Zhuge Liang

Zhuge Liang (Chinese: 諸葛亮 / 诸葛

亮) (181 – c.September 234), [2]

courtesy name Kongming, was a

Chinese statesman and military
strategist. He was chancellor and
later regent of the state of Shu Han
during the Three Kingdoms period.
He is recognised as the most
accomplished strategist of his era,
and has been compared to Sun Tzu,
the author of The Art of War.[3] His
reputation as an intelligent and
learned scholar grew even while he
was living in relative seclusion,
earning him the nickname "Wolong"
or "Fulong", meaning "Crouching
Dragon" or "Sleeping Dragon". Zhuge
Liang is often depicted wearing a
Taoist robe and holding a hand fan
made of crane feathers.[4]
 Zhuge Liang

諸葛亮

An illustration of Zhuge Liang

Imperial Chancellor (丞相) of Shu Han

In office

229–234

In office

221–228

Monarch Liu Bei / Liu Shan

General of the Right ( 右將軍)

 In office

228–229
Monarch Liu Shan

Governor of Yi Province (益州牧)

In office

223–234

Monarch Liu Shan

Colonel-Director of Retainers (司隸校

尉 )
In office

221–234

Monarch Liu Bei / Liu Shan

Preceded by Zhang Fei

Manager of the Affairs of the Masters
of Writing ( 錄尚書事 )
In office

 221–234
Monarch Liu Bei / Liu Shan

Military Advisor General (軍師將軍)

(under Liu Bei)

In office

214–?

Monarch Emperor Xian of Han

Military Advisor General of the
Household

軍師中郎將
( )

(under Liu Bei)

In office

208–?
Serving with Pang Tong (210–214)
Monarch Emperor Xian of Han

Personal details

Born 181

 Yangdu County,
Langya Commandery,
Han Empire (present-
day Yinan County,
Shandong)

Died c.September 234

(aged 53)[1]

Wuzhang Plains,
border of Shu Han
and Cao Wei (present-
day Qishan County,
Shaanxi)

Resting place Mount Dingjun,

Shaanxi
Spouse Lady Huang
Children Zhuge Zhan
Zhuge Huai

Parent Zhuge Gui (father)

Relatives Zhuge Jin (brother)

Zhuge Jun (brother)
two elder sisters
Zhuge Dan (cousin)
Zhuge Xuan (cousin-
uncle)

Occupation Statesman, military

strategist

Courtesy name Kongming ( 孔明)

Posthumous name Marquis Zhongwu ( 忠
 武侯)
Peerage Marquis of Wu District

武鄉侯)
(

Nickname(s) "Crouching Dragon"

臥龍／伏龍)
(
 Zhuge Liang

Traditional Chinese 諸葛亮

Simplified Chinese 诸葛亮

Hanyu Pinyin PRC Standard

Mandarin:

Zhūgě Liàng

ROC Standard
Mandarin:

Zhūgé Liàng

Transcriptions

Standard Mandarin

Hanyu Pinyin PRC Standard

Mandarin:

Zhūgě Liàng

ROC Standard
Mandarin:

 Zhūgé Liàng

Bopomofo PRC: ㄓㄨ   ㄍㄜˇ   ㄌㄧ

ㄤˋ

ROC: ㄓㄨ   ㄍㄜˊ   ㄌㄧ
ㄤˋ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh PRC: Jugee Lianq

ROC: Juger Lianq

Wade–Giles PRC: Chu1-ko3 Liang4

ROC: Chu1-ko2 Liang4

Tongyong Pinyin PRC: Jhugě Liàng

ROC: Jhugé Liàng

Yale Romanization PRC: Jūgě Lyàng

ROC: Jūgé Lyàng

MPS2 PRC: Jūgě Liàng

ROC: Jūgé Liàng

IPA PRC: [ʈʂú kɤ̀ ljâŋ]

IPA PRC: [ʈʂú.kɤ̀ ljâŋ]

ROC: [ʈʂú.kɤ̌ ljâŋ]

Wu

Romanization Tsü-keʔ Liang

Yue: Cantonese

Yale Romanization Jyūgot Leuhng

Jyutping Zyu1got3 Loeng6

IPA [tsýː.kɔ̄ːt̚ lœ̀ ːŋ]

Southern Min

Hokkien POJ Chu-kat Liōng

Tâi-lô Tsu-kat Liōng

Old Chinese

Baxter–Sagart *ta [k]ˁat [r]aŋ-s

(2014)

Kongming

 (courtesy name)

Chinese 孔明

Hanyu Pinyin Kǒngmíng

Transcriptions

Standard Mandarin

Hanyu Pinyin Kǒngmíng

Bopomofo ㄎㄨㄥˇ   ㄇㄧㄥˊ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Koongming

Wade–Giles Kʻung3-ming2

Tongyong Pinyin Kǒngmíng

Yale Romanization Kǔngmíng

MPS2 Kǔngmíng

IPA [kʰʊ̀ŋ.mǐŋ]

Yue: Cantonese
 Yale Romanization Húngmìhng

Jyutping Hung2ming4

IPA [hǒŋ.mȅŋ]

Southern Min

Hokkien POJ Khóng-bêng

Tâi-lô Khóng-bîng

Old Chinese

Baxter–Sagart (2014) *kʰloːŋʔ mraŋ

Zhuge Liang was a Confucian-

oriented[5] "Legalist".[6] He liked to
compare himself to the sage
minister Guan Zhong and Yue Yi[6]
developing Shu's agriculture and
industry to become a regional
power,[7] and attached great
importance to the works of Shen
Buhai and Han Fei,[8] refusing to
indulge local elites and adopting
strict, but fair and clear laws. In
remembrance of his governance,
local people maintained shrines to
him for ages.[9] His name has
become synonymous with wisdom
and strategy in Chinese culture.
Zhuge Liang is depicted in the Wu
Shuang Pu ( 無雙譜, Table of Peerless
Heroes) by Jin Guliang.

Early life
Zhuge Liang was born in 181 in
Yangdu County, Langya
Commandery (present-day Yishui,
Shandong Province).[10] His family
name, Zhuge, is a two-character
Chinese compound family name.
His father Zhuge Gui died when he
was still young, and he was raised
by Zhuge Xuan (a cousin of Zhuge
Gui) in Yuzhang Commandery.
When Zhuge Xuan was driven out of
Yuzhang Commandery in 195,
Zhuge Liang followed Zhuge Xuan
to live with his friend, Liu Biao, the
governor of Jing Province.[11]
Zhuge Liang grew to be a tall man.
He enjoyed reciting the Liangfu Yin
梁父吟), a folk song popular in
(
Shandong, his birthplace. He had a
habit of comparing himself to the
sage minister Guan Zhong and
military leader Yue Yi. Although few
people took him seriously, Zhuge
Liang developed close friendships
with influential members of the local
literati such as Xu Shu, Cui
Zhouping, Meng Jian and Shi Tao.
Zhuge Liang also maintained close
relations with other well-known
intellectuals such as Sima Hui, Pang
Degong and Huang Chengyan. Sima
Hui once compared Zhuge Liang to
a sleeping dragon.[11]

Huang Chengyan once told Zhuge

Liang, "I heard that you're seeking a
spouse. I've an ugly daughter with
yellow hair and dark complexion, but
her talent matches yours."[12] Zhuge
Liang agreed and married Huang
Chengyan's daughter.

Service under Liu Bei

The painting Kongming Leaving the Mountains (detail, Ming dynasty), depicts Zhuge Liang (left, on a
horse) leaving his rustic retreat to enter into the service of Liu Bei (right, on a horse)

Zhang Feng's painting (1654) depicting Zhuge Liang reclining on a daybed

When Liu Bei was residing at Xinye
County and taking shelter under
Jing Province's governor, Liu Biao,
he visited Sima Hui, who told him,
"Confucian academics and common
scholars, how much do they know
about current affairs? Those who
analyse current affairs well are the
elites. Crouching Dragon and Young
Phoenix are the only ones in this
region."[13] Sima Hui was referring to
Zhuge Liang, whose nickname was
"Crouching Dragon"; and Pang Tong,
whose nickname could be
translated as "Young Phoenix" or
"Fledgling Phoenix" (鳳雛).
Xu Shu later recommended Zhuge
Liang to Liu Bei again, and Liu
wanted to ask Xu to invite Zhuge to
meet him. However, Xu Shu replied,
"You must visit this man in person.
He cannot be invited to meet
you."[14] Liu Bei succeeded in
recruiting Zhuge Liang in 207 after
paying three personal visits. This is
contradicted in the later Annotations
by Pei Songzhi which claim Zhuge
Liang visited him first.[15][a]
Nonetheless, "Three visits to the
cottage" ( 三顾茅庐) became a very
famous classical reference in China.
Yi Zhongtian suggested that both
the records in Sanguozhi and Weilue
are the truth. The chronological
order should be: Zhuge Liang
approached Liu Bei first to
demonstrate his wisdom. Liu Bei,
having recognized Liang's talent,
personally visited Liang three times
to have further discussions.[16]
The novel Romance of the Three
Kingdoms portrays Liu Bei's three
visits with many fictional mystic
events, and narrates that only at the
third visit that Liu Bei managed to
meet Zhuge Liang and listened to
his Longzhong Plan. However the
 truth is, Liu Bei managed to meet
Liang in all three visits, and there
were probably more visits with
further discussions of the
Longzhong Plan before Zhuge Liang
finally decided to officially offer his
services.[16]

Zhuge Liang presented the

Longzhong Plan to Liu Bei and left
his residence to follow Liu.
Afterwards, Liu Bei became very
close to Zhuge Liang and often had
discussions with him. Guan Yu and
Zhang Fei were displeased with
their relationship and complained
about it. Liu Bei explained, "Now
that I have Kongming, I am like a
fish that has found water. I hope
you'll stop making unpleasant
remarks."[17] Guan Yu and Zhang Fei
then stopped complaining.

As a diplomat

In 208, Liu Biao died and was

succeeded by his younger son, Liu
Cong, who surrendered Jing
Province to Cao Cao. When Liu Bei
heard of Liu Cong's surrender, he led
his followers (both troops and
civilians) on an exodus southward
to Xiakou, and suffered a severe
defeat by Cao Cao's forces in a brief
skirmish at the Battle of Changban
along the way. While in Xiakou, Liu
Bei sent Zhuge Liang to follow Lu Su
to Jiangdong to discuss the
formation of an alliance between
him and Sun Quan, and Liang
managed to have a meeting with
Sun Quan in Chaisang.

Zhuge Liang, being able to gauge

Sun Quan's personality, decided to
provoke Sun Quan by telling Sun just
to surrender if he could not resist
Cao Wei.[18] Liang also explained
that although Liu Bei was also
weaker than Cao Cao, he would fight
to the death instead of surrendering;
moreover, Liu Bei and his allies still
retained some significant forces
despite the defeat at Changban, and
Cao Cao's army was not as strong
as it appeared to be.[19] Sun Quan
was pleased with Zhuge Liang's
arguments, and, together with Lu
Su's analysis of the political
situation and Zhou Yu's analysis of
the weaknesses in Cao Cao's army,
agreed to ally with Liu Bei in
resisting Cao Cao. Zhuge Liang
returned to Liu Bei's camp with Sun
Quan's envoy, Lu Su, to make
preparations for the upcoming war.

As a logistics officer

In late 208, the allied armies of Liu

Bei and Sun Quan scored a decisive
victory over Cao Cao's forces at the
Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao
retreated to Ye city, while Liu Bei
proceeded to conquer territories in
Jiangnan, covering most of
southern Jing Province. Zhuge
Liang was appointed Military
Advisor General of the Household
軍師中郎將). He was put in charge
(
of governing Lingling (present day
Yongzhou, Hunan), Guiyang and
Changsha commanderies and
collecting taxes to fund the military.

In 211, Liu Zhang, governor of Yi

Province (covering present-day
Sichuan and Chongqing), requested
aid from Liu Bei in attacking Zhang
Lu in Hanzhong Commandery. Liu
Bei left Zhuge Liang, Guan Yu,
Zhang Fei and others in charge of
Jing Province while he led an army
into Yi Province. Liu Bei promptly
agreed to Liu Zhang's proposal, but
secretly planned to take over Liu
Zhang's land. The following year, Liu
Zhang discovered Liu Bei's intention,
and the two turned hostile and
waged war on each other. Zhuge
Liang, Zhang Fei and Zhao Yun led
separate forces to reinforce Liu Bei
in the attack on Yi Province's capital,
Chengdu, while Guan Yu stayed
behind to guard Jing Province. In
214, Liu Zhang surrendered and Liu
Bei took control of Yi Province.

Liu Bei appointed Zhuge Liang as

Military Advisor General (軍師將軍)
and let him administer affairs of his
personal office (office of the General
of the Left (左將軍)). Whenever Liu
Bei embarked on military
campaigns, Zhuge Liang remained
to defend Chengdu and ensured a
steady flow of supply of troops and
provisions. In 221, in response to
Cao Pi's usurping of Emperor Xian's
throne, Liu Bei's subordinates
advised him to declare himself
emperor. After initially refusing, Liu
Bei was eventually persuaded by
Zhuge Liang to do so and became
ruler of Shu Han. Liu Bei named
Zhuge Liang his chancellor and put
him in charge of the imperial agency
where Zhuge assumed the
functions of the head of the imperial
secretariat. Zhuge Liang was
appointed Colonel-Director of
Retainers ( 司隸校尉) after Zhang
Fei's death.

Service under Liu Shan

A 20th century depiction of Zhuge Liang.

In the spring of 223, Liu Bei
retreated to Yong'an (present-day
Fengjie County, Chongqing) after his
defeat at the Battle of Xiaoting and
became seriously ill. He summoned
Zhuge Liang from Chengdu and said
to him, "You're ten times more
talented than Cao Pi, and capable of
both securing the country and
accomplishing our great mission. If
my son can be assisted, then assist
him. If he proves incompetent, then
you may take over the throne."[20]
Zhuge Liang replied tearfully, "I'll do
my utmost and serve with
unwavering loyalty until death."[21]
Liu Bei then ordered his son, Liu
Shan, to administer state affairs
together with Zhuge Liang and
regard Zhuge as his father.

There are controversies over the last

statement of Liu Bei on Zhuge
Liang's "take over the throne" (君可
自取). Yi Zhongtian in his "Analysis
of the Three Kingdoms" presented
several interpretations of Liu Bei's
message. Chen Shou commented
that Liu Bei wholeheartly trusted
Zhuge Liang and permitted Liang to
"take over" literally. Some argued
that Liu Bei said that only to test
Zhuge Liang's loyalty as his brother,
Zhuge Jin, was working for Eastern
Wu. Other commented that the "take
over the throne" part did not mean
Zhuge Liang was allowed take the
throne for himself, but he was
permitted to, when the situation
demanded, replace Liu Shan with
other of Liu Bei's living sons such as
Liu Yong and Liu Li.

Holding power as a regent

After Liu Bei's death, Liu Shan
ascended to the throne of Shu Han.
He granted Zhuge Liang the title
"Marquis of Wu District" (武鄉侯)
and created an office for him as a
Chancellor. Not long later, Zhuge
Liang was appointed Governor of Yi
Province – the region which
included most of Shu Han's territory.

Being both the Chancellor (directly

managing the bureaucrat officers)
and provincial governor (directly
managing the common people)
meant that both the magistrates
and common people, i.e. all of the
state affairs, were in the hand of
Zhuge Liang. Having an
independent Chancellery Office
(with attached independent
subordinates) meant that Zhuge
Liang's authority was relatively
independent of the emperor's
authority. In other words, just like in
Sanguozhi said, all of Shu Han's
affairs, trivial or vital, were directly
handled by Zhuge Liang, and the
emperor Liu Shan was just a
nominal leader. Moreover, the
emperor himself was strictly
educated and supervised by Zhuge
Liang. This situation was
maintained until Liang's death.

There are many attempts who tried

to explain why Zhuge Liang refused
to return the authority to Liu Shan. Yi
Zhongtian proposed three
reasons:[22]

1. Zhuge Liang supported the model of

the emperor only indirectly lead the
country and have a Chancellor to
handle the affairs in his name,
similar to the situation at the early
period of Western Han. On Liang's
opinion, if the emperor directly
 handled the affairs, then there is no
one to be blamed if problems
occurred, but if a representative
Chancellor handled things then the
emperor could have an
interpellation against the Chancellor
in the case of failure.
2. Zhuge Liang stubbornly thought that
Liu Shan was not experienced
enough to directly handle the state
affairs, hence Liang decided to do
things himself to make sure no
mistakes happened.
3. The situation of Shu Han was
indeed very complicated at that time
 which required extremely well-
planned solutions. An inexperienced
Liu Shan could not handle such
challenging problems, but Zhuge
Liang could.

Economic reforms

Yi Province's wealthy families,

uncurbed by the previous governors,
freely exploited the common people
and had an extravagant life. As a
result, poverty was widespread, and
economical-political reform was the
most important concern for Zhuge
Liang. A robust economic
foundation was also necessary to
enhance the people's loyalty to Shu
Han regime and properly support
the future's expeditions against Cao
Wei. Therefore, Zhuge Liang made it
clear that the core value of his
policy was to stabilize and improve
the life of the people.[23]

Zhuge Liang's new policies was

enacted right from the time of Liu
Bei and continued in the time of Liu
Shan. He purged the corrupted
officials, relieved taxes, and
restricted the nobilities's abuse of
power against the common people.
Forced labours and military
mobilization were also reduced and
rescheduled to avoid the disruption
of agriculture activities, and Cao
Cao's tuntian system was
implemented extensively to increase
food production output. Agriculture
dykes were significantly rebuilt and
repaired, including the famous
Zhuge dyke northern of Chengdu.
Thanks to the reform, Shu Han
agriculture production grew
significantly and was able to sustain
her military activities.

Salt manufacture, silk production,

and steelmaking – three notable
economic activities of Shu region –
also attracted Zhuge Liang's
attention. Liu Bei, following the
proposal of Zhuge Liang, created
specialized bureaus for salt and
steelmaking management, first
directed by Wang Lian and Zhang Yi,
respectively. A specialized silk
management bureau was also
established, hence Chengdu was
named as "the city of Silk".
Sanguozhi reported that salt
production in Shu Han was highly
prosperous and generated
significant income to the
government. Fu Yuan, a well-known
local metalsmith, was entrusted by
Zhuge Liang in metallurgy research
and managed to improve the
techniques in crafting steel
weapons for Shu Han army. Silk
production also had significant
growth, at the end of Shu Han
regime it managed to accumulated
200,000 pieces of silk in the
national treasure. Zhuge Liang's
family plantation also had 800
mulberry plants for silkworm
feeding.

Due to political turmoil, monetary

systems at the end of the Han
dynasty were in severe turbulence.
When establishing themselves in
the Yi Province, Liu Bei and Zhuge
Liang, following the advice of Liu Ba,
enacted successful monetary
reforms. The new Shu Han currency
was not only smoothly circulated
within its borders, but also popular
in the neighboring Jing province.
Meanwhile, similar policies of Cao
Cao, Cao Pi, Cao Rui and Sun Quan
were marred by difficulties and
produced limited results.

Legal and moral reforms

Zhuge Liang strongly supported the
rule of law in Shu Han. Yi Zhongtian
commented that "Rule of Laws"
together with "Nominal rule of the
Monarch and direct rule of the
Chancellor" are two important
legacy of Zhuge Liang which were
pitifully forgotten by many
people.[24]

After Liu Bei entered Yi province,

Zhuge Liang, together with Fa
Zheng, Liu Ba, Li Yan and Yi Ji, wrote
the legal codes for Shu Han.[25]
In order to curb the corruption and
associated decadences of the local
Yi nobility, Zhuge Liang enacted a
Legalist policy with strict but fair
and transparent laws, and restricted
the power of wealthy families.
Zhuge Liang was willing to punish
high-ranked magistrates such as Li
Yan, Liang's close associates such
as Ma Su, and even willing to
demote himself to keep the legal
orders. However Liang also
refrained from abusing punishment
and required extreme caution in law
enforcement. Xi Zuochi praised
Liang's policy of legal rule, that
"since the era of Qin and Han there
had been no one as equal." Even
punished magistrates like Li Yan
and Liao Li put Zhuge Liang in high
regards and strongly believed that
Liang would re-employ them after
the punishment was enough.[26][23]

Zhuge Liang also promoted moral

conduct and himself had a strict
and stoic life as a model. He did not
own excessive assets, refrained
from luxurious spending, relied
mainly on government salary. Shu
Han's magistrates, like Deng Zhi, Fei
Yi, Jiang Wei, Zhang Yi also
followed suit, strictly abided by the
law and the moral codes, enabled
the Shu government to maintain a
high level of transparency and
integrity.[23] Yi Zhongtian praised
Shu Han as the best model of
"rational rule" amongst the Three
Kingdoms, and it is the
incorruptibility and transparency of
Zhuge Liang and his associates that
kept Shu Han from collapsing in
disregard of the heavy expenditure
burden.[27]

Not everybody was happy with such

Legalist policy. Guo Chong's
comment on Liang's policy was that
it was "cruel" and "exploitative", that
"everybody from the noble to the
commoner" was upset. Pei Songzhi
disagreed with such comments
because Zhuge Liang's law
enforcement was appropriate and
could never be "exploitative".[28]
That also contradicted Chen Shou's
comment that "nobody was upset
despite the strict laws". Yi Zhongtian
commented that both contradicted
assessments are correct, as Shu
people were happy about Liang's
fairness and transparency, but some
of them were also upset about
Liang's overstrictness. Moreover,
Zhuge Liang's fairness and legal rule
inevitably suppressed the local
nobility, prevented them from
abusing their power and manipulate
politics and public opinion. That is
the reason why many of the local
Shu intellegistia tacitly endorsed the
invasion of Wei against Shu,
although they also respected Zhuge
Liang.[29] This is supported by
contemporary sources, including
Zhang Wen[30] and Sun Quan. Yuan
Zhun of the Jin dynasty also highly
appraised Zhuge Liang's
administration skills and
popularity,[31] where people would
still sing praises to Zhuge Liang
decades after his death.[32]

Education and talents

enrollment policy

Zhuge Liang highly appreciated

talents, hence he paid strong
attention to education in order to
cultivate and recruit more talented
magistrates for Shu Han
government. Liang established a
position of Aide of Learning
Encouragement ( 勸斈從事), held by
many prominent local intelligentsia
such as Qiao Zhou. Qiao Zhou held
this post for a very long time and
was very influential; one of his
students, Chen Shou, was the
author of Sanguozhi. Later Zhuge
Liang established a Great Education
Residence ( 太斈府), a training
facility using Confucian literature
works as textbooks. Liang also
created many "reading book
residences" both in Chengdu and in
the frontline during the northern
expeditions; such facilities
functioned as places for
discussions of various topics, and
via such discussions talented
people could be discovered and
recruited. Yao Tian, Shu Han's
governor of Guanghan district,
managed to recommend many
talents to the government, hence he
received lavish praise from Zhuge
Liang.[33]

Zhuge Liang also established

"Discussion Bureau" mechanism to
gather all the discussions of a
certain policy, and encourage the
magistrate to accept the criticisms
of their subordinates to make a
good decisions, and also to utilize
all the talents of employees. Zhuge
Liang carried out a meritocracy
policy, promoted and assessed
people based on what they did and
could do rather than their fame or
background.[33]

Diplomatic missions in Eastern

Wu

At the same time, the

commanderies in Nanzhong
rebelled against Shu, but Zhuge
Liang did not send troops to
suppress the revolt as Liu Bei's
death was still recent. Liu Bei had
been persuaded after his defeat by
Lu Xun that an alliance with Wu was
necessary. Zhuge sent Deng Zhi and
Chen Zhen to make peace with
Eastern Wu and reentered an
alliance with Wu. Zhuge Liang would
consistently send envoys to Wu to
improve diplomatic relations
between the two states.

In 229, Sun Quan proclaimed

himself as emperor. This act
angered many of the Shu Han court
officials who considered the rulers
of Shu Han, direct descendants of
former Han dynasty, were the only
ones could have legitimate claim of
the imperial throne. Some of Shu
Han's officials even suggested
severing the ties between Shu and
Wu. However Zhuge Liang
commented that Shu-Wu alliance
was still necessary, hence Sun
Quan's "treachery" could be
temporarily left aside. A Shu Han
emissary was sent to congratulate
Sun Quan and strengthen the
relationship between two allies.

Southern Campaign
Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign

During his reign as regent, Zhuge

Liang set Shu's objective as the
restoration of the Han dynasty,
which, from Shu's point of view, had
been usurped by the state of Cao
Wei. He felt that in order to attack
Wei, a complete unification of Shu
was first needed.[34] Zhuge Liang
was worried that the local clans
would work with the Nanman tribes
in Nanzhong to stage a revolt.
Fearing the possibility that the
peasants might rebel and press into
areas surrounding the capital
Chengdu while he was attacking
Wei in the north, Zhuge Liang
decided to pacify the southern
tribes first.

In the spring of 225, regional clans,

including Yong, Gao, Zhu and Meng,
had taken control of some cities in
the south, so Zhuge Liang led an
expedition force to Nanzhong. Ma
Su proposed that they should
attempt to win the hearts of the
Nanman and rally their support
instead of using military force to
subdue them. Zhuge Liang heeded
Ma Su's advice and defeated the
rebel leader, Meng Huo, on seven
occasions, as it was claimed in later
histories such as the Chronicles of
Huayang. He released Meng Huo
each time in order to achieve
Meng's genuine surrender.[35] The
story about Meng Huo's seven
captures is recently questioned by
many modern academics, including
historians such as Miao Yue, Tan
Liangxiao, and Zhang Hualan.

Realising he had no chance to win,

Meng Huo pledged allegiance to
Shu, and was appointed by Zhuge
Liang as governor of the region to
keep the populace content and
secure the southern Shu border.
This would ensure that the future
Northern Expeditions would proceed
without internal disruptions.[34] Rich
and abundant resources acquired
from Nanzhong were used to fund
Shu's military and the state became
more prosperous.
Northern Expeditions and death

A Qing dynasty illustration of Sima Yi fleeing from Zhuge Liang.

After pacifying the Nanman, Zhuge

Liang ordered the Shu military to
make preparations for a large scale
offensive on Wei. In 227, while in
Hanzhong, he wrote a memorial,
titled Chu Shi Biao, to Liu Shan,
stating his rationale for the
campaign and giving advice to the
emperor on good governance. From
228 until his death in c.September
234, Zhuge Liang launched a total of
five Northern Expeditions against
Wei, all except one of which failed.
During the first Northern Expedition,
Zhuge Liang persuaded Jiang Wei, a
young Wei military officer, to
surrender and defect to his side.[36]
Jiang Wei became a prominent
general of Shu later and continued
Zhuge Liang's legacy of an
aggressive foreign policy against
Wei. The other permanent gains by
Shu were the conquests of the
impoverished Wudu and Yinping
commanderies, as well as the
relocation of Wei citizens to Shu
territories on occasion.[36] During
the first expedition the veteran
commander Wei Yan proposed to
lead a detachment of 10,000 troops
to launch a surprise attack through
Ziwu Valley. Such a plan was highly
risky, but in the case of success it
could result in a decisive victory.
The plan was rejected by an
overcautious Zhuge Liang, which
upset Wei Yan.

The first expedition took Cao Wei by

surprise and initially proceeded
smoothly, however Shu Han troops
commanded by Ma Su suffered a
strategic defeat at battle of Jieting,
resulting in the total failure of the
expedition. Zhuge Liang, as a
punishment, had Ma Su executed,
and had himself demoted by three
levels. In second expedition, Shu
army launched an unsuccessful
attack at the key fortress Chencang
and had to withdraw when Wei
reinforcements arrived. The
pursuing Wei general Wang Shuang
was killed by a Shu ambush, though.
The third expedition managed to
capture Wudu and Yinping, two
depopulated commanderies used
as military bridgeheads for further
attacks. Cao Wei tried a counter-
attack in 230, which also ended in
failure.

The fourth expedition (231) marked

the first deployment of wooden
oxen for supply transportation, and
the first time Zhuge Liang met Sima
Yi in the battlefield. Zhuge Liang
sent the bulk of his army to Mount
Qi and lead a detachment to
Shanggui for grain harvest. Guo
Huai and Fei Yan's attempt of
intervention ended in failure and
Shu forces managed to harvest
most of the wheat. Sima Yi decided
to use the Fabian strategy and kept
the defensive stance. Zhuge Liang
retreated to Lucheng at the eastern
side of Mount Qi to lure Sima Yi. The
also cautious Sima Yi initially did
not take the bait, but relented under
the pressure of his subordinates.
Cao Wei's attack ended in a disaster,
though, hence Sima Yi resumed his
defensive stance, this time
persistently. Zhuge Liang could not
exploit his victory with a major
offensive due to a dwindling food
supply as adverse weather
prevented Shu's logistics from
delivering materiel on schedule. Shu
troops had no choice but a total
retreat, although they managed to
kill general Zhang He in another
ambush.

Learning from the experiences,

Zhuge Liang spent great efforts in
mitigating the logistic problem of
the Shu army. He improved the
wooden ox into the flowing horse,
build an extraordinary huge supply
storage facility, and carried out
large-scale agriculture production in
the northern area. He also
successfully asked for a
coordinated attack from Eastern
Wu. After two years of preparation,
in 234 Liang launched his last
expedition. The Shu army
garrisoned at the Wuzhang Plain
and implemented military plantation
(tuntian) here for long-term food
supplement. From the Cao Wei side,
Sima Yi again persistently adapted
the Fabian strategy and managed to
quell the protest from his
subordinate. Zhuge Liang attempted
to make many provocations but all
failed. Straining his energy on
military matters big and small,
Zhuge Liang fell seriously ill and
eventually died in camp at the age
of 53. Before his death, Zhuge Liang
recommended Jiang Wan and Fei Yi
to succeed him as regent of Shu.

Sima Yi, hearing the news of Zhuge

Liang's death and Shu army's
subsequent withdrawal, quickly
launched a pursuit. However the
Shu rearguard feigned a
counterattack, which fooled the
overcautious Sima Yi into believing
that Zhuge Liang was still alive and
had planned an ambush. The Wei
army halted and the Shu army
successfully retreated. That incident
gave rise to the popular saying "A
dead Zhuge (Liang) scared away a
living Zhongda.[b]" When told of the
saying, Sima Yi replied: "I can predict
the thoughts of the living but I can't
predict those of the dead."[37]

Burial

Zhuge Liang, according to his dying

wish, was buried on Mount Dingjun
with a modest funeral and tomb,
using no luxurious and expensive
material. Liang was posthumously
granted the title "Marquis Zhongwu"
( 忠武侯; literally "loyal and martial
marquis") by Liu Shan. Zhuge Liang
once wrote to Liu Shan promising
that he would have a stoic life with
no excessive and no luxurious
assets as a model for the country.
After Zhuge Liang's death, people
had his property checked, which
verified his claims.[38]

The death of Zhuge Liang was

widely mourned by the Shu Han
people. Initially, the mourning and
worship for Zhuge Liang was done
arbitrarily by the people since
neither official temple nor legal
worship protocol for Zhuge Liang
had been established yet, which
upset the public opinion. Hence in
263, a temple for Zhuge Liang was
built in Mianyang, near his tomb.[39]

Family and descendants

A sculpture of Zhuge Liang in the Temple of Marquis of Wu in Chengdu, Sichuan.

Zhuge Liang's ancestor, Zhuge Feng
諸葛豐), served as the Colonel-
(
Director of Retainers during the
reign of Emperor Yuan of the Han
dynasty. Zhuge Liang's father, Zhuge
諸葛珪), served as an assistant
Gui (
officer in Mount Tai Commandery in
the late Han dynasty. Zhuge Liang's
cousin-uncle, Zhuge Xuan, who
raised Zhuge Liang and Zhuge Jun,
served as the Administrator of
Yuzhang Commandery before
serving under Liu Biao, the Governor
of Jing Province.
Zhuge Liang had an elder brother, a
younger brother, and two elder
sisters. His elder brother, Zhuge Jin,
served under the warlord Sun Quan
and later in the state of Eastern Wu.
His younger brother, Zhuge Jun ( 諸
葛均), served in the state of Shu
Han. One of Zhuge Liang's sisters
married Pang Shanmin, a cousin of
Pang Tong, while the other sister
married a member of the prominent
Kuai family headed by Kuai Liang
and Kuai Yue in Xiangyang
Commandery.
Zhuge Liang married the daughter
of Huang Chengyan. She was a
maternal niece of Liu Biao and Lady
Cai because her mother (Huang
Chengyan's wife) was Lady Cai's
younger sister. Although her name
was not recorded in history, she is
commonly referred to by the name
"Huang Yueying" in popular culture.

Zhuge Liang had at least two sons.

His elder son, Zhuge Zhan, served
as a general in Shu and was killed in
action during the Conquest of Shu
by Wei. His younger son, Zhuge Huai
諸葛懷), lived as a commoner
(
during the Jin dynasty. Zhuge Liang
initially had no sons, so he adopted
his nephew, Zhuge Qiao (Zhuge Jin's
son). Zhuge Qiao served in Shu and
died at a relatively young age.
According to legend, Zhuge Liang
had a daughter, Zhuge Guo ( 諸葛果),
but her existence is disputed by
historians.

Zhuge Qiao's son, Zhuge Pan ( 諸葛

攀), returned to Eastern Wu after
Zhuge Ke's death to continue Zhuge
Jin's family line there. Zhuge Zhan
had three sons. The eldest, Zhuge
Shang, served Shu and was killed in
action together with his father. The
second, Zhuge Jing ( 諸葛京), moved
to Hedong Commandery in 264 with
Zhuge Pan's son, Zhuge Xian ( 諸葛
顯), and came to serve the Jin
dynasty later. The youngest was
Zhuge Zhi (諸葛質).
Zhuge Dan, one of Zhuge Liang's
cousins, served in the state of Cao
Wei and masterminded the third of
the Three Rebellions in Shouchun.
He was killed after his defeat.

Legacy
Inventions

Although the invention of the

repeating crossbow has often been
attributed to Zhuge Liang, he had
nothing to do with it. This
misconception is based on a record
attributing improvements to the
multiple bolt crossbows to him.[40]

Zhuge Liang is also credited with

constructing the Stone Sentinel
Maze, an array of stone piles that is
said to produce supernatural
phenomena, located near
Baidicheng.[41]
An early type of hot air balloon used
for military signalling, known as the
Kongming lantern, is also named
after him.[42] It was said to be
invented by Zhuge Liang when he
was trapped by Sima Yi in Pingyang.
Friendly forces nearby saw the
message on the lantern paper
covering and came to Zhuge Liang's
aid. Another belief is that the lantern
resembled Zhuge Liang's headdress,
so it was named after him.

Literary works
Some books popularly attributed to
Zhuge Liang can be found today. For
example, the Thirty-Six Stratagems,
and Mastering the Art of War (not to
be confused with Sun Tzu's The Art
of War) are two commonly available
works attributed to Zhuge Liang.
Supposedly, his mastery of infantry
and cavalry formation tactics, based
on the Taoist classic I Ching, were
unrivalled. His memorial, the Chu Shi
Biao, written prior to the Northern
Expeditions, provided a salutary
reflection of his unwavering loyalty
to the state of Shu.[43] The memorial
moved some readers to tears. In
addition, he wrote Admonition to His
Son ( 諸葛亮誡子書) in which he
reflected on his humbleness and
frugality in pursuit of a meaningful
life.[44]

Zhuge Liang is also the subject of

many Chinese literary works. A
poem by Du Fu, a prolific Tang
dynasty poet, was written in
memory of Zhuge Liang whose
legacy of unwavering dedication
seems to have been forgotten in Du
Fu's generation (judging by the
description of Zhuge Liang' unkept
temple). Some historians believe
that Du Fu had compared himself
with Zhuge Liang in the poem. The
full text is:
蜀相 （武 Premier of Shu (Temple of the
侯祠） Marquis of Wu)
丞相祠堂 Where to seek the temple of the
何處尋？ noble Premier?

錦官城外 In the deep forests outside the

柏森森。 City of Silk:

映階碧草 Such beautiful reflective

自春色， scenery of spring,

隔葉黃鸝 And among the leaves the

空好音。 orioles sings.

三顧頻煩 Three visits brought him the

天下計， weight of the world.

兩朝開濟 Two emperors he served with

老臣心。 one heart.

出師未捷 But yet he failed to complete his

身先死， quest before death.

長使英雄 That always makes heroes shed

淚滿襟。 their tears like no other.

Another poem of Du Fu was also

written to praise Zhuge Liang at his
Baidicheng temple.
蜀相 （武 Temple of the Marquis of Wu
侯祠） Zhuge's fame overshadow the
武侯廟 universe

諸葛大名 His noble statue is still there

垂宇宙， Thirding the country with his wit

宗臣遺像 Overlasting in history with his
肅清高。 feather

三分割據 His power was equal to Yi and

紆籌策， Lu

萬古雲霄 His wisdom was equal to Xiao

一羽毛。 and Cao

伯仲之間 Fate changed and Han dynasty

見伊呂， could hardly recover

指揮若定 Still he wholeheartly fought on

失蕭曹。 disregard of the challenges.
運移漢祚
終難復，
志決身殲
軍務勞。
Du Fu's quatrain "Eightfold Battle
Formation" ( 八陣圖) about Zhuge
Liang's Stone Sentinel Maze, is
collected in the Three Hundred Tang
Poems.

Notable quotes

The phrase "The Han and the Evil do

not stand together" (simplified
Chinese: 汉贼不两立; traditional
Chinese: 漢賊不兩立; pinyin: Hàn zéi
bù liǎng lì) from the Later Chu Shi
Biao is often used to draw a line in
the sand and declare a situation
where one cannot stand with evil.
Notably, this phrase was
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's
favorite quote to invoke to justify his
anti-communism ideology.

Another phrase "with deference and

prudence, to the state of one's
depletion; it's never finished until
one's death" (simplified Chinese: 鞠
躬尽瘁，死而后已; traditional
Chinese: 鞠躬盡瘁，死而後已;
pinyin: jū gōng jìn cuì, sǐ ér hòu yǐ)
from the Later Chu Shi Biao is often
used to describe one's commitment
and perseverance to strive to the
utmost.

One famous line of poem, "Who is

the first, awakened from the Great
Dream? As always, I'm the one who
knows." (simplified Chinese: 大梦谁
先觉？平生我自知.; traditional
Chinese: 大夢誰先覺？平生我自知.;
pinyin: dà mèng shuí xiān jué ? píng
shēng wǒ zì zhī), was also attributed
to Zhuge Liang.
"Without modest simplicity, one
cannot brighten volition; Without
tranquility and serenity, one cannot
reach far" (simplified Chinese: 非淡
泊无以明志，非宁静无以致远;
traditional Chinese: 非淡泊無以明
志，非寧靜無以致遠), a well-known
maxim authored by Zhuge Liang,
has been popular in educational
institutions in China for thousands
of years.

In Romance of the Three

Kingdoms
A Qing dynasty portrait of Zhuge Liang

The wisdom of Zhuge Liang was

popularised by the historical novel
Romance of the Three Kingdoms,
written by Luo Guanzhong during
the Ming dynasty. In it, Zhuge Liang
is described to be able to perform
fantastical achievements such as
summoning advantageous winds
and devising magical stone mazes.

There is great confusion on whether

the stories are historical or fictional.
At least, the Empty Fort Strategy is
based on historical records, albeit
not attributed to Zhuge Liang
historically.[3] For Chinese people,
the question is largely irrelevant, as
the Zhuge Liang of lore is regardless
seen as a mastermind, whose
examples continue to influence
many layers of Chinese society.
They are also argued, together with
Sun Tzu's The Art of War, to still
greatly influence the modern
Chinese strategical, military and
everyday thinking.[3]

See the following for the stories in

Romance of the Three Kingdoms
involving Zhuge Liang.

Three visits to the thatched cottage

Battle of Bowang
Zhuge Liang's diplomatic mission to
Jiangdong
Borrowing arrows with straw boats
Zhuge Liang summons an eastern
wind
Battle of Jiameng Pass
 Battle of Xiaoting
Meng Huo captured and released
seven times
Empty fort strategy

Events before Zhuge Liang's

death

When Zhuge Liang fell critically ill

during the Battle of Wuzhang Plains,
he attempted to extend his lifespan
by 12 years through a ritual.
However, he failed when the ritual
was disrupted by Wei Yan, who
rushed in to warn him about the
enemy's advance.[45] Before his
death, Zhuge Liang also passed his
24 Volumes on Military Strategy ( 兵
法二十四篇) to Jiang Wei, [c] who
would continue his legacy and lead
another eleven campaigns against
the state of Cao Wei (曹魏).
Worship of Zhuge Liang
There are many temples and shrines
built to commemorate Zhuge Liang.
Some of the most famous ones
include the Temple of the Marquis
of Wu in Chengdu, and the Temple
of the Marquis of Wu in Baidicheng.
Temple of the Marquis of Wu in
Chengdu, Sichuan.

Temple of the Marquis of Wu in

Baidicheng, Fengjie County,
Chongqing.
Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Zhuge
Liang's hometown at Nanyang, Henan.

The Temple of the Marquis of Wu in

Chengdu, Sichuan, a temple
worshiping Zhuge Liang.
 The Temple of Marquis Wu of
Wuzhang Plains is dedicated to Zhuge
Liang

In 760, when Emperor Suzong of the

Tang dynasty built a temple to
honour Jiang Ziya, he had
sculptures of Zhuge Liang and
another nine famous historical
military generals/strategists – Bai
Qi, Han Xin, Li Jing, Li Shiji, Zhang
Liang, Tian Rangju, Sun Tzu, Wu Qi
and Yue Yi – placed in the temple
flanking Jiang Ziya's statue.[47]

Zhuge Liang is also sometimes

venerated as a door god at Chinese
and Taoist temples, usually in
partnership with Sima Yi of Wei.

In popular culture

Anime and Manga

Zhuge Liang is the protagonist of

the seinen anime and manga series,
Ya Boy Kongming!, where he is
reborn in modern-day Tokyo shortly
after his death.

Movie and television

Notable actors who have portrayed

Zhuge Liang in Movie and television
include: Adam Cheng, in The
Legendary Prime Minister – Zhuge
Liang (1985); Li Fazeng, in Zhuge
Liang (1985); Tang Guoqiang, in
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
(1994); Pu Cunxin, in Three
Kingdoms: Resurrection of the
Dragon (2008); Takeshi Kaneshiro, in
Red Cliff (2008–09); Lu Yi, in Three
Kingdoms (2010); Raymond Lam, in
Three Kingdoms RPG (2012); Wang
Luoyong, in The Advisors Alliance
(2017).

Video games

Zhuge Liang's reputation for being

an unparalleled genius is also
emphasised in his portrayal in video
games. Reflecting his status as the
most highly regarded strategist in
Romance of the Three Kingdoms,
games such as Destiny of an
Emperor and Koei's Romance of the
Three Kingdoms game series place
Zhuge Liang's intelligence statistic
as the highest of all characters. He
is also a playable character in Koei's
Dynasty Warriors, Dynasty Tactics
and Kessen II. He also appears in
Warriors Orochi, a crossover
between Dynasty Warriors and
Samurai Warriors.

Zhuge Liang is the protagonist in

Koei's tactical role-playing game
Sangokushi Koumeiden, where he
can die at the Battle of Wuzhang
Plains, as he did historically, or
proceed to restore the Han dynasty
under Emperor Xian.
Zhuge Liang appears in the turn-
based strategy games Civilization IV
and Civilization V as a great general
along with Cao Cao.

Zhuge Liang appears as two

separate spirits in the game Destiny
of Spirits.

Zhuge Liang appears in at least two

forms in the mobile game Puzzle &
Dragons.

Zhuge Liang appears as a

summonable Pseudo-Servant in the
mobile game Fate/Grand Order, with
most of his skills portraying him as
a skilled tactician.

Zhuge Liang is featured in the

sequel to Level-5's game and anime
Inazuma Eleven GO 2: Chrono Stone,
as well as Cao Cao, Liu Bei, Guan Yu
and Zhang Fei. Notably, both
adaptations portray Zhuge Liang as
a woman.

Zhuge Liang is a legendary

strategist in Creative Assembly's
turn-based strategy game Total War:
Three Kingdoms. In another
videogame also produced by
Creative Assembly, Total War:
Warhammer III, a hot-air balloon unit
used by Cathay (a faction based on
China) was named after his
courtesy name.

Zhuge Liang appears as a playable

character in a mobile game Honkai
Impact 3rd portrayed as a woman
and being a powerful support.

Zhuge Liang is the fable hero of

scholar class in the mobile game
Royal Chaos, where he deals great
amount of Area of Effect (AOE)
damage as well as skilled in
deployment.[48]

See also
China
portal
History
portal
War
portal
Biography
portal

Lists of people of the Three

Kingdoms
Wolonggang
Zhuge Village

Notes
a. Some other historical sources contradict
this story, claiming that it was Zhuge
Liang who visited Liu Bei first and offered
his services. This account comes from
the Weilue, quoted by Pei Songzhi in his
annotations to Chen Shou's Sanguozhi,
vol. 35, p. 913. See also Henry, Eric
(December 1992). "Chu-ko Liang in the
Eyes of his Contemporaries". Harvard
Journal of Asiatic Studies. 52 (2): 593–
96. doi:10.2307/2719173 (https://doi.or
g/10.2307%2F2719173) .
JSTOR 2719173 (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/2719173) .
b. "Zhongda" was Sima Yi's courtesy name.
c. In note 1 of chapter 104 – see p. 2189 –
Roberts mentions the Zhuge Liang ji ( 諸
 葛亮集; AD 274), which Chen Shou
compiled.[46]

References

Citations

1. Zhuge Liang's biography in Records of

the Three Kingdoms mentioned that he
died at the age of 54 (by East Asian age
reckoning) in the 8th month of the 12th
year of the Jianxing era (223–237) in Liu
Shan's reign. This month corresponds to
11 Sep to 10 Oct 234 in the Julian
建興]十二年 ... 其年八月，亮
calendar. ([
疾病，卒于軍，時年五十四。) By
calculation, his birth year should be
around 181.
2. de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical
dictionary of Later Han to the Three
Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 1172.
ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.
3. Nojonen, Matti (2009). Jymäyttämisen
taito. Strategiaoppeja muinaisesta
Kiinasta [The Art of Deception. Strategy
lessons from Ancient China. Helsinki,
Finland: Gaudeamus. ISBN 978-952-495-
089-3.
4. "Ancient Cultivation Stories: Zhuge
Liang's Cultivation Practise" (http://www.
clearharmony.net/articles/200507/2792
0.html) . ClearHarmony.net. 28 July
2005. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
5. Baogang Guo 2008 p. 38. China in Search
of a Harmonious Society.
https://books.google.com/books?
id=UkoStC-S-AMC&pg=PA38
6. Dillon, Michael (1998). China: A Cultural
and Historical Dictionary. p. 389.
7. Deng, Yinke (2007). History of China (http
s://archive.org/details/historyofchina000
0deng) . p. 65 (https://archive.org/detail
s/historyofchina0000deng/page/65) .
ISBN 9787508510989.
 8. Guo, Baogang (2008). China in Search of
a Harmonious Society
https://books.google.com/books?
id=UkoStC-S-
AMC&printsec=frontcover#v . p. 38.
{{cite book}}: External link in
|title= (help)
9. Auyang, Sunny (2015). The Dragon and
the Eagle. p. 290.
10. Knechtges (2014), p. 2329.
11. de Crespigny (2007), p. 1172.
12. (聞君擇婦；身有醜女，黃頭黑色，而才
堪相配。) Sanguozhi vol. 35.
13. (儒生俗士，豈識時務？識時務者為俊
傑。此間自有卧龍、鳳雛。) Sanguozhi
vol. 35.
 此人可就見，不可屈致也。將軍宜枉駕
14. (
顧之。) Sanguozhi vol. 35.
15. "Zhuge Liang – Kong Ming, The Original
Hidden Dragon" (http://www.jadedragon.c
om/archives/history/liang1.html) .
JadeDragon.com. Retrieved 11 November
2007.
16. Yi Zhongtian. Analysis of the Three
Kingdoms, Vol. 1, Vietnamese translation.
Publisher of People's Public Security,
2010. Chapter 16: Three visits to the
cottage.
孤之有孔明，猶魚之有水也。願諸君勿
17. (
復言。) Sanguozhi vol. 35.
18. "If you can use the forces of Wuyue to
resist the central government, why not
break ties (with Cao Cao) in advance? If
you cannot oppose, why not demobilise
the troops, discard your armour and
若能以吳、越之
surrender to the north?" (
眾與中國抗衡，不如早與之絕﹔若不能
當，何不案兵束甲，北面而事之！) Chen
Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms,
Volume 35, Biography of Zhuge Liang.
19. Chen Wende. Great story of Kongming
Zhuge Liang. Vietnamese translation:
Nguyễn Quốc Thái. Labor Publisher.
2018. Chapter 6: Sun – Liu alliance.
君才十倍曹丕，必能安國，終定大事。
20. (
若嗣子可輔，輔之；如其不才，君可自
取。) Sanguozhi vol. 35.
 臣敢竭股肱之力，效忠貞之節，繼之以
21. (
死！) Sanguozhi vol. 35.
22. Yi Zhongtian. Analysis of the Three
Kingdoms, Vol. 2, Vietnamese translation.
Publisher of People's Public Security,
2010. Chapter 37: A special duo of lord
and subordinate
23. Chen Wende. Great story of Kongming
Zhuge Liang. Vietnamese translation:
Nguyễn Quốc Thái. Labor Publisher.
2018. Chapter 27: Agriculture and
Legalism.
24. Yi Zhongtian. Analysis of the Three
Kingdoms, Vol. 2, Vietnamese translation.
Publisher of People's Public Security,
2010. Epilouge: The Billowing Yangtze
River Flows East.
 伊籍]与诸葛亮、法正、刘巴、李严共造
25. ([
《蜀科》；《蜀科》之制，由此五人
焉。) Sanguozhi, vol.38
26. (诸葛亮又与平子丰教曰：“吾与君父子戮
力以奖汉室，此神明所闻，非但人知之
也。表都护典汉中，委君于东关者，不
与人议也。谓至心感动，终始可保，何
图中乖乎！昔楚卿屡绌，亦乃克复，思
道则福，应自然之数也。原宽慰都护，
勤追前阙。今虽解任，形业失故，奴婢
宾客百数十人，君以中郎参军居府，方
之气类，犹为上家。若都护思负一意，
君与公琰推心从事者，否可复通，逝可
复还也。详思斯戒，明吾用心，临书长
叹，涕泣而已。”) Sanguozhi, vol.40
27. Yi Zhongtian. Analysis of the Three
Kingdoms, Vol. 2, Vietnamese translation.
Publisher of People's Public Security,
2010. Chapter 42: Passed away in
Helplessness. Chapter 48: Convergence
of Separated Lines.
28. （臣松之以为亮之异美，诚所愿闻，然
冲之所说，实皆可疑，谨随事难之如
左：其《一事》曰：亮刑法峻急，刻剥
百姓，自君子小人咸怀怨叹，法正谏
曰：“昔高祖入关，约法三章，秦民知
德，今君假借威力，跨据一州，初有其
国，未垂惠抚；且客主之义，宜相降
下，愿缓刑弛禁，以慰其望。”亮答
曰；“君知其一，未知其二。秦以无道，
政苛民怨，匹夫大呼，天下土崩，高祖
因之，可以弘济。刘璋暗弱，自焉已来
有累世之恩，文法羁縻，互相承奉，德
政不举，威刑不肃。蜀土人士，专权自
恣，君臣之道，渐以陵替；宠之以位，
位极则贱，顺之以恩，恩竭则慢。所以
致弊，实由于此。吾今威之以法，法行
则知恩，限之以爵，爵加则知荣；荣恩
 并济，上下有节。为治之要，于斯而
著。”） Sanguozhi, vol.35
29. Yi Zhongtian. Analysis of the Three
Kingdoms, Vol. 2, Vietnamese translation.
Publisher of People's Public Security,
2010. Chapter 42: Passed away in
Helplessness. Chapter 48: Convergence
of Separated Lines. Epilouge: The
Billowing Yangtze River Flows East.
30. (权既阴衔温称美蜀政，又嫌其声名大
盛，众庶炫惑，恐终不为己用，思有以
中伤之) Sanguozhi vol. 57.
31. (亮之治蜀，田畴辟，仓廪实，器械利，
蓄积饶，朝会不华，路无醉人。) Yuanzi
annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 35.
 亮死至今数十年，国人歌思，如周人之
32. (
思召公也，孔子曰“雍也可使南面”，诸葛
亮有焉。) Yuanzi annotation in
Sanguozhi vol. 35.
33. Chen Wende. Great story of Kongming
Zhuge Liang. Vietnamese translation:
Nguyễn Quốc Thái. Labor Publisher.
2018. Chapter 28: Talents promotion.
34. Zhuge, Liang; Zhang, Zhu; Duan, Xizhong;
Wen, Xuchu (1960). 諸葛亮集 [Collected
works of Zhuge Liang] (in Chinese).
Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing.
OCLC 21994628 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/21994628) .
35. Huang, Walter Ta (1967). Seven times
freed. New York: Vantage Press.
OCLC 2237071 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/2237071) .
36. Luo, Zhizhong (2003). 諸葛亮 (in
Chinese). Taichung, Taiwan: Hao du chu
ban you xian gong si. ISBN 978-957-455-
576-5. OCLC 55511668 (https://www.worl
dcat.org/oclc/55511668) .
杨仪等整军而出，百姓奔告宣王，宣王
37. (
追焉。姜维令仪反旗鸣鼓，若将向宣王
者，宣王乃退，不敢逼。于是仪结陈而
去，入谷然后发丧。宣王之退也，百姓
为之谚曰：“死诸葛走生仲达。”或以告宣
王，宣王曰：“吾能料生，不便料死
也。”) Hanjin Chunqiu annotation in
Sanguozhi, vol.35
 初，亮自表后主曰：“成都有桑八百株，
38. (
薄田十五顷，子弟衣食，自有馀饶。至
于臣在外任，无别调度，随身衣食，悉
仰于官，不别治生，以长尺寸。若臣死
之日，不使内有馀帛，外有赢财，以负
陛下。”及卒，如其所言。) Sanguozhi,
vol. 35
景耀六年春，诏为亮立庙于沔阳)
39. (
Sanguozhi, vol. 35
40. Needham (1994), p. 8.
41. Zhuge Liang; Liu Ji; Thomas Cleary
(1989). Mastering the art of war (https://
archive.org/details/masteringartofwa000
0zhug) . Boston: Shambhala
Publications. ISBN 978-0-87773-513-7.
OCLC 19814956 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/19814956) .
42. Yinke Deng (2005). Ancient Chinese
inventions (https://archive.org/details/an
cientchinesein0000deng) . China
Intercontinental Press. p. 113 (https://arc
hive.org/details/ancientchinesein0000de
ng/page/113) . ISBN 978-7-5085-0837-5.
"Kongming balloon."
43. "Zhuge Liang and the Qin" (http://www.sil
kqin.com/09hist/other/zhugeliang.htm#c
hushibiao) . www.silkqin.com. Retrieved
21 November 2016.
44. "Tranquility_Aspiration" (http://www.vince
ntpoon.com/tranquility_aspiration.html) .
Vincent's Calligraphy. Retrieved
21 November 2016.
45. Luo, Guanzhong (2007). Three Kingdoms:
A Historical Novel: Volume IV. Translated
by Roberts, Moss. Beijing: Foreign
Languages Press. pp. 1886–88.
ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4.
46. Luo, Guanzhong (2007). Three Kingdoms:
A Historical Novel: Volume IV. Translated
by Roberts, Moss. Beijing: Foreign
Languages Press. p. 1889. ISBN 978-7-
119-00590-4.
 上元元年，尊太公為武成王，祭典與文
47. (
宣王比，以歷代良將為十哲象坐侍。秦
武安君白起、漢淮陰侯韓信、蜀丞相諸
葛亮、唐尚書右僕射衛國公李靖、司空
英國公李勣列於左，漢太子少傅張良、
齊大司馬田穰苴、吳將軍孫武、魏西河
守吳起、燕晶國君樂毅列於右，以良為
配。) Xin Tang Shu vol. 15.
48. "Royal Chaos – Enter A Dreamlike
Kingdom of Romance" (https://rc.wishga
mer.com/en/index.html) .
rc.wishgamer.com. Retrieved
8 November 2019.

Bibliography

de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). "Zhuge

Liang". A Biographical Dictionary of the
Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (AD 23
– 220). Leiden: Brill. pp. 1172–73.
ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.
Knechtges, David R. (2014). "Zhuge
Liang 諸葛亮". In Knechtges, David R.;
Taiping, Chang (eds.). Ancient and Early
Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference
Guide, Part Four. Leiden: Brill. pp. 2329–
35. ISBN 978-90-04-27217-0.
Luo, Guanzhong (1976) [c. 1330].
Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
Translated by Roberts, Moss. New York:
Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-394-
40722-7. OCLC 2331218 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/oclc/2331218) .
Off, Greg (2005). Dynasty Warriors 5:
Prima Official Game Guide (https://book
 s.google.com/books?id=zMrwAAAACA
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Ontario: Prima Games. ISBN 978-0-
7615-5141-6. OCLC 62162042 (https://w
ww.worldcat.org/oclc/62162042) .
Needham, Joseph (1994), Science and
Civilization in China Volume 5 Part 6,
Cambridge University Press
Zhu, Dawei; Liang, Mancang (2007). 诸
葛亮大传 [Story of Zhuge Liang] (in
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