ORIGIN OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 1.

11

A=1 +« (1-cos $) (1.35)

where hv .(136)
mo c

Substitute this value ofin eq. (1.34). This gives

T-[-1+x(1 -cos )
T =hv cos)
=hv|1+x(1- cos $)
Using eq. (1.36) it becomes
h
1
mo c
- cos¢
T 1.37)
14V (1- cos p)
-cos )
mo c
This gives the kinetic energy of the recoil electron in terms of the energy of incident photon and
scattering angle .
DUAL NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS
radiations possess particle
Both the photoelectric and compton effects show that electromagnetic
the results of both the experiments. The results of
properties. The photon concept successfully explainsradiation occurs in discrete quanta of energy known
these experiments indicate that transfer of energy by
as photons.
be explained only on the bypothesis that
The interference and diffraction phenomena can radiations such as visible
radiations propagate as a wave motion. Thus electromagnetic
electromagnetic depending
light, infrared and ultraviolet radiations, X-rays can show both wave and particle properties
has a dual nature. It
on the experimental situation.
ience we conclude that electromagnetic radiations
and as particles in others. It never
means that electromagnetic
radiations behave as wave in söme processes
shows both characteristics in any one experiment.
De
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER
Therefore he suggested that the
has the feeling that nature must be symmetrical.
De-Brogie to matter. This means that material particles
such as
wave-particle duality of light should also apply
as well as wavenature. Just as a photon has alight waveassoctated
electron, proton etc. must show particle material
wave associated with it. The matter waves associated wath waves.
with it, a material particle has matter
matter waves are not electromagnetic
called De-Broglie waves. ]t may be noted that
particles are waves on a string etc.
are also entirely different
from other waves such as sound waves,
They
DE BROGLIE RELATION
The energy of a photon of frequencyv is
(a) Wavelength of a photon. E = hv
(138)

to energy E, then according to

Einstein's theory of
m is the mass of the photon corresponding
relativity .(139)
E = mc

have
Equating (1.38) and (1.39),
we
 1.12 MODERN PHYSIcS
hv = mc

m = ..(1.40)
e the speed of photon is c in free space, therefore the momentum p of photon is

p m cC
Substituting the value of m from eq. (1.40) it becomes

p
hv

p-

-wawe Lenqth o pote

or
.(1.41)
where is the waveiength of light wave associated with a photon. Eq. (1.41) gives the wavelength ot
a
photon having momentum p.
() de-Broglie wavelength. De-Broglie postulated that the wavelength of de-Broglie waves associated
with a matcial particle is also determined by the relation (1.41). If m is the mass of the
material particle
oving with velocityu then the wavelength of the de-Broglic wave
associated with it is Occto

AAAA Fo. 1.9

de mv

This is called the de-Broglie wavelength, A typical

bgo kie
pictorial repre
sentation of the matter wave associated with a material particle is shown
in Fig. (1.9).
.(1.41)

MPROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES

De-Broglic wavelength is given by

m .(1.41)
It is evident from eq. (1.41) that
A) the wavelength of de-Broglie wave is independent of charge on the particle
(2) the faster the panicle of a given mass moves, smaller is its de-broglie wavelength.
3)Heavier the partile, lesser is itg de-broglie'wavelength.
When v 0 then 1
= = o, This meads that wave becomes indeteminate. On the other hand if
then À 0 1his shows
pU= that matter waves are
produced by the motion of particles.
D E BKOGLIE WAVELENGTH ASSOCIATED WITH AN ELECTRON x
*V The de-Broglie wavelength associated with any particle of mass m is
A 11wo ofgnemel
mu
(1.41)
wherep is the momentum of the particle.
The kinetic energy of particle is

E mv=
2m
 1.13
ORIGIN OF QUANTUM MECHANICS
p V2mE .(1.42)
or
associated with
of p in eq. (1.41). Thus the wavelength of de Broglic
wave any
Substitute this value
particle is
h
eunnoo Lvsery
1.43)
A2m E If V is the potential diffcrence through which
an electron
Supose now that the particle is an electron.
is accelerated, then its kinetic energy is
E = eV

Substitute this value of E in eq. (1.43) to obtain

h .(1.44)
2meV
This gives the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron
Substituting m =9 x 10 kg, e 16 x 10-19c =

and h 6 63 x 10* J.s,

we get
12:3 x 10-10 m

For V 100 volts

= 1 23Å
This wavelength is of the order of wavelength
for X-rays. It should therefore be possible to

electrons by diffracting an electron beam from a crystal.

demonstrate wave like properties of
rsDAVISsON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT
to test the wave nature of material paritcles was done accidently by Davisson
The first experiment
and Germer. Their apparatus is shown in Fig. (1.10).
Experimental arrangement. G is an,
electron gun which provides incident electrons. G INCIDENT
It consists ofa directly heated filament F which H BEAM
acts as a source of electrons. P is a set of plates
having pin
ment are
holes. Electrons from heated fila-
accelerated by a potential difference
SCATTERED
BEAM d0.91A°
V between Fand P. A narrow pencil ofelectrons -V
emerges from the hule H with kinetic energy
eV. The velocity of the clectrons can be changed
by varying. DETECTOR
This beam of electrons is allowed to fall
Fig. 1.10
normally on the single crystal of nickel. The
electrons are scattered in all directions by the
be measurcd by
atoms in the crystal. The intensiy of the scattered electron
beam in a given direction can
is
the direction of incident beam. The voltage
a delector. The detector is set at an angle of 50° to
=
detector
the
between the voltage and
varied and the scattered electron current noted. A graph drawn maxmum
in (1.11). This curve shows that the
detector current is a
current has the shape as shown Fig.
54 volts.
 1.14
MODERN PHYSlcS
(a) Wavelength of electron from experiment. It was found
thatthe detector current
i s maximum when the Bragg condi-
tion is satistied. The Bragg condition is
8 50 n = 1, 2...
2dsin 6= nd (1.45)
where d is the spacingbetween successive crystal planes
as ahown in fig. (1.10) and is the angle at wh ch strong
reflection occurs.
For nickel crystal, the distance d between atomic pBanes
1S

4045 50 55 6066 d 0.91A

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE V From Fig. 1.10 it is clear that
p+20 == 180°

Since
A=(180-)
50°

-(180- s0) =
65*
Substitute these values of d and 6 in
eq. (1.45) to obtain
A 2d sin6 (assuming n = 1)
A =
2 x 0-91 Å x sin 65 =
1-65 Å (1.46)
(6) Wavelength of electron from de-Broglie relation.
We know that the
De-Broglie wavelength of an clectron is given by eq. (1.44). That is

In this experimentalV= 54
AV2mev .(1.47)
volts. Therefore
6 63 x 10-34
(2 x9x 10-31 x 1-6 x 10-19x 54)1/2
= 1.67Å.
.(1.48)
Comparing (1.46) and (1.48) we find that two wavelengths agree. This
wave properties in accordance with de- Broglie hypothesis. s shows
shows that electrons have
that electrons have

Solued Exaoeples
MPLE 1.1. Calculate the energ f a photon whose (i) Jrequenc is 1000 kcls
wavelength 6000 A(yellow ligh)
is and (li) (radiowaves)
wavelength is 0-6A (X- rays). (ii)
SOLUTION. () Given
v 1000 ke/s =
10 c/s
E =hv6-63 x 10x 10 =
6-63x 102J
( ) Given
=
6000 Å =
6000 x
10-1 m = 6 x 10m
E =hv= - 6:63x 10-4 x 3x 108
6 x 107
 2.3
Such a
time.

HE WAVE FUNCTION AND THE SCHXOEDINGE relative to

differentiation

wave function partial .(2.10)

a ( , ) which must repeat itself altcr o n
finclion is particle
and

wt) with a free

,1) AeKx - a s s o c i a t e d

ratter
wave
o)
is the required describes
g
iis wave function
ulng the positive x-aris.
which a

imagirnary
purn
ofe'x-

the realor
y by
iil
iRenarks. Note that
71l'erware
a sound or em described
wave is
rust be described bva complex wavefurictt NDPROPAGATION CONSTANT
givern by eq. (2.10)
material

As. REYATION BETWEEN MOMENTUM. associated

with a
wave
matter
of the
T g de Broglie relation the
to wavelength
.(2.1)
p7i Ven by cquation (2.1) namely

The propagation constant of wave is given by

k2 .(2.11)
27T

Subsitute this value of A in eq. (2.1). This gives

2 k P
P=k

where P =hk (2.12)

h

2 (2.13)
Eu. (2.12) gives the required relation between momentum and progagation constant

2.6. LETATION OF
FREE PARTICLE WAVE FUNCTION

The wave function of a free particle is given by

,1) =
A (kr- wr)
wave
c . fstnction exists at all points ot space and is no where zero. We have (2.10)
iu
ce whereias displacement is not zcro. This means seen that a wave can
esist in that rego that the
the Dresent every matter wave
represented
waeu es that the particle mustwhere from x =
t0x 0. Since =
the matter
7p ernwhere. A particle beby present wave
everywnere. This looks absurb because we describes
ngrticle presen
is defvnition occupies know that
always iocalized in space. Hence the only one point in space at a
"t is yatdial punic le is particle. wave given time.
function given by eq. (2.10)
tesere'ogdilreu
fesc lnçaltzed material
wE SKRIPION OF ALOCALIZED PARTICLE OR PARTICLE AS
can't
natin is called WAVE PACKET
monochromatic wave. A material X
represented by a luncton
hematter wave

(x,1) = Aekr-ur
particle is accompanicd
by

.2.10)
 MODERN PHYSIcs
This matter wavc has an
infinit
Cxtent. That is it is spYead out over th
whole one dimensional space.
In order to describe a
lparticle
calized in a certain region Ax, it is nece
Sary that thc wave function
should be zern
everywhere exccpt in region Ax whe
particle is located. Morcover the wan
function must have oscillations in orderi
havea wavelength. Thus we need a wa
Ax of the form shown in fig. 2.1. A wave
finite extent as shown in fig. (2. 1) is calleo
ig 21 Ja wave packet. Thus anactual particle i
a wave of infinite extent. represented by a wave packet rather tha
In order ot obtain a wave
ir such packet it is necessary to modulate the amplitude A of wave given by
a way that it is non-
zero in region Ax and zero outside.
This can be done by adding number
(2.10)
V e s of
slightly different frequencies w; and appropriate o
wave function
amplitudes A;. If we superpose N waves then
may be written as
N
,)= 2 A 6 - , 2.14
The range of
frequencies needed depends on the extent in space Ar of the wave packet. Smaile
the extent, larger the
range of
becomes an integral in which thefrequencies. becomes a
In the limit of N tending to
infinity the above summation
amplitude function of k. Thus it may be written as
(r,) = A (k) e (kx - w) dk

..(2.15
There are several
points to be discCussed
() The wave function (2.15) represents a wave packet which describes a
that a localized localized particle. We concludk
particle is always associated with a wave packet.
(ii) The wave pocket is just a linear combination of waves, the
gTven by A (k). amplitude of each component wave i
(in) To obtain a packet we have combined infinite number of waves
wave
A or numbers k where k 2 t/A. Since k is
wave = having different wavelengh
waves kavng various valuës
proportional to p (see eq. 2.12) this means we have addes
have a precise momentum or
of momentum.
This implies that
the particle
described by a wave packet doesne
speed.
ivWe have achieved localization
the
of paricle at the cost of making the momentum
ASE VELOCITY uncertain.
Consider a matter wave
Only piuin.
described by function
a wave
,1) =Aekr-ut)
The quantity (kx .(2.1
-

w t) is called the phase of the wave at

(a) Wave front. point x at time t.
The surface of constant phase is called a wave front. Suppose the phase of wave remains constent dus
its motion. Then
kx-wtac
(2.
 2.5
THE
WAVE FUNCTION AND THE DEDINGER EQUATH
where c s a
constant. The above
SCHROE
equation may bc wrillen as D
B
This is the .2.17)
equation of plane parallel to yz
a
fronts of matter wave plane. Thus wave
fronts are shown in figdescribed
(2.2)
by eg. (2.10) are planes. These
wave
by wave function by lines.
(*,t) is known as Hence the wave representea
(6) Velocity of wave plané wave.
front.
Suppose the wavefront i_ atthe
2.2). Let xo be the distance point A at any time to F1g|
of wave frónt
Then cquation of AB from the origin O.
wave front
t in eq. AB is obtained by puttingx
(2.17). Thus =
X an

k 2.18) CFis. 22
uppese the wavefront AB moves to CD in time A. Letxo + Axbe the distance of waveirOnt CD
from O. The equation of this
wavefront is
C+
0+Ax= (to + Ar)
k ..2.19)
Subtract eq. (2.18) from
eq. (2.19) to obtain
+ Ar - c+to+ a)_ctu l
Ar -x=
k k
Ar A
k
...(2.20)
Now Ar is the distance travelled the
by wavefront in time A. Thus the
given by velocity of the wavefront is

(2.21)
Using eq. (2.20) it becomes

The velocity ofthe wavefrontis calledthe phase velocity ..(2.22)

Relation between phase velocity and velocity of paricle.
The phase velocity of wave is given by cq. (2.22). That is

We know that energy of wave is related with its frequency by .(2.22)

E

Substituting this value of in eq. (2.22) we obtain .(2.23

Using eq. (2.12) it takes the form

 MODERN PHYSICS

P
then Suppose
m is the mass of
particle described by the
24
matter wave. If is the
v
vclocity of the
partic
E =m
and
P m v
Substitute these resuits in
eq. (2.24). This gives
1
=
mu
mv

Eg. (2.25) shows that ..(2.25

the
represents a localized particle it isphase velocity
that
is one half of the
particle velocity)In
order that e (2.10
Otherwise the matter wave would necessary the phase velocity should be
further skows the not be able to equal the
to
keep pace with the particle whose motionparticle veloci
limitation equation (2.10) to represent a matter wave
of it guides. Thu,
pagtice. associated with a localised
GROUP VEtoeTY
CoRsider the wave function Only Xpumn
representing the wave packet.
(x,) = Ak) e (kx - o ) dk
..(2.15
This packet is formed by adding an infinite number waves
wave of
added to form the packet is known as phase wave. The each with its own k and w. F.ach of the
wave number k. The phase elocity ofa frequency w of phase waves dep:is onis
componeat wave of frequency is

This depends on k. Thus there is no

unique phase
Thus the waves packet has a velocity.of
with its own phase Each phase wave in a packel wil! tmove
on the width of the
velocity. range specds. The spread in specd dcpends
wave packet. Our aim is to obtain the
velocity with when the waves
packel moves,
Expression for group veiocity.
(a) Amplitude of wave packet.
Consider a wave packet formed by superposing waves of ampitude unity.
k of these waves ie between Suppose the wave nunbe"
ko -

Ak and k, + Ak. This means that

A (k) = 1 for ko- Ak <k <kg + Ak
A (k) = 0 .2.26
outside
Using this result in eq. (2.15) we obtain
K Ak

kx ut) dk
.2.
k Ak
 2.12
MODERN PHYSICS
location also cailed probability amplitude. Born's interpretation of wave iunction means that the
particte rucle cannot be determined precisely even in principle. Ali which can be known about the
contained in
findíag thc particle. wave function. But the wave function can predict only the probability density for
SIOGeneral fomuia for probability density.
4(237) is true for a particle which moves in the x direction. A particle which moves space in
any restriction is described by a wave function V ( z t) which depends on thrce space
ordinates ( y z) and time t.
volume around the point ( y z)Inat case of three dimensions the
time t is given by
probability of finding a particie per unt
P (z,y,z,t) Y° (x,y,z,) V (x,y,z ,1)
=

hsgives general relation between the wave function (x, y,z,t) of the particle .(2.58
the
location in three dimensions. and its
243fHEUNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
According
position
to
uncertainty
and the momentum principle
it is impossible to measure
simultaneously and precisety hotn the
of particle.
a
If Ar is the
uncertainty in the positionx of the particle and Ap, is the uncertainty in the
momentump, then corresponding
Ar Ap, 2n
THis relation .2.59)
was given by Heisenbeg and is known as Heisenberg's
if wetry to measure the position and momentum of the uncertainty principls. states that It
uncertainties Ar and Ap, can't be less particle simultaneously, then the product of the
than .

Eq. (2.59) can be written as

If Ar 0i.e. the
APAx 2.60)
=

particle is completely localized, then

AP
This means that the momentum of the
particle is completely unknown. Ou the other isand
0 then Ar = ». Hence the
particle is completely unlocalized and spreads out all over space. Thus ifa Ap,=
Knowledge ofx orp, can be obtained only at the expense of the precision of the other precise
In the case of three dimensions
the particle has also momentum components in the y andz directions.
Thus there are equivalent relations for these
components
Ay Ap, 21
Ap, 2n
..(2.61)
These uncertainties are not due to any technical
problem in the design of measuring instruments.
These are inherent in the very nature of things. In an actual
experiment performed in the laboratory there
will arise experimental errors in addition to the uncertainties due to Heinsberg
experimental errors are reduced to zero these uncertainties, which is due to waveprinciple. Even if the
particle duality, will
remain.
Consequences. In classical mechanics Newton's laws describe the motion of a particle. From these
laws is possible to determine the position and momentum of the
it
must know the
particle at all values of time. But we
() the position and momentum of the particle al a certain time t = 0.
 2.13
AND THE SCHROEDINGER EQUATIOON
THE WAVE FUNCTION
(ii) forces acting on the particle.
absolute precision. These statements hold true for
Thus the path ofparticle can be determined with we can't know an exaci
size. The uncertainty principle indicates that
objects of large or macroscope the concept of trajcctory or path has no
and momentum of particle of atoniic dimensions. Hence
position of motion of particle is different in quantum
mechanics.
meaning in quanturm mechanics. Thus a picture to which
no restriction on the accuracy
Remarks. I may be emphasised that uncertainty principle puts and
the simultaneous measurement of both
r p, such
can be individiually measured. It restricts only
x orp,
that Ar =
0 and ip, =
0 at the same time. .

DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION OF HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY

PR*NCIPLE bodk
e.14.
in one dimensional space. Such a particle is associated with
Consider a particle which is localized infinite+number of
wave
packet. Suppose this particle is described by a wave packet formed by adding Ak. Such
have wave numbers between ko- Ak and ko
waves of unit amplitude each. Let these waves
a wave packet is represented by eq. (2.36). That is
dw
2sin Ak x-( dk )k j-wo .(2.36)
(x,)=
*- ( )
Att =
0 the wave function for the wave packet becomes
..2.62)
Y ,0)= 4 Sin(Ak2) ikx

The amplitude of this wave packet is

A
=2sin (Akx) (2.63)

(a) Position Uncertainty.

Fig. 2.4 shows the variation of
A (x)
amplitudeA of wave packet withx. The
amplitude is maximum at r 0 and =

goes to zcro on both sides of this max-

imum atx = t wheren =

1,2,3..

Forx> the amplitudeis small

but oscillatory. Thus amplitude of
wave packet is essentially small exccpt
in region from

to 2 AM
Ak Fie. 24
The particle is most likely to be
found in region from

Thus the uncertainty

h s means that the position of particle is indeterminate withiu limits.r tax2.
in position of particke is