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DOI: 10.1177/0972262921989877

A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis journals.sagepub.com/home/vis

Sakshi Vashisht1 Poonam Kaushal2 and Ravi Vashisht3

Abstract
This study conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence, personality
variables (Big V personality traits, self-esteem, self-efficacy, optimism and proactive personality) and career adaptability of students.
Data were coded on CMA software version 3.0. Product–moment correlation coefficient (r) was considered as the effect size measure
for this study. Publication bias was assessed using Egger’s regression test along with Orwin’s fail-safe N, but no significant publication
bias was detected. From the results of 54 studies, it was found that all variables of the study had meta-analytic correlation with career
adaptability of students. For heterogeneity, subgroup analysis was conducted, and significant differences were found.

Key Words
Emotional Intelligence, Personality, Meta Analysis, Career Adaptability, Big Five Personality Traits

Introduction behaviours (Teixeira et al., 2012); therefore, it can be

In the current scenario, employees are expected to
acclimatize and respond in a resourceful manner to the
environment, which is marked by turbulence and
uncertainty. Employers expect employees to display
tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity (Ismail et al.,
2016). Adaptability is one vital attribute that individuals
are expected to possess (Hui et al., 2018). Career
adaptability has gained increased attention of researchers
in the past few years, mainly because in university students,
career adaptability is related with variables such as self-
esteem, self-efficacy, personality, emotional intelligence
(EI) and meaningful life (Celik & Storme, 2017; Ismail,
2017; Schmitz et al., 2001). EI has been identified as one of
the important factors for reinforcing an individual’s career
adaptability. Cizel (2018, p. 189) defines EI as ‘individuals’
ability to establish empathy, to perceive straight, to
evaluate, to express feelings and to regulate emotions’.
Coetzee and Harry (2013) argued that emotions strengthen,
regulate and control one’s actions and, therefore, must be
considered in career-related actions and decisions. Also,
individuals differ in their willingness to engage in adapting
asserted that career adaptability correlates to personality
traits or variables. Studies in the present literature have
indicated relations between personality variables such as
Big Five personality traits, optimism, self-esteem, proactive
personality and self-efficacy (Hui et al., 2018; Fang et al.,
2018; Lent et al., 1994; Pan et al., 2018; Van Vianen et al.,
2012). Graduating students must have career adaptability
because they need skills to adjust to the changing career
environment. However, it is contended that graduating
students do not possess the skills and competencies
demanded by the organizations. Therefore, it is necessary
to understand how young graduates can be equipped better
to steer through a progressively more complex work
environment. Hence, this systematic review and meta-
analysis focus on the effect of EI and personality variables
on career adaptability.
The present study was undertaken for numerous reasons.
First, career adaptability has been linked to various
outcomes such as academic satisfaction (Duffy et al.,
2015), career construction (Merino-Tejedor et al., 2016),
career exploration (Li et al., 2015) and career motivation
(Fang et al., 2018). Therefore, understanding of the factors

1 PanipatInstitute of Engineering & Technology, Delhi NCR, India.

2 ICFAI Business School, The ICFAI University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India.
3 ICFAI University, Baddi, Himachal Pradesh, India.

Corresponding author:
Poonam Kaushal, ICFAI Business School, The ICFAI University, Central Hope Town, Rajawala Road, Selaqui, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248197, India.
E-mail: poonamkaushal47@gmail.com
2
that drive career adaptability is of importance not only to
researchers but also to the employers. Second, a significant
number of studies have reported correlations between EI,
personality variables and career adaptability. Therefore, it
is worthwhile to apply meta-analytic techniques to examine
these empirical findings quantitatively. Stanley (2001)
suggested that, if various studies have been performed on a
specific topic using diverse techniques and data set, then
combined listing of results of these studies can provide
more understanding and better explanatory power than a
simple listing of the individual studies.
Career Adaptability
Career adaptability indicates one’s willingness to deal with
various career-related tasks, transitions and traumas
(Savickas, 2011). Savickas and Porfeli (2012) defined
career adaptability as the flexibility or desire to accomplish
career tasks, to pursue career change and to deal with
career disturbances with the appropriate steps. Career
adaptabilities also refer to the psychological resources that
individual makes use of when dealing with career or occu-
pational transitions (Savickas, 1997). The 4Cs or four self-
regulatory resources that characterize career adaptability
are control, concern, curiosity and consideration. Control
represents the responsibility and accountability one takes
for their future by demonstrating discipline and persis-
tence. Concern is envisioning one’s future and preparing
oneself for the upcoming challenges. Curiosity is the col-
lection of information pertaining to career opportunities
before making a vocational/educational choice. Confidence
is feeling optimistic about one’s aptitude to solve career-
related problems (Rossier et al., 2012; Savickas, 2005).
Together, these four career adaptabilities facilitate adjust-
ment to career-related changes and efficient transitioning
across the career lifespan (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).
Emotional Intelligence and Career
Adaptability
Emotional intelligence has been recognized as an important
criterion for strengthening career adaptability of
individuals. Mayer and Salovey (1997) describe EI as the
ability of an individual to identify, understand and manage
emotions. Petrides and Furnham (2006) explained various
components of EI: (a) self-control—the ability to control
one’s own emotions; (b) emotionality—the capability to
identify one’s own emotions, the emotions of others and to
express them correctly; (c) sociability—the ability to
understand the way others feel by using the emotions
effectively during interactions; and (d) high regard for
oneself and being optimistic towards life and the
achievements of the past. In career decision-making
discussion, the role of emotional experience, illustration
and communication is crucial (Kidd, 1998). Individuals
use emotional and cognitive competencies for developing
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career narratives (Brown et al., 2003). Cizel (2018) opined
that EI is essential to be successful in various domains
of life including career adaptability. Emotion and EI are
important for comprehending and explaining the career.
Studies in the past have reported EI as a strong predictor of
career adaptability (Celik & Storme, 2017; Parmentier et
al., 2019; Udayar et al., 2018). Thus, it is hypothesized
that:
Hypothesis 1:  A positive relationship exists between
emotional intelligence and career adaptability.
Big-Five Personality Traits and
Career Adaptability
Individuals vary in their motivation to engage in adaptive
behaviours, and it can be argued that personality traits
influence adaptability to some extent (Teixeira et al., 2012).
Personality can be viewed as a filter that helps individuals
to understand his/her environment and also to set off the
self-regulation processes such as career adaptabilities to
adapt to the environment (Rossier et al., 2012). Eryılmaz
and Kara (2017) argued that career adaptability is the result
of the personality traits of an individual. Various studies
have been conducted using the five-factor model of
personality. Big-Five personality traits usually consist
of sub-dimensions: conscientiousness, neuroticism,
agreeableness, openness and extraversion (Schmitz et al.,
2001). Reed et al. (2004) found career exploration to be
positively related to personality dimensions, namely
extroversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness
and negatively related to neuroticism, but not related to
agreeableness. Teixeira et al. (2012), Van Vianen et al.
(2012), Rossier et al. (2012) and Guan et al. (2017) reported
a positive relationship between career adaptability and
personality dimensions, namely extroversion, openness to
experience and conscientiousness. Teixeira et al. (2012)
reported career adaptability to be positively related to
agreeableness and negatively related to neuroticism. Ispir
et al. (2019) found conscientiousness as the most significant
predictor of career adaptability and neuroticism as the
lowest significant predictor. Findings of Fugate et al.
(2004) suggested that career and employability are not
only governed by the skills, knowledge and abilities an
individual possess, but it also depends on other dormant,
higher-demand personality factors that encourage a person
to adapt to changing career patterns and working
environment. Since studies that were analysed have shown
mixed results, the present study would like to test the
relationship further through the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2:  A positive relationship exists between
(a) openness and career adaptability, (b) extraver-
sion and career adaptability, (c) agreeableness and
career adaptability, (d) conscientiousness and career
adaptability and a negative relationship exists
between (e) neuroticism and career adaptability.
Vashisht et al. 3
Optimism and Career Adaptability
Optimism can be defined as a positive mental attitude
reflecting a belief or view about work and interpreting the
situations or events positively. Scheier and Carver (1985)
defined optimism as a generalized expectancy of positive
future outcomes in the life domains. Career optimism is a
generalized anticipation that good things will happen
related to one’s career. Many researchers have found
that career optimism has the probability of making right
choices in career and establishing constructive career
plans (Rottinghaus et al., 2004; Selahattin et al., 2017).
Individuals who are optimistic show more interest in the
future of their career and are engaged in professional
learning and, thus, feel contented (McIlveen et al., 2013).
Such individuals engage more in career-related activities,
such as actively exploring career choices, and they are also
exceptionally confident about making career decisions
(Higgins et al., 2010). A greater sense of optimism enables
students to handle the work or career-related issues easily
(Buyukgoze-Kavas, 2014). Researchers in the current lit-
erature have shown a positive relationship between opti-
mism and career adaptability (Buyukgoze-Kavas, 2014;
Delle & Searle, 2020; Fang et al., 2018). A positive rela-
tionship between career adaptability and optimistic attitude
towards future influences the hopeful expectations and
positive dispositions regarding the future (Oncel, 2014;
Santilli et al., 2016). Thus, it is hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 3:  A positive relationship exists between
optimism and career adaptability.
Self-esteem and Career
Adaptability
Self-esteem refers to an individuals’ positive or negative
evaluation of oneself. Branden (1969) described self-
esteem in terms of feeling competent to cope with the
challenges of life and of being worthy of happiness (Iqbal
et al., 2016). Self-esteem is an integral part of self-concept
such that it has become a predictor of future employment
(Huysse-Gaytandjieva et al., 2015). People with a high
degree of self-esteem are found to have high self-perceived
competence, positive self-image and success expectancy
(Miner, 1992). Individuals with a high level of self-esteem
set challenging career goals for themselves and engage in
activities to accomplish these goals (Crook et al., 1984;
Ellis & Taylor, 1983). According to Patton et al. (2004),
people with a high perception of self-esteem are more
likely to get involved in career exploration activities in
order to accomplish their career goals. Furthermore,
Savickas (2005) found that these career exploration
activities help people to develop their relevant career-
related identity and adaptability.
Hui et al. (2018) reported self-esteem as an important
factor associated with career adaptability. According to the
researchers, high self-esteem is time and again articulated
in the form of self-acceptance, which in turn strengthens
students’ career path confidence and adaptability (Hui et
al., 2018). Atac et al. (2017) opined that young adults with
a high degree of self-esteem regard themselves confident
to adjust to the changing demands and transitions of work-
life and, therefore, have a higher belief in themselves in
terms of career adaptability. Ismail (2017) reported self-
esteem as positively related to career adaptability and
highlights the importance of career adaptability in coping
with the constantly changing and demanding work that
university graduates are going to encounter in the work-
life. Studies of McArdle et al. (2007), Cai et al. (2015) and
Van Vianen et al. (2012) also showed a positive relationship
between high self-esteem and career adaptability. However,
Yahya et al. (2019) found no impact of self-esteem on
students’ career adaptability. Based on these studies, the
following hypothesis is made:
Hypothesis 4:  A positive relationship exists between
self-esteem and career adaptability.
Proactive Personality
Proactive personality refers to people’s inclination to take
initiative towards proactive behaviours in order to influence
their surroundings (Bateman & Crant, 1993). Seibert et al.
(1999) described that individuals who are proactive are
extremely capable of handling any useful changes in their
career. Proactive individuals have the propensity to
recognize opportunities and act upon the ones that are
suitable for their career interests. Proactive personality
promotes an individual’s curiosity (Jiang, 2017) and
alertness to opportunities (Uy et al., 2015), which further
leads to the development of career adaptability. Many
researchers have noted that proactive personality has a
significant positive impact on career adaptability (Chunna
et al., 2014; McArdle et al., 2007; Yahya et al., 2019;
Yanjun et al., 2014; Yin et al., 2020). Fawehinmi and Yahya
(2018) reported that youth who are proactive can achieve
career demands and manage career transitions more
effectively than less proactive youth. Proactive individuals
are more inclined to change, actively explore opportunities
related to career and try to create an appropriate work
environment for their career needs (Bateman & Crant,
1993; Tolentino et al., 2013), which increases the possibility
of their career success (Seibert et al., 2001). In their study,
Pan et al. (2018) showed that proactive personality was
associated with career adaptability, which was further
linked to antecedents of employment success, for example,
job search efficiency, number of job offers and starting
salary. Individuals who have a proactive propensity
discover opportunities and focus on actions until a
meaningful or significant change occurs in career (Stauffer
et al., 2019). Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:
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Hypothesis 5:  A positive relationship exists between
proactive personality and career adaptability.
Self-efficacy and Career
Adaptability
Self-efficacy has been viewed as an important, powerful
and proximal premise in studying career behaviour
(Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). Self-efficacy can be under-
stood as one’s belief about his/her capabilities to organize
and accomplish the required course of actions to achieve
career objectives (Bandura, 1997). Sidiropoulou-
Dimakakou et al. (2012) defined self-efficacy in a career as
‘beliefs individual form in terms of their ability to imple-
ment the appropriate actions to effectively manage various
career issues’. Bandura (1977) stated that individuals with
high self-efficacy tend to face difficult situations as chal-
lenges to overcome rather than as threats to be avoided.
They are committed and determined to accomplish their
challenging goals. Individuals with low self-efficacy
usually regard challenging tasks as threatening; therefore,
they either postpone the tasks or give up on them. Past
studies strongly evidenced that efficacy beliefs exert a
direct and strong influence on career choice and career
adaptation; for instance, Hackett and Betz (1981) theorized
that career-related self-efficacy plays a more powerful role
compared to interest, values and abilities in the career
choices of college students. Savickas (2005) (as cited in
Guan et al., 2013) reported a higher level of career adapta-
tion among those individuals who are both willing and
capable (i.e., high self-efficacy) of performing actions that
deal with changing conditions. Angel (2012) also reported
a strong and positive relationship between general self-
efficacy and career adaptability. In their studies, Creed et
al. (2007) and Hirschi (2009) found that higher self-effi-
cacy beliefs enhance career adaptability in adolescents. Jin
et al. (2009) and Hou et al. (2014) reported an indirect
impact of career decision-making self-efficacy on the
career adaptability of Chinese graduate students. Hirschi et
al. (2013) stated individual’s self-efficacy is an important
predictor of career adaptation. Self-efficacy acts as a facili-
tator and facet in the career decision-making process
(Arbona, 2000) as well as a constituent of career adaptabil-
ity (Lent et al., 1994). Based on these studies, the following
hypothesis is made:
Hypothesis 6:  A positive relationship exists between
self-efficacy and career adaptability.
Methods
Selection Criteria
Eligibility criteria for the selection of studies were in
accordance with Population, Intervention, Comparison,
Outcome and Study Design (PICOS). The studies were
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selected based on the following criteria: (a) studies in
which the study population comprised of undergraduate
and postgraduate university students; (b) studies in which
the interventions were EI and personality variables;
(c) studies in which no comparator groups were required;
(d) studies which were focused on the outcome of EI and
personality on career adaptability; and (e) studies which
were quantitative with a cross-sectional or longitudinal
design. Additionally, only those studies that were peer-
reviewed and written in the English language were selected.
Study Identification and Quality
assessment
Scopus, ProQuest Dissertation and Theses and EBSCO
were searched systematically using the search terms such
as EI, optimism, personality, proactive personality,
hardiness, self-esteem, self-efficacy and career adaptability.
The specific search expressions were ([career, EI OR
emotional stability OR Big V personality traits OR self-
esteem OR self-efficacy OR hardiness OR locus of control
OR optimism OR proactive personality] AND [career
adaptability] AND [college students OR medical students
OR university students]). Reference lists of the studies
were used for identifying additional articles.
All three authors independently prescreened the three
databases based on title and abstract and categorized the
studies as ‘suitable’ or ‘unsuitable’. All studies that were
considered as suitable were then screened for full text. To
check for inter-rater reliability, Cohen’s kappa was used.
Agreement between the raters was substantial (K = .705,
p < .001) (Landis & Koch, 1977). In addition, all the
included studies were assessed for in-depth quality by all
the three reviewers. Quality assessment of the studies was
done on these dimensions: country context, response rate,
instruments used, sampling and sample size.
Data Extraction
Based on the inclusion criterion, the third author was
responsible for coding of the selected articles. The second
author coded a random sample of 15 articles. Discrepancies
were resolved through clarification on the coding process
and reviewing the original articles. The codes had 93.5%
agreement. The following data were extracted and coded
from the selected articles: (a) scales used for measuring EI,
career adaptability and personality predictor; (b) product–
moment correlation coefficient between EI and career
adaptability and personality variables and career
adaptability; (c) sample size; (d) reliability of the scales
used; and (e) region where the study was undertaken. Where
standardized regression coefficient was reported in the
studies, the correlation coefficient was calculated using the
rehabilitation method: r = β + 0.05 λ (λ = 1 for non-negative
β and λ = 0 for negative β) (Peterson & Brown, 2005).
Vashisht et al. 5

Data Analysis
Data were coded on CMA software version 3.0. Product-
moment correlation coefficient (r) was considered as the
effect size measure for this study. To decide whether to
use the fixed model or the random model, homogeneity
analysis was conducted which generated Q-statistic and
I2 index (Borenstein et al., 2009). Q-statistic signifies the
total dispersion in the effect size. Significant value of
Q-statistic reflects the need for moderation analysis
(Borenstein et al., 2009). I2 statistics represents the
proportion of variance that can be attributed to the true
differences among the studies. Values of I2 are as follows:
25%—low heterogeneity; 50%—moderate heterogeneity;
and 75%—high heterogeneity (Higgins et al., 2003).

Results
Selection Process
The process of selecting studies is shown in PRISMA
flowchart (see Figure 1). Electronic search from the
databases resulted in 6,550 articles. After removing duplicate
studies 4,795 articles remained. After reviewing the title and
abstract, 155 studies were identified. The authors fully
reviewed all 155 studies. Fifty-four articles were finally
selected for systematic review and meta-analysis.

Meta-analytic Results
The results of meta-analysis concerning the relationship
between EI, personality variables and career adaptability
are depicted in Table 1.
Emotional Intelligence and Career Adaptability Figure 1.  PRISMA Flow Chart
In eight studies, the effect of EI on career adaptability ranged Source: Developed through systematic review.
from r = 0.160 to r = 0.660. The results of the random-effects

Table 1.  Meta-analysis Results: Emotional Intelligence, Personality Variables and Career Adaptability

95% CI
Variables K N R Lower Upper Q I2 (%)
Emotional intelligence 8 2837 0.446*** 0.328 0.551 98.07*** 92.86
Personality variables
Big V
Openness 8 3105 0.329*** 0.239 0.414 49.88*** 85.96
Extraversion 10 6589 0.344*** 0.305 0.382 14.56 38.20
Agreeableness 8 3105 0.237*** 0.121 0.347 74.49*** 90.60
Conscientiousness 8 3105 0.396*** 0.265 0.513 113.86** 93.85
Neuroticism 8 2872 −0.300*** −0.367 −0.229 26.73*** 73.82
Optimism 8 5169 0.449*** 0.347 0.541 108.1*** 93.52
Self-esteem 6 3551 0.407*** 0.286 0.515 64.91*** 92.29
Proactive 9 4299 0.539*** 0.476 0.597 58.32*** 86.28
Self-efficacy 13 6761 0.536*** 0.458 0.606 215.53*** 94.43
Source: Calculated using CMA 3.0.
Notes: Effect size calculation based on the random effects model; k = number of studies included in the analysis; N = total sample size; r = weighted
average correlation; 95% CI = 95% confidence interval; Q = Cochran’s measure of homogeneity; I2 = percentage of true heterogeneity.
** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001.
6
model produced a significant effect size, as the weighted
average correlation was r = 0.446, p < 0.001, N = 2,837. The
confidence interval did not include zero; thus, the effect size
was significantly different from zero (95% CI [0.328,
0.551]). The results suggested that EI is positively correlated
with career adaptability. Thus, Hypothesis 1 is accepted.
Big V Personality Traits and Career Adaptability
In eight studies, the effect of openness on career adaptability
ranged from r = 0.160 to r = 0.470. The results of the
random-effects model produced a significant effect size, as
the weighted average correlation was r = 0.329, p < 0.001,
N = 3,105. The confidence interval did not include zero;
thus, the effect size was significantly different from zero
(95% CI [0.239, 0.414]). The results suggested that
openness is positively correlated with career adaptability.
Thus, Hypothesis 2a is accepted.
In 10 studies, the effect of extraversion on career
adaptability ranged from r = 0.250 to r = 0.470. The results
of the random-effects model produced a significant effect
size, as the weighted average correlation was r = 0.344,
p < 0.001, N = 6,589. The confidence interval did not
include zero; thus, the effect size was significantly different
from zero (95% CI [0.305, 0.382]). The results suggested
that extraversion is positively correlated with career
adaptability. Thus, Hypothesis 2b is accepted.
In eight studies, the effect of agreeableness on career
adaptability ranged from r = 0.080 to r = 0.530. The results
of the random-effects model produced a significant effect
size, as the weighted average correlation was r = 0.237,
p < 0.001, N = 3,105. The confidence interval did not
include zero; thus, the effect size was significantly different
from zero (95% CI [0.121, 0.347]). The results suggested
that agreeableness is positively correlated with career
adaptability. Thus, Hypothesis 2c is accepted.
In eight studies, the effect of conscientiousness on
career adaptability ranged from r = 0.410 to r = 0.570. The
results of the random-effects model produced a significant
effect size, as the weighted average correlation was
r = 0.399, p < 0.001, N = 3,105. The confidence interval
did not include zero; thus, the effect size was significantly
different from zero (95% CI [.337, 0.457]). The results
suggested that conscientiousness is positively correlated
with career adaptability. Thus, Hypothesis 2d is accepted.
In eight studies, the effect of neuroticism on career
adaptability ranged from r = 0.180 to r = 0.420. The results
of the random-effects model produced a significant effect
size, as the weighted average correlation was r = −0.300,
p < 0.001, N = 2,872. The confidence interval did not
include zero; thus, the effect size was significantly different
from zero (95% CI [−0.367, −0.229]). The results suggested
that neuroticism is negatively correlated with career
adaptability. Thus, Hypothesis 2e is accepted.
Optimism and Career Adaptability
In eight studies, the effect of optimism on career adaptability
ranged from r = 0.160 to r = 0.590. The results of the
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random-effects model produced a significant effect size, as
the weighted average correlation was r = 0.449, p < 0.001,
N = 5,169. The confidence interval did not include zero;
thus, the effect size was significantly different from zero
(95% CI [0.347, 0.541]). The results suggested that
optimism is positively correlated with career adaptability.
Thus, Hypothesis 3 is accepted.
Self-esteem and Career Adaptability
In six studies, the effect of self-esteem on career adaptability
ranged from r = 0.210 to r = 0.700 The results of the
random-effects model produced a significant effect size, as
the weighted average correlation was r = 0.407, p < 0.001,
N = 3,551. The confidence interval did not include zero;
thus the effect size was significantly different from zero
(95% CI [0.286, 0.515]). The results suggested that self-
esteem is positively correlated with career adaptability.
Thus, Hypothesis 4 is accepted.
Proactive Personality and Career
Adaptability
In nine studies, the effect of proactive personality on career
adaptability ranged from r = 0.320 to r = 0.620. The results
of the random-effects model produced a significant effect
size, as the weighted average correlation was r = 0.539,
p < 0.001, N = 4,299. The confidence interval did not
include zero; thus, the effect size was significantly different
from zero (95% CI [0.476, 0.597]). The results suggested
that proactive personality is positively correlated with
career adaptability. Thus, Hypothesis 5 is accepted.
Self-efficacy and Career Adaptability
In thirteen studies, the effect of proactive personality on
career adaptability ranged from r = 0.220 to r = 0.700. The
results of the random-effects model produced a significant
effect size, as the weighted average correlation was r =
0.536, p < 0.001, N = 6,761). The confidence interval did
not include zero; thus, the effect size was significantly
different from zero (95% CI [0.458, 0.606]). The results
suggested that self-efficacy is positively correlated with
career adaptability. Thus, Hypothesis 6 is accepted.
Moderators
As indicated in Table1, heterogeneity in overall effect size
was statistically significant in EI (I2 = 92.86%, Q = 98.07,
p < 0.001), openness (I2 = 85.96%, Q = 49.88, p < 0.001),
agreeableness (I2 = 90.60%, Q = 74.49, p < 0.001),
conscientiousness (I2 = 72.88%, Q = 25.81, p < 0.01),
neuroticism (I2 = 73.82%, Q = 26.73, p < 0.001), optimism
(I2 = 93.52%, Q = 108.1, p < 0.001), self-esteem (I2 =
92.29%, Q = 64.91, p < 0.001), proactive personality(I2 =
86.28%, Q = 58.32, p < 0.001) and self-efficacy (I2 = 94.43,
Q = 215.5, p < 0.001). Heterogeneity between the effect
Vashisht et al. 7

sizes of extraversion was insignificant (I2 = 38.20, Q =
14.56, p > 0.05). Thus, using subgroup analysis, moderation
was conducted according to the sample size and region for
explaining the heterogeneity in the effect sizes.
Table 2.  Subgroup Analysis by Sample Size and Continent
Results of subgroup analysis are presented in Table 2.
Both the moderators tested were statistically significant.
Effect size was higher and statistically significant for the
large sample size in EI (r = 0.527) (Qb = 21.77, df = 1,

95% CI
Category Moderators Classification K R Lower Upper Qb I2 (%)
Emotional intelligence
Sample Size ≥450 3 0.527 0.488 0.564 21.77*** 68.56
<450 5 0.389 0.344 0.432 94.28
Region Europe 5 0.489 0.454 0.523 73.41*** 80.73
Asia 2 0.230 0.154 0.303 74.37
North America 1 0.660 0.593 0.718
Personality variables
Big V
Openness Sample size ≥400 4 0.357 0.320 0.392 0.045 92.98
<400 4 0.349 0.288 0.407 57.61
Region Europe 4 0.267 0.218 0.314 31.69*** 80.76
Asia 3 0.374 0.309 0.434 23.22
Africa 1 0.470 0.418 0.519
Agreeableness Sample size ≥390 4 0.216 0.176 0.255 10.67** 73.93
<390 4 0.338 0.277 0.397 94.26
Region Europe 4 0.149 0.098 0.199 40.82*** 87.58
Asia 3 0.412 0.350 0.471 78.94
South America 1 0.270 0.209 0.329
Conscientiousness Sample size ≥390 4 0.428 0.393 0.461 21.66*** 80.07
<390 4 0.262 0.198 0.324 95.75
Region Europe 4 0.336 0.290 0.381 17.74*** 96.37
Asia 3 0.357 0.292 0.419 70.86
South America 1 0.480 0.428 0.529
Neuroticism Sample size ≥390 3 −0.275 −0.317 −0.232 3.31* 87.66
<390 5 −0.339 −0.392 −0.284 44.19
Region Europe 4 −0.251 −0.302 −0.199 7.68* 80.48
Asia 3 −0.305 −0.372 −0.234 45.64
South America 1 −0.360 −0.415 −0.302
Optimism Sample size ≥530 4 0.584 0.561 0.607 15.04*** 87.06
<530 5 0.488 0.442 0.531 80.19
Region Europe 1 0.510 0.408 0.599 16.16***
Asia 7 0.580 0.557 0.601 85.76
Australia 1 0.450 0.514 0.514
Self-esteem Sample size ≥300 4 0.393 0.364 0.423 8.85** 88.46
<300 2 0.520 0.443 0.589 96.67
Region Asia 4 0.405 0.357 0.451 18.97*** 93.47
North America 1 0.440 0.404 0.475
Africa 1 0.210 0.105 0.311
Proactive Sample size ≥480 4 0.584 0.561 0.607 15.04*** 87.00
<480 5 0.488 0.442 0.531 80.19
Region Europe 1 0.510 0.408 0.599 16.16***
Asia 7 0.580 0.557 0.601 85.76
Australia 1 0.450 0.381 0.514
Self-efficacy Sample size ≥520 6 0.464 0.441 0.486 47.93*** 96.25
<520 7 0.596 0.567 0.623 82.47
Region Europe 3 0.463 0.424 0.500 30.14*** 94.500
Asia 7 0.504 0.479 0.527 95.97
North America 1 0.590 0.515 0.656
Africa 1 0.480 0.416 0.539
Mix 1 0.650 0.590 0.702
Source: Calculated using CMA 3.0.
Note: k = Number of studies; 95% CI = 95% confidence interval; Qb = Q between groups; I2 = percentage of true heterogeneity.
*p < 0.05,** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001.
8
p < 0.001), conscientiousness (r = 0.428) (Qb = 21.66, df =
1, p < 0.001), optimism (r = 0.584) (Qb = 15.04, df = 1,
p < 0.001) and proactive personality (r = 0.584) (Qb =
15.04, df = 1, p < 0.001). Effect size also varied by region
in EI (Qb = 73.41, df = 2, p < 0.001), openness (Qb = 31.69,
df = 2, p < 0.001), agreeableness (Qb = 40.82, df = 2, p <
0.001), conscientiousness (Qb = 17.74, df = 2, p < 0.001),
neuroticism (Qb = 7.68, df = 2, p < 0.05), optimism (Qb =
16.16, df = 2, p < 0.001), self-esteem (Qb = 18.97, df = 2,
p < 0.001), proactive (Qb = 16.16, df = 2, p < 0.001) and
self-efficacy (Qb = 30.14, df = 4, p < 0.001). Effect size
was highest in the North American region in EI (r = 0.660)
and self-esteem (r = 0.440), Africa in openness (r = 0.470),
Asia in agreeableness (r = 0.412), optimism (r = 0.580) and
proactive (r = 0.580), South America in conscientiousness
(r = 0.480) and neuroticism (r = –0.360) and others
(responses from respondents from various regions)in self-
efficacy (r = 0.650).
Publication Bias
To examine the publication bias, Egger’s regression test
and Orwin’s fail-safe N were employed. For EI, Egger’s
regression test value showed symmetry in the funnel plot
(t = 0.865, df = 6, p = 0.420). Also, according to the results
of Orwin’s fail-safe N, the number of additional studies
required to be added to this meta-analysis in order to reject
the results was NR = 1,358, which is greater than 50 (NR >
5K+10, NR = number of additional studies, k = number of
studies). For openness, Egger’s regression test value
showed symmetry in the funnel plot (t = 1.286, df = 6, p =
0.245). Also, according to Orwin’s fail-safe N, the number
of additional studies required to reject the results was 728,
which is greater than 50. For agreeableness, Egger’s
regression test value showed symmetry in the funnel plot (t
= 0.296, df = 6, p = 0.776). Also, according to Orwin’s fail-
safe N, the number of studies required to reject the results
was 360, which is greater than 50. For conscientiousness,
Egger’s regression test value showed symmetry in the
funnel plot (t = 2.343, df = 6, p = 0.057). Also, according to
Orwin’s fail-safe N, the number of additional studies
required to reject the results was 1,282, which is greater
than 50. For extraversion, Egger’s regression test value
demonstrated symmetry in the funnel plot (t = 0.052, df =
8, p = 0.959). In addition, according to Orwin’s fail-safe N,
the number of additional studies required to reject the
results was 1,089, which is greater than 60. For neuroticism,
Egger’s regression test value demonstrated symmetry in
the funnel plot (t = 0.033, df = 6, p= 0.974). Also, according
to Orwin’s fail-safe N, the number of additional studies
required to reject the results was 506, which is greater than
50. For optimism, Egger’s regression test value showed
symmetry in the funnel plot (t = 0.394, df = 6, p = 0.706).
Also, in relation to Orwin’s fail-safe N, the number of
additional studies required to reject the results was 1,894,
Vision
which is greater than 50. For self-esteem, Egger’s
regression test value showed symmetry in the funnel plot
(t = 0.162, df = 4, p = 0.879). In addition, Orwin’s fail-safe
N test results demonstrated that the number of additional
studies required to reject the results was 812, which is
greater than 40. For proactive personality, Egger’s
regression test value showed symmetry in the funnel plot
(t = 1.397, df = 7, p = 0.205). In addition, results of Orwin’s
fail-safe N indicated that the number of additional studies
required to reject the results was 3,394, which is greater
than 55. For self-efficacy, Egger’s regression test value
showed symmetry in the funnel plot (t = 1.478, df = 11,
p = 0.167). Also, according to Orwin’s fail-safe N, the
number of additional studies required to reject the results
was 7,042, which is greater than 75.
Discussion
The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the
previous research concerning the impact of EI and
personality variables on university students’ career
adaptability. As predicted, EI had a meta-analytic
correlation with career adaptability (r = 0.446, p < 0.001).
The results suggest that EI is significantly and positively
meta-correlated to career adaptability. Emotions have a
significant role in career-related decisions, as individuals
discuss their career options with others before making a
decision. Individuals who understand their emotions better
are more self-regulated and, therefore, are able to make
better vocational decisions. EI equips an individual with
the psychological resources required for effective career
decision making. Thus, emotionally intelligent individuals
demonstrate career adaptability.
Big-Five personality traits—openness (r = 0.329,
p < 0.001), extraversion (r = 0.344, p < 0.001), agreeableness
(r = 0.237, p < 0.001), conscientiousness (r = 0.399,
p < 0.001) and neuroticism (r = −0.300, p < 0.001)—were
related to career adaptability. Among the Big-Five traits,
conscientiousness emerged as the strongest predictor of
career adaptability. The results are supported by the
findings of the study by Ispir et al. (2019). Conscientiousness
refers to an individual’s self-motivation, determination to
accomplish and efficaciousness. Individuals scoring high
on conscientiousness set challenging goals for themselves
and are persistent and committed to attain those goals.
Highly conscientious individuals perform their tasks
reliably and in a responsible and disciplined manner. Such
individuals are more responsive to their career-related task
and, therefore, exhibit high career adaptability. Openness
meta-correlated positively with career adaptability.
Openness to experience is an important personality trait
because such individuals have a sturdy intellectual
inquisitiveness and often lookout for innovative and
uncommon experiences. Adaptability requires not just
learning but the development of new and different ways of
doing things. Since, open individuals are ingenious, like
Vashisht et al. 9
intellectual problems and are willing to test new things,
they are more career adaptable. Extraverts are the
individuals who fancy the company of other people and
promote positive interactions. These individuals are
capable of seeking and using support from others and, thus,
are able to provide themselves with the social resources
concerning career change, which are needed in times of
uncertainty (Van Vianen et al., 2012). Thus, extraversion
correlated positively with career adaptability. Neuroticism
comprises of hopelessness, dependency, nervousness and
low self-esteem which can affect one’s confidence.
Neurotic individuals have a propensity for pessimism, and
such individuals may not be overly concerned about their
career, be less equipped for tomorrow and be less
determined to discover about themselves (Nilforooshan &
Salami, 2016). A significant and negative meta-correlation
between neuroticism and career adaptability suggests that
high neuroticism leads to less career adaptability.
Furthermore, all personality variables of the study had
meta-analytic correlation with career adaptability: opti-
mism (r = 0.449, p < 0.001), self-esteem (r = 0.407,
p < 0.001), proactive personality (r = 0.539, p < 0.001) and
self-efficacy (r = 0.536, p < 0.001). Proactive personality
and self-efficacy were the strongest predictors of career
adaptability. Proactive individuals seek out for new oppor-
tunities and demonstrate innovative and proactive behav-
iours. Such individuals have the ability and inclination to
shape their work environment. These individuals display
readiness to take the steps required to prepare themselves
for career-related transitions. Therefore, proactive person-
ality related positively to career adaptability. A positive
meta-correlation was found between self-efficacy and
career adaptability. Individuals with high levels of self-
efficacy are confident in their ability in challenging situa-
tions. Feeling confident about oneself is also likely to be
predictive of feeling confident about being capable of
dealing with career-related events. Thus, high self-efficacy
reinforces career adaptabilities. Optimism, which is con-
sidered a proactive personality trait, refers to forming a
positive projection of present and future. A significant
meta-analytic correlation between optimism and career
adaptability suggests that students who are optimistic may
be able to manage challenges and changes related to career
more effortlessly. Self-esteem is often stated in the form of
self-acceptance. Self-esteem and career adaptability
suggest that high self-esteem can fortify an individual’s
confidence in his career path and career adaptability.
Individuals with high self-esteem display higher interac-
tive skills, which may improve their career adaptability
(Ismail et al., 2016).
Furthermore, the results of the moderator analyses
provided insights into the reasons for differing results
between the studies. Moderation analysis indicated the
strength of association between EI, personality variables
and career adaptability varied by sample size. For the larger
sample size, the strength of the relationship with career
adaptability was higher and statistically significant in EI,
conscientiousness, optimism and proactive personality. In
another moderator analysis based on region, a strong
correlation was found between EI, self-esteem and career
adaptability in the North American region; openness and
career adaptability in Africa; agreeableness, optimism and
proactive personality in Asia; conscientiousness,
neuroticism and career adaptability in South America; and
self-efficacy and career adaptability in others (responses
from respondents from various regions). Culture is a
collective feature, comprising norms and values, which is
shared by a group of people. Cook et al. (2002) argue that
in addition to contexts (like home, work, school, etc.), the
norms and values of society interact with an individual to
influence his/her career decisions. Marjaana et al. (2013)
suggested that career attitude is affected by various cultural
dimensions which consequently influence career outcomes.
Cultural values delineate students’ career adaptability and
career planning. In certain cultures, students can be less
proactive in obtaining information for their career planning
and development, whereas in other cultures, students may
seek more information about employment opportunities to
move into a career. Thus, in addition to students’ EI and
personality, knowing and analysing cultural context can
help understand their career adaptability.
Professional Implications
The findings of the study have some practical implications.
Students should be trained to adapt to changing career
patterns, as students high on career adaptability are
preferred by the employers (Ismail, 2017). Students should
view the problems in academic life or the outside world as
challenges rather than threats. Universities should prepare
students from a social psychological point of view, so that
they can successfully navigate from university to career
field. Training and workshops focused on the development
of the students in areas such as optimism, planning,
problem-solving and decision-making abilities, self-esteem
enhancement and information-seeking abilities should be
conducted. Professional counselling concerning students’
career can help the students to explore their personality
traits and, accordingly, plan their careers ahead.
Limitations and Future Directions
There are a few limitations of the present study. First, the
majority of the studies included in the meta-analysis
were cross-sectional in nature. Studies with a longitudinal
research design would be required to understand better the
possible causal relationship between career adaptability
and other variables. Second, moderator analyses were con-
ducted based on a few studies, which can lead to unreliable
estimates and low power (López-López et al., 2014). Third,
some moderators could not be investigated because of a
small number of studies, and therefore, the present study
10
was unable to entirely explain the heterogeneous association
among the variables. Thus, another meta-analysis can be
conducted in the future if more studies are published in this
area. Fourth, most of the studies collected data from students
in European and Asian countries. Thus, the findings of the
present study may not be generalizable to students in
other countries. Lastly, only studies written in the English
language were considered for the meta-analysis.
Conclusion
It is significant for the promising and emerging students to
enhance and promote their career adaptability. The results
of the present study support the influence of EI and various
personality variables, namely, extraversion, openness, con-
scientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, self-esteem,
self-efficacy, proactive personality and optimism to career
adaptability. On the basis of this systematic review and
meta-analysis outcomes, it can be claimed that students
who are emotionally controlled and exhibit certain person-
ality traits are better equipped to improve their career
adaptability and foster the attributes and abilities required
to be employed and to sustain that employment.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research,
authorship and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iDs
Sakshi Vashisht https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7886-4237
Poonam Kaushal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6754-5705
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About the Authors
Sakshi Vashisht (sakshi84.sharma@gmail.com) is an
associate professor at Panipat Institute of Engineering &
Technology, Panipat, India. She has an MBA in Human
Resource Management and Marketing Management and
has completed B. Tech in Information Technology. She has
published over 25 research papers and articles in various
refereed journals and has presented research papers in
national and international conferences/seminars in India.
The author’s areas of interest are human resource
management and organizational behaviour.
Poonam Kaushal (poonamkaushal47 @gmail.com) is an
assistant professor at ICFAI Business School, The ICFAI
University, Dehradun (Uttarakhand), India. She is UGC
NET qualified and has completed her PhD from Himachal
Pradesh University Business School, Shimla (H.P). The
author is an active publisher rolling out various publica-
tions and has presented papers in various national and
international conferences. The author’s areas of interest
are human resource management, organization behavior
and industrial relations.
Ravi Vashisht (ravi07.vashisht@gmail.com) is an assistant
professor at ICFAI University, Baddi, India. He has an MBA
in Human Resource Management and has completed B.
Tech in Information Technology. His area of interest is
human resource management.