Hundred Schools of Thought

The Hundred Schools of Thought (Chinese: 諸子百家 ; pinyin:

Hundred Schools of
zhūzǐ bǎijiā) were philosophies and schools that flourished from
the 6th century BC to 221 BC during the Spring and Autumn Thought
period and the Warring States period of ancient China.[1] Traditional Chinese 諸子百家
An era of great racism and discrimination in China,[2] it was
Simplified Chinese 诸子百家
fraught with chaos and bloody battles, but it was also known as the Transcriptions
Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of Standard Mandarin
thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. This
Hanyu Pinyin zhūzǐ bǎijiā
phenomenon has been called the Contention of a Hundred
Schools of Thought ( 百家爭鳴 百家争鸣 / ; bǎijiā zhēngmíng; Wade–Giles chu1-tzu3 pai3-
chia1
pai-chia cheng-ming; "hundred schools contend"). The thoughts
and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly IPA [ʈʂútsɨ̀ pàitɕjá]
influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day
Wu
in East Asian countries and the East Asian diaspora around the
world. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by Romanization Tsoe tzy ba' ga
itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers Yue: Cantonese
as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. Yale Jyū-jí baak-gāa
Romanization
This period ended with the rise of the imperial Qin dynasty and the
subsequent purge of dissent. Jyutping Zyu1-zi2 baak3-
gaa1
Southern Min
Contents Tâi-lô Tsu-tsú pah-ka

Schools listed in the Shiji

Confucianism
Legalism
Taoism
Mohism
School of Yin-yang
School of Names
Schools listed in the Hanshu
School of Diplomacy
Agriculturalism
Syncretism
School of "Minor-talks"
Birthplaces of notable Chinese philosophers from Hundred
Unlisted schools Schools of Thought in the Zhou dynasty.
School of the Military
Yangism
School of the Medical Skills
History and origins
See also
References
External links

Schools listed in the Shiji

A traditional source for this period is the Shiji, or Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian. The
autobiographical section of the Shiji, the "Taishigong Zixu" (太史公自序 ), refers to the schools of thought
described below.

Confucianism

Confucianism ( 儒家 ; Rújiā; Ju-chia; "School of scholars") is the body of thought that arguably had the
most enduring effects on Chinese life. Its written legacy lies in the Confucian Classics, which later became
the foundation of traditional society. Confucius (551–479 BC), or Kongzi ("Master Kong"), looked back to
the early days of the Zhou dynasty for an ideal socio-political order. He believed that the only effective
system of government necessitated prescribed relationships for each individual: "Let the ruler be a ruler and
the subject a subject". Furthermore, he contended that a king must be virtuous in order to rule the state
properly. To Confucius, the functions of government and social stratification were facts of life to be
sustained by ethical values; thus his ideal human was the junzi, which is translated as "gentleman" or
"superior person".

Mencius (371–289 BC), or Mengzi, formulated his teachings directly in response to Confucius.

The effect of the combined work of Confucius, the codifier and interpreter of a system of relationships
based on ethical behavior, and Mencius, the synthesizer and developer of applied Confucianist thought,
was to provide traditional Chinese society with a comprehensive framework by which to order virtually
every aspect of life.

There were many accretions to the body of Confucian thought, both immediately and over the millennia,
from within and without the Confucian school. Interpretations adapted to contemporary society allowed for
flexibility within Confucianism, while the fundamental system of modeled behavior from ancient texts
formed its philosophical core.

性
Diametrically opposed to Mencius, in regards to human nature ( ), was the interpretation of Xunzi (c.
300–237 BC), another Confucian follower. Xunzi preached that man is not innately good; he asserted that
goodness is attainable only through training one's desires and conduct.

Legalism

The School of Law or Legalism ( 法家 ; Fǎjiā; Fa-chia; "School of law") doctrine was formulated by Li
Kui, Shang Yang (d. 338 BC), Han Fei (d. 233 BC), and Li Si (d. 208 BC), who maintained that human
nature was incorrigibly selfish; accordingly, the only way to preserve the social order was to impose
discipline from above, and to see to a strict enforcement of laws. The Legalists exalted the state above all,
seeking its prosperity and martial prowess over the welfare of the common people.

Legalism greatly influenced the philosophical basis for the imperial form of government. During the Han
Dynasty, the most practical elements of Confucianism and Legalism were taken to form a sort of synthesis,
marking the creation of a new form of government that would remain largely intact until the late 19th
century, with continuing influence into the present.

Taoism

Philosophical Taoism or Daoism ( 道家 ; Dàojiā; Tao-chia; "School of the Way") developed into the second
most significant stream of Chinese thought. Its formulation is often attributed to the legendary sage Laozi
("Old Master"), who is said to predate Confucius, and Zhuangzi (369–286 BC). The focus of Taoism is on
the individual within the natural realm rather than the individual within society; accordingly, the goal of life
for each individual is seeking to adjust oneself and adapting to the rhythm of the natural (and the
supernatural) world, to follow the Way (tao) of the universe, and to live in harmony. In many ways the
opposite of rigid Confucian morality, Taoism was for many of its adherents a complement to their ordered
daily lives. A scholar serving as an official would usually follow Confucian teachings, but at leisure or in
retirement might seek harmony with nature as a Taoist recluse. Politically, Taoism advocates for rule
through inaction, and avoiding excessive interference.

Mohism

Mohism or Moism ( 墨家 ; Mòjiā; Mo-chia; "School of Mo") was developed by followers of Mozi (also
referred to as Mo Di; 470–c.391 BC). Though the school did not survive through the Qin dynasty, Mohism
was seen as a major rival of Confucianism in the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Its philosophy
rested on the idea of impartial care (Chinese: 兼愛 ; pinyin: Jian Ai; lit. 'inclusive love/care'): Mozi believed
that "everyone is equal before heaven", and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the
practice of collective love. This is often translated and popularized as "universal love", which is misleading
as Mozi believed that the essential problem of human ethics was an excess of partiality in compassion, not a
deficit in compassion as such. His aim was to re-evaluate behavior, not emotions or attitudes.[3] His
epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought
to be based on one's perceptions – one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of
imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction.

Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced
as extravagant. He regarded offensive warfare as wasteful and advocated pacifism or at the most, defensive
fortification. The achievement of social goals, according to Mozi, necessitated the unity of thought and
action. His political philosophy bears a resemblance to divine-rule monarchy: the population ought always
to obey its leaders, as its leaders ought always to follow the will of heaven. Mohism might be argued to
have elements of meritocracy: Mozi contended that rulers should appoint officials by virtue of their ability
instead of their family connections. Although popular faith in Mohism had declined by the end of the Qin
Dynasty, its views are said to be strongly echoed in Legalist thought.

School of Yin-yang

The School of Naturalists or Yin-yang ( 陰陽家 阴阳家

/ ; Yīnyángjiā; Yin-yang-chia; "School of Yin-Yang")
was a philosophy that synthesized the concepts of yin-yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered
the founder of this school.[4] His theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature:
the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the
Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth). In its early days, this theory was most
strongly associated with the states of Yan and Qi. In later periods, these epistemological theories came to
hold significance in both philosophy and popular belief. This school was absorbed into Taoism's alchemic
and magical dimensions as well as into the Chinese medical framework. The earliest surviving recordings
of this are in the Ma Wang Dui texts and Huangdi Neijing.
School of Names

The School of Names or Logicians ( 名家 ; Míngjiā; Ming-chia; "School of names") grew out of Mohism,
with a philosophy that focused on definition and logic. It is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient
Greek sophists or dialecticians. The most notable Logician was Gongsun Longzi.

Schools listed in the Hanshu

In addition to the above six major philosophical schools within the Hundred Schools of Thought, the
"Yiwenzhi" of the Book of Han adds four more into the Ten Schools ( 十家
; Shijia).

School of Diplomacy

The School of Diplomacy or School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances] ( 纵横家 縱橫家 ; ; Zonghengjia)
specialized in diplomatic politics; Zhang Yi and Su Qin were representative thinkers. This school focused
on practical matters instead of any moral principle, so it stressed political and diplomatic tactics, and debate
and lobbying skill. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.

Agriculturalism

Agriculturalism (农家 農家 ; ; Nongjia) was an early agrarian social and political philosophy that advocated
peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism.[5] The philosophy is founded on the notion that human
society originates with the development of agriculture, and societies are based upon "people's natural
propensity to farm."[6]

The Agriculturalists believed that the ideal government, modeled after the semi-mythical governance of
Shennong, is led by a benevolent king, one who works alongside the people in tilling the fields. The
Agriculturalist king is not paid by the government through its treasuries; his livelihood is derived from the
profits he earns working in the fields, not his leadership.[7]

Unlike the Confucians, the Agriculturalists did not believe in the division of labour, arguing instead that the
economic policies of a country need to be based upon an egalitarian self sufficiency. The Agriculturalists
supported the fixing of prices, in which all similar goods, regardless of differences in quality and demand,
are set at exactly the same, unchanging price.[7]

For example, Mencius once criticized its chief proponent Xu Xing for advocating that rulers should work in
the fields with their subjects. One of Xu's students is quoted as having criticized the duke of Teng in a
conversation with Mencius by saying:

"A worthy ruler feeds himself by ploughing side by side with the people, and rules while
cooking his own meals. Now Teng on the contrary possesses granaries and treasuries, so the
ruler is supporting himself by oppressing the people."

Syncretism
Syncretism, or the School of Miscellany ( 杂家 雜家 ; ; Zajia) integrated teachings from different schools;
for instance, Lü Buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called Lüshi Chunqiu
cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws.
The (c. 330 BC) Shizi is the earliest textual example of the Syncretic School.

School of "Minor-talks"

The School of "Minor-talks" ( 小说家 小說家 ; ; Xiaoshuojia) was not a unique school of thought.
Indeed,
all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from non-famous people on the street were
included in this school. At that time, there were some government officials responsible for collecting ideas
from non-famous people on the street and report to their senior. These thoughts formed the origin of this
school. This also explains its Chinese name, which literally means "school of minor-talks".

Unlisted schools
These schools were not listed in the Hanshu but did have substantial influence.

School of the Military

Another group is the School of the Military ( 兵家 ; Bingjia) that often studied and discussed about what
westerners called Philosophy of war. Some of them studied warfare and strategy, others focused on kinds
and skills of weapons. Sun Tzu and Sun Bin were influential leaders. Some of their famous works are Sun
Tzu's The Art of War and Sun Bin's Art of War. Their theories influenced later China and even East Asia
more broadly. These classical texts have received great interest among contemporary interpreters, some of
whom have applied it to military strategy, the martial arts, and even modern business.

Yangism

Yangism was a form of ethical egoism founded by Yang Zhu. It was once widespread but fell to obscurity
before the Han dynasty. Due to its stress on individualism, it influenced later generations of Taoists.

School of the Medical Skills

School of the Medical Skills ( 方技家 ; Fangjijia) is a school which studied Medicine and health. Bian Que
and Qibo were well-known scholars. Two of the earliest and existing Chinese medical works are Huangdi
Neijing and Shanghan Lun.

History and origins

The "Yiwenzhi" of the Hanshu claims that the officials working for the government during the early Zhou
Dynasty lost their position when the authority of the Zhou rulers began to break down in the Eastern Zhou
period. In this way, the officials spread all over the country and started to teach their own field of
knowledge as private teachers. In this way the schools of philosophy were born. In particular, the School of
Scholars (i.e. the Confucian School) was born from the officials of the Ministry of Education; the Taoists
from the historians; the Yin-yang School from the astronomers; the Legalist School from the Ministry of
Justice; the School of Names from the Ministry of Rituals; the Mohist School from the Guardians of the
Temple; the School of Diplomacy from the Ministry of Embassies; the School of Miscellany from the
government counselors; the School of Agriculture from the Ministry of the Soil and Wheat; the School of
Minor Talks from the minor officials. Although the details are unclear, the burning of books and burying of
scholars during the Qin was the end of the period of open discussion.

It should be stressed that only the Ru, or Confucians and the Mohists were actual organized schools of
teachers and disciples during this period. All the other schools were invented later to describe groups of
texts that expressed similar ideas. There was never an organized group of people describing themselves as
"Legalists," for example, and the term "Daoist" was only coined in the Eastern Han after having succeeded
the Western Han's Huang-Lao movement.

See also
Axial Age
Hellenistic philosophy
Hundred Flowers Campaign
Jixia Academy

References
1. "Chinese philosophy" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112694/Chinese-philoso
phy#ref171469), Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 4/6/2014
2. Graham, A.C., Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China (Open Court
1993). (https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=91219343) ISBN 0-8126-9087-7
3. The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by Edward Craig. Routledge
Publishing. 2005.
4. "Zou Yan" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan). Encyclopædia
Britannica. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
5. Deutsch, Eliot; Ronald Bontekoei (1999). A companion to world philosophies (https://archiv
e.org/details/companiontoworld00deut_616). Wiley Blackwell. p. 183 (https://archive.org/det
ails/companiontoworld00deut_616/page/n205).
6. Sellmann, James Daryl (2010). Timing and rulership in Master Lü's Spring and Autumn
annals. SUNY Press. p. 76.
7. Denecke, Wiebke (2011). The Dynamics of Masters Literature: Early Chinese Thought from
Confucius to Han Feizi. Harvard University Press. p. 38.

External links
Classics of the hundred schools (http://ctext.org/), Chinese Text Project (Chinese and
English)
先秦諸子‧要覽子藉 (https://web.archive.org/web/20091026201514/http://hk.geocities.com/chi
npcp/) Many fragmentary and newly discovered texts of the hundred schools of thought.
(Chinese)
先秦诸子学基本资料 (https://web.archive.org/web/20120515170146/http://www.confucius20
00.com/confucian/zhuziziliao3.htm)
歷代農家代表人物及著作 (https://web.archive.org/web/20051027032418/http://www.agri-hist
ory.net/agriculturists.htm)
《子藏》總序 - 臺北大學中國文學系 (http://www.chinese.ntpu.edu.tw/files/archive/972_d024
4541.pdf)
 05 子藏 部
-1155 (http://wenxian.fanren8.com/05/)
Hundert Schulen (http://www.100jia.net)
Zhou dynasty literature, thought, and philosophy (http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zho
u/zhou-literature.html), ChinaKnowledge
輯佚資料集成目次【子部】 (http://www.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~takeda/edo_min/edo_bunka/sy
uitu/edono_kagaku_syuitu_03m.html)
Mo Zi-Wikisource

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