
requirements.
The nozzle ring, often called the control nozzle, is the only nozzle in a
turbine that is not designed for fiill admission. All other nozzle areas
are designed on the assumption that the steam will enter the entire arc.
There have been cases where the axial distance between the control
stage and the second stage was not sufficient to allow full arc admission
of steam to the second stage. This resulted in higher nozzle velocities
than anticipated and lower turbine efficiency.

311