Xiang Yu

Xiang Yu (Chinese: 項羽 ; pinyin: Xiàng Yǔ, c.  232–202 BC),

born Xiang Ji (Chinese: 項籍 ; pinyin: Xiàng Jí), was the
Xiang Yu
項羽
Hegemon-King (Chinese: 霸王 , Bà Wáng) of Western Chu
during the Chu–Han Contention period (206–202 BC) of China. Hegemon-King of Western Chu
A noble of the Chu state, Xiang Yu rebelled against the Qin
dynasty and became a prominent warlord. He was granted the
title of "Duke of Lu" ( 魯公 ) by King Huai II of the restoring
Chu state in 208 BC. The following year, he led the Chu forces
to victory at the Battle of Julu against the Qin armies led by
Zhang Han. After the fall of Qin, Xiang Yu was enthroned as the
"Hegemon-King of Western Chu" ( 西楚霸王 ) and ruled a vast
area covering modern-day central and eastern China, with
Pengcheng as his capital. He engaged Liu Bang, the founding
emperor of the Han dynasty, in a long struggle for power, known
as the Chu–Han Contention, which concluded with his eventual
defeat at the Battle of Gaixia and his suicide. Xiang Yu is
depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu ( 無雙譜 , Table of Peerless
Heroes) by Jin Guliang.

Block print portrait from the 17th

century encyclopedia Sancai Tuhui
Contents Ruler of Chu
Names and titles Reign 206–202 BC

Family background Predecessor Emperor Yi of Chu

Early life Born 232 BC

Revolution against the Qin dynasty Suqian, Jiangsu
Battle of Julu Died 202 BC (aged 29–30)
Feast at Hong Gate He County, Anhui
Division of the empire Wife Consort Yu
Chu–Han Contention Full name
Battle of Pengcheng
Battle of Xingyang
Family name: Xiang ( 項)
Treaty of Hong Canal Given name: Ji ( 籍)
Battle of Guling Father Xiang Chao
Defeat and downfall
Death Xiang Yu
Depiction of character
Traditional Chinese 項羽
Song of Gaixia Simplified Chinese 项羽
Evaluation
Cultural references
Poetry, folk tales, novels
 Operas Transcriptions
Television Standard Mandarin
Film Hanyu Pinyin Xiàng Yǔ
Video games
Wade–Giles Hsiang4 Yü3
References IPA [ɕjâŋ ỳ]
Citations
Yue: Cantonese
Sources
Yale Romanization Hohng Yúh
Jyutping Hong6 Jyu5
Names and titles IPA [hɔ̀ːŋ jy̬ː]

項
Xiang Yu's family name was Xiang (Chinese: ; pinyin: Xiàng;
Hokkien POJ
Southern Min
Hāng Ú
Wade–Giles: Hsiang; Jyutping: Hong6) while his given name was
籍 羽
Ji ( ; Jí; Chi; Zik6) and his courtesy name was Yu ( ; Yǔ; Yü; Hegemon-King of Western Chu
Jyu5). He is best known as Xiang Yu. Chinese 西楚霸王
Xiang Yu is popularly known as "Little Conqueror of Western Transcriptions
Chu" ( 西楚霸王 ; Xī Chǔ Bà Wáng; Hsi Ch'u Pa Wang; Sai1 Co2 Standard Mandarin
Baa3 Wong4), which has been translated as "Overlord of Western Hanyu Xī Chǔ Bà Wáng
Chu", "Hegemon-King of Western Chu", "Conqueror of Western
Pinyin
Chu", "King of Kings of Western Chu", and other renditions. This
title is sometimes simplified to "Ba Wang" ( 霸王 ; Bà Wáng; Pa Wade–Giles Hsi1 Ch'u3 Pa4 Wang2
Wang; Baa3 Wong4), without the link to "Western Chu". Since IPA [ɕí ʈʂʰù pâ wǎŋ]
Xiang Yu's death, the term Ba Wang has come to be used Yue: Cantonese
specifically to refer to him. Xiang Yu's subjects would sometimes
have addressed him as "Xiang Wang" ( 項王 ; Xiàng Wáng; Jyutping Sai1 Co2 Baa3
Hsiang Wang; Hong6 Wong4), which literally means "King Wong4
Xiang".

Family background
There are two accounts of Xiang Yu's family background. The first claimed that Xiang Yu was from the
羋
house of Mi ( ), the royal family of the Chu state in the Zhou dynasty. His ancestors were granted the
項
land of Xiang ( ) by the king of Chu and had since adopted "Xiang" as their family name. The other
account claimed that Xiang Yu was a descendant of a noble clan from the Lu state and his family had
served in the Chu military for generations. Xiang Yu's grandfather Xiang Yan was a well known general
who led the Chu army in resisting the Qin invaders led by Wang Jian, and was killed in action when Qin
conquered Chu in 223 BC.

Xiang Yu was born in 232 BC in the late Warring States period when the Qin state started unifying the
other six major states. According to the descendants of the Xiang family in Suqian, Xiang Yu's father was
Xiang Chao ( 項超 ), Xiang Yan's eldest son. Xiang Yu was raised by his elder uncle Xiang Liang because
his father died early. In 221 BC, when Xiang Yu was about 11 years old, the Qin state unified China and
established the Qin dynasty.

Xiang Yu had a double pupil in one of his eyes[1] just like the mythical Emperor Shun and Duke Wen of
Jin. He was thus seen as an extraordinary person because his unique double pupil was a mark of a king or
sage in Chinese tradition. Xiang Yu was slightly taller than eight chi (approximately 1.85 metres, about 6'
1") and possessed unusual physical strength as he could lift a ding (an ancient Chinese vessel resembling a
giant cauldron on tripods).[1]
Early life
In his younger days, Xiang Yu was instructed in scholarly arts and swordsmanship but he did not manage
to master what he was taught, and his uncle Xiang Liang was not very satisfied with him.[1] Xiang Yu said,
"Books are only useful in helping me remember my name. Mastering swordsmanship allows me to face
only one opponent, so it's not worth learning. I want to learn how to defeat thousands of enemies."[1]
Hence, his uncle tried to educate him in military strategy and the art of war instead, but Xiang Yu stopped
learning after he had grasped the main ideas; Xiang Liang was disappointed with his nephew, who showed
no sign of motivation or apparent talent apart from his great strength, so he gave up and let Xiang Yu
decide his own future.[1][2]

When Xiang Yu grew older, Xiang Liang killed someone so they fled to Wu to evade the authorities. At the
time, Qin Shi Huang was on an inspection tour in that area and Xiang Yu and his uncle watched the
emperor's procession pass by. Xiang Yu said, "I can replace him."[1] Xiang Liang was shocked and
immediately covered his nephew's mouth with his hand. Afterwards, Xiang Liang began to see his nephew
in a different light.

Revolution against the Qin dynasty

In 209 BC, during the reign of Qin Er Shi,
peasant rebellions erupted throughout China to
overthrow the Qin dynasty, plunging China into a
state of anarchy. Yin Tong, the Administrator of
Kuaiji, wanted to start a rebellion as well, so he
invited Xiang Liang to meet him and discuss their
plans. However, the Xiangs lured Yin Tong into a
trap and killed him instead, with Xiang Yu
personally striking down hundreds of Yin's men.
Xiang Liang initiated the rebellion himself and
rallied about 8,000 men to support him. Xiang
Liang proclaimed himself Administrator of Kuaiji
while appointing Xiang Yu as a general. Xiang Uprisings of Qin Dynasty. Xiang Yu's campaign is
Liang's revolution force grew in size until it was shown in blue.
between 60,000 and 70,000. In 208 BC, Xiang
Liang installed Mi Xin as King Huai II of Chu to
rally support from those eager to help him overthrow the Qin Dynasty and restore the former Chu state.
Xiang Yu distinguished himself as a competent marshal and mighty warrior on the battlefield while
participating in the battles against Qin forces.

Later that year, Xiang Liang was killed at the Battle of Dingtao against the Qin army led by Zhang Han
and the military power of Chu fell into the hands of the king and some other generals. In the winter of 208
BC, another rebel force claiming to restore the Zhao state, led by Zhao Xie, was besieged in Handan by
Zhang Han. Zhao Xie requested for reinforcements from Chu. King Huai II granted Xiang Yu the title of
"Duke of Lu" ( 魯公 ), and appointed him as a second-in-command to Song Yi, who was ordered to lead an
army to reinforce Zhao Xie. At the same time, the king placed Liu Bang in command of another army to
attack Guanzhong, the heartland (capital territory) of Qin. The king promised that whoever managed to
enter Guanzhong first will be granted the title "King of Guanzhong".

Battle of Julu
The Chu army led by Song Yi and Xiang Yu reached Anyang, some distance away from Julu ( 巨鹿; in
present-day Xingtai, Hebei), where Zhao Xie's forces had retreated to. Song Yi ordered the troops to lay
camp there for 46 days and he refused to accept Xiang Yu's suggestion to proceed further. Xiang Yu took
Song Yi by surprise in a meeting and killed him on a charge of treason. Song Yi's other subordinates were
afraid of Xiang Yu so they let him become the acting commander-in-chief. Xiang Yu sent a messenger to
inform King Huai II and the king approved Xiang's command.

In 207 BC, Xiang Yu's army advanced towards Julu and he sent Ying Bu and Zhongli Mo to lead the
20,000 strong vanguard army to cross the river and attack the Qin forces led by Zhang Han, while he
followed behind with the remaining majority of the troops. After crossing the river, Xiang Yu ordered his
men to sink their boats and destroy all but three days worth of rations, in order to force his men to choose
between prevailing against overwhelming odds within three days or die trapped before the walls of the city
with no supplies or any hope of escape. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Chu forces scored a great
victory after nine engagements, defeating the 300,000 strong Qin army. After the battle, other rebel forces,
including those not from Chu, came to join Xiang Yu out of admiration for his martial valour. When Xiang
Yu received them at the gate, the rebel chiefs were so fearful of him that they sank to their knees and did
not even dare to look up at him.

Zhang Han sent his deputy Sima Xin to Xianyang to request for reinforcements and supplies from the Qin
imperial court. However, the eunuch Zhao Gao deceived the emperor and the emperor dismissed Zhang
Han's request. Zhao Gao even sent assassins to kill Sima Xin when the latter was returning to Zhang Han's
camp, but Sima managed to escape alive. In dire straits, Zhang Han and his 200,000 troops eventually
surrendered to Xiang Yu in the summer of 207 BC. Xiang Yu perceived the surrendered Qin troops as
disloyal and a liability, and had them executed by burying them alive at Xin'an (新安 ; in present-day Yima,
Henan). Zhang Han, along with Sima Xin and Dong Yi, were spared from death. Xiang Yu appointed
Zhang Han as "King of Yong", while Sima Xin and Dong Yi were respectively conferred the titles of
"King of Sai" and "King of Di".

Feast at Hong Gate

After his victory at the Battle of Julu, Xiang Yu prepared for an invasion on Guanzhong, the heartland of
the Qin dynasty. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin ruler Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang
(Qin's capital), bringing an end to the Qin Dynasty. When Xiang Yu arrived at Hangu Pass, the eastern
gateway to Guanzhong, he saw that the pass was occupied by Liu Bang's troops, a sign that Guanzhong
was already under Liu's control. Cao Wushang ( 曹無傷 ), a subordinate of Liu Bang, sent a messenger to
see Xiang Yu, saying that Liu would become King of Guanzhong in accordance with King Huai II's earlier
promise, while Ziying would be appointed as Liu's chancellor. Xiang Yu was furious after hearing that. At
that time, he had about 400,000 troops under his command while Liu Bang only had a quarter of that
number.

As strongly encouraged by his advisor Fan Zeng, Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a feast at Hong
Gate and plotted to kill Liu during the banquet. However, Xiang Yu later listened to his uncle Xiang Bo
and decided to spare Liu Bang. Liu Bang escaped during the banquet under the pretext of going to the
latrine.

Xiang Yu paid no attention to Liu Bang's presumptive title and led his troops into Xianyang in 206 BC. He
ordered the execution of Ziying and his family, as well as the destruction of the Epang Palace by fire. It was
said that Xiang Yu would leave behind a trail of destruction in the places he passed by, and the people of
Guanzhong were greatly disappointed with him.[3]
Despite advice from his subjects to remain in Guanzhong and continue with his conquests, Xiang Yu was
insistent on returning to his homeland in Chu. He said, "To not return home when one has made his fortune
is equivalent to walking on the streets at night in glamorous outfits. Who would notice that?"[1] One of his
followers said, "It is indeed true when people say that the men of Chu are apes dressed in human clothing."
Xiang Yu had that man boiled alive when he heard that insult.[1]

Division of the empire

After the downfall of the Qin dynasty, Xiang Yu offered King Huai II the more honourable title of
"Emperor Yi of Chu" and announced his decision to divide the former Qin Empire. Xiang Yu declared
himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" ( 西楚霸王 ) and ruled nine commanderies in the former Liang
and Chu territories, with his capital at Pengcheng. In the spring of 206 BC, Xiang Yu divided the former
Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, to be granted to his subordinates and some leaders of the former
rebel forces. He moved some of the rulers of other states to more remote areas and granted the land of
Guanzhong to the three surrendered Qin generals, ignoring Emperor Yi's earlier promise to appoint Liu
Bang as king of that region. Liu Bang was relocated to the remote Hanzhong area and given the title of
"King of Han" ( 漢王 ).

Xiang Yu appointed several generals from the rebel coalition as vassal kings, even though these generals
were subordinates of other lords, who should rightfully be the kings in place of their followers. Xiang Yu
also left out some other important rebel leaders who did not support him earlier, but did contribute to the
overthrow of Qin. In winter, Xiang Yu moved Emperor Yi to the remote region of Chen, effectively
sending the puppet emperor into exile. At the same time, he issued a secret order to the vassal kings in that
area and had the emperor assassinated during his journey in 205 BC. The emperor's death was later used by
Liu Bang as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu.

Shortly after the death of Emperor Yi, Xiang Yu had Han Cheng (King of Hán) put to death and seized
Han's lands for himself. Several months later, Tian Rong (chancellor of Qi) took control over the Three Qis
(Jiaodong, Qi and Jibei) from their respective kings and reinstated Tian Fu as the King of Qi, but he took
over the throne himself afterwards. Similarly, Chen Yu, a former vice chancellor of Zhao, led an uprising
against the King of Changshan, Zhang Er, and seized Zhang's domain and reinstalled Zhao Xie as the King
of Zhao.

Chu–Han Contention

Battle of Pengcheng

In 206 BC, Liu Bang led his forces to attack Guanzhong. At that time, Xiang Yu was at war with Qi and
did not focus on resisting the Han forces. The following year, Liu Bang formed an alliance with another
five kingdoms and attacked Western Chu with a 560,000 strong army, capturing Xiang Yu's capital of
Pengcheng. Upon hearing this, Xiang Yu led 30,000 men to attack Liu Bang and defeated the latter at the
Battle of Pengcheng, with the Han army suffering heavy casualties.

Battle of Xingyang

Liu Bang managed to escape after his defeat with Xiang Yu's troops on pursuit. Han troops retreated to
Xingyang and defended the city firmly, preventing Chu forces from advancing west any further, but only
managed to hold on until 204 BC. Liu Bang's subordinate Ji Xin disguised himself as his lord and
surrendered to Xiang Yu, buying time for Liu Bang to escape. When Xiang Yu learned that he had been
fooled, he became furious and
had Ji Xin burned to death.
After the fall of Xingyang,
Chu and Han forces were
divided on two fronts along
present-day Henan. However,
Xiang Yu's forces were not
faring well on the battlefront
north of the Yellow River, as
the Han army led by Han Xin
defeated his troops in every
single battle. At the same time,
Liu Bang's ally Peng Yue led
his men to harass Xiang Yu's
rear.

Treaty of Hong Canal Map of the Chu–Han Contention

By 203 BC, the tide had

turned in favour of Han. Xiang Yu managed to capture Liu Bang's father after a year-long siege and he
threatened to boil Liu's father alive if Liu refused to surrender. Liu Bang remarked that he and Xiang Yu
were oath brothers,[4] so if Xiang killed Liu's father, he would be guilty of patricide. Xiang Yu requested
for an armistice, known as the Treaty of Hong Canal, and returned the hostages he had captured to Liu
Bang as part of their agreement. The treaty divided China into east and west under the Chu and Han
domains respectively.

Battle of Guling

Shortly after, as Xiang Yu was retreating eastwards, Liu Bang renounced the treaty and led his forces to
attack Western Chu. Liu Bang sent messengers to Han Xin and Peng Yue, requesting for their assistance in
forming a three-pronged attack on Xiang Yu, but Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilise their troops and
Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at the Battle of Guling. Liu Bang retreated and reinforced his
defences, while sending emissaries to Han Xin and Peng Yue, promising to grant them fiefs and titles of
vassal kings if they would join him in attacking Western Chu.

Defeat and downfall

In 202 BC, Han armies led by Liu Bang, Han Xin and Peng Yue attacked Western Chu from three sides
and trapped Xiang Yu's army, which was low on supplies, at Gaixia. Liu Bang ordered his troops to sing
folk songs from the Chu region to create a false impression that Xiang Yu's native land had been conquered
by Han forces. The morale of the Chu army plummeted and many of Xiang Yu's troops deserted in despair.
Xiang Yu sank into a state of depression and he composed the Song of Gaixia. His wife Consort Yu
committed suicide. The next morning, Xiang Yu led about 800 of his remaining elite cavalry on a desperate
attempt to break out of the encirclement, with 5,000 enemy troops pursuing them.

After crossing the Huai River, Xiang Yu was only left with a few hundred soldiers. They were lost in
Yinling (陰陵 ) and Xiang Yu asked for directions from a farmer, who directed him wrongly to a swamp.
When Xiang Yu reached Dongcheng ( 東城 ), only 28 men were left, with the Han troops still following
him. Xiang Yu made a speech to his men, saying that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his
personal failure. After that, he led a charge out of the encirclement, killing one Han general in the battle.
Xiang Yu then split his men into three groups to confuse the enemy and induce them to split up as well to
attack the three groups. Xiang Yu took the Han troops by surprise again and slew another enemy
commander, inflicting about 100 casualties on the enemy, while he only lost two men.

Death
Xiang Yu retreated to the bank of the Wu River (near present-day He
County, Maanshan, Anhui) and the ferryman at the ford prepared a boat for
him to cross the river, strongly encouraging him to do so because Xiang Yu
still had the support of the people from his homeland in the south. Xiang
Yu said that he was too ashamed to return home and face his people
because none of the first 8,000 men from Jiangdong who followed him on
his conquests survived. He refused to cross and ordered his remaining men
騅
to dismount, asking the ferryman to take his warhorse, Zhui ( ), back
home.

Xiang Yu and his men made a last stand against wave after wave of Han
forces until only Xiang himself was left alive. Xiang Yu continued to fight
on and slew over 100 enemy soldiers, but he had also sustained several
wounds all over his body. Just then, Xiang Yu saw an old friend Lü
Matong among the Han soldiers, and he said to Lü, "I heard that the King
of Han (Liu Bang) has placed a price of 1,000 gold and the title of "Wanhu
Marquis" ( 萬戶侯 ; lit. "marquis of 10,000 households") on my head. Take Xiang Yu's tomb
it then, on account of our friendship." Xiang Yu then committed suicide by
slitting his throat with his sword, and a brawl broke out among the Han
soldiers at the scene due to the reward offered by Liu Bang, and Xiang Yu's body was said to be
dismembered and mutilated in the fight. The reward was eventually claimed by Lü Matong and four others.

After Xiang Yu's death, Western Chu surrendered and China was united under Liu Bang's rule, marking
the victory of the Han dynasty. Liu Bang held a grand state funeral for Xiang Yu in Gucheng ( 穀城
; in
Dongping County, Taian, Shandong), with the ceremony befitting Xiang's title "Duke of Lu". Xiang Yu's
relatives were spared from death, including Xiang Bo, who saved Liu Bang's life at the Feast at Hong
Gate, and they were granted marquis titles.

Depiction of character
Xiang Yu is depicted as a ruthless leader, ordering the massacres of entire cities even after they surrendered
peacefully. This often led to cities putting up strong resistance, as they knew they would be killed even if
they surrendered. The most notorious example of his cruelty was when he ordered the 200,000 surrendered
Qin troops to be buried alive after the Battle of Julu,[5][6] and the gruesome methods of execution he
employed against his enemies and critics. In contrast, Liu Bang is portrayed as a shrewd and cunning ruler
who could be brutal at times,[7] but forbade his troops from looting the cities they captured and spared the
lives of the citizens, earning their support and trust in return. Xiang Yu's story became an example for
Confucianists to advocate the idea that leaders should rule with benevolence and not govern by instilling
fear in the people. His ambitions ended with the collapse of Western Chu, his defeat by Liu Bang, and his
death at the early age of around 30.

Song of Gaixia
The Song of Gaixia ( 垓下歌 ), translated as The Hegemon's Lament by Burton Watson,[8] was a song
composed by Xiang Yu while he was trapped by Liu Bang's forces at Gaixia.

The lyrics in English as follows are based on Burton Watson's translation:[9]

《垓下歌》 The Hegemon's Lament

力拔山兮氣蓋世。 My strength plucked up the hills,
My might shadowed the world;
時不利兮騅不逝。 But the times were against me,
And Dapple[a] runs no more;
騅不逝兮可奈何！ When Dapple runs no more,
What then can I do?
虞兮虞兮奈若何！ Ah, Yu,[b] my Yu,
What will your fate be?

a. "Dapple" is Watson's translation of the name of Xiang Yu's warhorse Zhui ( ) 騅

b. This "Yu" refers to Xiang Yu's wife Consort Yu

Evaluation
The historian Sima Qian, who wrote Xiang Yu's biography in the Records of the Grand Historian,
described Xiang as someone who boasted about his achievements and thought highly of himself. Xiang Yu
preferred to depend on his personal abilities as opposed to learning with humility from others before him.
Sima Qian thought that Xiang Yu had failed to see his own shortcomings and to make attempts to correct
his mistakes, even until his death. Sima Qian thought that it was ridiculous when Xiang Yu claimed that his
downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure.[1]

Liu Bang's general Han Xin, who was one of Xiang Yu's opponents on the battlefield, made a statement
criticising Xiang, "A man who turns into a fierce warrior when he encounters a rival stronger than he is, but
also one who is sympathetic and soft hearted when he sees someone weaker than he is. Neither was he able
to make good use of capable generals nor was he able to support Emperor Yi of Chu, as he killed the
emperor. Even though he had the name of a Conqueror, he had already lost the favour of the people."[10]

The Tang dynasty poet Du Mu mentioned Xiang Yu in one of his poems Ti Wujiang Ting ( 題烏江亭 ):
"Victory or defeat is common in battle. One who can endure humiliation is a true man. There are several
talents in Jiangdong, who knows if he (Xiang Yu) can make a comeback?"[11] However, the Song dynasty
poet Wang Anshi had a different opinion, as he wrote, "The warrior is already tired after so many battles.
His defeat in the Central Plains is hard to reverse. Although there are talents in Jiangdong, are they willing
to help him?"[12] The Song Dynasty female poet Li Qingzhao wrote: "A hero in life, a king of ghosts after
death. Until now we still remember Xiang Yu, who refused to return to Jiangdong."[13]

Mao Zedong also once mentioned Xiang Yu, "We should use our remaining strength to defeat the enemy,
instead of thinking about achieving fame like the Conqueror."[14] In 1964, Mao also pointed out three
reasons for Xiang Yu's downfall: not following Fan Zeng's advice to kill Liu Bang at the Feast at Hong
Gate and letting Liu leave; adhering firmly to the terms of the peace treaty (without considering that Liu
Bang might betray his trust); building his capital at Pengcheng.

Xiang Yu is popularly viewed as a leader who possessed great courage but lacked wisdom, and his
character is aptly summarised using the Chinese idiom you yong wu mou (traditional Chinese: 有勇無謀;
simplified Chinese: 有勇无谋 ; pinyin: yǒu yǒng wú móu), [15] meaning "has courage but lacks tactics",
"foolhardy". Xiang Yu's battle tactics were studied by later military leaders while his political blunders
served as cautionary tales for later rulers. Another Chinese idiom, si mian chu ge (Chinese: 四面楚歌 ;
pinyin: sì miàn chǔ gē; lit. 'surrounded by Chu songs'), was also derived from the Battle of Gaixia, and
used to describe someone in a desperate situation without help. Another saying by Liu Bang, "Having a
Fan Zeng but unable to use him" ( 有一范增而不能用 ), was also used to describe Xiang Yu's reliance on
his advisor Fan Zeng and failure to actually listen to Fan's advice.

Modern history study has draw the comparative case of Xiang Yu military brilliance with Hannibal, general
from Carthage who are famous for his genius in military strategy, and Shaka Zulu.[16] Like those famous
military leaders, researchers emphasized Xiang Yu Efficient organization, mobilization and defence plans,
while also exploiting any opportunities to launch a surprise attack in the morning under the cover of
darkness night,as Xiang Yu was outstanding in this regard and his tactical early morning raids on the enemy
fully demonstrated his superb strategy of mobilization and artistic prowess, despite faced unprecedented
crisis.[16]

Cultural references
Xiang Yu's might and prowess in battle has been glorified in Chinese
folk tales, poetry, and novels, and he has been the subject of films,
television, plays, Chinese operas, video games and comics. His classic
image is that of a heroic and brave, but arrogant and bloodthirsty
warrior-king. His romance with his wife Consort Yu and his suicide
have also added a touch of a tragic hero to his character.

Poetry, folk tales, novels

Xiang Yu's might and prowess in battle appears in Chinese folk tales
and poetry, e.g., in his final battle.[17] The Meng Ch'iu, an 8th-century
Chinese primer, contains the four-character rhyming couplet: "Ji Xin
impersonates the Emperor". It referred to the episode in the Battle of
Traditional Beijing opera mask for
Xingyang when Ji Xin and 2,000 women disguised themselves as Liu
Xiang Yu
Bang and his army, to distract Xiang Yu in order to buy time for Liu
Bang to escape from the city of Xingyang.[18]

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, Sun Ce
is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" ( 小霸王 ) and is often compared favourably to Xiang Yu by his
contemporaries. Sun Ce is best known for his conquests in the Jiangdong region that laid the foundation of
the state of Eastern Wu in the Three Kingdoms era. In Water Margin, another of the Four Great Classical
Novels, Zhou Tong, one of the 108 outlaws, is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" for his resemblance to Xiang
Yu in appearance.

In Jin Ping Mei, (Ci Hua edition) Xiang Yu is mentioned as an example of a tragic character in the song at
the opening of the first chapter.[19]

The character Mata Zyndu in Ken Liu's epic fantasy novel The Grace of Kings is based on Xiang Yu.

Operas
A famous Beijing opera, The Hegemon-King Bids His Lady Farewell, depicts the events of Xiang Yu's
defeat at the Battle of Gaixia. The title of the play was borrowed as the Chinese title for Chen Kaige's
award-winning motion picture Farewell My Concubine.

Television
Portrayed by Shek Sau in the 1985 Hong Kong television series The Battlefield.
Portrayed by Hu Jun in the 2003 Chinese television series The Story of Han Dynasty.
Portrayed by Kwong Wah in the 2004 Hong Kong television series The Conqueror's Story.
Portrayed by Tan Kai in the 2010 Chinese television series The Myth.
Portrayed by Peter Ho in the 2012 Chinese television series King's War.
Portrayed by Ming Dao in the 2012 Chinese television series Beauties of the Emperor.
Portrayed by Qin Junjie in the 2015 Chinese television series The Legend of Qin.
Portrayed by Tim Yu in the 2018 Chinese television series Hero's Dream.

Film
Portrayed by Ray Lui in the 1994 Hong Kong film The Great Conqueror's Concubine.
Portrayed by Feng Shaofeng in the 2011 Chinese film White Vengeance.
Portrayed by Daniel Wu in the 2012 Chinese film The Last Supper.

Video games

Xiang Yu is one of the historical figures depicted in Koei's games, Romance of the Three Kingdoms XI and
Shin Sangoku Musou Multi Raid 2 (https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 真・三國無双 _MULTI_RAID_2). He is
also featured as a non-playable character (NPC) in the action role-playing game Prince of Qin. Xiang Yu is
one of the main two characters in the 1990s Super Nintendo historical simulation game Rise of the Phoenix
by the Koei corporation, the other being Liu Bang. Xiang Yu is a playable character in the online mobile
role-playing game Fate/Grand Order.

References

Citations
1. Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian, Volume 7, Annals of Xiang Yu.
2. "Xiang Yu - Famous Leader of Uprising in Ancient China" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013
1014040947/http://history.cultural-china.com/en/46History1919.html). Cultural China.
Archived from the original (http://history.cultural-china.com/en/46History1919.html) on
October 14, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
3. Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian, Volume 1, Biography of Emperor Gaozu.
4. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu became sworn brothers in a ceremony with King Huai II of Chu as
their witness in 208 BC.
5. 王杰 项羽坑杀了二十万秦朝降兵吗
. ? (http://qkzz.net/magazine/1003-5664B/2007/12/224871
4.htm) (in Chinese).
火烧阿房 ：蒙的什么冤，平的什么反？
6. “ ” (http://cul.cnwest.com/content/2007-12/17/content_
陕西新闻网
1096732.htm) (in Chinese). .
 7. Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian, Volume 8. (https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/ 史記 卷 /
008)
8. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110606230249/http://www.uri.edu/iaics/cont
ent/2008v17n2/23%20Xiuying%20Li.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.uri.e
du/iaics/content/2008v17n2/23%20Xiuying%20Li.pdf) (PDF) on June 6, 2011. Retrieved
January 14, 2010. Writing Sima Qian's Rhetorical Style into English—On Burton Watson's
Translation of Records of the Grand Historian. Xiuying Li, Dalian University of Technology.
9. Minford, John, ed. (2000). An Anthology of Translations Classical Chinese Literature Volume
I: From Antiquity To The Tang Dynasty (https://books.google.com/books?id=GV8BltnoGGM
C). Columbia University Press. pp. 414–415. ISBN 0-231-09676-3.
遇強則霸的匹夫之勇，和遇弱則憐的婦人之仁。既不能任用賢能將帥，又曾遷逐楚義帝，用
10. (
兵趕盡殺絕。雖名為霸王，其實民心盡失。 )
勝敗兵家事不期，包羞忍恥是男兒。江東弟子多才俊，捲土重來未可知。
11. ( )
百戰疲勞壯士衰，中原一敗勢難回。江東子弟今雖在，肯與君王捲土來。
12. ( )
生當作人傑，死亦為鬼雄，至今思項羽，不肯過江東。
13. ( )
宜將剩勇追窮寇，不可沽名學霸王。
14. ( )
15.看《神话》穿越历史 西楚霸王项羽有勇无谋 (https://web.archive.org/web/20111009001919/
http://news.bandao.cn/news_html/201001/20100127/news_20100127_898806_2.shtml) (in
半岛网
Chinese). (www.bandao.cn). January 27, 2010. Archived from the original (http://new
s.bandao.cn/news_html/201001/20100127/news_20100127_898806_2.shtml) on October
9, 2011.
16. Zhang, Zhe; Osiki, Omon (2011). "A comparative study of Xiang Yu and hannibal's strategic
thinking with that of Shaka the Zulu of South Africa" (https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/
The-Zulu-Revolution%3A-State-Formation-in-a-Society-Chanaiwa/580a561f7509c7561470
b2691cf1859b6cc601cb). African Nebula. Samar Habib (4). Retrieved 19 January 2022.
"African Nebula, Issue 4, September 2011 A Comparative Study of Xiang Yu and Hannibal's
Strategic Thinking with that of Shaka the Zulu of South Africa Zhe Zhang and Omon Osiki
Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing China Abstract The name of Ji Xiang _Yu occupies an
important place in the history of strategic thinking in Chinese history. His rise into limelight
was occasioned by the opportunity provided by the decline in the political fortunes of the
Late Qin Dynasty. Like Xiang Yu, Hannibal Baca, the famous North African military strategist
was brought up to ac,cept strict and hard military discipline. He was excellent in military and
diplomatic activities and helped to build a formidable force that could hold its own in the then
Mediterranean World Several centuries after the exploits of these two great strategists, Africa
south of the Sahara produced a military strategist of world acclaim. Shaka the Zulu was as
shrewd and militarily strategic as both Xiang Yu and Hannibal to merit a place in the annals
of the fathers of strategic thinking"."
17. Xiang Yu (Chinese rebel leader) Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http://www.britannica.com/
EBchecked/topic/273800/Xiang-Yu)
18. David Johnson, The City-God Cults of T'ang and Sung China, Harvard Journal of Asiatic
Studies, Vol. 45, No. 2 (Dec., 1985), pp. 363-457
19. "Text of Jin Ping Mei" (http://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&chapter=123031). Chinese Text Project.
Retrieved 6 December 2014.

Sources
Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian, Volume 7.
Ban Gu et al. Book of Han, Volume 31.
Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian, volumes 8, 9, 10, 11.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xiang_Yu&oldid=1069062561"

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