TERMS OF BIOLOGY

Hemoglobin, or haemoglobin, abbreviated Hb or Hgb, is the iron-containing

oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of almost all
vertebrates as well as the tissues of some invertebrates. Hemoglobin in
blood carries oxygen from the lungs or gills to the rest of the body. The cell is
flexible and assumes a bell shape as it passes through extremely small blood
vessels. It is covered with a membrane composed of lipids and proteins, lacks
a nucleus, and contains hemoglobin—a red iron-rich protein that binds
oxygen.
A pathogen is defined as an organism causing disease to its host, with the
severity of the disease symptoms referred to as virulence. Pathogens are
taxonomically widely diverse and comprise viruses and bacteria as well as
unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes.
As well as the iron overload, drinking blood is dangerous simply because it
can spread disease. There are a number of blood-borne diseases that would
potentially be spread by drinking blood. Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and HIV are
all diseases that could be contracted through ingesting infected blood.
Nutrition is the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses them, and the
relationship between diet, health, and disease. Nutritionists use ideas from
molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics to understand how nutrients
affect the human body.
Nutrients are compounds in foods essential to life and health, providing us
with energy, the building blocks for repair and growth and substances
necessary to regulate chemical processes. There are six major nutrients:
Carbohydrates (CHO), Lipids (fats), Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Water.
A heterotroph is an organism that eats other plants or animals for energy
and nutrients. Examples include plants, algae, and some types of bacteria.
Heterotrophs are known as consumers because they consume producers or
other consumers. Dogs, birds, fish, and humans are all examples of
heterotrophs.
Holozoic nutrition is a type of heterotrophic nutrition that is characterized by
the internalization and internal processing of liquids or solid food particles.
Phagocytosis is a cellular process for ingesting and eliminating particles
larger than 0.5 μm in diameter, including microorganisms, foreign
substances, and apoptotic cells. Phagocytosis is found in many types of cells
and it is, in consequence an essential process for tissue homeostasis.
Pseudopodium is a temporary protrusion of the surface of an amoeboid cell
for movement and feeding.
Terrestrial refers to things related to land or the planet Earth.
 Binary fission, asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two
new bodies. In the process of binary fission, an organism duplicates its
genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then divides into two
parts (cytokinesis), with each new organism receiving one copy of DNA.
Starch, a white, granular, organic chemical that is produced by all green
plants. ... The basic chemical formula of the starch molecule is (C6H10O5)n.
Starch is a polysaccharide comprising glucose monomers joined in α 1,4
linkages. The simplest form of starch is the linear polymer amylose;
amylopectin is the branched form.
Cytosis: 1. Suffix referring to cells, as in anisocytosis (inequality in the size of
red blood cells), elliptocytosis (elliptical red cells), and phagocytosis
(ingestion of cells). 2. Suffix connoting an increase in cells, as in leukocytosis
(increase in white blood cells) and lymphocytosis (increase in lymphocytes)
Asexual reproduction does not involve sex cells or fertilisation . Only one
parent is required, unlike sexual reproduction which needs two parents. ...
As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and to each
other.
Humans cannot reproduce with just one parent; humans can only reproduce
by going through the sexual intercourse process. ... These organisms can
reproduce asexually, meaning the offspring ("children") have a single parent
and share the exact same genetic material as the parent. This is very
different from reproduction in humans.
Paramecium reproduces asexually by transverse binary fission, in which the
micronucleus passes through characteristic stages of mitosis, whereas the
macronucleus simply divides by amitosis. The mature cell divides into two
cells and each grows rapidly and develops into a new organism.
Paramecium rejuvenates and a new macronucleus is formed. A Paramecia
undergoes ageing and dies after 100-200 cycles of fission if they do not
undergo conjugation. The macronucleus is responsible for clonal ageing. It is
due to the DNA damage.
The following endemic flowers in Malaysia combine colour, exoticism and
splendour. Hibiscus. Malaysia's national flower, the Hibiscus, can be seen
growing in most parts of the country, orchids, rafflesia, ixora, Sabah
Highlands Pitcher Plant, Sabahan Yellowwood Pine, bougainvillea, begonia.
In Malaysia, the domestic petroleum price is controlled and subsidized by the
government under an automatic pricing mechanism. The sales tax on
petroleum products is reduced to offset part of the differences between the
wholesale domestic price and the world price.
Crude oil means a mixture of hydrocarbons that exists in liquid phase in
natural underground reservoirs and remains liquid at atmospheric pressure
 after passing through surface separating facilities.
Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems
above ground, including many perennials, and nearly all annuals and
biennials.
The petiole is a stalk that connects the blade with the leaf base. The blade is
the major photosynthetic surface of the plant and appears green and
flattened in a plane perpendicular to the stem.
Phloem is the vascular tissue that transports carbon (photosynthates) from
the leaves to basal parts of the plant, and vascular cambium is
undifferentiated tissue responsible for secondary growth and repair of
damaged phloem
Cambium, plural Cambiums, or Cambia, in plants, layer of actively dividing
cells between xylem (wood) and phloem (bast) tissues that is responsible for
the secondary growth of stems and roots (secondary growth occurs after the
first season and results in increase in thickness).
Phloem (/ˈfloʊ. əm/, FLOH-əm) is the living tissue in vascular plants that
transports the soluble organic compounds made during photosynthesis and
known as photosynthates, in particular the sugar sucrose, to parts of the
plant where needed. This transport process is called translocation.
Enzymes packed in lysosomes are made through RER (rough endoplasmic
reticulum). Digestive enzymes like lipase, glucosidase, protease, sulfatase are
produced by the rough endoplasmic reticulum in the lysosomes. Due to the
presence of these enzymes lysosomes are known as suicide bags.
The enzymes made by the pancreas include: Pancreatic proteases (such as
trypsin and chymotrypsin) - which help to digest proteins. Pancreatic
amylase - which helps to digest sugars (carbohydrates). Pancreatic lipase -
which helps to digest fat.
Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous
glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by
most green plants for energy storage.
Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous
glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. ... Pure starch is a white, tasteless
and odorless powder that is insoluble in cold water or alcohol. It consists of
two types of molecules: the linear and helical amylose and the branched
amylopectin
Microbial biomass (bacteria and fungi) is a measure of the mass of the living
component of soil organic matter. The microbial biomass decompose plant
and animal residues and soil organic matter to release carbon dioxide and
plant available nutrients. Microbial biomass is most commonly measured
using chloroform fumigation-extraction method in which microorganisms are
 first killed by exposing fresh soil to ethanol-free chloroform for a certain
period of time (usually 24h), extracting the C released from the lysed
microbial cells with a salt solution.
Eutrophication is characterized by excessive plant and algal growth due to
the increased availability of one or more limiting growth factors needed for
photosynthesis (Schindler 2006), such as sunlight, carbon dioxide, and
nutrient fertilizers. Eutrophication sets off a chain reaction in the ecosystem,
starting with an overabundance of algae and plants. The excess algae and
plant matter eventually decompose, producing large amounts of carbon
dioxide. This lowers the pH of seawater, a process known as ocean
acidification.
Stoichiometry refers to the relationship between the quantities of reactants
and products before, during, and following chemical reactions.
Stoichiometry is exactly that. It is the quantitative relation between the
number of moles (and therefore mass) of various products and reactants in a
chemical reaction. Chemical reactions must be balanced, or in other words,
must have the same number of various atoms in the products as in the
reactants.
As a result, cyanide markedly decreases the peritubular potassium
conductance, depolarizes the cell membranes and reduces the driving force
for sodium coupled transport processes. Thus cyanide fully mimicks the
effects of ouabain, although cyanide in contrast to ouabain is expected to
deplete the cells from ATP.
Cyanide poisons the mitochondrial electron transport chain within cells and
renders the body unable to derive energy (adenosine triphosphate—ATP)
from oxygen. Specifically, it binds to the a3 portion (complex IV) of
cytochrome oxidase and prevents cells from using oxygen, causing rapid
death.
Cyanide permanently reduces cytochrome a3, preventing other components
to change into the oxidized state. This causes the proton gradient to break
down, stopping ATP synthesis.
The tertiary structure of myoglobin is that of a typical water-soluble globular
protein. Its secondary structure is unusual in which it contains a very high
proportion (75%) of α-helical secondary structure. Each myoglobin molecule
contains a single heme group inserted into a hydrophobic cleft in the protein.
Insulin is composed of two peptide chains referred to as the A chain and B
chain. A and B chains are linked together by two disulphide bonds, and an
additional disulphide is formed within the A chain. In most species, the A
chain consists of 21 amino acids and the B chain of 30 amino acids.
Most of the secondary structure found in proteins is due to one of two
 common secondary structures, known as the α- (alpha) helix and the β-
(beta) sheet. Both structures allow formation of the maximum possible
number of hydrogen bonds and are therefore highly stable.
Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure , which consists of
a central carbon atom, also known as the alpha (α) carbon, bonded to an
amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and to a hydrogen atom.
The quaternary structure refers to the number and arrangement of the
protein subunits with respect to one another. Examples of proteins with
quaternary structure include haemoglobin, DNA polymerase, and ion
channels. ... Other assemblies referred to instead as multiprotein complexes
also possess quaternary structure.
The brown algae, comprising the class Phaeophyceae, are a large group of
multicellular algae, including many seaweeds located in colder waters within
the Northern Hemisphere. Most brown algae live in marine environments,
where they play an important role both as food and as a potential habitat.
Chlorophyta is a taxonomic group (a phylum) comprised of green algae that
live in marine habitats. ... Some species have even become adapted to
thriving in extreme environments, such as deserts, arctic regions, and
hypersaline habitats. The predominant pigment is chlorophyll (particularly, a
and b).
Protists are a diverse collection of organisms. While exceptions exist, they
are primarily microscopic and unicellular, or made up of a single cell. The
cells of protists are highly organized with a nucleus and specialized cellular
machinery called organelles. A protist is any eukaryotic organism that is not
an animal, plant, or fungus. While it is likely that protists share a common
ancestor, the exclusion of other eukaryotes means that protists do not form
a natural group, or clade.
Algae (singular: alga) are organisms that belong to Domain Eucarya and
distinct from animals by being photosynthetic. However, they differ from the
vascular plants by lacking true roots, stems, and leaves. Algae are defined as
a group of predominantly aquatic, photosynthetic, and nucleus-bearing
organisms that lack the true roots, stems, leaves, and specialized
multicellular reproductive structures of plants. Macroalgae are classified into
three major groups: brown algae (Phaeophyceae), green algae (Chlorophyta),
and red algae (Rhodophyta). As all of the groups contain chlorophyll
granules, their characteristic colours are derived from other pigments.
Maltase, enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of the disaccharide maltose to
the simple sugar glucose. ... During digestion, starch is partially transformed
into maltose by the pancreatic or salivary enzymes called amylases; maltase
secreted by the intestine then converts maltose into glucose.
A bulb consists of a relatively large, usually globe-shaped, underground bud
with membranous or fleshy overlapping leaves arising from a short stem. ...
One type, typified by the onion, has a thin papery covering protecting its
fleshy leaves.
Plant cells do, however, have a number of other specialized structures,
including a rigid cell wall, central vacuole, plasmodesmata, and chloroplasts.
Although plants (and their typical cells) are non-motile, some species
produce gametes that do exhibit flagella and are, therefore, able to move
about.
An onion is a multicellular (consisting of many cells) plant organism. As in all
plant cells, the cell of an onion peel consists of a cell wall, cell membrane,
cytoplasm, nucleus and a large vacuole. The nucleus is present at the
periphery of the cytoplasm. ... It is surrounded by cytoplasm. The clear
epidermal cells exist in a single layer and do not contain chloroplasts,
because the onion fruiting body (bulb) is used for storing energy, not
photosynthesis. Each plant cell has a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus, and a large vacuole. The nucleus is present at the periphery of the
cytoplasm.
Shortening is any fat that is a solid at room temperature and used to make
crumbly pastry and other food products. Although butter is solid at room
temperature and is frequently used in making pastry, the term shortening
seldom refers to butter, but is more closely related to margarine.
Unsaturated fatty acids are formed by the dehydrogenation of saturated
fatty acids in various organisms and the major unsaturated fatty acids in
plants that we take as foods are oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids.
Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are made up of a carbon chain with no double
bonds. Because fatty acids are cell-membrane structural units, this saturated
configuration contributes to decreased cell-membrane fluidity. SFAs are not
essential nutrients. They are mainly obtained through dietary intake of
animal fats.
Triglycerides are lipids (waxy fats) that give your body energy. Your body
makes triglycerides and also gets it from the foods you eat. High triglycerides
combined with high cholesterol raise your risk of heart attack, strokes and
pancreatitis. Diet and lifestyle changes can keep triglyceride levels in a
healthy range.
Testosterone is the primary sex hormone and anabolic steroid in males. In
male humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male
reproductive tissues such as testes and prostate, as well as promoting
secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass,
and the growth of body hair.
 A primary function of the leaf's waxy cuticle is to reduce water loss through
the leaves, which is particularly important in arid deserts with little rainfall or
Mediterranean climates with seasonal rainfall. ... Stomata are pores on the
leaf surfaces that open and close to regulate water and gas exchange.
Phospholipids are a class of lipids that consist of two fatty acyl molecules
esterified at the sn-1 and sn-2 positions of glycerol, and contain a head group
linked by a phosphate residue at the sn-3 position. Figure 1. ... Phospholipids
are essential for the absorption, transport and storage of lipids.
Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are lipophilic, malleable
solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids,
typically with melting points above about 40 °C (104 °F), melting to give low
viscosity liquids. Waxes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic,
nonpolar solvents.
A steroid is a biologically active organic compound with four rings arranged
in a specific molecular configuration. Steroids have two principal biological
functions: as important components of cell membranes which alter
membrane fluidity; and as signalling molecules.
The digestion of starch begins with salivary amylase, but this activity is much
less important than that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine.
Amylase hydrolyzes starch, with the primary end products being maltose,
maltotriose, and a -dextrins, although some glucose is also produced.
Keratin is the type of protein that makes up your hair, skin, and nails. Keratin
can also be found in your internal organs and glands. ... Keratin can be
derived from the feathers, horns, and wool of different animals and used as
an ingredient in hair cosmetics.
In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw and a dark color after it
is cooked, in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before and after
cooking. In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl is classified as
red or white.
In culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after
cooking. ... In nutritional studies, white meat includes poultry and fish, but
excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat. Some types of fish,
such as tuna, are red when raw and turn white when cooked.
A helix, plural helixes or helices, is a shape like a corkscrew or spiral staircase.
It is a type of smooth space curve with tangent lines at a constant angle to a
fixed axis.
The beta sheet, is a common motif of the regular protein secondary
structure. Beta sheets consist of beta strands connected laterally by at least
two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated
sheet.
 An alpha helix is a type of secondary structure, i.e. a description of how the
main chain of a protein is arranged in space. It is a repetitive regular
secondary structure (just like the beta strand), i.e. all residues have similar
conformation and hydrogen bonding, and it can be of arbitrary length.
A polypeptide is defined as a polymer of amino acids joined together by
peptide bonds. Proteins are polymers of amino acids that often bind to small
molecules (e.g. ligands, coenzymes), to other proteins, or other
macromolecules (DNA, RNA, etc.)
A dipeptide is an organic compound derived from two amino acids. The
constituent amino acids can be the same or different. When different, two
isomers of the dipeptide are possible, depending on the sequence.
A peptide bond, also referred to as an amide bond, is formed between the α-
nitrogen atom of one amino acid and the carbonyl carbon of a second
(diagrammed below). So-called isopeptide bonds refer to amide bonds
between sidechain amines or carbonyl carbons on the side chain rather than
α-amine or α-carbonyl.
A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 and thus with the
empirical formula Cₘₙ.
Cellulose is a molecule, consisting of hundreds – and sometimes even
thousands – of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Cellulose is the main
substance in the walls of plant cells, helping plants to remain stiff and
upright. Humans cannot digest cellulose, but it is important in the diet as
fibre.
Crystallization or crystallisation is the process by which a solid forms, where
the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a
crystal. Some of the ways by which crystals form are precipitating from a
solution, freezing, or more rarely deposition directly from a gas.
Lactose is a sugar found only in milk. It is also present in dairy products and
products made from milk, including cheese and ice cream. If a person has
lactose intolerance, their digestive system produces too little of an enzyme
known as lactase. Lactase is needed to break down lactose.
Hydrolysis is any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one
or more chemical bonds. The term is used broadly for substitution,
elimination, and solvation reactions in which water is the nucleophile.
Sucrose is made up of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose
joined together. It is a disaccharide, a molecule composed of two
monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is produced naturally in
plants, from which table sugar is refined. It has the molecular formula
C12H22O11.
 Maltose is a sugar made out of two glucose molecules bound together. It's
created in seeds and other parts of plants as they break down their stored
energy in order to sprout. Thus, foods like cereals, certain fruits and sweet
potatoes contain naturally high amounts of this sugar.
A reducing agent is an element or compound that loses or "donates" an
electron to an electron recipient in a redox chemical reaction
Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from the gas
phase into the liquid phase, and is the reverse of vaporization. The word
most often refers to the water cycle.
A reducing sugar is any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent. In
an alkaline solution, a reducing sugar forms some aldehyde or ketone, which
allows it to act as a reducing agent, for example in Benedict's reagent. In
such a reaction, the sugar becomes a carboxylic acid.
Stroma: The supportive framework of an organ (or gland or other structure),
usually composed of connective tissue. The stroma is distinct from the
parenchyma, which consists of the key functional elements of that organ. ...
The Greek word "stroma" means "anything spread out for sitting or lying
upon," essentially a mat.
Similar to the cytoplasm of a cell, the nucleus contains nucleoplasm, also
known as karyoplasm, or karyolymph or nucleus sap. The nucleoplasm is a
type of protoplasm, and is enveloped by the nuclear envelope. The
nucleoplasm includes the chromosomes and nucleolus.
Pasteurization, heat-treatment process that destroys pathogenic
microorganisms in certain foods and beverages. ... The treatment also
destroys most of the microorganisms that cause spoilage and so prolongs the
storage time of food.
Fructose is a type of simple sugar that makes up 50% of table sugar
(sucrose). Table sugar also consists of glucose, which is the main energy
source for your body's cells. However, fructose needs to be converted into
glucose by the liver before it can be used by the body.
Polysaccharides, or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrate
found in food. They are long chain polymeric carbohydrates composed of
monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages. This
carbohydrate can react with water using amylase enzymes as catalyst, which
produces constituent sugars.
A disaccharide is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined by
glycosidic linkage. Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are simple sugars
soluble in water. Three common examples are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
Disaccharides are one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates.
Monosaccharides are carbohydrate molecules that cannot be broken down
 by hydrolysis2 into simpler (smaller) carbohydrate molecules. Hence,
monosaccharides are at times referred to as “simple sugars” or just :sugars,"
which infers that they are the simplest (smallest) of the carbohydrates.
Saliva is the main substance in the mouth that provides the lubrication
needed for a normal oral function like mastication, swallowing and speech,
and preventing wear of mucosal tissue and dental surfaces.
A nucleotide is the basic building block of nucleic acids. RNA and DNA are
polymers made of long chains of nucleotides. A nucleotide consists of a sugar
molecule (either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA) attached to a
phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base.
“Paternal” is something that pertains to a father whereas “maternal” would
pertain to a mother. ... “Paternal bond” refers to the relationship between
the father and his child while the “maternal bond” refers to the relationship
between a mother and her child.
Ribonucleic acid is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles
in coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. RNA and
deoxyribonucleic acid are nucleic acids.
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule composed of two polynucleotide chains
that coil around each other to form a double helix carrying genetic
instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of
all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid are nucleic
acids.
A lacteal is a lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary fats in the villi of the
small intestine. Triglycerides are emulsified by bile and hydrolyzed by the
enzyme lipase, resulting in a mixture of fatty acids, di- and monoglycerides. A
lacteal is a lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary fats in the villi of the small
intestine. Triglycerides are emulsified by bile and hydrolysed by the enzyme
lipase, resulting in a mixture of fatty acids, di- and monoglycerides. ... At this
point, the fats are in the bloodstream in the form of chylomicrons.
Your gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ on the right side of your
abdomen, just beneath your liver. The gallbladder holds a digestive fluid
called bile that's released into your small intestine.
The adipose tissue is a central metabolic organ in the regulation of whole-
body energy homeostasis. The white adipose tissue functions as a key energy
reservoir for other organs, whereas the brown adipose tissue accumulates
lipids for cold-induced adaptive thermogenesis.
Goat milk is the most commonly consumed type of dairy in the world. In fact,
65% to 72% of all dairy consumed globally is goat milk. This is partially due to
the ease of keeping goats as opposed to cows in developing countries, where
goat milk is an important source of calories, protein, and fats.
 Pomfrets are perciform fishes belonging to the family Bramidae. The family
currently includes 20 species across seven genera. Several species are
important food sources for humans, especially Brama brama in South Asia.
Biodegradable waste includes any organic matter in waste which can be
broken down into carbon dioxide, water, methane or simple organic
molecules by micro-organisms and other living things by composting, aerobic
digestion, anaerobic digestion or similar processes. Non-biodegradable
materials are often synthetic products like plastic, glass and batteries.
Because they don't break down easily, if not disposed of properly, non-
biodegradable waste can cause pollution, block drains and harm animals.
Diurnality is a form of plant or animal behaviour characterized by activity
during daytime, with a period of sleeping or other inactivity at night. The
common adjective used for daytime activity is "diurnal".
If something is nocturnal, it belongs to or is active at night. ... The adjective
nocturnal comes from the Late Latin nocturnalis, which means “belonging to
the night." You've probably heard of nocturnal animals, like bats and fireflies,
who sleep during the day and come out to play when the sun goes down.
Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and
monera.
Glycogen is stored in the liver. When the body needs more energy, certain
proteins called enzymes break down glycogen into glucose. They send the
glucose out into the body.
Cellulose is a molecule, consisting of hundreds – and sometimes even
thousands – of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Cellulose is the main
substance in the walls of plant cells, helping plants to remain stiff and
upright. Humans cannot digest cellulose, but it is important in the diet as
fibre.
Oryza sativa, commonly known as Asian rice, is the plant species most
commonly referred to in English as rice. It is the type of farmed rice whose
cultivars are most common globally, and was first domesticated in the
Yangtze River basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago.
A red blood cell, which (in humans) is typically a biconcave disc without a
nucleus. Erythrocytes contain the pigment haemoglobin, which imparts the
red colour to blood, and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from
the tissues.
Plasma is the largest part of your blood. ... When separated from the rest of
the blood, plasma is a light yellow liquid. Plasma carries water, salts and
enzymes. The main role of plasma is to take nutrients, hormones, and
proteins to the parts of the body that need it. Cells also put their waste
products into the plasma. Blood plasma is a light amber liquid component of
 blood that is freed from blood cells, but holds proteins and other
constituents of whole blood in suspension. It makes up about 55% of the
body's total blood volume. It is the intravascular part of extracellular fluid.
Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small, colorless cell fragments in our blood
that form clots and stop or prevent bleeding. Platelets are made in our bone
marrow, the sponge-like tissue inside our bones. Bone marrow contains stem
cells that develop into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Parenchyma is a type of tissue consists of cells that carry out an essential
function. ... In botany (plant biology), parenchyma is the simple permanent
ground tissues that form the bulk of the plant tissues, such as the soft part of
leaves, fruit pulp, and other plant organs.
Leukocytes are part of the body's immune system. They help the body fight
infection and other diseases. Types of leukocytes are granulocytes
(neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils), monocytes, and lymphocytes (T
cells and B cells).
Entomology is the study of insects. ... Insects have lived on earth for more
than 350 million years. Entomology is crucial to our understanding of human
disease, agriculture, evolution, ecology and biodiversity. Entomologists are
people who study insects, as a career, as amateurs or both.
The menstrual cycle is complex and controlled by many different glands and
the hormones that these glands produce. The four phases of the menstrual
cycle are menstruation, the follicular phase, ovulation and the luteal phase.
Common menstrual problems include heavy or painful periods and
premenstrual syndrome (PMS).
Hemoglobin is also the pigment that gives RBCs their red colour.
Psidium guajava, the common guava, yellow guava, or lemon guava, is an
evergreen shrub or small tree native to the Caribbean, Central America and
South America. It is easily pollinated by insects; when cultivated, it is
pollinated mainly by the common honey bee, Apis mellifera.
Ascorbic acid is also used to prevent and treat scurvy (a disease that causes
fatigue, gum swelling, joint pain, and poor wound healing from a lack of
vitamin C in the body). Ascorbic acid is in a class of medications called
antioxidants.
The signal that travels along the length of a nerve fiber and ends in the
release of neurotransmitters. Nerve impulses are the means by which
information is transmitted along the neuron and throughout the nervous
system.
To move substances against a concentration or electrochemical gradient, the
cell must utilize energy in the form of ATP during active transport. Primary
active transport, which is directly dependent on ATP, moves ions across a
 membrane and creates a difference in charge across that membrane.
Amino acids are small molecules that are the building blocks of proteins. ...
Each protein is a molecule made up of different combinations of 20 types of
smaller, simpler amino acids. Protein molecules are long chains of amino
acids that are folded into a three-dimensional shape.
The lipid bilayer (or phospholipid bilayer) is a thin polar membrane made of
two layers of lipid molecules. ... Biological bilayers are usually composed of
amphiphilic phospholipids that have a hydrophilic phosphate head and a
hydrophobic tail consisting of two fatty acid chains.
Fat soluble vitamins is a vitamin that can dissolve in fats and oils. Vitamins
are nutrients that the body needs in small amounts to stay healthy and work
the way it should. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with fats in the
diet and are stored in the body's fatty tissue and in the liver.
Cholesterol is a fat used by the body that is produced by the body and that
also comes from animal-based foods. Important numbers to know are total
cholesterol, HDL or good cholesterol, LDL or bad cholesterol, and
triglycerides. Cholesterol in the blood and blood vessel.
The white stuff we know as sugar is sucrose, a molecule composed of 12
atoms of carbon, 22 atoms of hydrogen, and 11 atoms of oxygen (C 12H22O11).
Like all compounds made from these three elements, sugar is a
carbohydrate. Sucrose is actually two simpler sugars stuck together: fructose
and glucose.
Durian (Durio zibethinus L.; Family Bombacaceae) is an iconic tropical fruit
plant cultivated in Malaysia and the Southeast Asian countries. In Malaysia,
durian is recognised as the King of fruits and well known as a rich source of
volatile sulphur compounds that make it unique.
Marasmus is a type of protein-energy malnutrition that can affect anyone
but is mainly seen in children. You can get marasmus if you have a severe
deficiency of nutrients like calories, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and
minerals. ‌It is more common in developing countries, like in some areas of
Asia and Africa.
Regeneration is the natural process of replacing or restoring damaged or
missing cells, tissues, organs, and even entire body parts to full function in
plants and animals. Scientists are studying regeneration for its potential uses
in medicine, such as treating a variety of injuries and diseases.
Swelling in the ankles, feet and legs is often caused by a build-up of fluid in
these areas, called oedema. Oedema is usually caused by: standing or sitting
in the same position for too long. eating too much salty food.
Kwashiorkor is a severe form of malnutrition. It's most common in some
developing regions where babies and children do not get enough protein or
 other essential nutrients in their diet. The main sign of kwashiorkor is too
much fluid in the body's tissues, which causes swelling under the skin
(oedema).
Difficulty concentrating is a normal and periodic occurrence for most people.
Tiredness and emotional stress can cause concentration problems in most
people. Hormonal changes, such as those experienced during menopause or
pregnancy, can also affect how we think and concentrate.
A high concentration of a substance in a solution means that there's a lot of
it relative to the volume: the Great Salt Lake has very few fish because of the
high concentration of salt. To say that you have good concentration skills
means that you pay attention well. Definitions of concentration.
In botany, the term flaccid refers to a cell that lacks turgidity, i.e. it is not
swollen and plump, but loose or floppy and the cell has become drawn in
and pulled away from the cell wall. The flaccid medical definition refers to a
limp or weak muscular tone.
Plasmolysis is a typical response of plant cells exposed to hyperosmotic
stress. The loss of turgor causes the violent detachment of the living
protoplast from the cell wall. The plasmolytic process is mainly driven by the
vacuole. Plasmolysis is reversible (deplasmolysis) and characteristic to living
plant cells.
Hemolysis, also spelled haemolysis, also called hematolysis, breakdown or
destruction of red blood cells so that the contained oxygen-carrying pigment
hemoglobin is freed into the surrounding medium.
A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just outside
the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. It provides
the cell with both structural support and protection, and also acts as a
filtering mechanism.
A turgid cell is a cell that has turgor pressure. A plant cell that is placed in a
hypotonic solution would cause the water to move into the cell by osmosis,
resulting in large turgor pressure being exerted against the plant cell wall. A
turgid cell is a cell that has turgor pressure.
Lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs) are inborn errors of metabolism
characterized by the accumulation of substrates in excess in various organs'
cells due to the defective functioning of lysosomes. They cause dysfunction
of those organs where they accumulate and contribute to great morbidity
and mortality.
Hypertonic is a descriptive word relating to hypertonicity. In cellular level,
hypertonicity may pertain to a property of a solution with a comparatively
greater solute concentration than that in another solution. ... Solutions that
have different tonicities will result in a net flow of water across the cell
 membrane.
A hypotonic solution is a solution that has a lower solute concentration
compared to another solution.
Isotonic solution: A solution that has the same salt concentration as cells and
blood. Isotonic solutions are commonly used as intravenously infused fluids
in hospitalized patients.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), also known as adenosine pyrophosphate
(APP), is an important organic compound in metabolism and is essential to
the flow of energy in living cells. ... Energy transfer used by all living things is
a result of dephosphorylation of ATP by enzymes known as ATPases.
In cellular biology, active transport is the movement of molecules across a
cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration—against the concentration gradient. Active transport requires
cellular energy to achieve this movement.
Peristalsis, involuntary movements of the longitudinal and circular muscles,
primarily in the digestive tract but occasionally in other hollow tubes of the
body, that occur in progressive wavelike contractions. Peristaltic waves occur
in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
The digestive tract is made up of organs that food and liquids travel through
when they are swallowed, digested, absorbed, and leave the body as feces.
These organs include the mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.
Porins are beta barrel proteins that cross a cellular membrane and act as a
pore, through which molecules can diffuse. Unlike other membrane
transport proteins, porins are large enough to allow passive diffusion, i.e.,
they act as channels that are specific to different types of molecules.
Carrier protein is a type of cell membrane protein involved in facilitated
diffusion and active transport of substances out of or into the cell. ... They
are also the proteins that take up glucose molecules and transport them and
other molecules (e.g. salts, amino acids, etc.) inside the cell.
Maltose is a sugar made out of two glucose molecules bound together. It's
created in seeds and other parts of plants as they break down their stored
energy in order to sprout. Thus, foods like cereals, certain fruits and sweet
potatoes contain naturally high amounts of this sugar.
A semipermeable membrane, also termed a selectively permeable
membrane, a partially permeable membrane or a differentially permeable
membrane, is a membrane that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass
through it by diffusion and occasionally specialized "facilitated diffusion".
Facilitated diffusion is the process of spontaneous passive transport of
molecules or ions across a biological membrane via specific transmembrane
 integral proteins.
Simple diffusion is the movement of molecules through a cell membrane
without using the channels formed by integral membrane protein. Facilitated
diffusion is the movement of molecules through those channels.
Equilibrium is the state in which market supply and demand balance each
other, and as a result prices become stable. ... The balancing effect of supply
and demand results in a state of equilibrium. The condition in which all
acting influences are balanced or cancelled by equal opposing forces,
resulting in a stable system. The state of balance or static; the absence of net
tendency to change.
In chemistry, and in physics, a dynamic equilibrium exists once a reversible
reaction occurs. Substances transition between the reactants and products
at equal rates, meaning there is no net change. Reactants and products are
formed at such a rate that the concentration of neither changes.
Reverse osmosis is a water purification process that uses a semi-permeable
membrane (synthetic lining) to filter out unwanted molecules and large
particles such as contaminants and sediments like chlorine, salt, and dirt
from drinking water. ... It gets water clean down to a molecular level, leaving
only pure H2O behind.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent. solvent: the substance in which a solute dissolves to produce a
homogeneous mixture. solute: the substance that dissolves in a solvent to
produce a homogeneous mixture.
A solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute, resulting in a solution. A
solvent is usually a liquid but can also be a solid, a gas, or a supercritical fluid.
A substance that is dissolved in a solution is called a solute. In fluid solutions,
the amount of solvent present is greater than the amount of solute. One
best example of solute in our day to day activity is salt and water. Salt
dissolves in water and therefore, salt is the solute.
Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement or diffusion of solvent molecules
through a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water
potential to a region of low water potential, in the direction that tends to
equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides
Tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles (tiny branches of air tubes in the
lungs). The alveoli are where the lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and
carbon dioxide during the process of breathing in and breathing out.
In chemistry, polarity is a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule
or its chemical groups having an electric dipole moment, with a negatively
charged end and a positively charged end. Polar molecules must contain
polar bonds due to a difference in electronegativity between the bonded
 atoms. In the biological context, we define polarity as the persistent
asymmetrical and ordered distribution of structures along an axis. ... Polarity
allows the development of functional complexity, not only in multicellular
organisms, but also in cells and in subcellular structures.
Hydrophilic, as defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, is, “of, relating
to, or having a strong affinity for water.” This essentially means the ability to
mix well, dissolve, or to be attracted to water.
Hydrophobicity is the association of nonpolar groups or molecules in an
aqueous environment which arises from the tendency of water to exclude
nonpolar molecules. Hydrophobic means lacking an affinity for water;
insoluble in water; repelling water. Examples of hydrophobic molecules
include alkanes, oils, fats, and greasy substances in general.
A glucometer is a medical device which measures the concentration of sugar
(glucose) in human blood. A glucometer is an equipment for home blood
glucose monitoring (HBGM) by people with Type 1 or Type 2 Diabetes
Mellitus.
A sphygmomanometer, also known as a blood pressure monitor, or blood
pressure gauge, is a device used to measure blood pressure, composed of an
inflatable cuff to collapse and then release the artery under the cuff in a
controlled manner, and a mercury or aneroid manometer to measure the
pressure. Manual sphygmomanometers are used with a stethoscope when
using the auscultatory technique.
A normal blood pressure level is less than 120/80 mmHg. No matter your
age, you can take steps each day to keep your blood pressure in a healthy
range
Transport vesicles help move materials, such as proteins and other
molecules, from one part of a cell to another. When a cell makes proteins,
transporter vesicles help move these proteins to the Golgi apparatus for
further sorting and refining. The Golgi apparatus identifies specific types of
transport vesicle then directs them to where they are needed. Some proteins
in the transporter vesicles could, for example, be antibodies. So, the Golgi
apparatus would package them into secretory vesicles to be released outside
of the cell to fight a pathogen. Some scientists refer to the Golgi apparatus as
the cell’s “post office.”
Secretory vesicles contain materials that are to be excreted from the cell,
such as wastes or hormones. Secretory vesicles include synaptic vesicles and
vesicles in endocrine tissues. Transport vesicles move molecules within the
cells. All cells make proteins and require them to function.
Homeostasis, from the Greek words for "same" and "steady," refers to any
process that living things use to actively maintain fairly stable conditions
 necessary for survival. The term was coined in 1930 by the physician Walter
Cannon.
Homeostatic mechanisms for regulation of blood glucose levels Together,
insulin and glucagon help maintain a state called homeostasis in which
conditions inside the body remain steady. When blood sugar is too high, the
pancreas secretes more insulin. When blood sugar levels drop, the pancreas
releases glucagon to raise them.
Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. ...
Bile reflux occurs when bile — a digestive liquid produced in your liver —
backs up (refluxes) into your stomach and, in some cases, into the tube that
connects your mouth and stomach (esophagus). Bile is the greenish-yellow
fluid (consisting of waste products, cholesterol, and bile salts) that is
secreted by the liver cells to perform 2 primary functions: To carry away
waste. To break down fats during digestion.
The pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ located across the back of the
belly, behind the stomach. The right side of the organ—called the head—is
the widest part of the organ and lies in the curve of the duodenum, the first
division of the small intestine.
Ptyalin is a starch hydrolyzing enzyme produced by human salivary glands. It
is a form of salivary amylase. Ptyalin, which is secreted in the mouth, aids in
the digestion of starch in the mouth. It hydrolyzes starch into maltose and
isomaltose, as well as other small dextrins known as the limit dextrins.
Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates produced by
the hydrolysis of starch or glycogen. ... Dextrins can be produced from starch
using enzymes like amylases, as during digestion in the human body and
during malting and mashing, or by applying dry heat under acidic conditions
(pyrolysis or roasting).
Amylase is an enzyme produced primarily by the pancreas and the salivary
glands to help digest carbohydrates. This test measures the amount of
amylase in the blood or urine or sometimes in peritoneal fluid, which is fluid
found between the membranes that cover the abdominal cavity and the
outside of abdominal organs.
Trypsin is an enzyme that aids with digestion. An enzyme is a protein that
speeds up a certain biochemical reaction. Trypsin is found in the small
intestine. It can also be made from fungus, plants, and bacteria. But it is
usually made for commercial purposes from the pancreas of livestock.
The simplest sugars are monosaccharides. Six-carbon monosaccharides are
prevalent but monosaccharides can have from 3 to 7 carbons in their
structures (3 carbons, triose; 4 carbons, tetrose; 5 carbons, pentose, 6
carbons, hexose and 7 carbons, heptose). The hexoses are common and
 important.
Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar), also called
simple sugars, are the simplest form of sugar and the most basic units
(monomers) of carbohydrates. ... Examples of monosaccharides include
glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), and galactose.
Pancreatic enzymes
Lipase. This enzyme works together with bile, which your liver produces, to
break down fat in your diet.
Protease. This enzyme breaks down proteins in your diet.
Amylase. This enzyme helps break down starches into sugar, which your
body can use for energy.
The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important to
digestion. These enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin to digest
proteins; amylase for the digestion of carbohydrates; and lipase to break
down fats.
The pancreas is an organ located in the abdomen. It plays an essential role in
converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells. The pancreas has
two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an
endocrine function that regulates blood sugar.
A healthy pancreas produces the correct chemicals in the proper quantities,
at the right times, to digest the foods we eat.
Exocrine Function:
The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important to
digestion. These enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin to digest
proteins; amylase for the digestion of carbohydrates; and lipase to break
down fats. When food enters the stomach, these pancreatic juices are
released into a system of ducts that culminate in the main pancreatic duct.
The pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct to form the ampulla of
Vater which is located at the first portion of the small intestine, called
the duodenum. The common bile duct originates in the liver and
the gallbladder and produces another important digestive juice called bile.
The pancreatic juices and bile that are released into the duodenum, help the
body to digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.
Endocrine Function:
The endocrine component of the pancreas consists of islet cells (islets of
Langerhans) that create and release important hormones directly into the
bloodstream. Two of the main pancreatic hormones are insulin, which acts to
lower blood sugar, and glucagon, which acts to raise blood sugar.
Maintaining proper blood sugar levels is crucial to the functioning of key
organs including the brain, liver, and kidneys.
 A gland is a group of cells in an animal's body that synthesizes substances
(such as hormones) for release into the bloodstream (endocrine gland) or
into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (exocrine gland). A gland is
an organ which produces and releases substances that perform a specific
function in the body. There are two types of gland. Endocrine glands are
ductless glands and release the substances that they make (hormones)
directly into the bloodstream.
Goblet cells (GCs) are specialized epithelial cells that line multiple mucosal
surfaces and have a well-appreciated role in barrier maintenance through
the secretion of mucus. Moreover, GCs secrete anti-microbial proteins,
chemokines, and cytokines demonstrating functions in innate immunity
beyond barrier maintenance.
Digestive enzymes play a key role in breaking down the food you eat. These
proteins speed up chemical reactions that turn nutrients into substances that
your digestive tract can absorb. Your saliva has digestive enzymes in it. Some
of your organs, including your pancreas, gallbladder, and liver, also release
them.
If you don't eat, your blood sugar levels are lower and medication may drop
them even more, which can lead to hypoglycaemia. Hypoglycaemia can
cause you to feel shaky, pass out, or even go into a coma. When you “break”
your fast by eating, you may also be more likely to develop too-high blood
sugar levels.
Having too much sugar in the blood for long periods of time can cause
serious health problems if it's not treated. Hyperglycaemia can damage the
vessels that supply blood to vital organs, which can increase the risk of heart
disease and stroke, kidney disease, vision problems, and nerve problems
A blood sugar level less than 140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L) is normal. A reading of
more than 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) after two hours indicates diabetes. A
reading between 140 and 199 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L and 11.0 mmol/L)
indicates prediabetes.
A blood glucose test is a blood test that screens for diabetes by measuring
the level of glucose (sugar) in a person's blood. Normal blood glucose level
(while fasting) range within 70 to 99 mg/dL (3.9 to 5.5 mmol/L). Higher
ranges could indicate pre-diabetes or diabetes.
Diabetes mellitus refers to a group of diseases that affect how your body
uses blood sugar (glucose). Glucose is vital to your health because it's an
important source of energy for the cells that make up your muscles and
tissues. It's also your brain's main source of fuel.
The most important hormone that the pancreas produces is insulin. Insulin is
released by the 'beta cells' in the islets of Langerhans in response to food. Its
role is to lower glucose levels in the bloodstream and promote the storage of
glucose in fat, muscle, liver and other body tissues.
Glucagon secretion is stimulated by the ingestion of protein, by low blood
glucose concentrations (hypoglycaemia), and by exercise. It is inhibited by
the ingestion of carbohydrates, an effect that may be mediated by the
resultant increase in blood glucose concentrations and insulin secretion.
During digestion, your pancreas makes pancreatic juices called enzymes.
These enzymes break down sugars, fats, and starches. Your pancreas also
helps your digestive system by making hormones.
Liver cells (hepatocytes) have glucagon receptors. When glucagon binds to
the glucagon receptors, the liver cells convert the glycogen into individual
glucose molecules and release them into the bloodstream, in a process
known as glycogenolysis
Insulin helps the cells absorb glucose, reducing blood sugar and providing the
cells with glucose for energy. When blood sugar levels are too low, the
pancreas releases glucagon. Glucagon instructs the liver to release stored
glucose, which causes blood sugar to rise.
The main hormones secreted by the endocrine gland in the pancreas are
insulin and glucagon, which regulate the level of glucose in the blood, and
somatostatin, which prevents the release of insulin and glucagon.
Maltase is one type of alpha-glucosidase enzymes located in the brush
border of the small intestine. This enzyme catalyses the hydrolysis of
disaccharide maltose into two simple sugars of glucose. Maltase is found in
plants, bacteria, yeast, humans, and other vertebrates.
Amylase is an enzyme produced primarily by the pancreas and the salivary
glands to help digest carbohydrates. This test measures the amount of
amylase in the blood or urine or sometimes in peritoneal fluid, which is fluid
found between the membranes that cover the abdominal cavity and the
outside of abdominal organs
The collective term for the stack of thylakoids within the chloroplast of plant
cells. Supplement. The granum contains the light harvesting system
composed of chlorophyll and phospholipids. Word origin: Latin granum
(grain).
Thylakoids are membrane-bound compartments inside chloroplasts and
cyanobacteria. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis. Thylakoids consist of a thylakoid membrane surrounding a
thylakoid lumen. ... In thylakoid membranes, chlorophyll pigments are found
in packets called quantasomes.
Gastrointestinal tract, also called digestive tract or alimentary canal, pathway
by which food enters the body and solid wastes are expelled. The
 gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
Peristalsis is a series of wave-like muscle contractions that move food
through the digestive tract. It starts in the esophagus where strong wave-like
motions of the smooth muscle move balls of swallowed food to the stomach.
... The motion mixes and shifts the chyme back and forth.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles with roles in processes involved
in degrading and recycling cellular waste, cellular signalling and energy
metabolism. Defects in genes encoding lysosomal proteins cause lysosomal
storage disorders, in which enzyme replacement therapy has proved
successful.
In chemistry, pH is a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an
aqueous solution. Acidic solutions are measured to have lower pH values
than basic or alkaline solutions. The pH scale is logarithmic and inversely
indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution.
The enzymes made by the pancreas include: Pancreatic proteases (such as
trypsin and chymotrypsin) - which help to digest proteins. Pancreatic
amylase - which helps to digest sugars (carbohydrates). Pancreatic lipase -
which helps to digest fat.
During digestion, your pancreas makes pancreatic juices called enzymes.
These enzymes break down sugars, fats, and starches. Your pancreas also
helps your digestive system by making hormones. These are chemical
messengers that travel through your blood
In digestion, a bolus is a ball-like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the
mouth during the process of chewing. It has the same color as the food being
eaten, and the saliva gives it an alkaline pH. Under normal circumstances,
the bolus is swallowed, and travels down the esophagus to the stomach for
digestion.
A bolus is a single, large dose of medicine. For a person with diabetes, a
bolus is a dose of insulin taken to handle a rise in blood glucose (a type of
sugar), like the one that happens during eating. A bolus is given as a shot or
through an insulin pump.
bolus /ˈbəʊləs/ Learn to pronounce noun 1. a small rounded mass of a
substance, especially of chewed food at the moment of swallowing. "mucin
holds the particles of food together in a ball or bolus"
Bolus, food that has been chewed and mixed in the mouth with saliva. ... The
term bolus applies to this mixture of food and solutions until they are passed
into the stomach. Once the bolus reaches the stomach, mixes with gastric
juices, and becomes reduced in size, the food mass becomes known as
chyme.
 Pickling is the process of preserving edible products in an acid solution,
usually vinegar, or in salt solution (brine). ... Usually, pickles refer to
vegetable products, but sometimes, fish, eggs, or meat is also subjected to
pickling. The process applied to meats is usually called curing. Pickling is the
process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic
fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure
typically affects the food's texture and flavour. The resulting food is called a
pickle, or, to prevent ambiguity, prefaced with pickled.
One of the many findings shows that girls are generally better at recognising
tastes than boys. They are better at recognising all concentrations of both
sweet and sour tastes. The difference is not dramatic, but it is quite clear. It
is also a known fact that women generally have a finer sense of taste than
men.
Contractile vacuole, regulatory organelle, usually spherical, found in
freshwater protozoa and lower metazoans, such as sponges and hydras, that
collects excess fluid from the protoplasm and periodically empties it into the
surrounding medium. It may also excrete nitrogenous wastes. The contractile
vacuole (CV) complex is an osmoregulatory organelle of free-living amoebae
and protozoa, which controls the intracellular water balance by accumulating
and expelling excess water out of the cell, allowing cells to survive under
hypotonic stress as in pond water. Examples of cells that contain this
contractile vacuole are amoeba, paramecium, and some types of algae.
Some sponges (including amoebocytes, pinacocytes, and choanocytes),
singled-celled fungi, and hydra also have contractile vacuoles. ... Some
species, like a giant amoeba, have numerous contractile vacuoles.
The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a
mosaic of components —including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and
carbohydrates—that gives the membrane a fluid character. ... The
proportions of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates in the plasma membrane
vary with cell type. It is sometimes referred to as a fluid mosaic because it
has many types of molecules which float along with the lipids due to the
many types of molecules that make up the cell membrane. ... The liquid part
is the lipid bilayer which floats along with the lipids due to the many types of
molecules that make up the cell. The fluid mosaic model is the most
acceptable model of the plasma membrane. Its main function is to separate
the contents of the cell from the outside.
The phospholipids in the plasma membrane are arranged in two layers,
called a phospholipid bilayer, with a hydrophobic, or water-hating, interior
and a hydrophilic, or water-loving, exterior. Each phospholipid molecule has
a head and two tails.
 Mangrove swamps are coastal wetlands found in tropical and subtropical
regions. They are characterized by halophytic (salt loving) trees, shrubs and
other plants growing in brackish to saline tidal waters. ... Mangrove trees
dominate this wetland ecosystem due to their ability to survive in both salt
and fresh water.
Dehydration occurs when you use or lose more fluid than you take in, and
your body doesn't have enough water and other fluids to carry out its normal
functions. If you don't replace lost fluids, you will get dehydrated. Symptoms
of dehydration in adults and children include:
- Feeling thirsty
- Dark yellow and strong-smelling pee
- Feeling dizzy or lightheaded
- Feeling tired
- A dry mouth, lips and eyes
- Peeing little, and fewer than 4 times a day

Dehydration can happen more easily if you have:

- Diabetes
- Vomiting or diarrhoea
- Been in the sun too long (heatstroke)
- Drunk too much alcohol
- Sweated too much after exercising
- A high temperature of 38℃ or more
- Been taking medicines that make you pee more (diuretics)
Carrier protein is a type of cell membrane protein involved in facilitated
diffusion and active transport of substances out of or into the cell. ... They
are also the proteins that take up glucose molecules and transport them and
other molecules (e.g. salts, amino acids, etc.) inside the cell. Membrane
carrier proteins are important transmembrane polypeptide molecules which
facilitate the movement of charged and polar molecules and ions across the
lipid bilayer structure of the cell membranes.
The epidermis is the outermost of the three layers that make up the skin, the
inner layers being the dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis layer provides
a barrier to infection from environmental pathogens and regulates the
amount of water released from the body into the atmosphere through
transepidermal water loss. The epidermis is the thin outer layer of the skin. It
consists of 3 types of cells: Squamous cells. The outermost layer is
continuously shed is called the stratum corneum. The epidermis, the
outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier and creates our skin
tone. The dermis, beneath the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue,
 hair follicles, and sweat glands.
A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material
of an organism. Most eukaryotic chromosomes include packaging proteins
called histones which, aided by chaperone proteins, bind to and condense
the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity. Chromosomes are thread-like
structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each
chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). Passed from parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific
instructions that make each type of living creature unique. Humans have 23
pairs of chromosomes--22 pairs of numbered chromosomes, called
autosomes, and one pair of sex chromosomes, X and Y. Each parent
contributes one chromosome to each pair so that offspring get half of their
chromosomes from their mother and half from their father. Chromosome 1
is the designation for the largest human chromosome. Humans have two
copies of chromosome 1, as they do with all of the autosomes, which are the
non-sex chromosomes. Chromosome 1 spans about 249 million nucleotide
base pairs, which are the basic units of information for DNA.
Today, scientists know that the endomembrane system includes the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. Vesicles also
allow the exchange of membrane components with a cell's plasma
membrane. The endomembrane system separates the cell into different
compartments, or organelles, such as the nucleus, the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. The endomembrane
system is derived from the ER and flows to the Golgi apparatus, from which
lysosomes bud. The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope,
lysosomes, vesicles, the ER, and Golgi apparatus, as well as the plasma
membrane. These cellular components work together to modify, package,
tag, and transport proteins and lipids that form the membranes.
Cambium, plural Cambiums, or Cambia, in plants, layer of actively dividing
cells between xylem (wood) and phloem (bast) tissues that is responsible for
the secondary growth of stems and roots (secondary growth occurs after the
first season and results in increase in thickness).
A cambium (plural cambia or cambiums), in plants, is a tissue layer that
provides partially undifferentiated cells for plant growth. It is found in the
area between xylem and phloem. It forms parallel rows of cells, which result
in secondary tissues.
The main job of the cambium is to promote growth of secondary xylem and
phloem. It's located directly between the primary xylem and phloem in a
circular layer. ... This is important because new growth of a plant needs
nutrients that it can only get from the internal tubing system of the plant -
 the phloem and xylem.
Girth is a measurement of the distance around the trunk of a tree measured
perpendicular to the axis of the trunk. In the United States it is measured at
breast height, or at 4.5 feet (1.4 m) above ground level.
Girth is a measurement of the distance around the trunk of a tree measured
perpendicular to the axis of the trunk. ... The base of the tree is measured for
both height and girth as being the elevation at which the pith of the tree
intersects the ground surface beneath, or where the acorn sprouted.
The meristem is a type of tissue found in plants. It consists of
undifferentiated cells capable of cell division. Cells in the meristem can
develop into all the other tissues and organs that occur in plants. These cells
continue to divide until a time when they get differentiated and then lose the
ability to divide.
The retina is the layer of cells lining the back wall inside the eye. This layer
senses light and sends signals to the brain so you can see. Several parts of
the eye are associated with the retina.
The retina is a complex ocular structure that converts wavelengths of light
into neuronal signals that become perceived visual images.
From this explanation, the verse in Surah al-Qiyamah speaks about taking the
fingerprints on all fingers, not on one finger only because the word banan is
plural. From that it is not strange that fingerprints are a sign of the greatness
of Allah in whom His secrets of creation lie.
Cartilage is a form of connective tissue in which the ground substance is
abundant and of a firmly gelated consistency that endows this tissue with
unusual rigidity and resistance to compression. The cells of cartilage, called
chondrocytes, are isolated in small lacunae within the matrix.
Loose connective tissue (also called areolar connective tissue) is a category of
connective tissue which includes areolar tissue, reticular tissue, and adipose
tissue. ... It holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other
underlying tissues.
Dense connective tissue is reinforced by bundles of fibers that provide
tensile strength, elasticity, and protection. In loose connective tissue, the
fibers are loosely organized, leaving large spaces in between.
Blood cell transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues.
forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss. carrying cells and
antibodies that fight infection. bringing waste products to the kidneys and
liver, which filter and clean the blood.
Pivot joint. The pivot joint, also called the rotary joint or trochoid joint, is
characterized by one bone that can swivel in a ring formed from a second
bone. Examples are the joints between your ulna and radius bones that
rotate your forearm, and the joint between the first and second vertebrae in
your neck.
Synovial fluid, also known as joint fluid, is a thick liquid located between your
joints. The fluid cushions the ends of bones and reduces friction when you
move your joints. A synovial fluid analysis is a group of tests that checks for
disorders that affect the joints.
Condyloid joint. The condyloid joint allows movement, but no rotation.
Examples include your finger joints and your jaw.
Hinge joint. The hinge joint is like a door, opening and closing in one
direction, along one plane. Examples include your elbow joint and your knee
joint.
Ball and socket joint. Permitting movement in all directions, the ball and
socket joint features the rounded head of one bone sitting in the cup of
another bone. Examples include your shoulder joint and your hip joint.
A joint is the part of the body where two or more bones meet to allow
movement. Generally speaking, the greater the range of movement, the
higher the risk of injury because the strength of the joint is reduced. The six
types of freely movable joint include ball and socket, saddle, hinge,
condyloid, pivot and gliding.
The human body is a remarkable machine comprised of 270 bones at birth
which later decreases to 206 due to fusion of some of our bones as we age.
The joints connect bone to bone, and there are 360 joints in our bodies.
Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that keeps joint motion fluid by
coating the surfaces of the bones in our joints and by cushioning bones
against impact. It is not as rigid as bone, but is stiffer and less flexible than
muscle tissue.
Ligaments are bands of tough elastic tissue around your joints. They connect
bone to bone, give your joints support, and limit their movement. You have
ligaments around your knees, ankles, elbows, shoulders, and other joints.
Stretching or tearing them can make your joints unstable.
Much of the reduced contractility can be accounted for by the severity of the
acidosis. Although a mild acidosis can delay or prevent damage to the
myocardium from ischaemia or hypoxia, a severe acidosis is not beneficial
and may even cause tissue necrosis
Actin filaments, usually in association with myosin, are responsible for many
types of cell movements. Myosin is the prototype of a molecular motor—a
protein that converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to mechanical
energy, thus generating force and movement.
The heart has its own electrical system that causes it to beat and pump
blood. Because of this, the heart can continue to beat for a short time after
 brain death, or after being removed from the body. The heart will keep
beating as long as it has oxygen. Your heart is a busy organ.
Peristalsis is a series of wave-like muscle contractions that move food
through the digestive tract. It starts in the esophagus where strong wave-like
motions of the smooth muscle move balls of swallowed food to the stomach.
... Stretching out a piece of intestine will make it easier to see the wave-like
motion.
Therefore, this is the correct statement. Statement D: The heart of the frog
can excite by itself and it does not need a nervous system to excite, Hence
the heart of the frog is autoexcitable. Due to this feature, the heart of the
frog can beat even after the removal of the heart from the frog's body.
Alcohol changes the chemicals that break down and remove scar tissue. This
means that scar tissue builds up in the liver. Scar tissue replaces normal
healthy cells. This means that the liver can't work properly and can fail,
leading to death. When you drink alcohol, you don't digest alcohol. It passes
quickly into your bloodstream and travels to every part of your body. Alcohol
affects your brain first, then your kidneys, lungs and liver. The effect on your
body depends on your age, gender, weight and the type of alcohol. Difficulty
walking, blurred vision, slurred speech, slowed reaction times, impaired
memory: Clearly, alcohol affects the brain. Some of these impairments are
detectable after only one or two drinks and quickly resolve when drinking
stops
Normally, the appendix sits in the lower right abdomen. The function of the
appendix is unknown. One theory is that the appendix acts as a storehouse
for good bacteria, “rebooting” the digestive system after diarrheal illnesses.
Other experts believe the appendix is just a useless remnant from our
evolutionary past. Researchers deduce that the appendix is designed to
protect good bacteria in the gut. That way, when the gut is affected by a
bout of diarrhea or other illness that cleans out the intestines, the good
bacteria in the appendix can repopulate the digestive system and keep you
healthy.
Your eyes probably water when you yawn because your facial muscles
tighten up and your eyes get all scrunched up, causing any excess tears to
spill out.
Sweat glands are coiled tubular structures vital for regulating human body
temperature. Humans have three different types of sweat glands: eccrine,
apocrine, and apoeccrine. Eccrine sweat glands are abundantly distributed all
over the skin and mainly secrete water and electrolytes through the surface
of the skin.
The finger-like projections in the small intestine of humans are known as villi.
The shape of the villi is to extend into the lumen of the small intestine. ... Villi
increases the internal surface area of the intestinal walls so that a greater
surface area will be available for absorption.
Villus, plural villi, in anatomy any of the small, slender, vascular projections
that increase the surface area of a membrane. Important villous membranes
include the placenta and the mucous-membrane coating of the small
intestine. ... The large number of villi give the internal intestinal wall a
velvety appearance.
Sucrose is made up of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose
joined together. It is a disaccharide, a molecule composed of two
monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is produced naturally in
plants, from which table sugar is refined. It has the molecular formula
C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁.
Dehydration occurs when you use or lose more fluid than you take in, and
your body doesn't have enough water and other fluids to carry out its normal
functions. If you don't replace lost fluids, you will get dehydrated
Abstract. Dehydration survival under drought stress is defined in this review
as the transition from plant activity into a quiescent state of life
preservation, which will be terminated by either recovery or death,
depending on the stress regime and the plant's resilience
A cuticle, or cuticula, is any of a variety of tough but flexible, non-mineral
outer coverings of an organism, or parts of an organism, that provide
protection. Various types of "cuticle" are non-homologous, differing in their
origin, structure, function, and chemical composition
Arachnids are spiders , harvestmen , mites and ticks , and their relatives like
scorpions that don't live in Michigan. All arachnids have eight legs, and unlike
insects, they don't have antennae. ... Arachnids are part of a larger group
called arthropods , which also includes insects, myriapods, and crustaceans.
An exoskeleton (from Greek έξω, éxō "outer" and σκελετός, skeletós
"skeleton") is the external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's
body, in contrast to the internal skeleton (endoskeleton) of, for example, a
human. In usage, some of the larger kinds of exoskeletons are known as
"shells". An exoskeleton is a hard covering that supports and protects the
bodies of some types of animals. ... Insects have exoskeletons made of a
substance called chitin. The exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, shrimp, spiders,
ticks, mites, scorpions, and related animals are also made of chitin.
Exoskeleton, rigid or articulated envelope that supports and protects the soft
tissues of certain animals. The term includes the calcareous housings of
sessile invertebrates such as clams but is most commonly applied to the
chitinous integument of arthropods, such as insects, spiders, and
 crustaceans. All arthropods (such as insects, spiders and crustaceans) and
many other invertebrate animals (such as shelled mollusks) have
exoskeletons. Lobsters, for example, have tough outer shell systems which
provide rigidity and shape to their bodies.
Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with
fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. They
are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity
among all orders of organisms
Abnormal mitosis is a hallmark of cancer cells in which regulatory
mechanisms are perturbed leading to uncontrolled cell division with growth
advantages of cells lacking tumor suppressor genes which results in
characteristic tumor tissue.
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the
potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with
benign tumors, which do not spread. Cancer describes an enormous
spectrum of diseases that all originate from uncontrolled cellular growth.
Broadly divided into benign tumors (unable to metastasize) or malignant
tumors (able to invade normal tissues), cancers are further defined and
classified by their cell type, tissue, or organ of origin. Cancer is a disease in
which some of the body's cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts
of the body.
“Plants don't get cancer like animals do,” said Susan K. Pell, director of
science at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, “and the tumors they do get do not
metastasize because plant cells don't move around.” Rather, they are held in
place by cell walls.
Triploidy is the presence of an additional set of chromosomes in the cell for a
total of 69 chromosomes rather than the normal 46 chromosomes per cell.
The extra set of chromosomes originates either from the father or the
mother during fertilization.
A form of inheritance wherein the traits of the offspring are maternal in
origin due to the expression of extranuclear DNA present in the ovum during
fertilization.
Paternal inheritance refers to the transmission of any attribute from a father
to his offspring. Most paternally inherited traits can be explained by the
inheritance of nuclear genes, which are contributed by the male parent and
expressed in his progeny.
Diploid describes a cell that contain two copies of each chromosome. Nearly
all the cells in the human body carry two homologous, or similar, copies of
each chromosome. The only exception is cells in the germ line, which go on
to produce gametes, or egg and sperm cells.
 The World of Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, and Volvox Cells. They live in
water, including lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, and puddles. They spend most
of their time attached to the bottom or to plants. Amoebas are helpful when
they control algae in ponds, lakes, and streams
Muscle cells, commonly known as myocytes, are the cells that make up
muscle tissue. There are 3 types of muscle cells in the human body; cardiac,
skeletal, and smooth. ... Skeletal muscle cells make up the muscle tissues
connected to the skeleton and are important in locomotion.
Biceps is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the
shoulder and the elbow.
The oesophagus (gullet) is part of the digestive system, which is sometimes
called the gastro-intestinal tract (GI tract). The oesophagus is a muscular
tube. It connects your mouth to your stomach. ... This moves the food down
the oesophagus to the stomach. The upper part of the oesophagus is behind
the windpipe (trachea).
Anatomic - of or relating to the structure of the body; "anatomical features"
anatomical.
Anatomic - of or relating to the branch of morphology that studies the
structure of organisms; "anatomical research" anatomical.
In storytelling, the antagonist is the opposer or combatant working against
the protagonist's or leading characters' goal (“antagonizing”) and creating
the main conflict. The antagonist can be one character or a group of
characters. In traditional narratives, the antagonist is synonymous with “the
bad guy
Smooth muscle, also called involuntary muscle, muscle that shows no cross
stripes under microscopic magnification. Smooth muscle tissue, unlike
striated muscle, contracts slowly and automatically. It constitutes much of
the musculature of internal organs and the digestive system.
The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through
the blood vessels of the circulatory system. The pumped blood carries
oxygen and nutrients to the body, while carrying metabolic waste such as
carbon dioxide to the lungs.
The longest instance of someone holding their breath without inhaling pure
oxygen beforehand is 11 minutes and 34 seconds. However, most people can
only safely hold their breath for 1 to 2 minutes. The amount of time you can
comfortably and safely hold your breath depends on your specific body and
genetics.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal
and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule
of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Passed from parents to offspring, DNA
 contains the specific instructions that make each type of living creature
unique
Crown galls are a kind of plant cancer, caused by the bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens (pictured). This causes uncontrolled growth of
plant cells around the infection, just like a tumour. Other tumours can be
triggered by fungi or physical damage.
Rhizosphere is the region of soil in the vicinity of plant roots in which the
chemistry and microbiology is influenced by their growth, respiration, and
nutrient exchange. Rhizosphere also known as the microbe storehouse is the
soil zone surrounding the plant roots where the biological and chemical
features of the soil are influenced by the roots. The rhizosphere is coined
more than hundred years ago by Hiltner in 1904.
The partial pressure of oxygen, also known as PaO2, is a measurement of
oxygen pressure in arterial blood. It reflects how well oxygen is able to move
from the lungs to the blood, and it is often altered by severe illnesses. The
partial pressure of oxygen is high in the alveoli and low in the blood of the
pulmonary capillaries. As a result, oxygen diffuses across the respiratory
membrane from the alveoli into the blood. In contrast, the partial pressure
of carbon dioxide is high in the pulmonary capillaries and low in the alveoli.
Cartilage is a non-vascular type of supporting connective tissue that is found
throughout the body . Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that differs
from bone in several ways; it is avascular and its microarchitecture is less
organized than bone. Cartilage is an important structural component of the
body. It is a firm tissue but is softer and much more flexible than bone.
Cartilage is a connective tissue found in many areas of the body including:
Joints between bones e.g. the elbows, knees and ankles.
The xylem vessel is one of the two cell types of tracheary elements, the other
is the tracheid. These two are the water conducting elements in vascular
plants. ... Most angiosperms (flowering plants) have both xylem vessels and
tracheids but the xylem vessels serve as the major conductive element.
The airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the bronchi (large
airways that lead to the lungs). Also called windpipe
Tracheid, in botany, primitive element of xylem (fluid-conducting tissues),
consisting of a single elongated cell with pointed ends and a secondary,
cellulosic wall thickened with lignin (a chemical binding substance)
containing numerous pits but having no perforations in the primary cell wall.
A tracheid is a long, lignified cell in the xylem of vascular plants. Tracheid first
named after the German botanist Carl Gustav Sanio in 1863. Used from
deutsch Tracheide. There are often pits or decoratives on the cell walls of
tube cells. When mature, tracheids do not have a protoplast
 Vascular tissue is comprised of the xylem and the phloem, the main
transport systems of plants. They typically occur together in vascular bundles
in all plant organs, traversing roots, stems, and leaves. Xylem is responsible
for the transport of water and dissolved ions from the roots upwards
through the plant.
Mature sclerenchyma cells are usually dead cells that have heavily thickened
secondary walls containing lignin. Collenchyma cells mainly form supporting
tissue and have irregular cell walls. They are found mainly in the cortex of
stems and in leaves. The major function of sclerenchyma is support. Lignin is
a complex polymer comprised of aromatic alcohols known as monolignols. It
is the most abundant natural polymer typically found in plant cell walls.
Unlike the rest of the polymers, lignin is not composed of carbohydrate
monomers.
Muscle cells, unique junctions called intercalated discs (gap junctions) link
the cells together and define their borders. Intercalated discs are the major
portal for cardiac cell-to-cell communication, which is required for
coordinated muscle contraction and maintenance of circulation.
The four main functions of the heart are: Pumping oxygenated blood to the
other body parts. Pumping hormones and other vital substances to different
parts of the body. Receiving deoxygenated blood and carrying metabolic
waste products from the body and pumping it to the lungs for oxygenation.
The trachea is composed of about 20 rings of tough cartilage. The back part
of each ring is made of muscle and connective tissue. Moist, smooth tissue
called mucosa lines the inside of the trachea. The trachea widens and
lengthens slightly with each breath in, returning to its resting size with each
breath out.
The colon is also known as the large bowel or large intestine. It is
an organ that is part of the digestive system (also called the digestive tract)
in the human body. The digestive system is the group of organs that allow us
to eat and to use the food we eat to fuel our bodies.
Feces is the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the
small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the large intestine.
Feces contains a relatively small amount of metabolic waste products such as
bacterially altered bilirubin, and dead epithelial cells from the lining of the
gut.
Feces, also spelled faeces, also called excrement, solid bodily waste
discharged from the large intestine through the anus during defecation.
Feces are normally removed from the body one or two times a day.
Haemorrhoids, also known as piles, are swellings containing enlarged blood
vessels that are found inside or around the bottom (the rectum and anus). In
 many cases, haemorrhoids don't cause symptoms, and some people don't
even realise they have them.
Two distinguishable sounds can be heard during the cycle of the beating
heart when listened to with a stethoscope. The heart sounds are usually
described as a lup-dup sound. These sounds are due to the closing of the
valves of the heart. Unusual heart sounds are called murmur. The
characteristic "lub-dub " sound of the heart is created by the closing of the
valves. The "Lub" sound marks the start of the contraction of the ventricles,
known as ventricular systole. The sound is caused by the closure of the
valves separating each ventricle from its atrium. The first sound (the lub)
happens when the mitral and tricuspid valves close. The next sound (the
dub) happens when the aortic and pulmonary valves close after the blood
has been squeezed out of the heart.
The epiglottis is a small, movable "lid" just above the larynx that prevents
food and drink from entering your windpipe. But if the epiglottis becomes
swollen — either from infection or from injury — the airway narrows and
may become completely blocked. The epiglottis is a flap of cartilage located
in the throat behind the tongue and front of the larynx. The epiglottis is
usually upright at rest allowing air to pass into the larynx and lungs.
Muscles transfer force to bones through tendons. In an antagonistic muscle
pair as one muscle contracts the other muscle relaxes or lengthens. ... The
muscle that is contracting is called the agonist and the muscle that is relaxing
or lengthening is called the antagonist.
The small intestine has three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. It
helps to further digest food coming from the stomach. It absorbs nutrients
(vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins) and water from food so
they can be used by the body. The small intestine is part of the digestive
system.
Skeletal muscles, commonly called muscles, are organs of the vertebrate
muscular system that are mostly attached by tendons to bones of the
skeleton. The muscle cells of skeletal muscles are much longer than in the
other types of muscle tissue, and are often known as muscle fibres. The
muscle tissue of a skeletal muscle is striated – having a striped appearance
due to the arrangement of the sarcomeres.
Gastrointestinal tract, also called digestive tract or alimentary canal, pathway
by which food enters the body and solid wastes are expelled. The
gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
Your trachea, or windpipe, is one part of your airway system. ... When you
inhale, air travels from your nose, through your larynx, and down your
 windpipe. The windpipe splits into two bronchi that enter your lungs.
Problems with the trachea include narrowing, inflammation, and some
inherited conditions.
Triceps muscle, any muscle with three heads, or points of origin, particularly
the large extensor along the back of the upper arm in humans. It originates
just below the socket of the scapula (shoulder blade) and at two distinct
areas of the humerus, the bone of the upper arm
Myofibrils are bundles of protein filaments that contain the contractile
elements of the cardiomyocyte, that is, the machinery or motor that drives
contraction and relaxation.
A sarcomere is the basic contractile unit of muscle fiber. Each sarcomere is
composed of two main protein filaments—actin and myosin—which are the
active structures responsible for muscular contraction. The most popular
model that describes muscular contraction is called the sliding filament
theory.
Cardiac is having to do with the heart.
Differences in size between sexes are also considered secondary sexual
characteristics. In humans, visible secondary sex characteristics include pubic
hair, enlarged breasts and widened hips of females, and facial hair and
Adam's apples on males.
Freshwater is defined as having a low salt concentration — usually less than
1%. Plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to the low salt
content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt concentration
(i.e., ocean). There are different types of freshwater regions: Ponds and
lakes.
Cilium is a short microscopic hairlike vibrating structure found in large
numbers on the surface of certain cells, either causing currents in the
surrounding fluid, or, in some protozoans and other small organisms,
providing propulsion. Cilia are microtubule-based hair-like organelles that
extend from the surface of almost all cell types of the human body. ...
Sensory cilia act as cellular antennae to sense environmental and
morphogenic cues, for example, during development. The cilium is an
organelle found on eukaryotic cells in the shape of a slender protuberance
that projects from the much larger cell body. There are two types of cilia:
motile and non-motile cilia. Non-motile cilia are also called primary cilia
which serve as sensory organelles.
Humans (and most animals) can see in the “dark” only if there is some
starlight or, better, moonlight. It takes some time (10 to 30 minutes) for your
eyes to become dark adapted to see in such low-light conditions. Heat
produces infrared radiation, which is invisible to the human eye.
Amoeba and paramecium respire through the surface of their body that is a
single cell. Insects breathe through spiracles, trachea. Earthworms through
their moist and slimy skin. Fishes take in water through their mouths and
force it past the gills where the dissolved oxygen is taken up by blood.
Crenation in botany and zoology, describes an object's shape, especially a
leaf or shell, as being round-toothed or having a scalloped edge.
In organisms like Amoeba and Paramecium, most of the metabolic wastes
are removed through the general surface of the body by the simple process
of diffusion. ”In Amoeba, waste materials and excess water are removed by
the process of diffusion with the help of a contractile vacuole.
The binomial naming system is the system used to name species. Each
species is given a name that consists of two parts. The first part is the Genus
to which the species belongs and the second part is the species name. The
binomial naming system was first uniformly used by Carl Linnaeus.
Multiple fission is a zoology asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms,
esp sporozoans, in which the nucleus divides a number of times, followed by
division of the cytoplasm, to form daughter cells.