Rural Road Planning and Engineering Handouts

1
Rural Road Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

Acme Engineering College
1.0 Planning and Alignment:
Rural Road
A rural road may be defined as a motorable road or track owned, regulated and maintained by the local
governing institutions. These roads may have either earthen or graveled or paved surface and are
operational either during a part of or throughout the year.
Nepal Rural Road Standard (20 12)

"The roads other than that of National Strategic Road Network (National Highways, Feeder
Roads) and Urban Roads are considered as rural transport linkages, along with the trails and rope
ways."
Role and function of rural roads

Rural road plays an important role in the development of areas having difficult topographical conditions.
It also helps in the watershed management activities. Some of the functions are explained below:
1. Mode of transport to connect villages and farms

2. To transport various goods (agricultural products, forest products, basic commodities etc.) and
animals from one place to another
3. Used as drainage channels during the monsoon run off
4. Help in the Terrace Improvement works
1.1 Planning of rural roads
1.1.1 Data/ Information collection
Primary information was taken from concerned community people, VDC officials, and schoolteachers
about real accessibility situation of settlements in special format developed for this purpose.
Secondary data such as DTMP, transport infrastructure inventory (strategic roads, rural roads, and main
trails), demographic and socio economic data of district, settlement pattern, development potential areas
(agriculture, industries, livestock, tourism etc.), market centers and service centers (hospitals, healthpost,
schools etc.) of the district, various maps(administr.ative map, district road map, topographic maps etc),
will be collected from various district level offices as well as National level offices.
1.1.2 Preparation oflnventory Maps
Based on socio-economic data and demographics of villages/District, development potential areas

(agriculture, livestock, industries, torusim etc.) will be identified. Inventory maps are prepared to show
individual road links, administrative boundaries, villages, market centres and other potential areas.
1.1.3 Identification and Prioritization
Different roads will have a different impact in people's life. It is essential to assess the future
benefits of a road before making decision about constructing new road or upgrading existing
road. Priority should be given to those roads that generate substantial benefits to local people.
Proper rural road selection criteria must give consideration to: ·
• Economic development such ·increase agriculture production, access to market and a raise in
income
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• Improvement in Quality of life such as higher, education levels and an improved health status of
the population served 2
• Equity like improve the existing road density of the area (population/km or land area per km etc.)
and make it more equal with other areas
1.1.4 Feasibility Studies
Once individual road has been selected for construction or up gradation, the detailed information on the.se
roads should be compiled for carrying out feasibility study. For this a walkover survey of the road (and
th~ corridor) needs to be undertaken so that technical, socio-economic, environmental and social
inforlnation pertaining to the road and the corridor is collected. At the same time an assessment of the
required civil works should also be undertaken so that a tentative cost estimate for the sub-project is
made.
1.1.5 Review/Appraisal of Feasibility Study Report
The feasibility study report should be reviewed thoroughly by DDCs before approving and/or making
decision as to budgetary allocation. Under review process there may be various issues including
information on technical, socio-economic, environmental and social aspects of the proposed road. Result
ofthis process may be approval or acceptance of the project, refinement and approval and rejection.
1.1.6 Det~.iled Project Preparation:
Once the feasibility study report is accepted and investment decision is made, the detailed project report
need to be prepared. For this purpose, number of activities will have to be undertaken such as a) detail
topographical survey; b) socio-economic assessment; c) social and environmental impact assessment; d)
detail cost estimates and preparation of bid documents; e) preparation of implementation plan and
procurement plan.
1.1.7 Project Negotiation and Approval:
This involves reviewing of the appraisal report and selection of the most appropriate project. This also
forms part of project negotiation. At this level, the implementing and financing agencies draw up a formal
implementation or operation plan. Once all these are done and are acceptable to both parties then, the
project is approved and funds and other resources are c<!inmitted for the implementation of the project.
1.1.8 Project Implementation
Once approved, roads will be rehabilitated or constructed by the local departments, private contractors or
communities.
1.1.9 Evaluation
An impact assessment aims at appraising to what extent improved road links have led to changes life and
livelihoods in local communities. Impact studies often require sophisticated surveys to collect qualitative
and quantitative data necessary to measure changes.

3
Rural Road Engineering ·Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

1.2 Concept of Network Planning
Rural roads are part of total Transport Network which consists of highways, feeder road, district roads
and village roads including trail bridges for pedestrian mobility. Rural roads which include District Roads
and Village Roads are tertiary system for providing accessibility in rural areas.
'
· A road network, therefore, needs to be developed in such a way that the travel needs of the people in an
area are met to the maximum extent at the lowest cost of development. In rural areas major part of travel
needs comprises of travel to market place, education and health centers. Roads have to be planned and
programmed in such a way that all villages/habitations are connected in an optimal way to achieve
efficient flow of traffic and accessibility. Some of the concepts for preparing rural road network are:
Concept of zone of influence area: Concept of zone of influence area is defined as an area on either side
of the road that is within 4 hours walk from the road. The areas that are beyond the Zol are inaccessible
area. The planning team proposes the road network for the inaccessible area as identified by the Zol
analysis.
Accessibility Criteria: The accessibility may be classified as (i) access to fulfill social needs and (ii) to
provide access to market centers to increase economic activities of the area. Accessibility based network
planning shall be required to address the sparsely populated areas (like hill and Himalayas) with dispersed
settlements.
Fixed point system model: In a fixed point system model, junctions are confined to a finite set of
locations such as markets, historical/archeological locations, These junctions are connected by rural roads
to improve accessibility of the people to markets and services.
1.3 Rural roads plan
Rural road is one of the components. to improve the access through the increase on the mobility of
services and fapilities to the settlements/communities where the linkage with the market centers,
agricultural production pocket areas and other potentialities of the district. Preliminary road network plan
for inaccessible area is prepared based on the nodal points/market centers and national transport policy.
Local level workshops/meetings is conducted and the proposed preliminary network plan for inaccessible
area is presented and discussed to verify and preliminary approval of the proposed road networks. All
suggestions and feedbacks were collected and incorporated in preliminary proposed road network plan.
On long term perspective, District Transport Master Plan (DTMP) prepared for the planned development
of the rural roads in the district. It contains inventory of existing rural transport infrastructures, list of all
the rural transport infrastructures to be developed in future and prioritized list of rural roads to be
developed within next five years. DoLIDAR has recommended a set of particular steps while preparing
district transport master plan as given below (DoLIDAR Approach Manual)
Step 1: Prepare and finalize Indicative Development Potential Map of the District
Step 2: Prepare District Inventory Map of Rural Road Network
Step 3: Collection of Demands for New Transport Linkages from VDCs
Step 4: Prepare Draft Perspective Plan of District Rural Road Network
Step 5: Synchronizing the Draft Perspective Plans of adjoining districts
Step 6: Acceptance of the Perspective Plan of District Rural Road Network
Step 7: Preparation ofFive Year Rural Road Master Plan ofDistrict
Step 8: Updating year-wise list of prioritized road links and approval

4

) 1.4 Road alignment and surveys
The survey for the route selection is normally carried out in four stages: reconnaissance survey,
preliminary survey, and location survey. The final centerline is determined from the preliminary records.
Three different stages of route location survey are described below.
a. Reconnaissance Survey: Based on available information and maps (Topographical map of district,
meteorological, geological,' aerial photographs, etc. The reconnaissance is normally done by walking
along the tentative route. During the survey, assessment is made of various factors affecting the
alignment, ~uch as topography, soil conditions, availability of construction materials including
sources of water, climatic conditions, means of communication, construction feasibility, bridging
requirements, population centers, costs etc.
b. Preliminary Survey: After the reconnaissance survey, a preliminary survey is carried out in order to
study the most feasible alignment in detail. In this survey, use of survey instrument (compass,
leveling equipment) may be required. Based on the information and data collected, the calculation
and plotting work should be done in the design office.
c. Final locf}tion survey: After the alignment has been selected on paper, final location survey ·is
conducted to locate alignment on the ground. The centerline may be staked at 50 m intervals in
straight reac)les and 25 m in curves. In hilly and mountainous reaches, the interval may be reduced to
20 and 10 m respectively.
1.5 Governing Factors for Route Selection consideration
A number of considerations need to be taken into account before finalizing the alignment. It would be rare
that a single alignment satisfies all the factors involved. In most cases, an engineer exercises his judgment
and decides on the best alignment keeping in view the technical and other considerations. Some of the
factors to be considered are listed out below:
1. Consideration of Existing Infrastructures

• Utilize the existing facility including existing roads as much as possible in order to
minimize the cost and effort ofland acquisition and construction
• the alignment should not interfere at any stage with services like power transmission
lines, water supply mains •·
2. Cost
• Alignment that is most economical for construction, serving maximum number of
j:10useholds and as direct as possible
• A void costlier spots such as river crossings, hard rock cuttings and large gullies as far as
possible
• Minimal land acquisition and avoid costly lands, agriculture lands etc
3. Sub grade conditions

• To the extent possible, avoid areas susceptible to subsidence, weak soils & swampy areas
4. Topographic Condition
• Steep terrain should be avoided

5
Rural Road.Engineering · Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

• Unstable hilly features (rock dips, fissured strata, Slides etc.) can lead to maintenance
problems on long-term basis
• As far as possible, mountain ridges should be crossed at their lower elevation.
• In hilly country, a location subject to sunlight should get preference over a location in the
shade.
• Areas liable to snow drift should be avoided.
5. Availability of Materials:
• Availability of materials for embankment and pavement construction should be kept in
view while finalizing the alignment
6. Geometric standards (Grades & Curvature):

• Select such ground lines that it is technically feasible and desirable to maintain prescribed
geometric standards
• Avoid hairpin bends wherever possible. Hairpin bends if unavoidable, shall be located on
stable and flatter hill slopes and such bend should not be in valleys ·
• Consider the possibility of upgrading the road geometries in future
7. Safety of the locality:

• Avoid congested and narrow lanes within settlements
• Maintain right-of-way for the road section passing through settlements
• Allow safe spaces for Bus Stops and passing zones
• Think of by-pass sections wherever necessary
8. Environmentally sound:
• Avoid destruction of forests, national parks, conservation areas as far as possible
• Avoid passing through active landslides and vulnerable zones as far as possible
• Avoid any damage to the livelihood assets ofthe local communities e. g. water resources,
fertile lands, community forests, local trails
• It should also be kept in view of minimizing dust and vehicle exhaust .fumes
9. Aesthetics and harmony:

• Select such ground lines that is in harmony with the local environment;
• Select an alignment which scenic beauty of the area

6 Rural Road Engineering Handouts by: Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha
CHAPTER 2 GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARD

I
2.1 Classification of rural roads

The criteria for the classification of rural transport linkages are as follows:
• by the function of linkage '
• by the level ofusers
• . by the traffic volume
• by the topography
Nepal Rural Road Standard 2055 has classified rural roads as district road and village road.
District Road (Core network) - An important road joining a VDC HQ's office or nearest economic
centre to the district headquarters, via either a neighboring district headquarters or the Strategic Road
Network.
Village Road - Smaller roads not falling under District Road (Core Network) category are Village
Roads, including other Agriculture Road. ·
There are five classes of the rural roads including roads, trails and ropeways which are as follows:
Rural Road Class 'A' (RRA) - District Road: All rural roads which connect one or more major
Growth Centers (market, tourism centre, industry, etc.) or several VDCs with the headquarters of the
same/neighboring district directly or through the National Strategic Road Network
Rural Road Class 'B' (RRB) - Village Road: All rural roads which connect a Village Development
Committee Centre (VDC) with another VDC Centre or National Strategic Road Network or district
road or a major Growth Centre of the same/neighboring district.
Rural Road Class 'C' (RRC) -Main Trail: All major non-motorable foot/mule trails which connect
a VDC Centre with the district headquarters of the same/neighboring district, National Strategic Road
Network, district road, village road , another VDC Centre, A major Growth Centre of the
same/neighboring VDC.
Rural Road Class 'D' (RRD) - Village Trail: All minor non-motorable foot/mule trails which
connect a place of a village with VDC Centre of the village, another place within the VDC, a place of
the neighboring VDC, National Strategic Road ..Network, district road, village road, main trail, or
another village trail.
Rural Road Class 'E' (RRE)- Rope Way: In the high mountainous region where construction of
trails (with sufficient width) is impossible, rope ways shall be considered. One of the main purposes
of such rope ways would be the transportation of to and from the pocket areas where high value crops
are being produced.
The rural roads may also be classified according to the following criteria:
i. Serviceability condition
- All-weather roads (passable throughout the year)
-Fair-weather roads (passable only a part of the year)
ii. Pavement (or surface) material ·

- Earthen roads Gust the road formation; no pavement)
- Gravelled/WBM roads (having gravelled or WBM surface)
- Black-topped roads (paved with Asphalt as binding material)
2.2 Design Standard for Design standards for rural road components

7 Rural Road Engineering ·Handouts by: Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha
2.2.1 Traffic I
It is necessary to design and construct new road or upgrade the existing ones using an anticipated
future traffic volume for design year. Rural road is designed for a capacity sufficient to cope with the
estimated traffic volume 10 years after the date of completion of the works.
a) Vehicle type and dimension

In Nepal the most commonly used vehicles are oflndian make. Vehicle types adopted here are 'Type-
2 both single tire and dual tire' having two axles and the maximum axel weight is 10.2 tonnes for rear
axle with the following dimension.
Width- overall width 2.5 m

Height- 3.8 m for normal application
Length of wheel base- 6.1 m
Length - maximum overall length excluding front and rear bumpers, 11 m.
(Source: IRC: 64-1990)
b) Equivalency Factors
The design of road needs to meet different types of vehicles with different speed and capacity.
Equivalency factor is unit to convert different types of vehicles into equivalent passenger car unit so
that the capacity of a road can be expressed into a common unit. Tentative equivalency factors for
conversion of different types of vehicles into equivalent passenger cars units are given in the Table
below.
T a ble 1- E~mva
' Ien~ F actor
SN IVehicle Type l£quivalency Factor
1 Car, Light Van, jeeps and Pick Up 1.0
2 Light Truck up to 2.5 tonnes gross 1.5
3 !Heavy Truck 3.0- 4.0
4 !Bus, Minibus 3.0-4,0
5 . Motorcycle, scooter, bicycle 0.5
6 Rickshaw and Tricycle carrying goods 1.0
7 Hand Cart ~.0
8 Bullock Cart 6.0-8.0
9 !Pedestrian 0.2
10 !Porter 0.40
(Source: Nepal Rural Road Standard, 2055)
c) . Design Capacity
Design capacity is a given traffic volume that keep road at the Level of Service B. Level of service B
is defined as a stable flow zone which affords reasonable freedom to drivers in terms of speed
selection and maneuvers within the traffic strea~.
T a ble 2 D es1gn
' C apac1'ty 0 fR uraIRoad
District Road Core network) Village Road
Design Parameters
Hill Terai Hill Terai
Design Capacity - in both directions
200 (400) 400 (800) 100 (200) 200 (400)
Vehicle per day/PCU per day)
d) Design Speed:

8 Rural Road Engineering Hcmdouts by: Dr. Pradeep.Kumar Shrestha
Design speed is a selected speed used to determine geometric design features. The choice of design
speeds depends on terrain and road function. Minimum design speed may, however, be adopted where
the site condition and cost does not permit a design based on Ruling Design Sp~ed.
Table 3 Design Speed of Rural Road
Hills Terai
Road Categories
Ruling Minimum Ruling Minimum
District Road (Core Network) 25 20 50 40
Village Road 15 30
2.2.2 Cross Section
a) Carriage Way 'Vidth:

The width of the carriagt~way depends on: The dimensions of vehicles using the road, Speed of travel,
Traffic volume, Width of shoulder etc. Desirable road surface for District Road (Core Network) is
gravel or paved, whereas, for Village road is unpaved or gravel.
Carriage way width ofDistrict Road is 3.75 m but can be reduced to 3 m where traffic volume is less
than 100 motorized veh/day. For district roads (core network) with a volume of traffic greater than
400 vpd, carriage way width should be at least 5.5 m. The carriageway width of village road will be
3.75 m if traffic volume is more than 100 motorized vpd. The recommended carriageway width at
culverts and bridges are 4.25 m for single lane and 6 m for intermediate_ lane.
b) Shoulder Width
Shoulder width is measured from the edge of the carriageway to the edge of the usable formation.
Wide shoulders have following advantages; '
• Space is available for vehicles to stand clear of the pavement
• Non-motorized traffic/pedestrian can travel with minimum encroachment on carriageway and
greater safety. ·
• Provides additional maneuvering SP,ace
• The capacity of the road can be increased by providing paved shoulder up to 15%
• Sealing of shoulder reduces maintenance costs and improves moisture condition under
pavement
Since Non-motorized vehicles in hills are smaller than Terai, shoulder width in hills are relatively
smaller. Shoulder widths of each type of road are presented in Table 4 below.
c) Road way width

It is total width of road including carriage way width and shoulder. If sufficient road way width is
available and substantial movement of pedestrians and non-motorised vehicles occur, special
provision should be made. The shoulder should be sealed and clearly segregated by the use of edge of
carriageway surface near towns and villages as non-motorized traffic increases there.
Table 4 Carriageway, Shoulder, and Roadway width.
!Road Categories Carriageway Width (m) · Shoulder width (m) Roadway width (m)
5.5 ( if traffic> 400 vpd) 0.75 7.00
Hill 3.75 (if traffic> 100 vpd) 0.75 5.25
!District Road 3(iftraffic < 100 vpd) 0)5 4.50
(core network) 5.5 ( if traffic > 400 vpd) 1.00 7.50
Terai 3.75 ( iftraffic > 100 vpd) 1.50 6.75
3 ( if traffic < 100 vpd) 1.50 6.00
Hill 3 0.50 4.00
Village Road
Terai 3 0.75 4.50

6.25
5.25
3.75
:I
.10.75~
ct.
6.25
·I
I
1
1.5o m I
1
j
d) Right of Way (RoW)

Right of way depends on the importance of a road and possible future development. Recommended
total right of way (RoW) and Building line for different types of road are given below:
Table 5 Right of Way & Road Land Boundary
- Total right of Setback
distance from Road
land boundary I (RoW) to Comment
way (RoW) (m)
Building line on either side (m)
District Road 10 m RoW on either side
20 6
·(Core Network) from road centre ·line
7.5 m Row on either side
Village Road 15 3
from road centre line
Overall Width betw ~en Control Line

Overall Width Building Line I
__. Setback Road Land Widtb (Right of Way) 1 Setback:

o·1stance ~..-
Distance Roa ~way 1 1
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Figure: Carnageway, Shoulder, Roadway width, RoW.
e) Camber (Cross Slope)

Camber is provided to facilitate to drainage of surface. run off. The recommended camber on straight
road sections ·is given in Table 6 below. Considering possible changes in rainfall patterns, cross
slopes are 0.5 to 1 per cent steeper than that required where annual rainfall is less than 1000 mm.
Shoulders having the same surface as the carriageway should have the same cross slope. Unpaved
shoulders on paved carriageway should be at least 0.5 per cent steeper than the cross fall of the
carriageway. However, 1 per cent more slope than the carriageway is desirable.

Table 6: Recommended camber

District Road (Core Network) Village Road
Camber
Hill Terai Hill Terai
Earthen(existing) 5 5 5 5
Carriageway '4 4 4
Gravel 4
cross slope (%)
Bituminous Seal Coat 3 3 - -
2.2.3 Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance is the clear distance ahead needed by a driver to bring his vehicle to a stop
before collision with a stationary object in his path and is calculated as the sum of braking distance
required at a particular speed plus the distance travelled by the vehicle during perception and brake
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reaction time (lag distance). Total reaction time of drivers is 2.5 seconds and coefficient of
longitudinal friction varying from 0.40 for 20 km/hr to 0.35 for 100 km/hr. Stopping Sight Distance
(SSD) shall be:
vz
SSD = 0.278Vt + 254 f
Where,
SSD = Stopping Sight Distance, m
V = Speed, km/hr
t =Perception and Brake Reaction Time, seconds (2.5 seconqs)
f =Coefficient of Longitudinal. Friction
2.2.4 Lateral and Vertical Clearance
a) Lat~ral clearance
Lateral clearance between roadside objects and the edge of the shoulder should be:
• Hill road- normally 1.0 m (minimum 0.5 min steep and difficult areas)
• J'erai road- normally 1.5 m (minimum of 1.0 m)
b) Vertical Clearance
• 5m over the full width of roadway at all underpasses, and similarly at overhanging cliffs
• 7 m for overhead wires, poles etc
2.2.5 Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal alignment should be as directional, fluent and match the surrounding topography to avoid
abrupt changes. Design speed, super elevation at'ftl coefficient of side friction, radius of curve affect
the design of circular curves.
a) Super elevation
Super elevation is provided to maintain the design traffic speed at a given radius. Maximum Super
Elevation Value should not be more than 7% in terai and 10% in. hill.
b) Coefficient of Lateral Friction (f)

The value of the coefficient of later.al force depends basically upon vehicle speed, type and condition
of road type and surface as well as the condition of tyres. It is assumed that factor affecting the
coefficient (f) are similar in Nepal to neighbouring countries and thus the value of'f is adopted as. per
IRC recommendation i.e. 'f = 0.15.
c) Minimum Curve Radius .

On a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force is balanced by the effects of super elevation and side
friction. The following formula fulfills the condition of equilibrium:
vz
e + f = 127R

Acme Engineering College.
Where,
v Vehicle Design Speed, km/hr
R= Radius, m
e Super elevation ratio, meter per meter.
f = Coefficient of side (lateral) friction between the vehicle tyres and pavement.
d) Widening of Curve
At sharp horizontal curves, it is necessary to widen the carriageway to provide safe passage of
vehicles. Widening is dependent on curve radius, width of carriageway and type of vehicle (length
and width).Widening has two components: (1) mechanical widening to compensate for the extra
width occupied by the vehicle on the curve due to tracing of the rear wheels, and (ii) psychological
widening vehicles in a lane tend to wander more on a curve than on a straight reach.
In single lane roads the outer wheels of vehicles use the shoulders whether on the straight or on a
. curve. Therefore use of the mechanical component of widening should be sufficient on its own. For
single lane roads, only mechanical widening is required for low traffic speed.
Lz
W=2R
Where,
W = Widening, m, L = length of wheel base of longest vehicle (m), R = Radius of horizontal curve, m
e) Hairpin Bend
Hairpin bend is a bend in a road with a very acute inner angle, making· it necessary for a vehicle to
turn almost 180° to continue on the road~ The designer should locate the hairpin bends at suitable and
flatter hill slopes, so that there is sufficient space for the layout of the hairpin bend. Proper water
management needs to be designed so that a disposal of water from the hairpin bend does not cause
erosion problems on the slope.
A hair pin bend may be designed as a circular curve ·with transition at each end. Alternatively,
compound circular curves may be provided. The desirable spacing of hair pin bend is 100 m for both
district road and village. However, it may be less as per site condition. The following design criteria
should be followed normally for the design of hairpin bends.
Table 7: Hairpin Bend Design Criteria
District Road 1 (Core
SNo. Design standard
.. Network)
Hill
Village Road
Hill
1 fhlinimum spacing between
100 100
Hairpin Bends (m)
2 Minimum radius of curve (m) 12.5 10
3 Minimum Roadway width a 5.5 for 4.5m roadway width 5 for a 4m roadway
apex (m) 6.25 for 5.25m roadway width width
4 !Maximum gradient (%) 4 4
5 Minimum gradient (%) 0.5 (max 1) 0.5 (max 1)
6 Maximum superelevation (o/o) 10 10
7 Minimum transition curve length
15 15
m)
2.2.6 Vertical Alignment

a) Gradient .
The selection of ruling gradient depends on several factors such as type ofterrain, length ofthe grade,
speed, pulling power of vehicles and presence of horizontal curves. If non-motorised vehicles are in
significant numbers, the ruling gradient limited to a maximum of 3%. Whatever gradient used the

pavement must have sufficient camber to drain storm water laterally. Recommended gradient for
different terrain condition are given in Table 8. Exceptional gradients should be adopted only in very
difficult places and unstable locations in short length in hill.
Table 8: Recomq~ended gradients
District Road Village Road
Design Standard
SNo Hill Terai Hill Terai
1 Ruling gradient (%) 7 5 7 5
2 !Limiting gradient (%) 10 6 10 6
3 Exceptional gradient (%) 12 7 12 7
!Limitation of maximum gradient length (m)
4 300 300
above average gradient of 7% - -
Maximum recovery gradient (%) to be
5 applied after gradient in excess of 7% for· a 4 4
minimum recovery length of 150 m - -
6 Maximum gradient at bridge approach (%) 6 57 6 5
Minimum gradient on hill roads (for better
7
drainage) (%)
0.5 (max 1%) - 0.5 (max 1%) -
b) Level of Road Embankment above HFL

In flat terrain the road embankment should be high enough so that the level of subgrade is above the
highest flood level (HFL). HFL at site can be found from inspecting the site and local enquiry.
Minimum recommended HFL are 0.5 m for both district (1m desirable) and village roads.
c) Vertical curve
Vertical curves are introduced for. smooth transition at grade changes. Both summit curve and valley
curire are designed as parabolas. The length of vertical curves is controlled by sight distance
requirements, but curves with greater lengths are aesthetically better. Curves should be provided at all
grade changes exceeding those given in Table 12.2 and the minimum length as given in the same table
9.
Table 9: Minimum length of vertical curve

Design Speed Maximum grade change (%) Minimum length of vertical
(Kmph) not requiring a ve,Ltical curve curve (m)
Up to 35 1.5 15
40 1.2 20
50 1.0 30
(Source: IRC: 73-1980)
b.l) Summit Curve

The length of summit curves is governed by the choice of sight distance. For the Height of driver's
eye (H)= 1.2 m (above the pavement surface) and Height of subject above the pavement surface=
0.15 m, the length of summit curve· is calculated on the basis of the following formulae
Table 10 Length of Summit Curve
Length of summit curve (m) for safe
Case
stopping sight distance
. When the length of the curve exceed the required L = NS 2 /4.4
sight distance ( i.e. L > S)
When the length of the curve is less than the required L=ZS-4.4/N
sight distance (i.e L< S)
Where, N = deviation angle, i.e the algebraic difference between the two grade, L = Length o
parabolic vertical curve (m) s == stopping sight distance (m)

b.2) Valley Curve

The length of valley curves should be such that for night travel, the headlight beam distance is equal
to the stopping sight distance. For Head light height= 0.75 m and the beam angle= 10, the length of
curve may be calculated as in Table 11:
Table 11 Length ofVallev_(_Sae) Curve·
Length of summit curve (m) for safe
Case
stopping sight distance
When the length of the curve exceed the required
sight distance ( i.e. L > S)
L = N5 2 1.5 + 0.0355)
When the length of the curve is less than the required
L = 2S- (1.5 + 0.0355)/N
sight distance (i.e L< S)
Where, N = deviation angle, i.e the algebraic difference between the two grade; L = Length o
tparabolic vertical curve (m); S = stopping sight distance (m)
2.2. 7 Others
a) Co-ordination ofHorizontal and Vertical Alignments
The plan and profile of the road should be designed in proper coordination to ensure safety and utility
of the road.
• Sharp horizontal curves should be avoided at or near the apex of the summit, on vertical
curves or the lowest point of valley curves.
• Horizontal and vertical alignment should coincide with each other as far as possible
and their length should be more or less equal. If this is difficult for any reason, the horizontal
curve should be somewhat longer than the vertical curve.
• The degree of curvature should· be in proper balance with the gradients
b) Passing Zone
·Passing place should be located every 300 m for Hill and 500 m for Terai. The location of passing
place depends on the sight distance and should be provided at or near blind and sharp summit
curves; where the likelihood of vehicles meeting between passing places is high; and where
reversing would be difficult. The passing places should be constructed at the most economic location
as determined by the terrain and ground condition, such as at transitions from cut to fill, rather than at
precise intervals.
The increased width at passing zones should allow two trucks (2 axles) to pass. The passing zones
should be tapered gradually towards the carriageway so that vehicles can leave or join the traffic
stream safely. The width of carriage way should be 5.5 m and length about 12m along the outside
edge and 30m along inside.
c) Lay-bys
Lay-bys may be provided for parking or for bus stops to allow vehicles to stop safely without
impeding passing traffic. The minimum bus lay-by width shall be 3 m (i.e minimum 6 m carriageway
widths). The lay bys should be tapered gradually towards the carriageway so that vehicles can leave
or join the traffic stream safely. The length should be 12m along the outside edge and 30m along the
inside edge. · ·
d) Traffic Signs
• Different regulatory and warning signs for narrow road widths; sharp and blind curves; .stop
signs at junctions should be provided for rural roads .
• All-weather roads should have kilometre posts. The shape and size of kilometre posts is as in
DoR Standard Design
• Delineator posts or other low cost delineating devices such as earth filled bitumen drum etc.
or low cost safety barrier such as gabion hairier should be provided along the sharp curves
and blind curves that have large (> 3 m) drops on the yalley side.

14
Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

Chapter 3 Low Cost Roads
3.1 Definition
The term low cost road stands for roads that can be constructed and maintained at comparatively low cost
by using locally available resources. The DDC have to strike a balance between construction of roads of
comparatively higher specifications in which case the DDC has to curtail the length of such roads or to
cover larger area of district by comparatively lower specifications which may be termed as 'Low cost
roads.'
Low cost roads are characterized by:
• Design year traffic of less than 20 vehicles per day
• Constructed generally close to the ruling grade of the natural ground
• Constructed mainly from the in situ soils
• Constructed on the basis of minimal designs.
3.2 Classification of Low Cost Roads

Low cost roads may be one of the following types:
(i) Earthen roads

Earth roads are roads constructed from the soils adjacent to the road without setting any specific demands
to the performance of the soils used. Earthen roads are the most elementary form of roads.
upon the nature of the soil and intensity of rainfall
and nature of the soil a camber of 1 in 20 to 1 in
25 in provided. In hiii roads, half the width is
formed by cutting and the remaining portion ofthe
hill road is formed from filling behind the
retaining walls to retain the road formation. Earth
roads are commonly built as the first step of a
stage construction process. In areas with no road
access at all, the provision of an earth road can be
a significant access improvement for local
communities.
Figure: Earthen Roads
(ii) Gravel Road
A gravel road provides basic all weather access to local communities in villages. Gravel layer fulfills two
purposes. First of all, a well-compacted gravel sullface with a good camber prevents water from
penetrating into the road and functions as a base providing strength to carry heavy traffic. The most
suitable material consists of a mixture of stone (35- 65%), sand (20- 40%) and clay (10•25%). Material
is spread to the correct thickness and levels and compaction works are carried out using steel drum rollers
with water to attain moisture content.
Figure: Gravel Material and Gravel Road Construction

15

(iii) Soil Stabilized Roads

Good road building materials can be difficult to find in some places. Due to the prevalent geological
features the soils may consist of only clay, silt and fine sand etc. which are inappropriate for road building
purposes. Rather than importing materials from far away; it may be more feasible to improve the
properties of the local soils by mixing it with other soils or materials. ('.. variety of techniques are
available for improving their engineering properties such as:
a. Mechanically Stabilized Soil: In mechanically stabilized soil, the properties of the local soils are
improved by mixing it with other soils containing the missing fractions. Sandy soils can be mixed
with clay, and clayey soils with sand and gravel.
b. Chemically Stabilized Soil: the most common methods are the use of lime or cement to improve
the soil properties. The soil becomes stabilized because the cement or lime reacts chemically with
the soil particles and bind them together. The strength developed depending on the concentration
of cement or lime.
(iv) Macadam Roads:

This type of road was introduced John Louden Me Adam and his contemporaries in 17th century. The
main content of a Macadam type pavement layer consists of almost single size coarse aggregate (about 40
- 60 mm size). The voids in the coarse aggregate are filled with finer materials such as silt, fine sand or
stone dust to increase its density and stability.
• In dry and arid areas, this process is carried out without the use of any water and referred to as
dry-bound macadam.
• A wet-bound or water bound macadam
uses water as a lubricant facilitating
the movement of fines into the voids of
the coarse aggregate.
• Bituminous materials are also used to
fill or partly fill the voids between
coarse aggregate stone. The most
common design in this respect is
penetration macadam, in which the
fine material is replaced with bitumen.
Figure Water Bound Macadam Construction
(v) Sealed Roads

One way of reducing the rate of deterioration of the sllflface is with the use of a sealed surface. A sealed
surface comprises a thin film of bituminous binder, which is sprayed onto the gravel road surface and
then covered with a layer of stone chippings, sand etc .. The thin film of binder acts as a waterproofing
seal preventing the entry of surface water into the road structure. The stone chippings, sand protect this
film of binder from damage by vehicle tires, and form a durable, skid-resistant and dust-free wearing
surface. In some circumstances the process may be repeated to provide double or triple layers of
chippings. Sealed surface may be surface treatment (seal coc;~.t), slurry seal, sand seal, otta seal etc.
3.3 Planning, Survey and Design Overview

Planning process, and survey are as samy as to the rural road planning and design parameters are as per
the design standard.

16

3.4 EIA Procedure
3.4.1. Definition
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a formalized procedure for investigating, analyzing and
presenting the environmental implications of a proposed development and identifYing mitigation
measures required to reduce environmental impact to acceptable levels. .
The advantage of such a procedure is that environmental impacts and potential benefits are brought to
light prior to implementation in an objective way, for discussion between concerned organizations such as
the funding agency, the client, natural resource experts, community representatives and the engineering
design management.
3.4.2. Type of Impact

Geomorphology- effects of earthwork, soil disposal, erosion, slope stability
Ecology- disturbance of flora & fauna species, damage to vulnerable habitats/biodiversity, loss
of natural resources, pollution, depletion of forests
land use - loss of cultivable land, change ofland use pattern, compensation issues
Socio-economic factors- effect on economy, demographic issue such as population growth,
migration, rapid expansion of urban areas etc.
3.4.3. Procedure
a) Project description
An overview ofthe proposed (or existing) scheme is required, in terms of its location, size, technical
design and construction method, construction time-frame, estimated cost, labor force requirements and
operational procedures.
b) Base line Study

The base-line study summarizes the existing conditions that may be affected by the project. It describe the
existing environment in terms of ecological zones, vulnerable and protected species and habitats, patterns
of human occupation, land use types, and cultural and religious aspects. The sources of environmental
baseline data are:
o Topographic maps
o Vegetation maps
o Aerial photographs
o Scientific and technical reports
o Other environmental impact assessment documents
o Technical, social, demographic and economic information from local, regional, and national
government
o Professional and non-governmental research organizations, and development agencies
o Consultation with local residents and professionals
o kilometers from the source of pollution
c) Impact prediction
Various types of impact on the baseline environment due to the project are to be identified early. Impact
prediction and assessment should be undertaken for all relevant environmental topics. Also, these impacts
are to be assessed during construction of road and after construction of roads. The following parameters
are assessed such as:
• Types of impact positive or negative, direct or indirect etc.

17

• Magnitude ofthe impact

• The timing of impact in terms ofthe project life cycle
• Duration of impact
• The reversibility of the impact
• Cumulative natures of impact.
Once a potential impact has been characterized, consideration should be given to its significance. Some
impact categories will be considered more important than others.
d) Evaluation of Alternatives
Avoidance of the impact is the preferred approach through selecting an alternative option or design.
BIAs address at least two alternatives (with and without the project); they can include multiple
alternatives (usually limited to three to five alternatives). Alternatives for projects may involve: I) site
selection (alignment alternative); 2) design alternatives for a given site; 3) construction, operation, and
decommissioning alternatives for a design; 4) project scale; 5) phasing alternatives; and 6) timing
alternatives etc. Alternatives are compared as per total impacts associated with each alternative. Different
approaches such as weighting scheme, ranking, scaling scheme helps to clarify the total impact associated
with each alternative.
e) Mitigation and Compensation Measures

Where an impact cannot be avoided, reducing or remedying the impact is the preferable approach. This is
known as mitigation. Mitigation may be achieved through:
• Changes in the design, construction practices, maintenance, and operation of the project
• Additional actions taken to protect the biophysical and social environment, as well as individuals
who have been impacted adversely by the project.
Finally, where mitigation cannot be achieved, some form of compensation may be considered, such as
creation of a new area of equivalent wetland away from the project itself. Compensation is not always
appropriate where an environmental feature is irreplaceable (e.g. an archaeological feature or unique
habitat). Mitigation and compensation measures are to be identified at least before preliminary design
stage so as to establish their feasibility, overall cost and benefit.
f) Environmental Management Plan

An EMP is a site-specific plan developed to ensure that all necessary measures to prevent, minimize,
mitigate and/or compensate for adverse impacts are implemented, and to specify implementation agencies
for each measure. The main elements of an EMP are:
• A list of all project-related activities and impac'fs, organized by the construction and
operation/maintenance periods
• A list of regulatory agencies involved and their responsibilities
• Details of specific mitigation/remedial measures and monitoring measures associated with:
- The construction period activities and impacts
- The operation and maintenance period activities and impacts
• A clear reporting schedule, including discussion of what to submit, to whom, and when
• Cost estimates and sources of funding for both one-time costs and recurring expenses for EMP
implementation.
g) Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring is the process of measuring changes in landscape, land use or cultural activity
that arise as a result of the implementation of a development project. Monitoring measures for the project
may take a variety of forms such as:
• Compliance monitoring to enforce the implementation of agreed mitigation
• Effects monitoring/evaluation to consider the accuracy of the EIA predictions

18

Environmental Monitoring also helps to identifY, evaluate and mitigate any undesirable effect which was
not predicted during project feasibility and design stage.
h) Reporting and Consultation

Reporting and consultation is beneficial to avoid possible expensive changes to the design and mitigation
at a later stage. Typically, consultation is beneficial at the following stages ofEIA:
• At base line study
• Impact assessment and mitigation
• Environmental impact statement (EIS) publication
• Design stage
During consultation, the following stakeholders should be involved:
• Government ministries
• Project designers
• Local officials
• Associations
• NGOs
• Community representatives
• Local residents.
3.5 Construction aspects ·

There are a number of construction issues which should be addressed during the design phase, because
they affect issues of construction management and environment. They are:
a) rock blasting methods
b) construction materials
c) the choice between bituminous surface treatment or gravel running surface
d) rate of construction and construction sequence
e) temporary access for construction (pilot tracks)
f) quality control and supervision
g) Disposal of spoil.
a) Rock blasting
Uncontrolled rock blasting is a typical feature of road construction in Nepal and other developing
countries. Labour-intensive methods of excavation rely on a totally fragmented rock mass for easy
removal. However, bulk blasting usually results in s~nificant over break and the creation of a highly
fractured rock mass. Cushion blasting remove smaller quantities of rock along predetermined planes of
weakness so that over break is minimized and the remaining rock mass is left intact, and hence is more
stable. However, these methods require a greater design expertise and a large number of closely-spaced
drill holes to be accurately orientated.
b) Construction materials and water

The steepness of mountain slopes tends to limit opportunities for the accumulation of significant deposits
of naturally occurring aggregates and gravels. River beds and river terraces offer a ready source of
aggregate, although materials are often inconsistent and haulage uphill can represent a significant project
cost. The following options should be considered:
Transport a good quality aggregate from quarry site
Blend materials to achieve a material that is within specification
use materials that are outside the normal specification and plan to replace them more frequently
Gravel road can be selected and maintain frequently if surfacing aggregate are not available
The availability of water for construction purposes can become a major consideration if haulage uphill is
required in the dry season to satisfy compaction requirements.

19

c) Gravel or sealed surface

The selection of gravel or sealed surface depends on fund available and.traffic demand. Gravel road are
cheaper. Gravel settles significantly and gets compacted in the early years after construction. However,
the availability of good quality wearing course gravels may be difficult to obtain and several
disadvantages such as:
• gravel wearing courses erode more quickly (about 50mm per year), requiring replacement more
frequently,
Its poor resistance to skidding, in conjunction with tortuous alignments is potentially dangerous.
Also, vehicles cannot climb steep inclines on a loose surface
Gravel is easily dislodged by tire scuffing, and washed away by rain. Rapid gravel loss leads to
high maintenance costs
Gravel surface generate large quantities of dust, posing an environmental and safety hazard.
Therefore, sometime it is economical to provide sealed surface in long run.
d) Pilot tracks (Access track)

The speed with which a road can be constructed or upgraded depends to a large extent on the number of
work fronts that can be established. The provision of temporary construction access tracks can enable
plant and materials to be supplied to remote work fronts and allow a faster rate of progress. However, the
steepness of the terrain and its vulnerability to erosion often make it inadvisable or impossible to force
through a motor able construction access track. Where rapid construction progress is required, aerial
support by helicopter or aircraft may be an alternative though expensive means of establishing remote
work fronts and construction camps.
e) Rate of construction
Actual rates of construction vary widely according to the relative proportion of labour and machine-
intensive activities, volumes of earthworks, frequency and size of culverts and retaining walls, and the
ability to construct pilot tracks (see below). In a labour-based approach, the rate of construction will
depend upon the size of the labour force, although factors such as availability of materials, spoil disposal
and the contractor's working method are also relevant. Dry season labour-intensive construction rates
might be of the order of 1km/month. In the case of predominantly machine-intensive construction, the
rate of progress of advancing or fronts might be between 2 and 3km/month, depending on formation
width, access and contractor's working method. 0.5km/ month is probably the maximum progress likely to
be achieved in the wet season. 3.Construct pilot !.Clear and remove 2.Strip topsoil as
:•cldf poo•ihle Thn' & Vog<tWon re\ire~ ~:b/ '
f) Construction sequence
The recommended sequence of
cross-section construction is shown 4.Bench Slope, \ _ ,,--
in Figure 4.2. excavate road, construe}-''
10. Trim slope & \ embankment _,-'
1) Clear and remove turf and plant vegetation
vegetation
2) Strip topsoil as required, grub
out roots
3) Construct pilot track if -·-·-
practicable
4) Bench slope, excavate road, ·-·-· 5.Construct cross
construct embankment drainage if any
5) Construct cross drainage if any ~- 6.Construct retaining
6) Construct retaining wall if any wall if any
Figure 4.2 Typical sequence of cross-section construction

20

7) Construct retaining or breast wall, if any

8) Construct roadside channel
9) Construct pavement
10) Trim slopes as required, plant vegetation
· g) Quality control and supervision

Although the general and special specifications may contain sufficient stipulations and safeguards to
ensure, on paper at least, that construction will be carried out to required standards with minimum and
controlled environmental impact, it is the task of the engineer to supervise and oversee that these
standards are applied in practice. Failure to adequately supervise all aspects of work can lead to failure of
whole structure. Especially if' hidden' work such as the preparation of foundations, the compaction of soi I
and backfill, and the filling of gab ion boxes and construction of masonry walls behind the front face etc
are not carried out to specification, it may lead to failure of the whole structure.
h) Improvement and upgrading

The improvement and upgrading of roads may include:
• Upgrading to a paved road surface (overlay or reconstruction),
• Correcting safety hazards such as dangerous curves, dips, and sight distance problems,
• Widening driving surface and shoulders, and other minor improvements to road geomerty
• Improving drainage, and
• Establishing right-of-way for public facilities
• Complete or partial construction
In mountains the possibilities for upgrading through widening or improvement to geometric standard are
limited, as it is impracticable to make minor modifications to the geometry without having to undertake
significant earthworks and retaining wall construction, involving high costs and the risk of reactivating
slope instability and erosion.
i) Maintenance practice
Timely maintenance is necessary to avoid unstable situation. Proper design of retaining wall, drainage
works and good construction supervision during maintenance work are as important as during the initial
construction period. Neglected and ill advised maintenance practice should be avoided. Some of the more
common maintenance practices that create instability problems are listed below:
• Uncontrolled tipping of spoil materials arising from cut slope failures. This causes erosion and
siltation below the road .,....
\ ...___ /
• Diversion of road drainage water around slip material on the carriageway causes uncontrolled
runoff over the road edge
• Failure to repair eroded side drain inverts leads to erosion of adjacent materials
• Failure to clear drains of debris leads to overtopping of the drain and erosion of adjacent slopes
• Quarrying into cut slopes for road maintenance materials, and inadequate quarry restoration, can
create slope instability problems
• Often, where the slope below the road is eroding, a hillside is progressively cut back in order to
maintain passage. This de-stabilises the hillside.
• Removal of construction materials and disturbance to road drainage systems are problems that
require rectification and monitoring.

21

3.6 Agencies Involved in Construction of Low Cost Roads in Nepal

There are several agencies involved in planning, construction implementation and management and
operation oflow cost roads.
Government of Nepal
• Department of Road (DoR)
• Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR)- it
co-ordinates and monitors all programme activities in close consultation with the RAP TA
consultants.
• Other line departments of HMG such as Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Department
ofForestry, Department of Irrigation, Nepal Electricity Authority, Department ofHousing and
Building Construction
• Local government bodies ofNepal Government such as
o District Development Committee (DDC)
o Village Development Committee (VDC)/Municipalities
Donor Agencies and INGOs

Department for International Development (DFID)
World bank (WB)
Asian Development Bank (ADB)
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)
Swiss Development and Cooperation (SOC)
Government of Finland
OPEC Fund for International Development (OFID)
International Fund For Agricultural Development (IF AD)
United Nations World Food Programme (UN WFP)
Helvetas (Swiss Intercooperation)
GIZ (German Technical cooperation)
International Consulting Firms

WSP (British),
SKAT (Swiss),
ITECO (Swiss), .
Finland Consulting Group,
Ramboll (Finland) etc.

22
Rural Road Engineering Handouts by: Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

Chapter 4 Culverts and Small Bridges
4.1. Culvert
A closed conduit placed under the embankment to carry water from the uphill side of the road to the
lower side where it can be safely discharged. The water may be from natural streams or run-off surface
water from the road structure or areas close to the road. More than 75% cross drainage structures are
culvert. Culvert are preferred because: '
• Culvert are laid beneath embankment
• Culvert does not change driving condition as 50 em back fill embankment above it
• Hydraulically efficient
• Identical discharge through culver is higher than bridge
4.2. Types of Culvert

a) Based on Material
• Plain concrete
• Reinforced concrete
• Metal (Aluminum, Iron)
b) Based on use
• Stream culvert: allowing water from streams and canal to cross road
• Relief culvert: divert water from the high side to the lower side receiving water from side
drain
c) Based on Shape
• Pipe culvert • Box culvert
• Arch Culvert
- • Slab culvert: slab culvert is one where a
simply supported reinforced slab is
placed over abutments
4.3. Components of Culvert

Culvert consists of 3 parts culvert barrel, inlet structure and outlet structures. Culverts are laid over
bedding. Inlet or outlet structure consists of apron, cut offwall (toe wall), head wall, and wing wall.
(1) Culvert barrel: Most culvert barrelpipes are circular in cross section. The most common
dimension and frequently used for rural roads is 60cm (inside diameter). Most pipes are
manufactured with a length of one metre however longer dimensions can be obtained. (The type
of culvert has already discussed in above section). It is important to install the culvert at the
correct position, level and gradient, preferably with a slope of2- 5%.

23

(2) Apron: Aprons are constructed at the inlets and outlets to protect the culvert bed and the
connecting ditches from erosion and scouring. At the ·outer end of the aprons, it is common
practice to construct a toe wall to prevent water from eroding the soils underneath the apron.
Aprons and toe walls can be made of stone, brick, concrete or gabions.
(3) Headwall: Head wall protects backfill and side slope of the road embankment from water.
Headwall built parallel to centre line of road and is made of dry stone, masonry or concrete.
(4) Wing wall: The wing walls prevent scour, soil erosion, retain the embankment adjacent to the
culvert, and direct water flow. They are constructed at an angle of 30° or 45° to the culvert centre
line. Wing wall also can be built using hand packed stone, mortar bound masonry or concrete.
(5) Drop inlet: Drop inlet is constructed if headwall and wingwall at inlet side is not provided. In
populated areas, the inlet can be fitted with a grill to avoid people and debris falling into it.
(6) Bedding: The pipes are htid on stable bedding, properly aligned and at correct levels. Depending
on soil foundation, bedding may be sand bedding or PCC or RCC. Sand bedding is for pipe
culvert.
Pavement
Backfill embankment Inlet Headwall
Outlet - Headwall (Compac din layers of 15 em)
.. . ... ..
Apron Subgrade
(Concrete+Stones)
Figure 4.5 Components of Culvert
4.4. Culvert Location

For fixing the position and frequency of culverts, look for places where:
• Small gullies have formed because water has been flowing across the road,
• Sand has deposited on the road because of standing water, or
• Drains have beeh badly damaged because they have been carrying too much water.
Determining the exact location of culverts is carried out / ········Channel
during the initial setting out of the road alignment. / \
/ I
"'*
/
• If the culvert is required for a stream, it should / \, I
follow the alignment of the existing channel - 'v<_ .
a
skewed if required. If it is relief culvert, it ~' \ ,~~\-
should be set out perpendicular to the road
centre line. __ _R~ . _
• Culvert skew should not generally exceed 45
degrees measured from a line perpendicular to
,.__
\
"-'1
the roadway centerline. . ------ l,__ ~'
4.5. Geometric standards for culverts,

(1) Culvert width: the overall width of culvert should be equal to the formation width of road. It
should be long enough to reach end of the side slope. Normally width of culvert is 2.5- 3m for
ruralroad. ·

24

(2) Slope of Culvert (gradient of culvert): Gradient of culvert is as close as natural gradient of bed
slope of water way. Recommended gradient of culvert is 1 in 100 in hill roads (max. 1 in 30) and
1 in 1000 in plain roads.
(3) Culvert size: The minimum size of the culvert is fixed on the basis of ease in maintenance,
movement of fish, debris etc. Nepal rural road standard recommended minimum 60 em diameter
of pipe for circular culvert. Minimum 1.2 m diameter has been recommended by IRC SP 13: 2004
for Hume Pipe culvert for easy cleaning and maintenance.
(4) Height of Culvert: Minimum height of the formation level of the road from bed level is 1.75 m
for 1 m diameter pipe and 2.15 m for 1.2 m diameter pipe. Minimum height of slab culvert is
1.775m which include height of abutment (1.5m), thickness of slab (0.2m) and wearing coarse
(0.075m)
(5) Length oflleadwall: Length of headwall is four times diameter of pipe. Headwall is raised upto
top ofthe pipe and 0.5 m parapet wall is provided above it
(6) Invert level and height of fill: Invert level for· culvert is 150 mm below the average bed level.
Minimum height of fill above pipe is 1 IIi.
(7) Jointing: Flush joint or collar joint is provided to join two pipes with space 13mm for filling
cement. Width of collar is 150 to 200 mm
4.6. Design of Culvert

4.6.1. Design Discharge
The size ofthe culvert is designed on the basis ofthe following considerations from the points ofviewof:
a) Peak flow and hydraulic conveyance requirement
b) Ease of maintenance and de-silting operation
c) Permissible velocity for fish movement where the channel carries fish
d) Movement of debris, gravels, boulders etc.
The hydrological design of a culvert is governed by the hydrological response of a catchment to the
design rainfall over it. Various factors which affect the peak run-off from a drainage basin are
Characteristics of catchment areas such as size, shape, slope. Cover conditions, permeability,
antecedent moisture condition etc.
Rainfall- .its magnitude, inter;tsity, duration and frequency (or return period) .
• Time of concentration i.e. the time of overland flow and flow through channel from the
hydrologically most distant point in the catchment (Ic)
• Determination of storm duration to be consi~red depending upon concentration time
Movement of storm towards or away from the outfall point
Since the catchment area of culverts is small, peak flood for culvert is usually calculated by using
Rational formula:
=
Q 0.028 PfAle
Where,
Q= Maximum run off (peak flood discharge) in m 3 /sec,
f = speed factor depend on catchment area
P = mean run-off coefficient of the catchment area contributing flow to the culvert. 'P' value
can be found by the relation given by equation (2)
p = L~lAiPi
Ef=lAi
Pi = run-off coefficients for the different types of areas Ai contributing run-off

~A = total catchment area in ha ,
Ic =critical design rainfall intensity in em I hr

25

Io =F( 1
1
+2 /r)
F = the of rainfall in em dropped by severest storm over a period ofT hours
tc = time of concentration in hours
. = (0.87L3)0.385
tc H
Where, 'L' is the distance from the critical point to the culvert in km, and 'H' is the fall in level from the
critical point to culvert in m
4.6.2. Size of culvert

The discharge from culvert can be related with size of culvert as follows:
1
Q = A X 4.43 ( 1 +
. Ke
H + Kr :Y
Entry & friction Circular pipes Rectangular Charts
co-efficient Square entry Bevelled entry Square entry Bevelled entry
Ke 1.107 = R0·5 0.1 . 0.572 R0·3 0.05
Kr 0.00394Lj 0.00394Lj 0.00335Lj 0.00335Lj

RL2 R1.2 · R1.2s · R1.2s
Ref: Table 5 IRC-SP13
4.6.3. Estimation of waterway for slab culvert or Minor bridges

The water way culvert is given by,
A = _!?_ in square meters, where Q is discharge in m 3/sec.
10.9
4.7. Design loading
Culvert being smalf structure i.e. spans length less than 6m, only, dead load and live load are considered
for designing.
i.)
-
Dead Load: Dead load is the total weight of all superstructure elements (elements above the
bearing) such as the deck, wearing coat, railings, parapet, stiffeners and other utilities. ·
ii.) · Live Load (Vehicle Load): Live load includes standard wheeled or tracked vehicles or trains of
vehicles that moves along the length of the span. By definition a man walking on the bridge is
also a live load. Small bridge or culvert shall be designed to withstand IRC class A for all
permanent bridges and culverts. For temporary bridge such as bridge with timber span and for
bridges in specified area, IRC class B loading shall be adopted..
iii.) Impact Load: Impact or dynamic load is considered by an increment of the live load by a
fraction of the applied live load.
iv.) Wind Load: All structures shall be designed for lateral wind forces. The wind forces depend. on
wind pressures and wind velocities.
v.) Water Current Force: Any part of a road bridge which may be submerged in running water
shall be designed to sustain safely the horizontal pressure due to the force of the water current.
The force of water current depends on water velocity and shape of pier

26
Rural Road Engineering Handouts by: Or. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

vi.) Longitudinal forces: Longitudinal forces arises due to tractive effort cause through acceleration
of the driving wheels, braking effects results from the application of the brakes, frictional
resistance offered to the movement of free bearings due to change oftemperature.
vii.) Centrifugal forces: Where a road bridge is situated on a curve, all portions of the structure
·affected by the centrifugal action of moving vehicles are to be considered.
viii.) Buoyancy: In the design of abutments, especially those of submersible bridges, the effects of
buoyancy shall be considered ·
ix.) Earth pressure: Structures designed to retain earth fill shall be designed to withstand pressure
due to soil behind.
x.) Temperature: Change in the overall temperature of bridge result in load effects due to restraint
to the expansion/contraction of structures, temperature differences between top and bottom
layers, frictions on bearings etc.
xi.) Deformation stress: A deformation stress due to the bending stress caused by vertical deflection
of the girder. All steel bridges shall be designed such that deformation stresses are minimum
xii.) ErectiQn Stress and construction loads: Erection stresses during construction shall be
considered. Construction .loads are those which are incident upon a structure during the
· construction of structures.
xiii.) Seismic Force: Both horizontal and vertical seismic forces may be taken into account
xiv.) Snow load: Snow load to be considered where accumulation of snow is considerable.
4.8. Causeways (flush causeway, drift)

When water level is not so high even in flood and water level rises for short duration, it is economical to
provide structure which will enable one to drain water laterally by road surface. Such structure is known
as bed level causeway or simply causeway. Causeway is either stone packed or concrete surface. Cut off
walls and aprons are provided upstream and downstream to prevent scour. The depth of cut off wall and
thickness of apron and material depend on site condition.
3m 3m
4-24 m
0% 10-15%
Sub base (0.2 m)
Figure Bed Lf\rel Causeway

Points to be considered:
• For most of the year the maximum depth of water over the carriageway should be less than
150mm. ·
• If a stream carries a lot of debris regularly, provision must be made to upkeep the pavement
surface free from such deposits
• Bed slope of causeway should not exceed 4%
• The period of interruption at one stretch for district roads and village roads doesn't exceed 24
hours for rural roads in hills and 3 day in case of road in plains
• Total interruption during a year should be less than 10 days for district roads and 15 days for
village roads
4.9. Submersible bridge (vented causeway)

A causeway constructed with vents below to pass regular flow under the road and flash flood across road
surface is called submersible bridge. These structures which are designed in such a way that the normal
dry-weather flows of the river passes through culverts below the roadway. The occasional floods pass

27 \
Rural Road Engineering Handouts by: Dr. Ptadeep KumarShrestha

Acme ~ngineering College
both through the culverts and over the road. Deck level is so fixed that it does not get submerged except
during high flood
Points to be considered:
• Period of interruption of traffic 3 days or 15 days per year in total
• It should be designed for flood over 10 year as design,flood
3m
_,.,__~I• 31"d_15% 1•
.. 4 - 24 m .. I•
Figure Vented Causeway
-~-'··~-Concrete or Cement
masonry Retaining wall
Figure Vented Causeway (Cross-section)
4.10. Scupper
It is most economical type of cross drainage structure. .. . . • . 1)('\,. .. • . • . .
. '.a.· ... ........ .. . ..
Water is collected through side drain: It is 0.9 to 1 m
wide made of random rubble dry masonry abutment. The
abutments are constructed with the coursed dry rubble
masonry and to reduce the width at the top, they are
corbelled from both the side till a gap of 500mm t~
600mm remains; the gap is then covered up by stone or
concrete slab. · · ""

28
Chapter 5 Construction Specification
5.1 Sub grades

According to Standard Specification of Road and Bridge works Nepal, up to 300 mm below formation level is
designated as sub grade. It is clearly desirable to locate the pavement on the stronger soils. The strength of
road sub grades is commonly assessed in terms of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and this is dependent
on the type of soil, its density, and its moisture content. When the sub grade is a particularly expansive soil, it
may be necessary to replace the expansive material with non-expansive impermeable soil to the depth affected
by seasonal moisture changes.
a) Material:
• CBR not less than 5% measured after a 4-day soak on a laboratory mix compacted to 95% MDD
(heavy compaction),
• Expansion less than 1%
• Plasticity index less than 40%
• Organic matter content less than 3%.
b) Desirable properties of Sub grade soil
• Stability
<.J • Incompressibility
• Permanency in strength
• Minimum variation in expansion
• Good drainage
• Ease in compaction
5.2 Embankment
Embankments will be required to obtain a satisfactory alignment. The road embankments will be needed (i) to
raise the road above flood water levels, (ii) in side long ground, (iii) across gullies and (iv) at the approaches
to water crossings.
It is important to identify all potential problems during the survey and recommendations made for more
detailed investigations where necessary. Following points are to be considered for constructing embankment.
• Look for evidence of water flow across the line ofthe road, either on the surface or at shallow depth.
• Drains must be installed to intercept ground water, and culverts of suitable size must be provided to
allow water to cross the road alignment where necessary.
• It is also important to identify any areas of potential ground instability which might affect
embankments. • ·
\_J
• The slope below the road should be examined to ensure that it is not being undercut by the stream at
the base.
a) Materials: Almost all types of soil (sandy clays, broken rock etc.) Material of low plasticity is preferred.
5.2.1 Earth Road

Earthen roads utilize existing or immediately adjacent materials along an alignment to form low cost basic
rural access road. The nature of these natural materials can vary from clayey/sandy soil to weathered rock.
Earthen roads are cheapest type with camber 1 in 20 or 1 in 25
a) Selection of Materials : Earth available could be used but preferable to have soil properties as given
below·
Base Course Wearing Course
Liquid Limit <35% <35%
Plastic Limit <6% 4 to 10%

29
b) Construction Procedure
• Soil survey is done to find borrow pit material which are free from organic matter, trees, shrubs, grass
roots and top soils
• Centerline with wooden pegs and referenc.e pegs are fixed
• Sub grade is prepared by clearing site, grading cut or fill to the desired grade,· shaping of sub grade
and compaction before placing the material
• The borrowed soil are dumped on prepared sub grade and pulverized. The field moisture content is
once checked and additional water mixed if necessary to bring it up to OMC.
• . Soil mixed with water spread and rolled in layers up to compacted thickness 10 em.
• Camber of final compacted pavement is 1 in 20 to 1 in 25 to keep the pavement surface free from
standing water.
• After few days, road is opened to traffic after setting of compacted earth
5.3 Base and Sub base

Bases and sub bases serve as a support for the surface layer and distribute the wheel load to sub grade material.
Sub-base is the layer of material provided between the sub-grade and the base course. Base course is the layer
immediately underlying the pavement wearing surface. In addition to functioning as part of the pavement
structure, bases and sub bases serve the following functions:
Slow down the intrusion of fines from the sub grade soil into pavement structural layers.
Minimize the damage of frost action.
Prevent the accumulation of free water within ·or below the pavement structure.
Provide a working platform for construction equipment.
a) Desirable properties of road aggregates used for Base & Sub-base

• Strength - the resistance of aggregates to crushing
• Hardness - the resistance to abrasion
• Toughness - the resistance to impact
• Durability - the resistance to weather action
• Shape - determines interlocking and crushing
• Adhesion: resistance to stripping
b) Base & Sub Base Types:

• • Graded crushed stone aggregate
• Natural gravel
• Soil stabilized (mechanically, cement, lime and bitumen)
5.3.1 Graded Crushed Stone (GCS) Road or base or Sub-base

, "Graded crushed stone" shall mean crushed stone with lf"smooth grading curve within a specified envelope.
Graded crushed stone comprises hard-rock materials that have. been crushed arid screened to produce a
continuously graded aggregate normally from 37.5mm down with minimal fines (usually <8%) and virtually
no plasticity. GCS is commonly used as a strong, permeable base or sub-base in LVRRs as well as larger
roads.
a) Material Selection: The material shall be of crushed stone, free from clay, organic matter with Los
Angels Abrasion (LAA) Max. 35% (base), 40% (sub-base); Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) Max. 20%
(Base) 30% (Sub-base); Sodium Sulphate Soundness (SSS) Max. 12% (base & Sub-base), Flakiness
Index (FI) 25% (base) 30% (Sub-base), CBR Min. 80% (base) 60% (Sub-base), California R-Value (CR)
Min. 80% (base) 30% (Sub-base), PI Max. NP (base) 6(Sub-base)
b) Equipment: Static roller (normally10"12t) and vibratory roller, dozer/digger/loader and grader, Haulage
by truck, tractor trailer or cart, watering equipment, pump etc.
c) Construction Procedure:
• The preparation ofthe existing surface includes clearing and reconditioning infnecessary
• The aggregate are spread uniformly upon the prepared surface to achieve final compacted thickness of
150 mm.

30
• Aggr~gate is first rolled dry with a vibratory roller. The rolling shall begin from edges with roller
running forward and backward, parallel to the centre line ofthe road until the layer has been firmly
compacted.
• The rolled surface is checked transversely and longitudinally with templates to see any irregularities
• After the dry rolling, the surface is sprinkled with water, swept and rolled with the a vibratory roller
• The sprinkling, sweeping, and rolling operations is continued until the coarse aggregate has been
thoroughly keyed, well bonded and firmly set in its full depth
• After final compaction of the road base, the road shaii be aiiowed to dry overnight
• Open traffic after 24 hours
5.3.2 Natural Gravel Road or base or Sub-base

Many natural gravels such as colluvial, alluvial, lateritic, calcrete and weathered hard rock materials have
been proven as suitable for L VRR base and sub-base layers usually well graded materials with maximum size
< 40mm and acceptable plasticity.
a) Materials Selection: Hard, durable and strong varieties of gravel of specified gradation are used. In
practice, softer varieties are also used. Rounded stone or river stone are not preferable as they have poor
interlocking properties. Proper gradation is chosen to have a maximum density.
b) Equipment: Static roiier (normaiiyi0-12t) and vibratory roiier, dozer/digger/loader and grader, Haulage
by truck, tractor trailer or cart, watering equipment, pump and bowser).
c) Construction procedure
• Clearing and preparing the surface on which gravel material is to be placed
• The gravel course materials are placed on prepared surface
• Spreading of gravel material is done either by hand or by graders in a uniform layer or layers not
exceeding 150mm compacted thickness.
• The moisture content of the gravel material is adjusted by watering with sprinkler trucks or by
manually
• The gravel materials are compacted by means of compaction equipment progressing gradually from
the outside towards the centre of the road with each succeeding pass uniformly overlapping half of
roiier width of the previous pass. ·
• Rolling is continued until the entire thickness of each layer is uniformly compacted to the specified
density
• The gravel course shall be compacted to 98% MDD(Road base) or 95% MOD (Sub-base & Shoulder)
• ·Open the traffic after 24 hours
5.3.3 Water Bound Macadam Roads or Base or Sub-base

Water Bound Macadam which is the most commonly ~ed road construction procedure for over more than
190 years, pioneered by Scottish Engineer John Loudon McAdam around 1820. The WBM roads are made of
crushed gravel, hard broken stones, and soft broken stones like brick ballast, kanker, laterites etc. The broken
stone of base and surface is mechanically interlocked by rolling and the voids filled with screening and
binding material with the assistance of water. WBM may be used as a sub-base, base or a surface course. The
thickness of each compacted layer of WBM ranges from 7.5cm to 10 em depending on size and the gradation
of aggregate used. Camber of 1 in 36 to 1 in 48 (3.5 to 2.5%) is used to facilitate drainage.
a) Materials
• Shape of broken stones should be angular and cubical to behave adequate interlocking. Gravel with
rounded shape is undesirable when superior wearing is not provided. ·
• Hand or machine crushed stone durable single size coarse aggregate (nominal 35-50mm) with a Los
Abrasion value of less than 40% and flakiness index less than I 5%.
• Screemng matena . Is
Grading Size range Screening
1 90 to 40 12.5mm
2 63 to 40 IOmm
3 5 to 25
• Filler materials (binding material) : Plastic Limit of fiiier materials shall be up to 9

31
b) Equipment: Manually or water tanker, grader and compaction equipment (static roller 10- 12 ton)
c) Construction Procedure
i) material required with 20% extra broken stones shall be' stocked along the roads
ii) preparation of sub grade for receiving the WBM course
iii) pavement construction
a. Lateral confinement may be done by compacting the shoulder in advance to a thickness equal
to that of the compacted WBM layer and by trimming the ihner side vertically.
b. Spreading of coarse aggregate- Compacted thickness< 7.5cm
c. Dry rolling- roller 6 to 10 tonnes
d. dry screening is applied gradually over the surface to fill the voids.
e. The surface is sprinkled with water a and wet rolling to fill about 50% or total voids
f. Application of binding material at a uniform and slow rate at two and more thin layers
iv) Making of shoulders
v) Opening of traffic after few days of construction
5.3.4 Soil Stabilized Roads or Base or Sub-base

Good road building materials can be difficult to find in some places. Due to the prevalent geological features
the soils may consist of only clay, silt and fine sand etc. which are inappropriate for road building purposes.
Rather than importing materials from far away, it may be more feasible to improve the properties of the local
soils by mixing it with other soils or materials. In general if the stability of the soil is not adequate for
supporting wheel loads, the properties are improved by soil stabilization techniques. Thus principle of soil
stabilized road construction is the effective utilization of local soil and other suitable stabilizing agents w.ith
low cost. Common Soil Stabilization Methods are:
1. Mechanical Soil Stabilization

2. Soil -Cement stabilization
3. Soil- Lime Stabilization
4. Soil- Bitumen Stabilization ·
5.3.4.1 Mechanical Soil Stabilization

Mechanical soil stabilization involves the blending of two different materials to meet required base/sub-base
strength, grading and plasticity criteria. Sandy soils can be mixed with clay, and clayey soils with sand and
gravel. Similarly, granular with fewer fines can be combined with fine soil and fine soil can be mixed with
suitable proportion of granular material. The percentages of each material to be used should be determined by
laboratory trials.
a) Equipments: Laboratory facilities to determine ff'ie proportion of the modified material, motor grader
or rotavator for mixing, compaction equipment such as 3 tone vibrating roller, Hand tools and
equipments for labor based construction
b) Material Selection: Density 95% maximum, Plasticity Index 6 for base course and 5 to 10 for
surface course
• Preparation of sub grade or sub base
• Pulverization of soil
• Application of required proportion of material and mixing
• Spreading and grading ·
• Compaction by smooth wheeled roller
5.3.4.2 Soil- Cement stabilization

The stabilization of sub-standard locally available materials may be achieved by primarily increasing their
strength through addition of cement In LVRR construction the cement, (normally 2-8% by weight depending
on the strength requirement) is usually mixed on-site and then compacted at suitable moisture content and
cured by keeping damp for about 7 days. The appropriate % of· cement should be ascertained through
. laboratory testing of mixed materials for strength.

32
a) Material: Consistent quality cement (normally Ordinary Portland Cement), fresh water for
compaction moisture control and curing, material grade (passing 4.75 mm > 50%, passing 0.075 mm
> 50%, Liquit limit >40%, Plastic limit > 18%)
b) Equipment: Mixing plant- manually or a small agricultural tractor (rotovator) for mix in place or
mixing plant for plant mix, light vibrating roller (1-3 t) for compaction
c) Construction procedure:
• Preparation of sub grade or sub base
• Pulverization of soil
• Application of cement and dry mixing
• Addition or spraying water and reaming
• Spreading and grading
• Compaction by smooth wheeled roller
5.3.4.3 Soil-lime Stabilization

The stabilization of sub-standard locally available materials may be achieved primarily by increasing their
strength through addition of lime. Lime is generally the ri10re effective option for plastic clayey materials. In
LVRR construction the lime, (normally 4-8% by weight depending on the strength requirement) is usually
mixed on-site and then compacted at suitable moisture content and cured by keeping damp for about 14 days.
The appropriate % of lime should be ascertained through laboratory testing of mixed materials for strength.
a) Equipment: Mixing plant- manually or a small agricultural tractor (rotovator) for mix in place or
mixing plant for plant mix, light vibrating roller (1-3 t) for compaction
b) Material Selection: Local soil compatible with lime modification. Source of consistent quality slaked
or hydrated lime, calcium hydroxide- Ca(OH)2, Fresh water for compaction moisture control and·
curing.
c) Construction Steps:
• Preparation of Sub grade
• Pulverization of the soil to be stabili.zed
• Addition of part of lime as dry powder or as. slurry with water and mixing
• Allowing mixture to age for a day and remixing when pulverization becomes easy
• Addition rest of the lime and water if necessary and remixed
• Spreading to desired grade, shape and compaction
• Curing - soil lime is protected from drying out and allowed moist curing for .14 days
• Check moisture content at the time of compaction and checking of dry density soon after
compaction
5.3.4.4 Soil Stabilization using bituminous material~

The modification of sub-standard locally available materials may be achieved by primarily increasing their
strength through addition of bitumen also. Bitumen emulsion can be an effective option for strengthening non
plastic sandy materials. In L VRR construction the emulsion, (norm~lly 4-8% residual bitumen depending on
the strength requirement) is usually mixed on-site and then compacted at suitable moisture content. The
correct proportions are determined from laboratory tests. Specimens are prepared with various bitumen
contents and are tested for stability and water absorption.
a) Material Selection: Local sandy soil compatible with emulsion modification. Source of consistent
quality Slow Setting emulsion. Supply of water for compaction moisture control, soil properties
(passing 4.75 sieve- 50%, passing 0.425 sieve- 35 to 100%, passing 0.075% sieve- 10 to 50%, LL
-40%, PL -18%)
b) Mixing plant - which may be a small agricultural tractor rotovator or larger purpose-built mixing
equipment; light vibrating roller ( 1-3 t).
c) Construction Procedure ·
• The soil to be stabilized is pulverized
• Addition of water to soil and mixed
• Addition of cut back or emulsion and mixed
• Spreaqing of the mix to desired grade and compaction
• The compacted layer is allowed for curing- moisture and volatile elements evaporated

33
5.4 Shoulders
Shoulders provide lateral support for the pavement layers, as well as providing the space for vehicles to pass.
The shoulders are constructed of the same material to the full width of the road. Thus the shoulders will have
the same permeability as the pavement However, it will generally be too expensive to construct them to' the
full width using wholly crushed materials. Therefore, shoulder is also constructed with different material.
Points to be considered for selecting shoulder material:

• If the road base is not possible to extend to shoulder, the shoulder material is selected using the same ·
principles as for a gravel-surfaced road or a sub-base
• The material should be strong enough to carry occasional vehicles and should be as cohesive as
possible without being too weak when wet.
• The material will normally be of sub-base quality and the soaked CBR value at the specified density
should exceed 25 per cent.
• The outer edge of the shoulder is able to support the growth of grasses which help to bind the surface
and prevent erosion.
• Crossfall on shoulder should be steeper than the adjacent paving (3% to 5%)
5.5 Bituminous constructions

5.5.1 Bituminous Sealing
Bituminous sealing offer many advantages over unsealed roads. These include: 0
• Providing a durable, impervious surface which seals and protects the pavement from moisture ingress
and consequenfloss of strength;
• Provides. a skid-resistant surface that resists the abrasive and disruptive forces of traffic and the
environment;
• Prevents the formation of corrugations, dust and mud thereby allowing safe travel at higher speeds
· · and lower vehicle operating and maintenance costs.
5.5.1.1 Bitumen Chip Seals (Seal coat) (Surface Dressing or Surface treatment)
Chip Seals (Surface dressing) comprise the application of a seal of bituminous emulsion binder material over
the previously prepared road base. The. seal is immediately covered with single sized stone aggregate
chippings that are lightly rolled into the seal to form an interlocking mosaic.
When one application of bituminous material and aggregate is placed it .is termed as Single Bituminous
Surface Treatment (SBST), with two applications it is termed as Double Bituminous Surface Dressing
(DBST). When a tougher, more resistant surface is desired than that obtained with a single surface treatment,
-
multiple surface treatment is used. In DBST the first layer chippings (typically 14-19mm) are larger than the
second (typically 6-lOmm).
a) Equipment: Manual watering cans or a towed/self-propelled distributor for spraying binder, a manual
.
''--...c/
chip spreader or from a truck with or without a tailgate chip spreader, 5- to 8-ton roller (pneumatic tire
roller), mechanical brooms etc.
b) Material Selection: Aggregate with a Flakiness Index less than 20%, the nominal size of chippings
normally used for SD are 6, 10, 14, 20, and bitumen of 80/1 00 penetration grade
c) Construction Procedure: Single Bituminous Surface Treatment (SBST)
• The surface is thoroughly cleaned by sweeping with mechanical brooms. All loose and foreign
material are removed
• The edgesofroad surface shall be marked out and prime/tack coat is sprayed on to it at the
specified rate
. • The primed surface is allowed to cure for at least 24 hours, during which period no traffic is
ill~~ .
• An asphalt emulsion is applied from a spray truck to the surface of the existing pavement
• A thin aggregate cover of uniform gradation is spread over the asphalt material before it has set.
· • A pneumatic tire roller is used to push the aggregate into the asphalt material.
• Excess chipp"ing should be removed within 24 - 48 hours
d) Construction Procedure: Double Bituminous Surface Treatment(DBST)
• Lay the first layer the same as a single surface treatment. Sweep away loose aggregate so that
subsequent layers will bond together. ·

34
• Apply binder (bituminous) material about one-third or one-half of the first layer
• Apply the aggregate which is about one-half the diameter of that used in the first application.
• A roller (usually a pneumatic tire roller) is used to push the aggregate into the asphalt material.
• Excess chipping should be removed within 24 - 48 hours
5.5.1.2 Bitumen Emulsion Sand Seal

A sand seal consists of supply and application of a seal of bituminous binder material over a previously
prepared road base. The seal is immediately covered with sand that is lightly rolled into the seal to form a
weather proof matrix.
a) Equipment: light static roller (preferably rubber tyred), watering cans or hand lance or motorized
hand sprayer for applying bitumen, manual tools or distributor for spreading Sand, hauling trucks or
wheel borrows, shovel etc.
Percentage passing
Sieve (mm)
b) Materials Selection: Medium curing cut-back MC-800 or bv wei!!ht
MC-3000 or Kl-60 cationic emulsion, fine aggregate 10.00 100
(sand, or fine screenings) free from organic matter, clay 4.75 70-90
and other deleterious materials. The fines (passing a 0.425 2.36 45-75
mm sieve) shall be non-plastic. The grading has shown in 0.60 IS-35
Table. 0.15 0-2
• The surface to be covered is cleaned of all loose materials and foreign matter with mechanical
brooms and defects shall be corrected, if any
• The edges of road surface shall be marked out
• Medium cured cut back or asphalt emulsion is applied from a spray truck to the surface of the
existing pavement. Bitumen is applied at the rate of 1.2- 1.4 liter/m 2 for cut back bitumen and 1.4
- 1.6 liter/m 2 for emulsions.
... • Sand is uniformly spread over the asphalt material before it has set. this the sand is applied at a
rate between 100 and 200 m2/m 3 ·
• Static roller is applied for compacting sand .

¥ • Any whipped-off aggregate is broomed back onto the road periodically to adhere fully to the
binder and Patches where bleeding occurs are blinded off with more sand.
5.5.1.3 Bitumen Emulsion Slurry Seal

Slurry Seals are a mixture of well graded fine aggregate, Bitumen Emulsion, filler (Cement or lime), and
additional water. They are mixed and are spread on a pre-prepared surface using wheelbarrows. The freshly
mixed the slurry seal can be spread to a thickness of l.~-5mm. The water in the emulsion separates from the
emulsion and evaporates leaving the residual bitumen in place to adhere to the pavement surface and
aggregates.
a) Equipment: Emulsion mixing and spreading equipment or concrete mixer, wheelbarrows and
squeegees for transporting and spreading if labour based, Pneumatic tyred roller
b) Materials: Anionic emulsion A4 (slow setting) or a slow-acting cationic emulsion K, the aggregate
free of organic matter, clay, silt or other deleterious matter, Sand Equivalent of at least 50, water
c) Construction procedure:
• Where a slurry seal is to be applied to a surface dressing, the surface dressing shall be trafficked
for a period of at least two weeks prior to the application of the slurry seal
• The surface to be covered is cleaned of all loose materials and foreign matter with mechanical
brooms and defects shall be corrected, if any ·
• The prepared surface is dampened
• The slurry mixture is evenly spread by a slurry machine at the specified rate
• Slurry is allowed to set sufficiently
• Slurry seal is compacted by using pneumatic tyred roller with minimum 6 passes of the roller
• All traffic are kept off the slurry seal until it has cured to a firm condition to prevent pick-upof
the mixture

35
5.5.1.4 OTTA Seal

Otta Seals essentially consist of a 16 - 32 mm thick bituminous s~rfacing constituted of an admixture of
graded aggregate from natural gravel or crushed rock in combination with. relatively soft binders, with or
without a sand seal cover. A graded gravel or crushed aggregate is used in comparison to single sized material
used in conventional chip seals.
ottaseaf
SfNGLEOTIA
SE.Al
·1B!nder
2 Grade<! aggregate
DOUBlE OHA
SEAL
!No Prime
!Binder
2Grnde<l
aggregate
a) Eqtlipment: Hot bitumen spray equipment; 10-12 Tonne pneumatic tyred roller or suitably loaded ."---./.
trucks. Hand tools such as shovels, wheelbarrows, and hard brooms etc.
b) Material Selection: Graded Soft bitumen (MC3000 cut-back or 150/200 penetration grade).
Aggregate of plasticity index 10 (maximum) and Flakiness index 30 (maximum). Graded natural. or
processed fime aggregate
· w1t· h the grad.mg as £0 11ows:
Sieve Sizes (mm) %passing
19 100
16 80- 100
13.2 52-100
9.5 36-98
6.7 20-80
4.75 .10-70
2.00 0-48
1.18 0-38
0.425 0-25
0.075 0-10
Construction procedure
''---'/
• Base formation is broomed to make it dust free •
• The aggregate is transported and placed along the both side of road section to be sealed
• The bitumen distributor is checked to ensure right temperature and uniform spreading. One half width
of the road section of about 300m is sprayed
• The chip spreading team cover each section sprayed with aggregate as fast as possible and within
about 20 minutes.
• Compaction of the uniformly laid chippings is done with pneumatic-tyred rollers of a minimum
weight of 12 tonnes or more. A minimum of 15 passes is required,
• After the initial rolling, it may be an advantage to apply one pass with a static tandem steel roller to
improve the embedment of the larger aggregate
• Commercial traffic is allowed on the surfaced area immediately following completion of the initial
rollirtg with the pneumatic roller(s) ·
• Minimum of 15 passes with the pneumatic tyred roller should be applied daily for first two days in
order to ensure that all particles are embedded in the binder.
• Second layer is applied 8- 12 weeks after first layer completion
5..5.2 Bituminous Concrete Layer

··Bituminous concrete layer is more durable, have better riding quality, and has more load carrying capacity

36
5.5.2.1 Penetration (Grouted) Macadam

Penetration macadam consists of 3 layers of successively finer broken or crushed rock interspersed with
applications of heated bitumen to grout voids and eventually seal the surface. An initial layer of 40-60 mm
aggregate is spread and rolled onto the underlying base. A first penetration of bitumen (commonly at 5-
6kg/m2) is sprayed into the initial 40mm aggregate layer and immediately afterwards a second stone
application is made by hand using 10-20mm key aggregates. The second, coat of heated bitumen (2-3 kg/m2)
onto the surface of the layer. Immediately after the second application bitumen, the third stone application is
made by hand onto the keyed aggregate, using 5 - 1Omm chippings. The effect is to achieve a matrix of keyed
stones grouted and sealed with bitumen to a depth of about 60 - 80mm. It is laid as a surfacing on a previously
prepared (typically macadam) roadbase.
a) Material required:
• Bitumen- 80/100; 60/70; 30/40 (5-6.7 kg/m 2 for first application for 5 and 7.5 em thick, second
application 2-3 per m2)
• Aggregate used for this construction should be hard strong, durable clean etc. with LAA value 40%
(max), Aggregate Impact value - 35%(max), Flakiness ind~x - 25%(max). Stripping Value - 25%
max. Grad' 'h
atton o f aggregate Is c osen depending upon thickness of laver:
Fine
Coarse Aggregate Key Aggregate
aggregates
Layer
Approx. Qt. Approx. Qt. Max. size
Max. size Max. size
required required
3
7.5 em thick 63 mmdown 0.90 m3/10m 2 25mmdown 0.18 m /l0m 2 10mm
5 em thick 50mmdown 0.60 m3/10m? m
19mmdown 0.15 3/10m 2 IOmm
b) Equipment: Bitumen Heating device, Bitumen distributor, Aggregate Spreader, Pneumatic Roller
• Preparation of existing surface and recondition it as necessary
• Spreading of Coarse aggregates
; • Rolling- 10 tonnes
• Apply the first layer of bituminous material- 5-6.7 kg/m2
• Spreading of key aggregates
~
• Rolling- I 0 tonnes
• Apply the second layer of bituminous material.
• Apply stone chippings .
• Drag-broom, roll, and hand-broom the surface
• Opening of traffic - After 24 hours
__./
\,
5.5.2.2 Premixed Bituminous Carpet
Usually the thickness to this construction is 2 to 4 em.
a) Material
• Bitumen- 80/100 grade 313 kg per 100m2 for 40 mm thick and 176 kg per 100m2 for 20 mm thick
• Coarse aggregare- should be angular, clean, hard, tough, durable with 16 mm downsize aggregate for
40 mm thick and 10 mm downsize aggregate for 20 mm thick with LAA value 40% (max),
Aggregate Impact value- 35%(max), Flakiness index- 30%(max)
• Sand should be of clean, hard, durable
b) Plants and Equipments: Bitumen heating device, Bitumen Distributor, Mechanical pavers, grader,
Pneumatic Roller
• Preparation of the existing surface- cleaned of dust, loose material and foreign material
• Application of tack coat or prime coat- Bitumen is heated I 77°-188° and spread uniformly at the rate
of 1 kg/m2
• Preparation and placing of premix- coarse aggregate and bitumen are thoroghly mixed by mechanical
mixtures or hand mixing drums

37
• Transportation and spreading- Premix is emptied on the wheel barrows and carried to work site.
Immediately after applying tack coat, the premix is spread with rakes to the required thickness and
distributed evenly by means of a drag spreader
• Rolling and finishing by 8 to 10 Pneumatic roller. Rolling should commence from edges and proceed
towards center longitudinally
• A liquid seal coat, having following specifications should be applied immediately after laying the
carpet and rolled to achieve maximum compaction
• Opening to traffic after 24 hours
5.5.2.3 Bituminous Concrete (Asphalt Concrete)
Asphalt concrete means a thoroughly controlled, hot-mixed, hot-laid, plant mixture of well graded dried
aggregate and penetration grade bitumen, which, when compacted, forms a dense material. Mix should have
following properties:
Wearing course Binder course
Stability 50 blows (N) Min 8000 Min 6000
Flow Value 2-3mm 2-3mm
Voids in mix % 2-4 3-7
Com~J>ression/Immersion Ratio > 0.75 >0.75
a) Material :
• Maximum sizes of aggregates are 20 mm down or 12.5 mm down. Properties of aggregate are Los
Angles Abrasion Value (40% max), Aggregate Impact Value (30% max), Flakiness Index (25% max),
Stripping Value (25% max)
• Filler consist of finely ground particles of limestone, hydrated lime, ordinary Portland cement or other
non-plastic mineral material.
• Bitumen of grade 30/40, 60170, 80/100 and quantity is determined by Marshall stability test (about 5
to 7.5% by weight of aggregate).
b) Plants and Equipments: Bitumen sprayer, Bitumen Distributor, Hot mix Plant, Mechanical pavers,
grader, Pneumatic Roller
• Preparation of existing base course layer
• Production of mix from hot mix plant
• Laying of the mix to the required grade and shape. The minimum thickness of the compacted layer in
· wearing course shall be 25 mm and 40 mm in binder course
• Rolling first two passes by either 8 tonnes smooth wheel roller, 4 tones vibro roller and then with 8 to
12 tonnes pneumatic roller
5.6 Cement Concrete Pavement
a) Materials: Portland cement, coarse aggregates with Crushing Value - 30% max., Aggregate Impact
Value- 30% max., L:AA - 16% max., Soundness Value- 12% in Na2S04 and 16% in MgS04 and fine
aggregate
b) Plant and equipment: Concrete mixture, hatching device, wheel barrow, needle vibrators, brus.h,
finishing tools etc.
c) Construction Procedures
• Preparation of Sub Grade and sub base: cleaned of dust, loose material and foreign material
• Placing of forms: All form work are placed and well secured to resist the tamping forces. The top edge
ofthe formwork shall be within± 2mm of the required finished rmid levels
• Batching of material and mixing: Coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, cement and required amount of
water are either mixed on site in batch mixer or transported from mixing plant.

38
• Transporting and placing of concrete : Concrete is transported to the site and deposited on the sub
base to the required depth
• Compaction and finishing: Once the concrete had been placed uniformly within the forms,
compaction is carried out using a mechanical poker (needle) vibrator.
• Texturing: Just before the concrete becomes non plastic, the surface shall be textured with an
approved long handled steel or fiber brush. Texturing is perpendicular to the center line of the
pavement and about l.Smm deep
• Curing of cement Concrete: After finishing, the pavement surface shall be entirely covered with wet
hessian cloth, burlap or jute mats for 24 hours. Upon the removal of wet covers, the slabs shall be
thoroughly wetted and then cured by ponding.
· 5.7 Semi Rigid Pavement

Asphalt pavement has top layers made of asphalt mixtures (surface and binder). The bottom layer,
base and sub-base, may be of mineral aggregate of hydraulically bound mineral aggregate (with
cement, lime, fly-ash, etc;). This type of pavement is called semi-rigid pavement.
Some ofthe benefits are:

Strong support to the Asphalt layer provided by the rigid base layer
Prevention of the intrusion of deicing salts and surface water to the rigid base due to the impermeable
characteristic ofthe asphalt layer.
"'-../ Reduction of the temperature gradient in the rigid leyer because of the overlaying asphalt layer.
Construction Procedure:
• Construction of cement/lime stabilized base
• Construction of bituminous surfacing

39
Chapter 6
Flexible and Rigid Pavement Construction
6.1 Flexible and Rigid Pavement
• Flexible pavements: Those pavements which are surfaced with bituminous materials. These types of
pavements are called "flexible" since the total pavement structure "bends" or "deflects" due to traffic
loads. A flexible pavement structure is generally composed of several layers (surface, base, subbase) of
materials.
• Rigid pavements. Those which are surfaced with portland cement concrete (PCC). These types of
pavements are called "rigid" because they are substantially stiffer thim flexible pavements due to PCC's
high stiffuess ..
,,
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
i. Deformation in the sub grade is transferred to the i. Deformation in the subgrade is not transferred to
. upper layers
ii. Design is based on load distributing
subsequent layers
ii. Design is based on flexural strength or slab
characteristics ofthe component layers action
iii. Have low flexural strength iii. Have high flexural strength
iv. Load is transferred by grain to grain contact iv. No such phenomenon of grain to grain load
transfer exists
v. Have low completion cost but repairing cost is
high
vi. Have low life span (High Maintenance Cost)
- v. Have low repairing cost but completion cost is
high
vi. Life span is more as compare to flexible (Low
Maintenance Cost)
vii. Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the sub vii. Surfacing can be directly laid on the sub grade
grade but a sub base is needed
viii. No thermal stresses are induced as the pavement viii. Thermal stresses are more vulnerable to be
have the ability to contract Md expand freely induced as the ability to contract and expand is
very less in concrete
ix. Thats why expansion joints are not needed ix. Thats why expansion joints are needed
X. Strength of the road is highly- dependent on the X. Strength of the road is less dependent on the
strength of the sub grade strength of the sub grade
xi. Rolling of the surfacing is needed XI. Rolling of the surfacing in not needed
xii. Road can be used for traffic within 24 hours xii. Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
xiii. Force of friction is less Deformation in the sub xiii. Force of friction is high
grade is not transferred to the upper layers.
xiv. Damaged by Oils and Certain Chemicals xiv. No Damage by Oils and Greases
-
"'

40
Ro~ c;onstruction, Tools, equipment and plants
The road construction may be done manually or by means of equipment. If the road construction is done
manually, it takes lot oftime to complete the road project. Usually for small projects labor intensive works can
be adopted. But for big projects without construction equipment, it is almost impossible. However in developing
countries like Nepal most of contractor prefers to use more labor than to utilize construction equipment because
of cheap labor and expensive equipment. The equipment has to be imported from other countries and need more
investment for the purchasing and there is no guarantee of getting continuous work for the purchased equipment
and most of the time equipment will be idle.
Construction equipmentused in road construction activities may be classified as follows:
1. Tools
• Hand shovel
• Spade
• Chisel
• Peak
• Hand rammer
• Brushes
• Trowel
• Wheel borrows
2. Equipment
a. Earth moving equipment

• Dozer
• Scraper
• Loader
• Excavator (back hoe)
• Drag line
• Clam shell
• Trench digger
b. Compaction equipment
• Smooth wheel rollers

• Pneumatic rollers
• Sheep foot rollers
• Rammers
c. Leveling equipment
• Grader
d. Paving Equipment
• Binder spreader
• Heating kettle for binder
•: Aggregate Spreader
• Cement Concrete mixer
• Bituminous Pavers
• Cement Concrete Pavers

41
- . -~-···········~9..
··~!f
:;.WCKUo {HAN$b¥A .• KHliRI>/11)

p::..~~~,\ /;;:·:.~.,.,
,, #
1350 mm - - - - - - - - - -

42
e. Lifting Equipment
• Crane..:... For heavy load and available in different capacity
f. Transporting equipment
..
•
•
Dumping trucks (tipper)
Trucks (flatbody)
Mini dumper
3. Phmt
• Cement concrete plant
• Asphalt concrete plant
• Aggregate crushing plant
2. A. Earth Moving Equipment
.Dozer: Dozer is high powered tractor having a blade fixed at end. Blade is curved in vertical section and
provided with a sharp cutting edge at the bottom. The blade is slightly longer than the width of the tractor. There
are three types of dozer:
i) Bull dozer- used for pushing earth in forward direction only
ii) · Angle dozer- a blade can be set obliquely to the direction of movement (up to 30°). This is .used to
push material sideways.
iii) Tree dozer- a special type of blade, useful for felling trees and uprooting the stumps.
Scraper: Scraper is a machine generally towed by tractor and is used for scraping, carrying and spreading of the
earth on the site. It consists of a cutting edge for scraping and bucket for loading. The cutting edge excavates
earth and the excavated earth is colle~ted in bucket by itself.
Loader: A bucket is attached to arms, capable of being raised, lowered and dumped through mechanical control.
It is used in land filling, road Maintenance etc.
E~cavator (Back Hoe): Hoe is excavating equipment of the power shovel family. Hoe is meant to excavate
below the natural surface where machine is situated. It can control depth of excavation. Hoe can exert high tooth
pressure and hence can excavate stiff material. .....
Drag line: Drag line is used to excavate soft earth and to deposite in nearby banks. It can operate on natural
ground. The bucket is thrown out from the dragline on the top of the earth to be excavated and then pulled back
toward~ the base of the machine.
Clam shell: Clam shell consists of special types of bucket of two halves. The two halves remain hinged together
at top. The open clam shell bucket is thrown on the top of the loose material to be dug. As the bucket is lifted,
the two half closes entrapping the material into bucket. It is used for soft to medium and loose materials.
Trench Digger: It is used for excavating trenches for laying pipelines, sewer, cables etc. Operation is quick
giving the required depth or width. It may be wheel type or ladder type.

43
Aggregate Spreader: The aggregate spreader, sometimes called the "spreader box" is used to distribute
aggregate evenly over the film of asphalt sprayed by the asphalt distributor. The specifications require aggregate
spreaders to be self-propelled and have a continuous feed feature. The spreader must distribute cover aggregate
at a uniform rate over the entire width and length of the area being sealed. Not only must it be uniformly spread,
it must also be the correct quantity of aggregate.
Cement Concrete Mixer: A concrete mixer is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such
as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the
components. For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made
at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens.
Cement Concrete Pavers: Cement concrete pavers are self-propelled machines to place cement concrete mix on
the roadway to a specific depth and to provide initial compaction of the mat. Thickness of mat is controlled by
pavers speed, material feed rate.
2. E. Lifting (Hoisting) Equipment

Hoisting is the lifting a weight from one location and moving it to another location which is at a reasonable
distance.
Pulley: A pulley is a set ofwheels and rope that allows you to move heavy objects with minimal effort.
Crane: A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that
can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy
things and transporting them to other places. Cranes may be stationary, mobile, overhead gantry, tower
Hoist: Hoist is commonly used on large scale construction projects, such as high-rise buildings or major
hospitals. The purpose is being to carry personnel, materials, and equipment quickly between the ground and
higher floors, or between floors in the middle of a structure.
2. F. Transporting Equipments
The equipment used for transportation of material are known as Transporting (hauling) equipment or simply
haulers.
,Haul Trucks: Haul trucks are used for. transporting HMA and aggregates from the place of production to the
construction site. Haul trucks are loaded at the production plant. Before loading of truck, trucks are to be cleaned
from foreign material and lubricated to prevent sticking of HMA on truck beds.
Tipper: A truck or lorry the rear platform of whieh can be raised at the front end to enable the load to be
discharged by gravity also called tip truck.
Trailer: A trailer is generally an unpowered

vehicle pulled by a powered vehicle.
Commonly, the term trailer refers to such
vehicles used for transport of goods and
materials.
Dump trucks: These are used for earth

transporting purpose. It may be side or rear
dump trucks. The selection of the type of
dump trucks for a specific job depends on the
soil condition.

44
2. B. Compaction equipment
Smooth wheeled roller: These rollers have smooth wheels especially of steels. It may be hand, animal or power
driven. Hand or animal driven may have only one drum which is 90 em is dia and 1.2 m to 1.5 m in length.
Power driven roller may have two axles or three axles. Two axles may have three wheels (two on back and one
on front axle) or two wheels (one on each axle). Smooth wheeled rollers are suitable for compacting gravel,
sand, crushed rock, where crushing action is required.
Vibrating roller: Steel wheel rollers can be equipped with vibratory drums. Drum vibration adds a dynamic
load to the .static roller weight to create a greater total compaction effort .. Vibrating roller used to compact
pavement layers and sub grade to a high degree of density. This roller vibrates while traveling. These rollers
achieve high compaction with a few passes.
Pneumatic tyred rollers: The pneumatic tire roller is a self-propelled compaction device that uses pneumatic
tires to compact the underlying layers. Pneumatic tire rollers employ a set of smooth tires on each axle; typically
four on one axle and five on the other. The tires on the front axle are aligned with the gaps between tires on the
rear axle to give complete anduniform compaction coverage over the width of the roller.
Sheep foot rollers: Sheep foot rollers consist of hollow circular drum of steel 1.2- 1.5 m long and 0.9- 1.2 m
in diameter with projecting legs on circumferential area at the rate of 12- 18 per m2• The temping feet are.
staggered in rows. As the roller is pulled over the layer ofthe soil to be compacted, the projections penetrate into
the layer and perform compaction of soil.
Rammers: Rammers are useful for compacting relatively small area and where rollers can't operate such as
compaction of trenches foundation and slopes. The output is slow then roller.
Concrete Vibrator: For compacting the concrete after its placement concrete vibrator is used. It help volume of
concrete quickly placed, give high density, reduce. air voids. Concrete vibrator may be surface vibrator, table
vibrator, needle vibrator etc.
2. C. Leveling Equipment
Grader: It is self propelled machine which has its blade within the wheel base. The blade is 3.5 m long but
effective length during spreading is 2.75 m. Blade supported on machine frame work and capable of turning,
tilting. The graders are useful for spreading heaped earth ihto layers, shaping the cross section, maintain cross
sections and gravel surfaces.
2. D. Paving Equipments
-
Bitumen Spreader (Distributor): The distributor is used to spray the asphalt over the base before placement of
HMA or Premix. An asphalt distributor is a truck mounted or trailer mounted asphalt tank with pumps, spray
bars and appropriate controls for regulating the rate at which asphalt leaves the spray barnozzles. The distributor
provided with heating system to maintain proper· application temperature. The spray bar is adjusted
perpendicular to the road surface. A hand held spray attachment is for the applying asphalt to areas inaccessible
to the spray bars.
Bituminous Pavers: Pavers are self-propelled machines designed to place hot mix asphalt concrete or premix
carpet on the roadway to a specific depth and to provide initial compaction of the mat. The tractor unit provides
moving power for the pavers. Thickness of mat is controlled by pavers speed, material feed rate .In order to
achieve the most consistent thickness and smoothest possible surface, and pavers attempt to maintain a constant
speed, and use automatic feed controls. Special concrete transport trucks (in-transit mixers) are made to
transport and mix concrete up to the construction site. They can be charged with dry materials and water, with
the mixing occurring during transport.

45
Mini Dumper: they are high speed pneumatic wheeled trucks of short chasis and strong bodies. Loading,
hauling and dumping are done very fast as compared to other equipment. They are suitable for short houls on
rough roads.
I
Concrete Transport Truck: Concrete transport trucks are made to transport and mix concrete up to the
construction site. They can be charged with dry materials and water, with the. mixing occurring during transport.
4. Plant
Stone Crusher: A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel, or rock dust.
Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so they can be more easily
disposed of or recycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw materials (as in rock ore), so that pieces of
different composition can be differentiate.
Asphalt Mixing Plant: Asphalt plants are used to prepare asphalt. It may be hot mix plant or cold mix plant.
Aggregate & bitumen are heated and then mixed in a unit is known Hot mix Plant. Cold mixing involves mixing
of cold or sun warmed aggregate, with hot or cold application of bitumen. Function of asphalt mixing plant
includes heating and drying aggregate, screening & measuring aggregate, the filler and bitumen and mixing the
aggregate & bitumen in proportion to produce homogenous mix.
Cement concrete plant: Cement concret mixing plant mixes different ingredients (coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, admixture, cement and water) in required proportion. It consists of storage bins for storing materials
like cement and admixtures. Aggregate is mix in it with the help of a hopper which is fixed in plant.
::

46
Acme Engineering College(PU}
CHAPTER 7 ROPEWAY
7.1. Definition
A ropeway is a mode of transport in which special types of carriers are suspended from, or. simply
atta.ched to, an overhead rope to facilitate the transfer of materials, goods or passengers, from one
point to another. The rope runs the entire length over which the ropeway operates, which typically
ranges from a few hundred meters to several kilometers. ·
7.1.1. Past History ofRopeway in Nepal

• .In 1922, then primeminister Chandra Shamsher started building a 22km long cargo Ropeway
from Dhorsing-chisapnai-chandragiri hills passing into the Kathmandu.
• In 1964, this system was further improved and extended to 42 kilometer to Hetauda with the
financial and technical assistance of the United State Agency for international
Development(USAID).
• Many Agencies carried out feasibility study in the past to explore the possibilities of the
different types of Ropeway in Nepal.
• Two goods carrying ropeways, Bhattedanda and Barpak,and Mankamana passenger Ropeway
were actually built.
• The Ninth Five-year Plan mentioned ropeway in brief and encouraged involvement of private
sector. But no provision in national budget was made for ropeway development.·
7.2. Types of Ropeways

7.2.1. According to Numbers of Cable
a) Bi-cable system: A hi-cable system uses two ropes. The first is a load-carrying rope which is
fixed at the stations at both ends and stays stationary. This rope is also called a track rope or track
cable or skyline. The second rope is a hauling rope whose ends are joined to make a loop. The
carriages, which are suspended from the track rope, are attached to the hauling rope at fixed
intervals using grips. When the sheave rotates, the hauling rope moves in a circle and so do the
carriages.
b) Mono-cable systems: A mono-cable system uses a single rope, which serves the dual purpose of
carrying and hauling carriers. Carriages are attached to the rope by grips and move when the rope
moves.
Bicable ropeway ...,. Monocable ropeway
Reversible operation Clrcul~ting operqtion
7.2.2. According to Operation

Ropeway systems may be further sub-divided into circulating and non-circulating systems and
systems using fixed or detachable clips.

47 Rural Road Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha
Acme Engineering College{PU}
a) Non-circulating system (Reversible system)

In a non-circulating system, the hauling rope (or hauling-carrying rope in the case of a mono-cable
system) moves forwards and backwards between the loading and unloading stations. In a system with
one track cable, it can move only one carrier. In a non-circulating system, if the hauling rope winds
into a drum then the ropeway is called a drum-type non- circulating hi-cable
Instead of using a drum, the hauling rope can also form a loop but in this case the direction of motion
of the rope must be changed in order to move the c~rrier back and forth. Such a system is called a
looped non-circulating hi-cable system
Drum-type non-circulating bi-cable ropeway system
Tower
•
Drum-type bk:able system
b) Circulating System
a
In circulating system, the hauling rope runs continuously in one direction and passes around the
sheaves at the ends. The cars move from one side of the rope to the other as the rope moves from one
station to the other and back.
• (o)
Looped hauling cable
7.1.1. According to Type of clips

a) Fixed Clip System
In a fixed-clip system, the cars are permanently attached to the hauling rope and remain so even when
travelling around the sheaves.

48
Acme Engineering Colfege(PU}
b) Detachable Clip System

In a detachable-clip system, each car is manually or automatically detached from the continuously
running rope when it enters the station. It allows flexibility in the loading and unloading of cars as
well as ease of maintenance and easy removal or addition of cars without affecting the operation of
the ropeway.
7.2.3. According to Power

a) Electric motors or engines powered: Electric motors or engines are used for driving force
b) Gravity-operated or self-driven ropeway: It has no external power service. These have only
one carrying steel rope, which stretches in a single span from an elevated point down to the
terminal. Gravity acts as the driving force and these ropeways do not have any brakes. These are
the simplest and most primitive ropeways and can obviously be used only for downhill cargo
transport.
c) Mobile ropeways or
winch ropeways or Upper station
Carriw
cable cranes: It
consist of the
engine-powered drum
of a winch and a
specially-designed
gripping device that
travels on a
temporarily-installed
skyline cable. The
cable from the winch
passes through the
gripping device and is
used to lift or deliver
loads. It can be
stopped at any point
to drop or pick up a
load.
7.2.4. According to
Vehicle type
a) Open-air ropeways
(chair lifts): chairs or
benches with up to four
seats, each suspended
on a steel rope driven
in a loop.
b) Open cabins with roof and railing and meant for 1 to 6passengers
c) Semi enclosed cabins with roof, railing and sides not fully covered and meant for 1 to 6
passengers
d) Closed cabins or gondolas are fully closed cabin with glass or transparent windows with a
capacity of 1 to 6 passengers
7.3. Components of a Ropeway
7.3.1. Rope
The rope or cable of a ropeway bears the suspended· load an~ hauls it along. A rope is made up of
several strands of steel wires spun together. In a rope the core may be a strand (a wire-strand core) a
second smaller rope (an independent wire-rope· core), or a fibre core. Rope with a fibre-core is
generally used as a hauling cable.

49
RuralRoad Engineering · Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha .
Acme Engineering College(PU) ·
Types of Ropes according to the way in which the wir~s and strands· are laid
a) Equal Lay: In an 'equal lay' rope, all the- wires in a strand are wound with the same helix angle.
The wires of different layers be of different sizes and that the smaller wires be closer to the core.
b) Cross lay: In a 'cross- lay' rope the wires in all layers are the same size and a different helix
angle or length of lay must be used for each layer.
Type of Ropes based on the

methods used to wind the strands P~41;1:
,~i:iiJG!IIG or roJMC.
together
c) Lang-lay: In a lang-lay rope,
the direction of the lays of
the outer layer of wires is the
same as the direction of the
lays of the strands within the
rope.
d) Ordinary-lay: In an
ordinary-lay rope, the outer
layer of wires is laid in the 1'~·4·~~
b)"!ii at· ro.P'M'
opposite direction of the lay
of the inner strands. This
arrangement provides a better
and more uniform wearing
surface
7.3.2. Ropeway carrier or vehicles

The ropeway carrier or vehicles carry passenger or cargo. The vehicles vary from the fixed-grip 2-
seater to the detachable 8-seater chair to cabins up to 200 passengers. A ropeway carrier consists of a
carriage and a container. The carriages are suspended from the track rope and are attached to the
hauling rope at fixed intervals using
grips in a hi-cable system. The container Fl<141i¢~!'.:
may be a bucket, a tray or a passenger ~Y -n~~< ~:s-oo
cabin and is suspended from the -~·
carriage by means of a hanger.
a) Open-air ropeways (chair lifts):
chairs or benches with up to four
seats, each suspended on a steel rope
driven in a loop. The chairs are
provided with a bench seat, backrest,
footrest and lockable safety bar for a
better seating position, comfort and
safety.
b) Open cabins with roof and railing
and meant for 1 to 6passengers
c) Semi enclosed cabins with roof, railing and sides not fully covered and meant for 1 to 6
passengers
d) Closed cabins or gondolas are fully closed cabin with a capacity of 4 to 35 passengers. All
gondolas have cabin made of glass creating a unique sense of space and clear panoramic view to
the outside ·
7.3.3. Towers
Towers or trestles are supporting structures. Depending upon the type ofropeway and its use, they are
made of wood, steel, or concrete~ Towers are provided with a saddle and rollers. Rollers are small
wheels used to support the hauling rope in a hi-cable system or the main rope in a mono-cable system.
Rollers are generally grouped into a battery;A saddle or shoe is used to support the track rope on the

50 Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha
Rural Road Engineering
Acme Engineering College{PU)
tower in a hi-cable ropeway. A hi-cable tower has ~:4,4:

FIJ:ilift\li\'IY'G fi:Mle.r·wll!!i.-ecc,ana'
saddles as well as a roller battery, while a mono-
cable tower has only a roller battery to support the
hauling-carrying rope.
Wooden towers 'can be used in a ropeway which

transports materials in a construction project. This
type ofropeway is dismantled· after construction is
complete. Concrete towers are generally used for
small ropeways, while steel towers, because they
are reusable, are commonly used in all types of
ropeways. Steel towers also provide the flexibility
to make. towers of any size by using steel frames
of pole or lattice type.
7.3.4. Stations
Minimum two stations are necessary for a
ropeway system as one is situated at the starting
-point and one at the end of it.
Types of Stations
• Tension stations: Tension stations placed
at appropriate points along a ropeway line
are used to limit the length and maintain
the tension of the track cable.
• Drive station: A drive station contains
the drive system of a ropeway, which includes a motor drive mechanism and a driving sheave.
• Return station: This station at the end of the line contains a return sheave, from which
carriers move back towards the drive station.
• Divide stations: These intermediate stations are used in long ropeways to limit the length and
tension of the rope. They divide a ropeway into smaller segments, each of which functions as
a separate ropeway.
7.3.5. Sheaves
Sheaves are wheels of large diameter found at both ends of the line and in the stations. The hauling
rope passes around them. A driving sheave is powered either by an engine or an electric motor
connected to the sheave with a suitable drive mechanism. At the other end of the line there is a return
sheave which is not powered but is free to rotate.
7.3.6. The grip

The carriers are attached to the hauling rope by means of
fixed or detachable grips.
· • Detachable grips have the moving grip jaw
allowing the direct opening and closing of the
grip that in normal position remains closed.
• Fixed grips are very secure and reliable. The
fixed grip tightens on the rope permanently.
7.3.7. The Drive System

The drive system can be in'stalled at the bottom or top station, designed as overhead or underground
drive and used as drive or drive-tensioning station. It is composed of the drive, the service brake, .
safety brake and the gearbox. Through the drive technology it is possible to control the speed and the
conduct of the installation when it moves and when it stops.

51 Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha
Rural Road Engineering
7.3.8. Control System

The control system monitors the security of the installation and its passengers. The control panel
provides real-time data and information necessary for the operation of the ropeways installation. This
enables the machine operator to immediately regulate the service if necessary.
7.4. Design Criteria
7.4.1. Profile
The profile of the aerial ropeway (longitudinal side elevation) shall be, as far as practicable, parallel to
the terrain over which it passes. The maximum gradient of the rope shall not exceed 1.0 (45°) except
in the case of aerial ropeway of fixed grip type. The transport path shall be straight between
successive stations
7.4.2. Ground clearance

The minimum ground clearance, that is, the distance between the ground and the lowest moving
portion of a ropeway (bottom of the car or hauling rope) shall be as given below under the most
unfavourable conditions like snow, swing of carriages, etc.
• Over national highways - 6rn
• Over other vehicular roads - 4.5 rn
• Over footpaths frequented by pedestrians- 2.5 rn
• Over areas where traffic is not allowed to pass - 2.5
In closed vehicle installations,
• the height above ground shall not be greater than 25 rn
• the height above ground may be more than 40 rn if such length does not exceed 20 percent of
the total system length
7.4.3. Side Space

Swinging ropes and carriers shall be at a minimum distance of 3 rn from objects not belonging to the
ropeway installation.
7.4.4. Track Width

The track width is the distance between the two carrying wire rope lines. The clearance between
opposite swinging carriers shall be minimum 40 ern. For longer spans the track width shall be
correspondingly increased.
7.4.5. Ropes -
The ratio of minimum breaking load of rope and the maximum rope tension in service shall not be
less than the following values:
• Carrying rope(bicable)- 3.0
• Hauling rope for both rnonocable and bicable - 4.5
• Tension rope for bicable and rnonocable -5.0
• Signalling and telephonic cables- 3.3
7.4.6. Vehicles
a) Maxi~um Speed
In no case shall the maximum speed exceed the values given below:
·1) System with closed gondolas having locked doors- 6rn/s
2) Chairlift and system with open gondolas with adequate protection- 5 rn/s
3) Others - 3rn/s

52
b) Capacity of Vehicles
The calculation of the various components shall be done, taking into account the weight of 80 kg per
passenger. The vehicles may be following types:
• chairs with one seat or more seats for passengers not exceeding four,
• open cabins with roof and railing and meant for 1 to 6passengers
• semi enclosed cabins with roof, railing and sides not fully covered, and meant for 1 - 6
• passengers, and closed cabins with small windows with a capacity of 1 to 6 passengers
c) Spacing or carriages
The minimum distance between two successive carriages shall not be less than 1.5 times the stopping
distance under the most unfavorable load conditions.
7.4.7. Towers or Trestles

a) Loads
In designing trestles, the following loads shall be considered:
• The weight of the trestle and the pressure exerted by the ropes.
• The stresses due to friction which occur during the motion of the carrying hauling rope with
factor of safety 2.5 percent of the load on the rollers.
• Weight of vehicles travelling with maximum load
• Load due to wind and load of snow or ice
• Load imposed by communication cable if provided.
b) Safety
• The ratio of strength of the metal to the stress under most unfavorable conditions of not less
than 3 when the installation is in service and 2.2 when the installation is not in operation.
• the trestles ~hall have a minimum safety factor of 1.5 times to· overturning displacement or
subsidence.
7.4.8. Crossings
• The crossing of routes, railways, waterways or other ropeways shall be avoided as far as
possible.
• When it is not possible, the clearances shall be determined and shall have protective structures
• The crossings and paralleling with railways, highways, ropeways or overhead electrical lines
shall be so done that no mutual discomfort results either in course of normal operation or
rescue operation or during installation operations.
7.4.9. Dangerous Area

In the proximity of airports or in areas where airplanes fly at low altitude or land frequently, the route
of the ·ropeway shall be adequately marked, taking into account any restriction· imposed by the
authority having jurisdiction over the airports.
References: [Ropeways in Nepal (Nepal Water Conservation Foundation (NWCF}, 2004); IS 5229
-1998; IS 9706-1997; and other internet resources]

53
Rural Road Engineering · Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha
Chapter 8 Bio-Engineering
8.1.Road Side Vegetation

Roadsides are an important recreational resource for activities such as walking, jogging etc.
Vegetation alongside roadsides replaces the natural vegetation lost in road construction or upgrading.
Turf-forming grass on .embankment slopes, earthen shoulders etc protect road embankment from
erosion. Trees and turf shall be well rooted and indigenous to locality.
Benefits:
• Reducing soil erosion and slope stabilization; .
• Delineate the edge of the road for safety purposes
• Providing water quality buffers to streams and rivers;
• Improving public awareness of nature conservation;
• Enhancing the aesthetic value of roadsides; and
8.2. Bio-engineering
Bioengineering techniques have proven to be very successful, cost effective, environmentally friendly
and sustainable in solving a range of slope instability problems, from simple to complex landslides in
Nepal. The Bio-engineering technique is an integrated engineering technique for slope stabilization.
Bio-engineering technique means is the use of living vegetation or vegetation parts, either alone
or in conjunction with civil engineering structures and non living plant materials, to reduce
shallow-seated instability and erosion on slopes. Other terms that have been used to describe this
process include: vegetation structures, bio-technical engineering, vegetative soil conservation, and
engineering biology. . ·
8 . 3. Advantages of bio-engineering solutions

• Protect all slopes against erosion
• Low-cost and lower long-term maintenance cost than traditional engineering methods.
• Environmental benefits to wildlife habitat, water quality, and aesthetics
• Improved strength over time as the root system develops and increases structural stability ·
• Improve surface drainage and reduce slumping ·
• Reduces shallow plane failure
• Compatible with environmentally sensitive sites or sites with limited access
• Socially and economically advantageous to local communities
8.4. Hydrological Functions of Vegetation

a) Rainfall Interception: The vegetation canopy intercepts raindrops and reduces their size and
mechanical strength, thus protecting the soil from erosion caused by rain splash.
b) Retardation: Above-ground residues, herbaceous, and some woody vegetation, increase 'surface
roughness and slow run-off velocity and therefore reduce erosion. Along a slope with a dense
vegetation cover, the speed of flow of the water can decrease up to V4 and the erosive action
can drop down to 1/16.
c) Restraint: The dense network of coarse and fine roots physically binds and restrains soil particles
in the ground, while the above ground portions filter sediment out of runoff.
d) Absorption: Roots absorb surface water and underground water thus reducing the saturation level
of soil and the concomitant risk of slope failure.
e) Infiltration: Plants and their residues help to maintain soil porosity and permeability, thereby
increasing retention and delaying the beginning of runoff.
f) Evapo-transpiration: Vegetation transpires water absorbed through the roots and allows it to
evaporate from the leaf surfaces into the air. Depletion of soil moisture by plants reduces the
quantity of run-off and delays onset of saturation. .
g) Stem flow: A portion of rainwater is intercepted by trees and bushes and flows along the branches
and stems to the ground at low velocity. Some rainwater is stored in the canopy and stems.

Water evaporates from

the leaf surfaces
.I
the air through transpiration
Figure 8.1; Hydrological function of Vegetation
8.5. Engineering functions of Vegetation

a. Catching: Loose materials which can roll down a slope can be controlled by planting vegetation.
The stems, trunks and roots can catch and hold loose material moving down the slope.
b. Armouring: When rain drop fall on the soil surface they detach soil particles and transport along
with water. The vegetation absorbs the energy of falling rain and, like a armour, protect the slope
against surface erosion from both rain splash effect and runoff.
c. Reinforcing: Vegetation reinforces the soil by providing a network of roots that increases the
geotechnical properties of the soils: resistance to shear, tensile strength and the cohesion.
d.. Supporting: Lateral earth pressure causes a lateral and outward movement of slope materials.
Large and mature plants can provide support and l?revent movement.
e. Anchoring: Vegetation anchor the surface material by extending roots through potential
failure planes into firmer strata below.
f. Draining: The planting configuration of the vegetation can enhanGe drainage or water
infiltration. and c::~r vegetation lines can "canalise" the water.
The root cylinder of trees

holds up the slope above
through buttressing and
arching.
Figure 8.2: Engineering (Mechanical) function of Vegetation
8.6. Categories of Bio-Engineering and their principles

a) Vegetative plantings are conventional plantings of grasses, shrubs, trees, bamboos, trufing etc in
order to prevent surface erosion. The living material is not used with structural meaning.
b) True Bio-Engineering (Structures using vegetation): The I?lant materials itself provide both
the vegetative and structural components of the design. E.g. Line of grasses or shrub cutting, live

55
staking, brush layers, live palisades, live contour line, fascines etc. These live materials
develop roots and sprouts foliage. The resulting vegetation becomes a major structural
component and the structure grows stronger with time.
c) Bio-Technical Techniques use living materials which are combined or integrated with
structural materials. E.g. Live crib walls, vegetated gabions etc. The structural elements provide
immediate resistance to sliding, erosion, and wash out. As vegetation becomes established, roots
invade and spread through the slope. Over time, the structural elements undergo to a progressive
loss of strength where as the vegetation increases in strength and functionality.
8.7.Guidelines for applying bio-engineering techniques for slopes)

. The following factors are to consider to determine the optimum bio-engineering technique:
a) Slope angle: Slopes of less than 30° usually need only mild soil conservation treatment whereas
those with a slope steeper than 45° usually demand more attention as they will have greater
erosion problems. · .
b) Slope length: Slope segments longer than 15 meters are usually open to greater risks in terms of
both gullying and deep-seated failures.
c) Material drainage: Those materials which have a high content of clay relative to sa:nd and silt in
the fine fraction tend to have poor internal drainage. They tend to be prone to shallow slumping if
too much moisture accumulates. In this case stabilization will require some kind of drainage in
· addition to protection. ..
d) Site moisture: The level of moisture across the entire site must be considered. The environmental
dryness of each site also needs to be assessed. These include:
• Altitude; topographicallocati~b; rain shadow effect; and
• Stoniness; soil moisture holding capacity; winds and ex-monsoon rains.
e) Technique(s): Table 1 gives guidelines for choosing bio-engineering teclmiques in Nepal. Table
recommends one or more technique for each of the given site types which are known to have been
successful on similar sites in the field ..
'Fable 8.1: Guidelines for Selecting Bioengineering Techniques
Slope Slope Material Site
Technique(s)
Angle Length Drainage Moisture
Damp Diagonal grass lines
Good
Dry Contour grass lines
1. Down slope grass lines and vegetated stone
>15m pitched rills or
Damp
Poor 2. Chevron grass lines and gegetated stone
-pitched rills '
Dry Diagonal grass lines
>45°
1. Diagonal grass lines or
Any
2.Jute netting and randomly planted grass
Good
1. Downslope grass lines, or
Damp
<15m 2.Diagonal grass lines
1. Jute netting and randomly planted grass,
Poor I
Dry 2. Contour grass lines, or
3. Diagonal grass lines
1. Horizontal bolster cylinders and shrub/tree
planting, or
2. Down slope grass lines and vegetated stone
Good Any
pitched rills, or
3. Site grass seeding, mulch and wide mesh jute
30°-45° >15m
netting
1. Herring bone bloster cylinders & shrub/tree
planting
Poor Any
2. Another drainage system and shrub/tree
planting

56 Rural Road Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kufr!ar Shrestha
1. Brush layers of woody cuttings or

2. Contour grass lines, or
3. Contour fascines, or
Good Any
4. Palisades of woody cuttings or
5. Site grass seeding, mulch and wide mesh jute
netting
1. Diagonal grass lines, or
<15m
2. Diagonal brush layers, or
3. Herringbone fascines and shrub/tree planting,
or
Poor Any
4. Herringbone bolster cylinders & shrub/tree
planting, or
5. Another drainage system and shrub/tree
planting·
1. Site seeding of grass and shrub/tree planting, or
Good Any
2. Shrub/tree planting
Any
1. Diagonal lines of grass and shrubs/trees or
Poor Any
1 < 30° 2. Shrub/tree planting
<15m Any Any Turfing and shrub/tree planting
1. Large bamboo planting or
Base of any slope
2. Large tree planting
Special Conditions
Any* Any* Any* Any* Site Seeding of shrubs/small trees**
>30° Any Any rocky material Site Seedin2 of shrubs/small tre~s
Jute netting and randomly planted
Any loose sand Good Any
2rass
Any Rato Mato Poor Any : Dia2onallines of 2rass and shrubs/trees
l.Large bamboo planting or
Gullies
Any gully 2.Live check dams, or
<=45°
3. Vegetated stone pitching
Notes:
• * Possible overlap with parameters described in the rows above.
• **May be required In combination with other techniques listed on the rows above .
• Techniques in bold type arepreferred '
88 .
- n·1o-engmeerm2 T ech.
-
. t e t o N epa an d th e1r
mques A.ppro{)_na . Strue t uraI C on t ri"b u f Ion
1. Planted grass lines :
• The planting of grass slips and cuttings is intended to create a strengthened slope
surface resistant to erosion.
• These techniques most commonly used in conjunction with standard mesh jute netting
1.a. Contour - Horizontal

• Grass slips (rooted cuttings), rooted stem cuttings or seedlings
• planted in lines across the slope along contour
• Provide a. surface cover, reduce the speed of runoff and catch debris, and 'armour' the slope.
1.b. Down slope- Vertical)

• Grass slips (rooted cuttings), rooted stem cuttings or seedlings are planted in lines running
down the slope
• Protect the slope with their roots, provide a surface cover and help to drairi surface water.
• a slope is allowed to develop gully in a controlled way

57
1.c. Diagonal Planting

• Grass slips (rooted cuttings), rooted stem cuttings or seedlings
• Planted in lines running diagonally across the slope
• Armour the slope with their roots and by providing a surface cover.
• limited functions of catching debris and drainin surface water
Contour Planting Downslo e Planting Diagonal Plantin

l.d.random • Grass slips (rooted cuttings} ,rooted stem cuttings or
planting) seedlings·
• Planted randomly on a slope (lOOnos per 100 sq.m)
• Armour and reinforce the slope with their roots and
by providing a surface cover. They also have a
limited function of catching debris.
2. Grass seeding: Grass is sown direct on to the site. It allows easy vegetation coverage of
large areas This techni ue is often used in con'unction with mulching and jute netting
3. Turfing: Turf, consisting of a shallow rooting grass and the soil it is growing in, is placed
on the slope. This technique Is commonly used on gentle embankment slopes. Its only
function Is armouring.
4. Shrub and tree lanting Shrubs or trees are planted at regular intervals on the slope.
As they grow, they create a dense network of roots in the soil.
The main engineering functions are to reinforce and, later, to
anchor the slope. In the long term, large trees can also be
used for slope support.
"'" ~· ,............,
««>»>.~··A'\
Shrub (or tree) seeds are applied directly to the site. This
technique alloJVS very .steep, rocky and unstable slopes to be
revegetated where cuttings and seedlings cannot be planted.
There are two methods: (1) direct sowing end (2)
broadcasting. In the first method, seeds are placed
individually, whereas the second Involves scattering the seed
"'·~ ~,., .... ... ,..
~
««>•>l.Y·x:>
all over the site. The main engint(ering functions are to
reinforce and, later, to anchor the slo e.
6. Large bamboo planting
Two methods: (i) traditional planting method or (ii) planting rooted culm cuttings
• Reinforce and support slopes, but do not have an anchoring function;
• can add weight (surcharge) high up on the slope.
7. Brush Layering • Woody (or hardwood) cuttings are laid
3-r, following the contour
/ / .· • a strong barrier, preventing the development
/~,:<- · of rills
,~·/" .
• catch debris moving down the slope, and to

armour and reinforce the slope.

8. Palisades • Woody (or hardwood) cuttings are planted

in lines across the slope, usually following
the contour.
• The main engineering functions are to catch
debris, and to armour and reinforce the
slope.
• In certain locations palisades can be angled
to give a drainage function.
9. Live check dams

• Large woody (or hardwood) cuttings are planted across a gully, usually following the
contour.
• The main functions are to catch debris, and to armour and reinforce the gully floor.
• In the longer term, a small step will develop in the floor of the gully.
' . '
•
10. Fascines . ·~,
Bundle of Hardwood
- g!.!!!Jlg§.~\1~§~\.K\n Nos:
X-Section Plan
• The word "fascine" means a bundle of sticks (Also called live contour wattling)
• bundles of live branches are laid in shallow trenches and buried
• - They put out roots and shoots, forming a strong line of vegetation.
• The main engineering functions are to catch deb,ris, and to armour and reinforce the slope.
11. Vegetated stone pitching • Slopes are strengthened by a combination of
dry stone walling or cobbling, and vegetation
planted in thegaps between the stones.·
• There are two distinct uses: (1) reinforced toe
walls; and (2) protected gully beds. T
• A very strong form of armouring.
12. Jute netting • A locally made geo-textile of woven jute

netting is placed on the slope.
• Standard mesh (40 x 40 mm), Wide mesh (150
x450mm)
• armouring it against erosion; enable seeds to
hold and germinate; holds moisture and
increasing infiltration;
• any jute mesh is temporary

59
8.9. Principles of species selection

The main principles of selecting plants for inclusion in a bio-engineering program are that they must
be~ ·
• known to grow well on similar sites;
• locally available in plentiful supply; and
• Serve the right purpose technically and in socio-economic terms.
• Species from outside (exotics) should be avoided
Species should be selected that:
• Have a good root system;
. • show an ability to grow well on harsh, stony sites;
• are common in the locality; and can be easily propagated.
Species should be rejected:
• are annual, not perennial (e.g. maize); ·
• have a poor, weak root system (e.g. banmara, tite pate); and
• have a shallow root system (e.g. dubo grass).
8.10. Preferred species for bio-engineering in Nepal

The Geo- Environmental Unit publication (1997c) gives comprehensive lists of species, running to
· 1 b.10-engmeenng
hundre ds of potent1a · · p1Wtts as sh own m
· T able 8 2 b eow.
1
Table 8.2: Preferred species for Bio-engineering
(Adapted from Geo-Environmental Unit, DOR, 1997)
Local
Botanical Name Altitude Sites Best p~opagation
Name
Grasses
Amliso Thysanolaena maxima Terai-2000m Varied Slip Cuttings
Badiyo Eulaliopsis binata Terai -1500m Hot& dry Slip Cuttings/seeds
Stem/Slip
Dhonde N eyrauda reynaudiana Terai- 500m Hot& dry
Cuttings/seeds
Kans ·' Saccharum spontaneum Tera:i -2000m Hot & dry to moist Slip Cuttings
KataraKhar Themeda species Terai -2000m Varied Slip Cuttings/seeds
Cymbopogon
Khar 500-2000m Hot & dry; varied Slip Cuttings/seeds
microtheca
Khus V etiver zizanioides Terai -1500m Varied Slip Cuttings
Narkat Arundo clonax Terai -1500m Hot & dry; varied Stem/slip Cuttings
Padang Himalayacalamus 1500--
Moist Large Slip Cuttings
Bans hookerianus 2000m
Phurke Arunduella nepalensis 700-2000m Varied; stony Slip Cuttings/seeds
Sito N eyraudia arundinacea Terai -1500m Varied Slip Cuttings/seeds
Tite nigalo Drepanostachyum 1000-
Varied Large Slip Cuttings
bans intermedium 2000m
Shurbs and Small trees
Areri Acacia pennata 500-2000m Hot & dry; harsh Seeds/polypots
Terai-
Assuro Adhatoda vasica Varied Hardwood Cuttings
lOOOm
Terai-
Bainsh Salix tetrasperma Moist Hardwood Cuttings :
2700m
Bhujetro Butea minor 500 -1500m Hot & dry; harsh Direct seeding
Dhanyero Woodfordia fruticosa Terai- 1500m Hot & dry; harsh Seeds/polypots
Colebrookea "
Dhusun Terai -1000m Hot & dry; harsh Seeds/polypots
oppositifolia
KandaPhul Lantana camara Terai-l750m Hot& dry Hardwood Cuttings
Kettuke Agave americana Terai- 2400m Hot& dry Root suckers
Keraukose Indigofera atrotpurpurea Terai-2000m Hot & dry; harsh Seeds/polypots

60
Rural Road Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ·
Namdi phul Colquhounia coccinea 1000- 2000m Varied Hardwood Cuttings

Varied; sunny
Saruwa/Bih
Ipomoea fistulosa Terai- 1500m sites; stands water Hardwood Cuttings
aya
logging
Simali Vitex negundo Terai -1750m Hot & dry; varied Hardwood Cuttings
Tilka Wendlandia puberula Terai -1500m Hot and dry; harsh Seeds/polypots
Large clum ~ing bamboos
Choya/tama Dendrocalamus
300 -2000m Moist Clum Cuttings
bans hamiltonii
Dhanu bans Bambusa balcooa Terai- 1600m Varied Clum Cuttings
Kalo bans Dendrocalamus hookeri 1200 -2500m Varied Clum Cuttings
Mal bans Bambusa nutans Terai -1500m DryNaried Traditional method
Nibha/ghopi Ampelocalamus
1200 -2000m Varied Traditional method
/lyas bans patellaris
Tharu bans Bambusa nutans Terai -1500m Varied Traditional method
Large trees
Bakaino Melia azedarach Terai-1800m Hot & dry; harsh Seeds/polypots
Varied; dry to
Chilaune Schima wallichii 900-2000m Seeds/polypots
moist
Seeds/hardwoods
Dabdabe Garuga pinnata Terai - 1300m Varied and dry
cuttings upto 2m
Gobra salla Pinus wallichiana 1800- 3000m Dry; varied Seeds/polypots
Kalo siris Albizia lebbeck Terai- 1200m Hot & dry; harsh Seeds/polypots
Khanyu Hot and dry; -
Ficus semicordata Terai - 2000m Seeds/polypots
(khosro) varied
Khayer Acacia catechu Terai- 1000m Hot & dry; harsh Seeds/polypots
Varied; best in ·
Lankuri Fraxinus floribunda 1200- 2700m Seeds/polypots
moist sites
Varied and dry;
Painyu Prunus cerasoides 500-2400m Seeds/polypots
stony
Seeds/hardwood
Phaledo Erythrina species 900 -3000m Varied
.cutting upto 2m
Rani (khote) I
Pinus roxburghii 500 -1950m Hot & dry; varied Seeds/polypots

salla
Rato siris Albizia julibrissin 800- 30+lOm Varied and moist Seeds/polypots
Seto siris Albizia procera Terai- 1350m Moist Seeds/polypots
Seeds/polypots/
Sisau Dalbergia sissoo Terai- 1400m Varied
stump cuttings
Utis Alnus nepalensis 900-2700m Varied and moist Seeds/polypots
8.11. Bio-Engineering Maintenance Activities

a. Routine Maintenance (continuous, seasonal or regular)
• Protection of sites by people and animal to avoid damage
• Weeding - removal of unwanted vegetation
• Mulching·- placing mulch around seedlings to keep the soil cool and moist
• Grass cutting to encourage growth and new shoots
• Spraying water during dry times
b. Recurrent Maintenance (once per year)
• Thinning of shrubs and trees to decrease density of vegetation
• Repair of vegetation structures
• Vegetation enrichment i.e. planting more grasses, shrubs or trees
• Removal of unwanted trees and shrubs

61

Chapter 9: Green Road
9.1 Concept of Green Road

Green road concept is construction/maintenance of an environmentally sound, low cost, participatory,
technically appropriate, labor based rural road or trail construction/maintenance methodology. The green
road concept focuses on conserving the delicate mountain ecology, in particular the protection of
vegetation cover as means of soil conservation. "Green road is low cost, low volume, fair weather earthen
road constr~cted by using local resources and technology."
9.1.1 Goal and objectives of Green roads

• Development of a rural road to meet minimum traffic requirement for district
• Involvement of local authorities and stakeholders
• Decentralization while promoting sense of local level road ownership
• Promote environmentally friendly road construction and maintenance technology
• Optimize use of local resources (labor, material and finance)
• Short term off farm employment opportunities
9.1.2 Basic Principles
A) Political and Strategic Principle

1) Participatory Rural Road Network Planning
Decisions on rural road network are made within the concerned district on the basis of a consensus,
respecting the views of a broader number of stakeholders. Local decision maker will identify needs and
priorities as per available local resources and District Transport Master Plan (DTMP) is prepared.
2) 'Preservation of the Fragile Mountain Environment
The Green Road technology has been developed as an approach to build mountain roads that causes
·minimum environmental damages in order to reduce future risks of road destruction by recurrent
landslides or increased erosion. In this approach, minimize disruption of vegetation cover along the road
corridor, reutilize local material such as excavated materials, use of mass balancing concept and avoiding
rock blasting as much as possible.
3) Optimization of Supportive natural forces and avoiding destructive natural forces
The approach calls for a phased construction method to, which avoids management of large excavated
mass and natural compaction through the monsoQiil season. Vegetation cover prevents excessive soil
erosion and is developed on barren earth slopes. Destructive natural forces are minimized. The approach
aims at dispersed drainage system by providing the outward slope in road surface.
B) Technological and Technical Principles

4) Promotion of appropriate labor based technology
Green Roads aim at using labour-based methods for construction. Simplified construction techniques
(such as simple structures, etc.) are applied using mainly local construction materials (excavated stone,
chips, soil, plants etc.), and using locally produced tools and simple equipment (i.e. wheelbarrows and
drilling equipment, etc.). The indigenous knowledge is used for field surveys. Simplified and standardized
designs, drawings, and estimates and procedures are used to the maximum extent possible.
5) Labor-based Construction Methods

Labor-based methods are currently the suitable and economic in Nepal. They generate massive local
employment opportunities thorough promotion of labor-based road construction. Green Roads projects
are integrated into "poverty alleviation" programs. Green roads are ideally constructed and maintained in
the agricultural slack season so that they generate significant off farm employment.

62

C) Organizational Principle
6) Performance-based Work Management
Rather than paying workers at a fixed daily rate, they are paid on the basis of the amount of work they
accomplish. This provides a major incentive to work more so that they earn more. Small contract work
assignments are used only complex structural works that require external construction material,
equipment and professional skill.
D) Institutional and Administrative Principle

7) Decentralization oflmplementation, Decision Making & Road Ownership
Nepal's decentralization effort is supported with Green Roads approach. Planning and management of
Green roads is done by local coordination committee at the district level. Road ownership and
maintenance responsibility is transferred to users committee. They are perceived as locally owned which
helps to maintain road. All necessary decisions are taken locally by users on the basis of consensus.
E) Social and Socio-economic Principles

8) Integration of Local Circumstances into Implementation
Local conditions are integrated into Green road construction approach. Local employment generation is
one of the key aspects of green road concept. The Construction period is aligned to the agricultural slack
season. Women are highly encouraged to have active participation in decision-making as well as
construction works and are equally paid as men.
9) Promotion of Local Capacity Building and Self-help Efforts _

A self-help mentality and local skill development are two positive side benefits of Green Roads. Through
the construction process, training for people are conducted at various levels including district officials,
local representatives, supervisors, group leaders, masons and workers. Many of Green Road projects have
integrated savings and credit schemes into the project. They have been able to leverage their earnings
from construction into more sustainable, long-term income generating activities.
F) Economic Principle
10) Low cost, high benefit
A high Benefit to Cost Ratio through improved road access to a large beneficiary population is achieved
with Green roads by accepting a simpler design standard. While other conventionally constructed mid-
hills rural roads cost considerably more, Green roads cost less.
G) Financial and Fiscal Principles

11) Collective Financing and Transparency
Green Roads mobilizes various local resources. Local construction materials are available free of cost.
VDC, DDC and donor contributions are routinely used to fund Green roads. Several stakeholders pool
their contributions, and manage them effectively as one fund. Public awareness on the utilization of funds
is promoted through public audits and cost transparency. Labor payments are made in public and are
based on work measurements.
12) Sustainable Maintenance

Maintenance is promoted through clear local ownership and local resource generation. Some green roads
charge user fee (toll) to Transporters. VDC/DDC annual grant funds are also made available. Roads are
generally closed during the monsoon to prevent excessive wear and tear of the road surface. During the
district transport master planning process, the size of the network is scaled to what the district can afford
to maintain.

63
Rural Road Engineering .Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

9.1.3 Why Green road approach "a sustainable approach"

The green road approach considered both environments, social and economic issues of the country.
Green road approach is sustainable because it is environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable.
9.1.3.1 Environmentally Sustainable

It is environmentally sustainable because it minimize slope cutting, preserve natural vegetative cover,
use of mass balancing concept, apply environmental friendly construction methods, consider proper
water management, use proper Environmental appraisal, and use of Bio-engineering for slope
stabilization.
a) Minimize slope cutting: Green road avoids the conventional road construction practice of
developing the road width by full cutting and throwing the excavated material. Slope. cutting is as
small as possible and box cutting is avoided as much as possible. Therefore cut slope are much more
stable.
b) Mass balancing concept: The mass balancing concept is used in the green road approach. The
excavated materials are used for fill on the valley side by constructing toe wall. Excavated stone
blocks are stockpiled and re-used for constructing stone structures such as dry stone walls in the later
phase.
c) Environment Friendly Construction methods: Green road is constructed in phases with the
objective of conserving the fragile mountain slope by minimizing the risk of landslide and soil
erosion. The phase wise construction help in assessing the local natural resources for utilization in
construction phase. Rock blasting is not allowed in Green road approach. Instead a simple method
like Chiseling and Hammering, Heating and Breaking and Drilling is done to cut the rocks. Heavy
) equipments which consumes extensive amount of the fuels are no used.
d) Proper water management: Green road approach adopts dispersed water management to avoid
concentration of water along the road surface. Natural slope is used to disperse water towards the
valley in a controlled manner. The road surface i~ generally provided with a 5% outward slope so
that the surface runoff flows out of the road surface downhill.
e) Environment appraisal: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is done to assess the
likely impact on the environment and to offer ~commendations. The EIA includes documentation
of environmental baseline information of the project influence area, analysis of positive and
negative impacts, recommendation of appropriate preventive and curative measures and
environmental and social management plan .
t) Bi<iengineering: Green road approach incorporates bioengineering as one of the important tools of
environment conservation and slope stabilization. Suitable plants are collected and assessed for the
bioengineering purpose. The local communities and farmers and landowners in the road corridors are
trained for the use of the bioengineering.
9.1.3.2 Sustainable Communities

One of the important aspects of the Sustainability is the sustainable communities.
a) Poverty Alleviation through Income and employment generation: Green road brings employment
opportunity for local people. People are directly benefited through the improved access to the road
network and other support services like access· to hospital, markets and other services. New
economic activities will emerge such as opening of retail shops. Long-term off-farm
employment opportunities for local people are created such as maintaining existing roads, building

64

new roads, driving vehicles, and working in automobile workshops etc. These activates will help in
reducing poverty.
b) Local level capacity building: Various levels of training for skill development are provided
during the construction process and trained local people become a source of local manpower for
neighboring road projects, and for later maintenance, rehabilitation, and upgrading works. Self help
group such as saving and credit groups are formed for off farm income generating activities. These
groups are able to upgrade themselves for sustainable livelihood even after the withdrawal of the
project support.
c) Social equality and gender balance: The green road approach emphasizes on the good
participation of the indigenous, low caste and disadvantage group. Likewise Green road concept
promote the women participation in all areas. The project provides the equal opportunities for men
and women and integrates women into the decision making process.
9.1.3.3 Sustainable Economy

Another important aspect of the Sustainability is the sustainable economy.
a) Sustainable economic development: Green road concept not only brings the off farm employments
to the large number of the people but develop mechanism for other income generating activities.
Local people working in green road projects encouraged to save part of their income. People can
borrow loan from the saving pool which they can reinvest in other off farm income generating
activities. Easy access to markets and better access to facilities such as health, education,
communication is vastly possible after the development of the roads. Thus, green road will
bring long-term development.
b) Optimum utilization of local resources: Green road concept encourages the optimum uses of the
local resources in the form of the local labor, loca1 materials, local tools and equipments, and local
finance. A re-utilization of locally available natural resources obtained from excavation is strongly
utilized in the construction process. Local indigenous skill and knowledge are optimally utilized
which makes the road construction not only cheaper but also maintainable.
c) Cost reduction: Green road projects adopt the cost cutting measures. It minimizes the use of
expensive items. Cost-cutting measures include using locally available workers and materials instead
of bringing in technicians and construction materials such as cement and steel.
d) Foreign Exchange Control: Road construction using Green road approach rely on the optimal
utilization of the local resources hence it contribute in the maintaining the foreign exchange reserve
of the country. Negligible amount are returned back to industrial world as green road uses negligible
amount of imported goods. _
9.2 Suitability of Green Road

Green is suitable for the following condition and situations:
• The places having low traffic movement
• Adequate availability of construction material in or nearby site
• Availability of labor and skilled human resource required for construction of road
• Green road is best suited in fragile mountainous· environment and geologically weak locations
• The location where is no excessive cutting or filling, possibility of mass balance
• Minimum or no demand of explosive of the rock cutting
9.3 Components of Green Road

The main components are:
i.) Alignment and Carriage way
ii.) Proper water management (Diagonal drain, catch drain, side drain, cross drain such as
culvert, causeway etc)
iii.) Labor based Construction Technology and Equipments

65

iv.) Slope stabilization (Simple retaining structure such as dry stone wall, gabion wall etc. and
Bioengineering)
v.) Poverty alleviation and capacity building programs
9.4 Design Standards for Green Road

The standard helps to maintain the quality of work and control and optimum utilization of the quantity.
Different parameters of the green roads that are in practice are standardized for the designing the roads
are summarized in the table below·
Recommended Values
Remarks
S.No Design Parameter Village District
Unit
Road Road
1 Annual Average Daily Traffic AADT 20 40
2 Design Speed Kmph 20 30
3 Number of Traffic Nos 1 1
Maximum Axle load (2 wheels)
4 Ton 6 8
(Design vehicles -light bus, light truck & tractor trailer)
5 Right of way m 30 30
6 Formation width m 4 4.5
Additional width in curves with radius below 20m (extra
7 m 2 2
widening)
8 Carriage way width m 3 3
9 Total shoulder width (Both sides) m 1 1.5
10 Maximum average longitudinal gradient % 7 7
Maximum longitudinal gradient
11 % 12 12
(Special surface treatment and side drains are required)
12 Maximum length of the sections above 7% m 300 300
Camber/Outward cross slope
(If longitudinal gradient ofthe road is more than 7%,
13 camber is provided. For longitudinal gradient less than % 5 5
7% and outward cross slope of5% towards the valley
side shall be provided) -
14 Minimum horizontal curve radius m 12.5 12.5
15 Minimum horizontal curve radius in hairpin bend m 10 10
16 Average number ofbypasses Nos 2 2
Size ofbypasses (LxB)
17 mXm 20x2 30x2
(Located at sites visible for the drivers to stop).
18 Minimum Culvert Size mm 600 600
Opening period of the road for vehicular traffic
19 Month 8 9
Fair Weather Road
9.5 Construction Technology and equipment used in green road .
Green road adopts and accepts the Labor based, Environment-friendly, Participatory approach (LEP) of
road construction. Use of heavy mechanical equipment is avoided during the construction of green road.
Local technology is used as is in form or with the some modification if any requires. Modification of
existing technology helps to increase the performance of the equipment and method that are already with
us. The labor based construction technology is thus accepted to avoid the large mass cutting and filling.

66

Locally available instrument and equipment are during the construction. E.g. spade, pick, shovel, sickle
etc. Rock cutting is also done with the local technologies as far as possible.
9.5.1 Construction Technology
A. Phased Construction
Phased construction is one of the approaches to build the road in different phases. Unlike National
highways where the tracks are constructed to full width at the first, this sort of phased construction helps
the local people and technicians to know the geology of the place better and can also forecast the
necessary preparations to be made in the future regarding construction of structures, changing the
alignment, number of labor gang required, financial resources, etc.
The main objectives of the phased construction can be pointed out as follows:
• Conserve the fragile mountain slope by minimizing the risk of landslides and soil erosion
• Build a consensus on the selected road alignment among local people relevant stakeholders by
having interaction
• Identify critical sections and make necessary adjustment if required.
• Assess the natural resources available (e.g. soil, stones, plants, etc) for construction works.
The 4 phases of a new Rural road are as follows:
• Phase I: a trail along the future road alignment
• Phase II: a track created by the gradual widening of the trail
• Phase III: a road including retaining structures, water management structures and bio-engineering
• Phase IV: road surface compaction and construction of road surface draining system including
bio-engineering
Phase 1: Opening of a Trail: It is the first actual road I

construction activity in the rural road. The main task under this t
phase is to open a trail about 1.25 m width along the identified I! w."' 1L!Xk'tti -· t;ili'm!'
tt~~4MW<~ij.)
alignment. By opening the trail, it gives a fair idea about the
~~.
alignment fixation and finalization and also the rough idea of
places where retaining structures and cross drainage structures are
.:r;:-
required. The approximate work input in this phase is about 5%.
Temporary retaining structures are also provided during. this phase.
Phase II: Gradual Widening of Trial to a Tractr! In this phase Ffg : Phali>~ 1 - Op.eni11g: Of A Tr;all
the 1.25m trails are widened to 2.5m tracks along the finally fixed alignment. During fair weather
condition, the tracks can be used by agricultural equipment. The approximate work input of this phase is
about 25%.
Phase III: Road construction: After the natural compaction of the track over the period of one monsoon,
Phase 3 is implemented. In this phase the tracks are widened to 4.5m width to bring the track to the
w,, .. :2J!Om=;l;;~
~lltlll¥!2i\Q~)

67
Rural Road Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep KumarShrestha

required rural road standards. This phase has the highest work input of about 40%, since the construction
of retaining structures and water management structures are implemented in this phase. Bio-:-engineering
tool is also applied in this phase as a preventive measure.
Phase IV: Finalization of road and bioengineering

This is the final phase of the rural road which brings the final shape of the road with all necessary
features. Completing the passing bays and water management structures, improving the retaining
structures are the features of this phase. Bio-engineering is also done at this point as a preventive measure
during early monsoon period. The approximate work input in this phase is about 30%.
B. Staged Construction
The staged construction in rural road means to construct the final road i.e. a double layer bituminous road.
As the fund is available, the 4.5m seasonal road is upgraded with improvement over the road and the
structure to an all-weather road. The further construction will be carried out with the rural road principles.
The decision to upgrade the fair- weather earthen road will base on the factors like:
• Consensuses reached among local people and ail relevant stakeholders
• Relevant studies justifying the need of upgrading
• The traffic volume increases and the existing rural roads are not possible to accommodate the
increase traffic volume
• The resources needed for construction and maintenance are available and sufficient.
If the aforementioned criteria are fulfilled, then the following stages of construction are carried out which
is more or less close to DaR's concept of Staged construction.
Stage 1: Fair-weather Earthen Road: A low-cost, low volume, fair weather and single-lane earthen
rural road with necessary by passes.
Stage II: Gravel road: A road which can pass higher volume of traffic, with improved geometries. The
road is graveled, cross-sections are improved by widening and the retaining and water management
structures are also improved and updated.
Stage III: all weather Bituminous Road: The road is finally brought to all weather road with
bituminous surface with further improved curves, culverts and bridges and better provisions of retaining
and water management structures.
C. Sectorial construction
When the length of rural road is long, it may take a long time for the construction work to finish and the
vehicles to ply on it. This problem can be solved by sectorial construction. After finalizing the road
alignment, the road is divided into sectors of about 10 km. Each sector consists of sufficient labor gangs,
technicians, and supervisors for execution of work. A separate technical team is formed in each sector,
which is responsible for group formation, organization and management of works, supervision,
monitoring and training works. Construction works are carried out simultaneously in all sectors, thus
speeding up the work. For the sectorial construction to be carried out; the following factors to be fulfilled:
• Enough funds should be available for construction and disbursement of these funds should be
timely
• Sufficient labor groups should be available and they should be properly mobilized
• There should be enough technical team, so that there is no interruption in work at any point
• Imported materials like gabion, wires, etc should be available in the site before hand for
uninterrupted work
• Well experienced team providing engineering and social services should be available.

68

9.5.2 Elements of Green Roads Construction Methods

i) Training
Different types of training are required for the different levels of stakeholders. The training component
comprises theoretical as well as on-the-job training. Training is provided on all major aspects of the
Green road construction technology, for instance, mass balancing, rock cutting, construction of soft
retaining and water management structures, preventing bio-engineering measures etc.
ii) Labor-based construction

Local labor resource is under-utilized during the agriculture slack period. These Human resources can be
properly utilized if the local people are mobilized for construction activities during off-farm season. The
major advantages are:
• Local people can get additional income generation opportunities, which is a step towards poverty
alleviation for them.
• Skills learned by the local people during the construction can be later utilized for the road
maintenance activities
• Labor is mostly employed from the nearby villages along the road corridor up to two hours
walking distance.
iii) Rock Cutting Techniques

Rock cutting is actually one of the time consuming and expensive tasks encountered in the road
construction. The green road concept does not support blasting of rocks. The suitable methods of rock
cutting have been experienced as follows:
• Chiseling and hammering: For the soft rock such as sandstone and schist, which crumble generally
in to pieces, cutting can be done manually by chiseling and hammering.
• Heating and Breaking: Medium hard rocks such as limestone and dolomite can be broken down in
to the pieces by heating breaking. Rocks are heated by using fire woods. After heating for few hour
water is poured on it, which will develop cracks on the rock. Simple tools such as frog and feather,
crowbar chisel and hammer can be used for finally breaking the rocks.
• Drilling and Breaking: Hard rocks like granite and gneiss can be broken down into pieces by
drilling and breaking. A suitable mechanized drilling machine and simple tools like crow bar,
hammer and chisel are can be used for developing cracks in the rock and eventually breaking it.
iv) Haulage and Transportation of Excavated material

Haulage and transportation of construction matertal is one of the most important road construction
activities. The methods generally adopted for the transportation of materials in Green road construction
are as follows:
• Manual haulage: Carrying baskets (Dokos and Thunse) and Jute bags, which are available at the
local market, are used for transportation
• Haulage by Wheelbarrows: Wheelbarrows with pneumatic tires are mostly used for the
transportation of soil and stones. These are found to be very useful and efficient for transportation of
soil and stone up to 1OOm distance. ' .
• Transportation by Vehicles: Transportation of stones can be using tractors-trailers in accessible
areas. These are low-cost type of construction equipment and thus can be recommended particularly
for transportation of stone gravel in larger quantities over distance more than 1OOm.
v) Construction material
Locally available natural resources are used. The re-utilization of material obtained froin the excavation is
strongly recommended. Excavated soil, rocks and top soil and vegetation are the primary construction
materials for green road, as:
• Excavated material can be utilized for back filling and widening the roads

69
Rural Road Engineering . Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

• Stone can be used for construction of dry stone masonry walls and gabion walls, and water
management structures.
• Gravel can be used for spot surface improvement of critical (steep, moist) road sections.
• Vegetation and topsoil can be used for turfing and re-vegetation of the hill slopes.
vi) Use of Flexible retaining and Cross drainage structure

Construction of flexible soft structure compared to the conventional hard structures such as cement
concrete. Flexible soft structures are comparatively ~heap, easy to construct and relatively easy to
maintain. These soft structures can be listed as:
• Dry stone masonry retaining wall (max height 3.0 m),
• Gabion retaining wall up to maximum 15m height.
• Composite walls with gabion walls at bottom and dry stone wall at top.
• Gabion check dam for gully control works.
• Dry stone masonry side drains.
• Catch drains and French drains for road slope drainage.
• Dry stone cause way and dry stone rip rap for slope protection.
vii) Natural Compaction

Construction activities are carried out during the dry season and the road is allowed to settle down over
monsoon period after each construction phase. However, manual compaction methods such as ramming
can be applied, if critical road sections are encountered, speedy construction is needed, and enough funds
are available.
9.5.3 Tools and Equipment

Green road concept supports the promotion and use oflocally available tools, primarily agricultural tools,
suited to the labors for their day-to-day works and environment. The following table gives approximate
number of tools and equipment required for a typical green road construction site of 10 Km length during
a period of3 years for 25labor groups with 15 laborers per group, i.e., 375laborers.
9.6 Agencies involved in Nepal
• Government Agencies:
o Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads
o Department of Roads """
o DDCs (District Development Committees)
o VDCs (Village Development Committees)
• INGOs
o GIZ (German Agency for International Coopearation) - Rural community and Infrastructure
Works (RCIW) 1996-2007
o HELVETAS
o Swiss Agency for Cooperation and Development - District Road Support Program (DRSP I, II, &
III) 1999-2002
o ICIMOD
o World Bank- Rural Access Improvement & Decentralization Program (RAIDP) 2005-10
o ADB (Asian Development Bank) - Rural Infrastructure Development Program (RIDP) 1995-2005
o DFID (Department for International Development, UK) - Rural Access Program (Phase I & II);
Decentralized Finance and Development Program (DFDP) 2000-2007
o UNCDF (United Nations Capital Development Fund) - Decentralized Finance and Development
Program (DFDP) 2000:..2007
o WFP (World Food Program)- Rural community and Infrastructure Works (RCIW) 1996-2007

70

• NGOs
o DEPROSC- Nepal (Development Project Service Center)- Mule Trial in Jajarkot
o RRN (Rural Reconstruction Nepal)
Table: Tools Used in Green Road Construction
Approx. Approx. Amount Approx. Amount
s. Name of tools in English/Nepali Weight per required per labor required per Site (in
No.
Piece (in kg) group (in no.) no.)
1 Aluminum water vessel20 litre (Gagro) 2.75 1 25
2 Axe (Bancharo) local made 2.50 1 25
3 Bamboo wicker baskets (Doko I Thunse with 2.0 18 450
4 Chisel (ChinnolRino pin 2.00 4 100
5 Crowbar (medium) 1 1/8" dia 4.50 1 25
6 Crowbar (large Gal) 11.00 1 25
7 Crowbar (small Gal) 1"dia 7.20 1 25
8 Crowbars (extra 118") for chisel 9.50 2 50
9 First Aid kit box with medicines and 3.00 - 5 boxes
10 Frog and Feathers 0.50 3 75
11 Hammer (Ghan) large (10 lb) 4.50 1 25
12 Hammer (Ghan) small (5 Ib) 2.27 1 25
13 Hammer (Ghan) medium (2 lb) 1.00 2 50
14 Large tarpolene sheet (Tripal) 2 - 20
15 Mason's hammer (Mairi) 1.00 4 100
16 Mason's nylon thread (3 mm dia.) 1 2 50
17 Nylon rope in coils of 40m (6mm dia.) 1.50 2 50
18 Pan (Karai) 1.70 2 50
19 Pick (Gainti Tala) 2.50 6 150
20 Pipe level (3" dia. polvthene pipe 10m lonq) 0.25 - 10
21 Plastic Muo 0.10 2 50
22 Pliers for gabion crates (Penchisl 0.8 - 5
23 Plumb bob (Ghanti) 0.25 2 50
-~
24 Shovei (steei handie indian kiwi) 2.40 6 150
25 Sickle (Ansu or Hansiya locally made) 1.50 1 25
26 Spade (prefer local made Kuto or Kodalo) 1.75 6 ISO
27 Spirit Level (Pani Level) 0.2 . - 10
28 Tape (Phitta) 30m 0.75 - 10
29 Tape (Phitta) 5 m 0.15 - 15
30 Terai Spade (Faruwa) 2.00 2 50
31 Trowel (Jyawal) 0.3 - 10
32 Wheelbarrow (Thela Gadi) pneumatic 25.00 2 50
33 Spares for wheel barrow 5.00 - -
Equipments
34 Calculator 0.5 - 5
35 Computer, printer and 10 - 1
36 Drilling Machine with accessories ·25 - 1

Chapter 10
Agencies for Rural Road Development in Nepal
1. Overview of Agencies
DoLIDAR: Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agriculture Road (DoLIDAR)

undertake planning of local-level rural roads, irrigation and river control, water supply and sanitation,
suspension bridge, housing and building, rural energy and others under the ministry in co-ordination
with local authorities. It assists local authorities in preparing resources maps, periodic plans and
undertaking technical studies. Also, it helps for enhancing technical capability of the local authorities.
DoR: Department of Road (DoR) under take task of road development to link various geographical
regions and economic zones with surface transport, waterways, railways and ropeways. DoR may
provide heavy equipments for the construction and other technical assistance to local authorities for
road development.
DDCs and VDCs: These are local authorities responsible for planning, designing, construction and
maintenance of rural roads. Rural road development is carried out through user committee. User
committee is elected through the VDC connected by rural road and also from villages from which
labors are supplied. DDC chairman is chairman for the user committee. DoR may provide heavy
equipments for the construction and other technical assistance.
2. National Transport Policy
National Transport Policy has been introduced to provide transport facility in the remote and
backward region as soon as possible from the minimum source, make the existing transport
infrastructure organized and reliable and develop the transport system of international standard of
foreign countries.
2.1. Objective:
To develop a reliable, cost effective, safe facility oriented and sustainable transport system that
promotes and sustains the economic, social, cultural and tourism development ofNepal as a whole.
2.2. Strategies:
For the attainment of the above through and objecU,ves the following strategies will be followed:
(i) Take responsibility of transport structure to be constructed from the central level.
(ii) Strong decentralized governance system,
(iii) The development and promotion of transport system from the local level itself.
(iv) Maximum private Sector involvement
2.3. Policy:
The following policies shall be followed in order to attain the above mentioned objectives:
• The construction and development of transport infrastructure in central and local level as per
the short term, medium term and long term master plan of the transport infrastructure
• The central level government plays role as supporter of the local level government for
development of transport infrastructure
• High priority shall be given to completing the construction of roads connecting all
75 District Headquarters of the Country to the main road network.
• Development of the East-West Mid-Hills Highway by constructing artd improving the
component Feeder and District Roads
• Roads shall be constructed, to connect the northern border

• The maintenance and repair of the existing· transport infrastructure to ensure appropriate
service levels
• The local level transport infrastructure shall be constructed and maintained from the local
level itself.
• Priority shall be given to maintain 'and upgrade of transport infrastructure of the central
level on the basis of traffic density and economic consideration.
• The construction, improvement and management of the means of transport shall be done in
harmony with the traffic safety and environmental effect.
• The skill and working capacity of the concerned labour force shall be enhanced.
• The expansion of the solar and electricity powered throughout the country
• Cross border, regional and sub-regional transport and transit facilities shall be further
developed and expanded.
• Improving public transport service and to reducing harmful emissions arising from public
transport operations.
• Promote Private sector involvement in the development and expansion of service of the
transport infrastructure.
• The provide a minimum level of transport inf~astructure in the remote areas
• Foreign loans will not be utilized unless its positive economic feasibility
• To develop various mean of transportation and infrastructure in a coordinated manner.
3. Institutional Structure (Arrangements):

• A Road Transport Authority, by merging the Department of Roads and Department of
Transport Management, shall be established in order to make the road transportation and
transport management self-governing and self-reliance.
• A National Transport Board is constructed subject to connecting all authorities relating to
transport including civil aviation.'
• The construction, operation and maintenance of local roads to be done under local
development programs.
• The road operated by the local bodies may be included into the central system if it gets
feasible from in terms of traffic density, standard of service and self-reliance
• Government subsidy and cross subsidy shall be stopped
• Fully handing over all infrastructure of the local transport system to the local bodies within 3
years
• To attract and encourage foreign and· native private sector to construct/build
airports, roads, waterways and rope w~ys like transport structure through the process of
Build Operate and Transfer (BOT), Operate and Transfer (OT) and Build, own, operate and
Transfer (BOOT).
4. National Transport Policy on Rural Road

• They are road within district, road within village, main trails, mule track, and village trails
and tracks.
• These roads are not the parts of the central road system and the project formulation,
construction, maintenance and repair have to be done by local institution
• Roads connecting one or more main development center or connecting VDC's directly to the
headquarters of the same district or other district or through important road system shall be
classified as district road. ·,
• The road connecting main agricultural production centers within a district shall be classified
as 'Agricultural Road'.
• The help for the work as: formulation of plan, coordination on foreign resource management,
technical cooperation or coordination with central level, to local authority shall be provided
by the Ministry of Local Development 'or the Department of Local Infrastructure
Development and Agricultural Road.

• Private sectors shall be encouraged to construct and operate rope ways in the areas where
construction of road is dangerous in environmental and geographical view or where operating
road transport is comparatively costly.
• The construction and maintenance of main trails and tracks shall be undertaken by local
institutions with the maximum utilization of local skills, labour and materials through public
participation.
5. Five Year Plan
Nepal has adopted a planned approach to development of the country. Planned endeavor of
development was initiated with the inception of the First Five Year Plan in 1956. The Ninth Plan is
under implementation. The Ninth Plan has initiated a long term concept for development in the
country. The plan targeted to achieve sustainable growth by fully utilizing and investing available
resources in infrastructure and social sectors. It is targeted to a:freve 6 percent per annum growth
rate in the Ninth Plan, on average of 7.2 percent during the 20 year period.
5.1 Current strategy

• To maintain road network effectively and efficiently (Asset Preservation)
• To provide access to all District Headquarters to strengthen social, economic,
administrative linkages
• To improve existing access to District Headquarters for safe, reliable and cost effective
travel
• To develop roads to supplement 'Poverty Reduction Program and to improve accessibility
in Mid- hills and Terai
5.2 Long Term Strategy ( 20 Years Road Master P~an)

• All weather motor able access to all 75 districts.
• Doubling the length of SRN with target road density of 1.5 Km per 1000 people from 0.75
Km per 1000 people
• Ensuring more than 95 %of SRN in a good/fair condition.
• Road access within 4 hours in the Hills and 2 hours in the Terai.
• Establishment of Autonomous Road Agency to manage Strategic Road network
• Establishment and functioning of monitoring system for effective service delivery through
an annual user's satisfaction survey
-
• Substantial reduction in Road accident b): adopting enhanced safety

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1

Rural Road Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

1.0 Planning and Alignment:

Nepal Rural Road Standard (20 12)

Role and function of rural roads

1. Mode of transport to connect villages and farms

1.1 Planning of rural roads

1.1.1 Data/ Information collection

1.1.2 Preparation oflnventory Maps

Based on socio-economic data and demographics of villages/District, development potential areas

1.1.3 Identification and Prioritization

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Rural Road Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

1.1.4 Feasibility Studies

1.1.5 Review/Appraisal of Feasibility Study Report

1.1.6 Det~.iled Project Preparation:

1.1.7 Project Negotiation and Approval:

1.1.8 Project Implementation

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Rural Road Engineering ·Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

1.2 Concept of Network Planning

1.3 Rural roads plan

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Rural Road Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

) 1.4 Road alignment and surveys

1.5 Governing Factors for Route Selection consideration

1. Consideration of Existing Infrastructures

3. Sub grade conditions

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Rural Road.Engineering · Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha

6. Geometric standards (Grades & Curvature):

7. Safety of the locality:

9. Aesthetics and harmony:

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CHAPTER 2 GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARD

2.1 Classification of rural roads

ii. Pavement (or surface) material ·

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a) Vehicle type and dimension

Width- overall width 2.5 m

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2.2.2 Cross Section

a) Carriage Way 'Vidth:

c) Road way width

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d) Right of Way (RoW)

Overall Width betw ~en Control Line

__. Setback Road Land Widtb (Right of Way) 1 Setback:

e) Camber (Cross Slope)

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Table 6: Recommended camber

2.2.4 Lateral and Vertical Clearance

2.2.5 Horizontal Alignment

b) Coefficient of Lateral Friction (f)

c) Minimum Curve Radius .

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2.2.6 Vertical Alignment

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b) Level of Road Embankment above HFL

Table 9: Minimum length of vertical curve

b.l) Summit Curve

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