Thermocouple

Thermocouple are the temperature sensors which are extensively used for
the measurement of the temperature variations. They sense the
temperature and the temperature is further measured by other
instruments after sensing it. As they convert a non-electrical quantity
(temperature) into voltage (electrical quantity) so they are transducers
also. Since the do not require any external power source to operate, so
they are active transducers.

Thermocouple Working Principle

The thermocouple working principle is based on the Seeback Effect. This

effect states that when a closed circuit is formed by jointing two
dissimilar metals at two junctions, and junctions are maintained at
different temperatures then an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced in
this closed circuit.

The amount of induced e.m.f. is different for different metal

combinations and is proportional to the temperature difference of the
junctions. This is the basic thermocouple working principle.

Working of Thermocouple

A typical circuit diagram of a thermocouple is shown in Figure. In the

Figure, two dissimilar metals ‘A’ and ‘B’ are joined at the two junctions

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‘P’ and ‘Q’. Here the ‘P’ junction is measuring junction or hot junction
whereas the junction ‘Q’ is the reference junction or cold junction. And
a PMMC instrument is connected in this arrangement as shown in
Figure.

When these junctions are kept at different temperatures,

generally cold junction is kept at 0oC and measuring
junction is kept at an unknown temperature which we
want to measure (i.e. the temperature of the junction is
raised by heating it). An e.m.f. will be generated in this
circuit due to the temperature difference of the junctions.

This e.m.f. is in the order of millivolts. And the e.m.f.

can be measured with the help of a PMMC instrument by
connecting it in the circuit as shown in Figure.

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When both the junctions are at the same temperature,
e.m.f. generated at both junctions will be the same. No
current will flow through the circuit. And there will be
no deflection in the meter.

When both the junctions are at different temperatures, a

current will flow through the meter. And the meter will
show the deflection. As the generated e.m.f. is
proportional to the temperature difference, the amount of
current flow will also be proportional to the temperature
difference. And therefore, the meter can be calibrated
directly in terms of temperature.

The reference, or cold junction is normally connected to

the measuring instrument and held at 0 oC. For accurate
temperature measurement, the reference junction
temperature must remain constant or suitable
compensation provided if it should change. To reduce
inaccuracies, most thermocouples are now installed with
instruments that provide automatic reference
compensation.

In this way, a thermocouple is used for temperature

measurement. As it is converting a non-electrical

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quantity (temperature) into an electrical quantity (e.m.f.)
it can also be used as a transducer. Since it does not
require any power source to operate, it is a secondary
transducer.

These are used to measure the temperature up to

1400oC. There are different combinations of metals
which are used in thermocouples. Different combinations
generate different e.m.f.s. The metals for the
construction of a thermocouple should be chosen so that
we can get a linear relationship between change in
temperature and generated e.m.f.

Choice of metal also depends on the temperature range

to be measured and on the nature of the atmosphere in
which the thermocouple is to be used.

The e.m.f. generated in a thermocouple is given by:

E = a( θ) + b( θ)2

θ = difference in temperature between two junctions (in

oC)

a, b = constants

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generally, ‘a’ is very large as compare to ‘b’ so ‘b’ can
be neglected. Therefore,

the above expression can be approximated as under:

E = a( θ)

θ = E/a

Generally, these are not installed in pipelines or

equipment directly. They are usually installed in
protective wells so that can be replaced or removed
easily without shut down of the plant. With the
introduction of protective wells, the response of a
thermocouple slows down considerably. Where the fast
response is a primary requirement, bare or

thin sheathed thermocouples should be used.

Types of Thermocouple

1. T – Type Thermocouple

Positive wire — Cu

Negative wire — Constantan

It can be used up to 350oC. It is very stable and inexpensive. Generally,

it is

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used for very low-temperature applications.

2. E – Type Thermocouple

Positive wire — Chromel

Negative wire — Constantan

It can be used up to 850oC. It is most sensitive thermocouple. It

generates a

high output voltage.

3. J – Type Thermocouple

Positive wire — Iron

Negative wire — Constantan

It can be used up to 1000 oC. It is a very common type of thermocouple.

Its

stability is high.

4. K — Type Thermocouple

Positive wire — Chromel

Negative wire — Alumel

It can be used up to 1200oC. It is a widely used type of thermocouple. It

is a

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cheaper type as compared to other types.

5. S – Type Thermocouple

Positive wire — Platinum 10% Rohodium

Negative wire — Platinum

It can be used up to 1400oC. It has very high precision thus used for very
high accuracy requirements.

The current will flow from + ve marked lead to the – ve marked lead. In

thermocouples, negative lead is generally a red colored wire. The color

of

positive lead will be according to its type.

Advantages:

⦁ They follow the temperature changes with a small time-lag. So it

can be used in the applications where very rapid changes in
temperature take places. It responds to those changes very quickly.

⦁ These are very convenient for measuring the temperature at one

particular point in any apparatus or setup.

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Disadvantages:

⦁ They have very low accuracy. So they cannot be used for very high
precision measurement.

⦁ They have to protect against contamination to ensure long life.

⦁ They are placed at a very large distance from the measuring

device. This increases errors in the result.

Applications:

Thermocouples are the most widely used temperature sensors on the

planet due to their combination of wide temperature capabilities,
ruggedness, and low cost. Thermocouples are used in applications that
range from home appliances to industrial processes, to electric power
generation, to furnace monitoring and control, to food and beverage
processing, to automotive sensors, to aircraft engines, to rockets,
satellites and spacecraft. When it comes to high temperatures, small size,
fast response, high vibration or shock, most times you will find
thermocouples providing the temperature measurements.

Thermocouples for Food Applications

Thermocouples can be used for a wide variety of applications in the food

and beverage industry including Clean-In-Place sensors, Penetration
Probes, Oven Control, Food Chain Monitoring, Hotplate Control and
Monitoring and Steam Kettle temperature control.

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Thermocouples for Extruders

Extruders require high temperature and high pressures. They also have a
unique threaded adapter in order to position the sensor tip in the molten
plastic under the high pressure conditions found there.

Omega offers the TER/TEFE/SEFE and SERP thermocouples for use in

extruders, these thermocouples, available in single and dual elements,
have the unique threaded housing required for this application. Omega
also offers the BT and CF products which are often used on the low
pressure portions of extruders in both thermocouple and RTD versions.

Thermocouples for Low Temperature

Type E, K, T and N thermocouples are can be used for measuring

temperatures down to -200°C, however the alloys used in these
thermocouples must be specifically selected for use at these temperatures
in order to meet the published accuracies. Most thermocouple
manufacturers purchase their thermocouple alloys calibrated for use from
0°C and above. These same alloys can be used to -200°C, but the
accuracy may deviate somewhat from the established values. Individual
calibrations can be purchased so offset values can be determined.

Thermocouples for Furnaces

The furnace conditions the thermocouple will be exposed to will

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determine the right thermocouple for the application. When selecting the
right thermocouple, some of the conditions that need to be considered
include:

⦁ Temperature capability of the thermocouple wires.

⦁ Temperature capability of the sheath or protective covering (metal

or ceramic).

⦁ The atmosphere it will be used in (air, reducing, oxidizing, inhert).

⦁ The mounting configuration.

Thermocouples for Molten Metal

Measuring the temperature of molten metal is difficult due to the high

temperature and severe conditions encountered. Because of the
temperatures involved, Type K and N Base Metal and Types R, S and B
Platinum thermocouples are the only choice for contact measurements in
this area.

When base metal thermocouples are used, the wires are typically large
diameter 8 or 14 AWG solid wires with ceramic insulators and ceramic
and/ or metal protection tubes. The large diameter of the Type K or N
wires degrade slower to allow time for measurements before the high
temperature conditions degrade the wires.

The platinum thermocouple wires are typically on the order of 20 to 30

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AWG Solid (See the RAT/SAT/BAT series). Unlike the base metal Type
K and N wires, instead of deteriorating due to oxidation or corrosion, the
platinum wires instead become soft due to long term annealing and
eventually fail due to grain growth.

Piezoelectric transducer:

What is Piezoelectric Transducer?

The definition of a Piezoelectric transducer is an electrical transducer

which can convert any form of physical quantity into an electrical signal,
which can be used for measurement. An electrical transducer which uses
properties of piezoelectric materials for conversion of physical quantities
into electrical signals is known as a piezoelectric transducer.

Piezoelectric materials exhibit the property of piezoelectricity, according

to which on the application of any type of mechanical stress or strain
leads to the generation of an electric voltage proportional to the applied
stress. This produced electric voltage can be measured using voltage
measuring instruments to calculate the value of stress or strain applied to
the material.

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Piezoelectric Transducer Working

Piezoelectric Transducer works with the principle of piezoelectricity. The

faces of piezoelectric material, usual quartz, is coated with a thin layer of
conducting material such as silver. When stress has applied the ions in
the material move towards one of the conducting surface while moving
away from the other. This results in the generation of charge. This charge
is used for calibration of stress. The polarity of the produced charge
depends upon the direction of the applied stress. Stress can be applied in
two forms as Compressive stress and Tensile stress as shown below.

Piezoelectric Transducer Formula

The orientation of the crystal also effects the amount of voltage

generated. Crystal in a transducer can be arranged in longitudinal

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position or transverse position.

In the longitudinal effect, the charge generated is given by

Q=F*d

Where F is the applied force,

d: the piezoelectric coefficient of the crystal/ charge sensitivity of crystal

Piezoelectric coefficient d of quartz crystal is around 2.3 * 10-12 C/N.

A: Area of crystal
t: Thickness of crystal
E: Youngus modulus
E= stress/strain
The output voltage is obtain
Eo= Q/Cp= (F * d)/E0*Er*(A/t)

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 =(dt/ E0*Er)*(F/A)

Piezoelectric coefficient d of quartz crystal is around 2.3 * 10-12 C/N.

In the transverse effect, the charge generated is given by

Q = F * d * (b/a)

When the ratio b/a is greater than 1 the charge produced by transverse
arrangement will be greater than the amount generated by longitudinal
arrangement.

Advantages

⦁ These are active transducer i.e. they don’t require external power
for working and are therefore self-generating.

⦁ The high-frequency response of these transducers makes a good

choice for various applications.

Limitations

⦁ Temperature and environmental conditions can affect the behavior

of the transducer.

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 ⦁ They can only measure changing pressure hence they are useless
while measuring static parameters.

Piezoelectric Transducer Applications

⦁ As piezoelectric materials cannot measure static values these are

primarily used for measuring surface roughness, in accelerometers
and as a vibration pickup.

⦁ They are used in seismographs to measure vibrations in rockets.

⦁ In strain gauges to measure force, stress, vibrations etc…

⦁ Used by automotive industries to measure detonations in engines.

⦁ These are used in ultrasonic imaging in medical applications.

⦁ Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Transducers

⦁ The advantages and limitations of piezoelectric transducers

include the following.

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Bellows, Diaphragms and Bourdon Tubes:

Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the

diaphragm, and the bourdon tube. Each of these devices converts a
fluid pressure into a force. If unrestrained, the natural elastic
properties of the element will produce a motion proportional to the
applied pressure.

Bellows :

Bellows resemble an accordion constructed from metal instead of fabric.

Increasing pressure inside a bellows unit causes it to elongate

The bellows is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit that has

deep folds formed from very thin-walled tubing. The diameter of the

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bellows ranges from 0.5 to 12 in. and may have as many as 24 folds.
System or line pressure is applied to the internal volume of the bellows.
As the inlet pressure to the instrument varies, the bellows will expand or
contract. The moving end of the bellows is connected to a mechanical
linkage assembly. As the bellows and linkage assembly moves, either an
electrical signal is generated or a direct pressure indication is provided.
The flexibility of a metallic bellows is similar in character to that of a
helical, coiled compression spring. Up to the elastic limit of the bellows,
the relation between increments of load and deflection is linear.

However, this relationship exists only when the bellows is under

compression. It is necessary to construct the bellows such that all of the
travel occurs on the compression side of the point of equilibrium.
Therefore, in practice, the bellows must always be opposed by a spring,
and the deflection characteristics will be the resulting force of the spring
and bellows.

Phosphor Bronze, Brass, Beryllium Copper, Stainless Steel are normally

used as the materials for bellows.

Bellows are manufactured either by

(i) turning from a solid block of metal, or

(ii) soldering or welding stamped annular rings, or

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(iii) rolling (pressing) a tube.

Diaphragms :

A diaphragm is nothing more than a thin disk of material which bows

outward under the influence of a fluid pressure. Many diaphragms are
constructed from metal, which gives them spring-like qualities. Some
diaphragms are intentionally constructed out of materials with little
strength, such that there is negligible spring effect. These are called slack
diaphragms, and they are used in conjunction with external mechanisms
(e.g. springs) producing the necessary restraining force to prevent
damage from applied pressure.

he Diaphragm Pressure Gauge uses the elastic deformation of a

diaphragm (i.e. membrane) instead of a liquid level to measure the
difference between an unknown pressure and a reference pressure.

A typical Diaphragm pressure gauge contains a capsule divided by a

diaphragm, as shown in the schematic below. One side of the diaphragm
is open to the external targeted pressure, PExt, and the other side is
connected to a known pressure, PRef,. The pressure difference, PExt – PRef,
mechanically deflects the diaphragm.

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The membrane deflection can be measured in any number of ways. For
example, it can be detected via a mechanically-coupled indicating needle,
an attached strain gage, a linear variable differential transformer(LVDT;
see the schematic below), or with many other displacement/velocity
sensors. Once known, the deflection can be converted to a pressure
loading using plate theory.

Many pressure sensors depend on the deflection of a diaphragm for

measurement. The diaphragm is a flexible disc, which can be either flat
or with concentric corrugations and is made from sheet metal with high
tolerance dimensions.

The diaphragm can be used as a means of isolating the process fluids, or

for high- pressure applications. It is also useful in providing pressure
measurement with electrical transducers.

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Diaphragms are well developed and proven. Modern designs have
negligible hysteresis, friction and calibration problems when used with
smart instrumentation.

They are used extensively on air conditioning plants and for ON/OFF
switching applications.

Selection

The selection of diaphragm materials is important, and are very much

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dependent on the application. Beryllium copper has good elastic
qualities, where Ni-Span C has a very low temperature coefficient of
elasticity.

Stainless steel and Inconel are used in extreme temperature applications,

and are also suited for corrosive environments. For minimum hysteresis
and drift, then Quartz is the best choice.

There are two main types of construction and operation of diaphragm

sensors. They are:

– Motion Balanced

– Force Balanced

Motion balanced designs are used to control local, direct reading

indicators. They are however more prone to hysteresis and friction
errors.

Force balanced designs are used as transmitters for relaying information

with a high accuracy, however they do not have direct indication
capability.

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Advantages

⦁ Provide isolation from process fluid

⦁ Good for low pressure

⦁ Wide range

⦁ Reliable and proven

⦁ Used to measure gauge, atmospheric and differential pressure

Disadvantages:

⦁ More expensive then other pressure sensors.

Bourdon Tubes

Bourdon tubes are made of spring-like metal alloys bent into a circular
shape. Under the influence of internal pressure, a bourdon tube “tries” to
straighten out into its original shape before being bent at the time of
manufacture.

Most pressure gauges use a bourdon tube as their pressure-sensing

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element. Most pressure transmitters use a diaphragm as their pressure-
sensing element. Bourdon tubes may be made in spiral or helical forms
for greater motion (and therefore greater gauge resolution).

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge Working

Bourdon tube pressure gauges are extensively used for local indication.
This type of pressure gages were first developed by E. Bourdon in 1849.
Bourdon tube pressure gauges can be used to measure over a wide range
of pressure: form vacuum to pressure as high as few thousand psi. It is
basically consisted of a C-shaped hollow tube, whose one end is fixed
and connected to the pressure tapping, the other end free, as shown in fig.
The cross section of the tube is elliptical.

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When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube (Bourdon tube) tries to
acquire a circular cross section; as a result, stress is developed and the
tube tries to straighten up. Thus the free end of the tube moves up,
depending on magnitude of pressure. A deflecting and indicating
mechanism is attached to the free end that rotates the pointer and
indicates the Pressure reading. The materials used are commonly
Phosphor Bronze, Brass and Beryllium Copper. For a 2″ overall
diameter of the C-tube the useful travel of the free end is approximately
1/8″ . Though the C-type tubes are most common, other shapes of tubes,
such as helical, twisted or spiral tubes are also in use.

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