The International Journal of Human Resource

Management

ISSN: 0958-5192 (Print) 1466-4399 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rijh20

Personality and salary at early career: the

mediating effect of emotional intelligence

Jose Manuel De Haro, Juan Luis Castejon & Raquel Gilar

To cite this article: Jose Manuel De Haro, Juan Luis Castejon & Raquel Gilar (2018): Personality
and salary at early career: the mediating effect of emotional intelligence, The International Journal
of Human Resource Management, DOI: 10.1080/09585192.2017.1423365

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2017.1423365

Published online: 05 Jan 2018.

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 The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2018
https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2017.1423365

Personality and salary at early career: the mediating

effect of emotional intelligence
Jose Manuel De Haro, Juan Luis Castejon and Raquel Gilar
Educational Psychology and Didactic, Alicante University, Alicante, Spain

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This paper examines the role of emotional intelligence (EI) Emotional intelligence;
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as a mediator in the relationship between salary at early personality; earnings;

career and personality. The longitudinal data was collected mediating effect; cascading
from a selected sample of 130 university graduates, who model; career success
were in the early stages of their professional careers. The
results of a path analysis indicated that salary was indirectly
predicted by personality traits, as measured by the Big Five
model. Salary was predicted by neuroticism (both positively
and negatively), extraversion (positively), and openness
(positively) via the EI dimensions following the causal chain:
perception, understanding and emotional regulation. Our
findings have suggested the advantages of using EI measures
as a complement to more dispositional measures, such as
ability or personality measures, for personnel selection and
people development in organizations and have provided real
practice with clear suggestions for improving HRM.

A significant number of studies have analyzed the direct effects of personality traits
on professional success (Dilchert & Ones, 2008; Nyhus & Pons, 2005; Seibert &
Kraimer, 2001; Spurk & Abele, 2011). In contrast to, and aside from the stud-
ies of Boudreau, Boswell, and Judge (2001), Spurk and Abele (2011), or Zhang
and Arvey (2009), the influence of personality on career outcomes, particu-
larly on salary, using mediator variables, has scarcely been analyzed (McCrae &
Costa, 1996).
Not considering the likely effect of mediator variables, that is, the indirect
effects, might lead to an incomplete and inaccurate vision of the connection of
all variables that intervene in the predictor-criterion chain. Adding mediator var-
iables may help to better understand the influence process, as well as to design
more effective interventions, since they will include more proximal and malleable
variables, which are easier to operate. That is why we consider it is necessary to

CONTACT Jose Manuel De Haro jm.deharo@ua.es

© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 2  J. M. DE HARO ET AL.

analyze both the direct and indirect influences that might emerge between more
distal and stable variables, such as personality, and career outcomes.
In this sense, some mediator variables have been included in a small number
of studies that have addressed the indirect influence of personality on career out-
comes. However, these variables come from a motivational area or human capital
and not from the area of personal differences. To enrich this approach, we propose
incorporating variables from the field of individual differences.
From our perspective, among those variables, there is one that might be the
most promising mediator variable that intervenes in the connection between
personality and career success, namely, Emotional Intelligence (EI). EI would
fulfill the requirement of having a closer proximity, and therefore of being more
malleable than personality, which justifies its potential as a mediating variable
(Spurk & Abele, 2011). In this context, our study aimed to explore the mediating
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effect of Emotional Intelligence in the relationship between personality and earn-

ings at early career, controlling for the effect of IQ. Our proposal suggested that
personality traits are related to the likelihood of being more or less emotionally
intelligent. Given that being more emotionally intelligent is linked to achieving
greater success and earning a higher salary, EI dimensions will act as mediators
in the personality-earnings relationship (Figure 1).
Our suggested approach is supported by significant correlations found
between personality traits and earnings (Boudreau et al., 2001; Ng, Eby,
Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005); significant correlations between personality traits
and EI dimensions (Bastian, Burns, & Nettelbeck, 2005; Gannon & Ranzijn,
2005; Ng et al., 2005; O’Boyle, Humphrey, Pollack, Hawver, & Story, 2011;
Van der Zee, Thijs, & Schakel, 2002), and significant correlations between
EI dimensions and work outcomes criteria (Law, Wong, Huang, & Li, 2008;
O’Boyle et al., 2011).

Figure 1. EI as mediator in personality-earnings relationship.

 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT  3

Personality traits and career success

Among all the personality factors that have shown positive relationships with
professional success criteria, those based on the Big Five Model have played a
main role in research, both in traditional studies and in meta-analytical studies,
in the United States (Boudreau et al., 2001; Ng et al., 2005) as well as in Europe
(Salgado, 1998). The correlation known as ‘the big-five salary link’ indicates that
those employees with a particular configuration of certain personality traits work
harder and earn more money (Dilchert & Ones, 2008; Nyhus & Pons, 2005; Seibert
& Kraimer, 2001; Spurk & Abele, 2011).
The five personality traits included in this model are Extraversion (energy, pos-
itive emotions, surgency, assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to seek stim-
ulation in the company of others, and talkativeness); Agreeableness (a tendency
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to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic

towards others); Conscientiousness (a tendency to be organized and dependable,
show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for achievement, and prefer planned rather
than spontaneous behavior); Neuroticism (the tendency to experience unpleas-
ant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and vulnerability); and
Openness (appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and
variety of experience).
Regarding the connection between personality traits and earnings, and
according big five model, evidence thus far has suggested that Neuroticism is
negatively linked to earnings and other job performance measures, Extraversion
is positively linked to earnings and other job performance measures, and
Conscientiousness is positively link to salary and job satisfaction (Gelissen &
De Graaf, 2006; Ng et al., 2005; Rode, Arthaud-Day, Mooney, Near, & Baldwin,
2008; Spurk & Abele, 2011).
Given the above set, we consider that employees with a particular configuration
of personality traits (low neuroticism, high extraversion and conscientiousness)
work harder and earn higher salaries (Spurk & Abele, 2011). Although we are
mainly interested in the indirect influences of personality, we state the first three
hypotheses on the relationship between personality traits and earning for com-
pleteness, and because it is a precondition for the analysis of mediation (Baron
& Kenny, 1986):
Hypothesis 1: Neuroticism will be negatively related to salary,
Hypothesis 2: Extraversion will be positively related to salary.
Hypothesis 3: Conscientiousness will be positively related to salary.
Regarding the two other personality traits, Agreeableness and Openness, the
results have been inconsistent; that is, some negative relations have been found
with professional success measures (Boudreau et al., 2001; Ng et al., 2005; Nyhus
& Pons, 2005; Rode et al., 2008; Seibert & Kraimer, 2001); as well as positive
relations (Bozionelos, 2004; Gelissen & De Graaf, 2006; Ng et al., 2005; Seibert &
Kraimer, 2001; Van der Linden, Te Nijenhuis, & Bakker, 2010).
 4  J. M. DE HARO ET AL.

In this work, we support a positive relation for both variables with the crite-
ria, since we consider that being open to multiple options and experiences and
showing a kind and cooperative attitude must facilitate success at the beginning
of the career. Therefore, we add the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 4: Agreeableness and Openness will be positively related to salary,

Personality traits and emotional intelligence

Prior research indicates negative relationships found between neuroticism and
emotional intelligence in general (Law, Wong, & Song, 2004; Van der Zee et al.,
2002; Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004) and in the more specific relationships
between neuroticism and emotional perception (Law et al., 2004), and between
neuroticism and regulation or use of emotions (Bastian et al., 2005; Joseph &
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Newman, 2010; O’Boyle et al., 2011). A low level of neuroticism, which is a sign
of emotional stability, is linked to greater control of emotions (Kluemper, De
Groot, & Choi, 2013).
Regarding Extraversion, we have found evidence of significant positive cor-
relations between the trait and EI in general (Newsome, Day, & Catano, 2000;
Van der Zee et al., 2002; Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004), and between the trait
and specific dimensions of EI, such as perception, understanding and regu-
lation of emotions (Law et al., 2004), with the strongest correlation being the
first of these dimensions. A high level of extraversion, associated with a greater
need for stimulation, could lead to looking for and focusing on one’s own and
other people’s emotions and a more efficient management of those emotions.
People with greater social skills get a higher assessment, which allows them to
receive a higher income, as well as to target an accelerated career path (Tett &
Burnett, 2003).
Regarding the Conscientiousness trait, several studies have demonstrated a pos-
itive relationship with emotional understanding and job performance (Gelissen &
De Graaf, 2006; Joseph & Newman, 2010; Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2007; Ng
et al., 2005; Rode et al., 2008; Spurk & Abele, 2011). The components of tenacity
and scrupulousness, which are part of this factor, could explain the required effort
to adequately understand one’s own and other people’s emotions.
A positive relationship between openness and the EI dimensions of atten-
tion-perception has been stated in studies such as those of Law et al. (2004) and
Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, and Finkel (2008). According to these studies,
people with higher scores in openness, due to their greater curiosity and their
longing for new sensations and stimuli, are bound to pay more attention to their
inner feelings.
Regarding the fifth personality trait, Agreeableness, we have not found sufficient
data to support a proposal of indirect effects (Boudreau et al., 2001), which is why
we have not incorporated them in our initial model.
 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT  5

Emotional intelligence and career success

EI has been conceptualized following two main models: the ability model (Mayer,
Salovey, & Caruso, 2000) and the mixed model (Bar-On, 1997; Goleman, 1998).
The first model defines EI as a kind of social intelligence which includes the ability
to be conscious of one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate
among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions. The
second model combines cognitive competences with interpersonal competences,
social skills, and other factors such as optimism or motivation (Boyatzis, Goleman,
& Rhee, 2000), which would allow individuals to be more effective when respond-
ing to work requirements.
Currently, considerable research exists suggesting EI provides the basis of social
and emotional competencies that are important for success in practically any
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job (e.g. Boyatzis et al., 2000; Law et al., 2004). The importance of the EI con-
struct has been analyzed in numerous studies, which have shown its predictive
validity with regard to different academic and career success criteria (Adetula,
2016; Boyatzis, Good, & Massa, 2012; Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2011; Cheung,
Gong, & Huang, 2015; Dulewicz, Higgs, & Slaski, 2003; Harms & Credé, 2010;
Lopes, Grewal, Kadis, Gall, & Salovey, 2006; Van der Zee et al., 2002; Van Rooy
& Viswesvaran, 2004).
There are also findings that have shown the incremental validity of the EI over
general intelligence and personality factors for to predicting job performance
(Bastian et al., 2005; Iliescu, Ilie, Ispas, & Ion, 2012; Joseph & Newman, 2010;
Law et al., 2008; O’Boyle et al., 2011; Rode et al., 2007).
In this work, we understand EI as an ability, based on the four-branch model of
EI (Mayer et al., 2000). The assessment tools used in this model might be either a
performance-based test, such as the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence
Test (MSCEIT), by Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios (2001), or self-reports,
also known as typical performance measurements. For this study, we decided to
use a typical performance measurement, the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS)
by Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, and Palfai (1995), given its effectiveness
as a predictor (Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004). In this questionnaire, which
evaluates perceptions of one’s own emotional competencies, three dimensions are
measured: TMMS attention, defined as the ability to feel and express one’s own
feelings; TMMS clarity, defined as the ability to understand emotional states; and
TMMS repair, defined as the ability to properly regulate emotional states.
Regarding the criteria, this study focuses on the individual’s career success
objective by using monthly salary as the criterion. Salary has been one of the
most widely used and readily accessible indicators of career success (Judge &
Kammeyer-Mueller, 2007). Its usefulness and benefits have been emphasized by
researchers who have used this criterion, describing it as one of the strongest and
most consistent measures of success in different contexts (Abele & Spurk, 2009;
Heslin, 2005).
 6  J. M. DE HARO ET AL.

We therefore suggest the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 5: The EI dimension of TMMS attention will partially mediate the relation-
ship between the personality traits (a) Neuroticism, (b) Extraversion, and (c) Openness
and salary.
Hypothesis 6: The EI dimension of TMMS clarity will partially mediate the relationship
between the personality traits (a) Extraversion and (b) Conscientiousness and salary.
Hypothesis 7: The EI dimension of TMMS repair will partially mediate the relationship
between the personality traits of (a) Neuroticism and (b) Extraversion and salary.
In this study, we aimed to analyze whether the mediating effect of EI dimen-
sions (in the event that EI dimensions are mediators), occurs following the causal
chain established by Joseph and Newman (2010) in their ‘cascading model’.
This model, which is based on theories of emotion, regulation of emotions and
self-regulation (Gross, 2008; James, Mulaik & Brett, 2006), states that the rela-
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tionship between the three dimensions of EI and job performance is as follows:

emotion perception precedes emotional understanding, which itself precedes
emotion regulation. In other words, the ability to understand emotions medi-
ates the relationship between the ability to perceive emotions and the ability to
regulate them, with the latter directly affecting job performance. Thus, consid-
ering the connection among the EI dimensions, we propose the last hypothesis
as follows:
Hypothesis 8: EI dimensions mediate the relationship between personality traits and
salary, through a process that follows this order: TMMS attention has an influence on
TMMS clarity, which in turn influences TMMS repair, and the latter influences salary.
This study was designed to integrate two lines of research on the impact of indi-
vidual differences on salary into a mediation model. One line of research shows
that personality has an influence on salary (Abele & Spurk, 2009; Boudreau et al.,
2001; Ng et al., 2005). The other line of research reveals that EI has an influence on
salary (Law et al., 2008; O’Boyle et al., 2011). The model proposes to offer a new
way to delimit the contribution of these variables to professional success, when
both the direct and the indirect effects of personality on success are analyzed,
which has not been considered in previous research.

Method
Participants
The study was conducted in a sample of 130 university graduates (32% male and
68% female), with an average age of 23.4 years and a standard deviation of 4.38.
This final sample, which was part of an original sample of 906 final-year students
pursuing different college degrees, consists of those who stated that they were
working three years after being initially assessed (2007/2008). The initial sample
of 906 students was selected using a stratified random sampling system propor-
tional to the number of students enrolled in each of the scientific-professional
 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT  7

fields mentioned, whose distribution across knowledge areas was as follows: sci-
entific-technological field (25.7%), socio-economic field (18.9%), educational
field (24.5%), bio-health field (15.9%) and humanities (6.5%). The distribution
of gender (36% male and 64% female), as well as the average age of the students
and the proportionality of the sample in the scientific-professional fields in the
original sample, represented the university population of the University of Alicante
and did not differ from the final sample used in this study.

Measures

General mental ability

To measure general mental ability, we used the test of ‘g’, Scale 3, developed by R.B.
Cattell and A.K.S. Cattell (adapted to Spanish by Técnicos Especialistas Asociados,
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1994). This collectively applied scale consists of four subtests, namely, series, clas-
sification, matrixes and conditions, which require cognitive operations such as
identification, perceived similarities, seriation, classification, matrixes and com-
parisons. The results enabled us to obtain the IQ of the sample. Cronbach’s α was
.83, obtained in the initial sample (n = 339) used in this study. In the validation
sample, the reliability was α = .75.

Personality
To measure personality, we used the NEO-FFI inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992),
which is a self-report measure assessing the following five personality dimensions:
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness.
The short version consists of 60 elements. The participants indicate their level
of agreement with each item using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree,
5 = strongly agree). The reliability of the Spanish version ranges between .82 for
Agreeableness and .90 for neuroticism, similar to the English version. Cronbach’s
α values, obtained in the initial sample (n = 339) and used in this study, were .86,
.83, .76, .75, and .82 for Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and
Conscientiousness, respectively. In the final sample (n = 130), Cronbach’s α values
varied from the highest .84 in Neuroticism, to the lowest .74 in Agreeableness.

Emotional intelligence
To evaluate EI, this study used the Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS), a self-report
measure based on Salovey’s four-branch ability model (TMMS-24, Fernández-
Berrocal, Extremera, & Ramos, 2004). We chose the TMMS because of its high
validity, compared to the rest of the EI measures (for meta-analysis, see O’Boyle
et al., 2011; Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004). The former study demonstrated that
self-report or peer-report measures based on the four-branch model of EI have the
largest incremental validity beyond cognitive ability and the Five Factor Model
(FFM). The Spanish short version (24 items) of the Trait Meta-Mood Scale-48 by
Salovey et al. (1995) measures three factors: (a) attention to feelings; (b) clarity of
 8  J. M. DE HARO ET AL.

feelings (defined as understanding one’s feelings); and (c) mood repair, defined as
attempts to maintain pleasant moods or repair unpleasant ones. The participants
indicated their level of agreement with each statement using a 5-point Likert
scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). The scale’s internal consistency
and test-retest reliability are satisfactory, and its reliability increases for each of its
factors: attention (.90), clarity (.90) and repair (.86). In the final sample (n = 130),
Cronbach’s α values were similar: attention (.89), clarity (.87), and repair (.86).

Salary at early career

The extrinsic indicators of career success are defined as objective and observable
factors, and consist of achieving visible outcomes such as a higher salary or pro-
motion (Judge, Higgins, Thoresen & Barrick, 1999); they have been considered to
be strong, consistent measures of success in various contexts (Heslin, 2005). For
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this purpose, we used a specific questionnaire in which each subject stated his/
her salary level. The salary level was measured as gross monthly income and was
divided into seven categories: (1) less than 600 Euros, (2) between 600 and 1000
Euros, (3) between 1000 and 1200 Euros, (4) between 1200 and 1500 Euros, (5)
between 1500 and 1800 Euros, (6) between 1800 and 2000 Euros, and (7) more
than 2000 Euros.

Procedure

The first phase was performed when the students were in their final year of
university (2007–2008), when we applied the TMMS-24 questionnaire and
the factor ‘g’ test of Cattell and Cattell, together with other tests, to an initial
sample of 906 individuals. During the 2010–2011 academic year, three years
after the first study was conducted, the initial sample was reduced to 339 grad-
uates, those who completed a questionnaire designed to obtain information
about their professional status, salary and their access to the labour market.
This 30-min questionnaire was completed by the participants via e-mail within
3 months of receiving the questionnaire. The study sample consisted of 130
graduates who claimed that they were employed at the time of completing the
questionnaire.

Analysis

Given the importance of understanding the relationships between the different

predictors of career success, we used a path analysis approach to determine the
empirical relationships among these constructs. The aim of this model was to
analyze the direct and indirect relationships between the predictors we studied
and the criteria for establishing the relative importance of these predictors and
determining success in the early career stage. To the best of our knowledge, this
aspect has not been previously analyzed.
 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT  9

All hypotheses were tested by means of structural equation modeling (SEM);

we performed path analyses using the structural equation modeling program
AMOS (Arbuckle, 2006).
First, we estimated a partial mediation model, which estimated the hypothe-
sized direct and indirect effects. This model was reduced to another model where
non-significant coefficients between the variables were fixed at zero. Models were
compared to each other based on various goodness-of-fit indices, such as chi-
square (χ2), chi-square to df (χ2/df), the comparative fit index (CFI), the root
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the test of close fit (PCLOSE),
which tests whether the likelihood of the null hypothesis that RMSEA produces
is greater than .05.
Although the number of participants in this study raises the issue of power
and stability of parameter estimates, because the ratio of cases to parameters does
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not reach the absolute minimum 5:1, it is close enough (Wolf, Harrington, Clark,
& Miller, 2013).

Results
A path model was tested between the variables general mental ability, measured
as IQ, Personality Traits, Emotional Intelligence and Salary to determine the
relationships among these variables. To estimate the path coefficient, we used
the maximum likelihood method, assuming normal multivariate distributions
because skewness and kurtosis values for the variables ranged between ± 1, with
the exception of the variables of IQ (kurtosis = 3.02; skewness = −2.81) and agree-
ableness (skewness = −2.79). Although the kurtosis multivariate was 9.76 (critical
ratio = 2.91), a slightly higher than desirable value, it was well below the maximum
allowed value of p*(p + 2), where p is the number of variables (Bollen, 1989), in
this case 11*13 = 143.
See Table 1 for the matrix of correlations and descriptors.
The maximum likelihood method, used in AMOS 7, is robust for departures
from normality, especially if the skewness and kurtosis values are not extreme, i.e.
skewness values I2I and kurtosis I7I (West, Finch, & Curran, 1995). The bootstrap
approach implemented in AMOS 7 was used to estimate the parameters.
The initial theoretical model (model 1) was not a good fit with the data. As a
first step (model 2), all of the non-significant relationships were removed from
the model. Then, in response to the changes suggested by the AMOS modification
indices and the theoretical sense of these changes, we included the following three
relationships: Neuroticism – TMMS clarity (model 3); Extraversion – TMMS
clarity (model 4); and Openness – TMMS repair to obtain a final model (model
5), which was a good fit with the data.
As shown in Table 2, the fit indices for the initial model were far from the
desired values (Hu & Bentler, 1999), whereas the indices from the final model
indicated a very good fit with the data.
 Downloaded by [University of Florida] at 21:37 08 January 2018

10
 J. M. DE HARO ET AL.

Table 1. Correlation matrix of all measures and descriptive statistics (N = 130).

M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. IQ 102.4 15.5 1
2. Neuroticism 31.9 8.3 −.23* 1
3. Extraversion 45.6 6.7 .29** −31** 1
4. Openness 43.22 7.0 −.01 −.05 .22* 1
5. Agreeableness 41.45 6.9 −.08 −.18 .21* .35** 1
6. Conscientiousness 46.2 6.3 .01 −.26** .23* .23* .30** 1
7. TMMS attention 26.34 5.63 .09 .27** .16 .20* .13 .10 1
8. TMMS clarity 26.47 5.74 .07 −.45** .42** .19 .21* .35** .26** 1
9. TMMS repair 28.53 6.08 .14 −.47** .33** .38* .21* .33** .14 .52** 1
10. Salary 1372 536 .01 −.24* .06 −.17 −.00 .12 .01 −.09 .26* 1
*p < .05;
**p < .01.
 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT  11

Table 2. Fit indices of the models.

Model χ2 df p χ2/df CFI RMSEA PCLOSE
Model 1 151.530 41 .000 3.70 .427 .162 .000
Model 2 78.160 13 .000 6.01 .560 .221 .000
Model 3 42.772 12 .000 3.56 .792 .158 .000
Model 4 35.896 11 .000 3.23 .832 .148 .002
Model 5 18.629 10 .045 1.86 .942 .092 .136

Figure 2 represents the path model with regard to the postulated hypotheses,
showing only significant paths (p < .05).
As shown in Figure 1, in general, 16% of the variance in career success (salary)
was explained by the predictors. The best salary direct predictor was TMMS repair
(β = .36; p = .002), followed by Openness (β = −.35; p = .001).
Table 3 shows the overall values of the standardized total effects.
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After analyzing each of the considered hypotheses, regarding direct effects, we

noted that hypothesis 1 (Neuroticism negatively relates to salary), hypothesis 2
(Extraversion is positively related to salary), and hypothesis 3 (Conscientiousness
positively related to salary), were not confirmed.
We also found that openness negatively relates to salary (β = −.35; p = .005),
and agreeableness is not related to salary (disconfirming Hypothesis 4).
Hypothesis 5 was confirmed because TMMS attention, in part, mediates
the relationship of the following personality traits on salary: (5a) Neuroticism:
Neuroticism influenced TMMS attention (β = .37; p = .001); (5b) Extraversion:

Figure 2. Significants paths in the postulate model.

 12  J. M. DE HARO ET AL.

Table 3. Statistically significant standardized direct, indirect and total effects.

Variables Effects 1 2 3 4 5 6
TMMS attention Direct .215* .196** .367** – – –
Indirect – – – – – –
Total .215* .196* .367** – – –
TMMS clarity Direct .230* – −.480** .402** – –
Indirect .087* .079* .147** – – –
Total .317** .079* −.332** .402** – –
TMMS repair Direct – .340** −.276* – .357** –
Indirect .113** .028* −.118** .143** – –
Total .113** .368* −.395** .143** .356** –
Salary Direct – −.351** – – – .361*
Indirect .041** .133** −.142** .052** .129** –
Total .041** −.218* −.142** .052** .129** .361*
Note: 1 = Extraversion; 2 = Openness; 3 = Neuroticism; 4 = TMMS attention; 5 = TMMS clarity; 6 = TMMS repair.
*p < .05; **p < .01.
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Extraversion influenced TMMS attention (β = .21; p = .016); and (5c) Openness:

Openness influenced TMMS attention (β = .20; p = .025).
Hypothesis 6 was partially confirmed because TMMS clarity, in part, medi-
ates the relationship of extraversion on salary: Extraversion influenced TMMS
clarity (β = .23; p = .010). Hypothesis 6b was rejected. However, one relationship
emerged, which was not considered in the initial hypotheses: Neuroticism influ-
enced TMMS clarity (β = −.48; p = .001).
Hypothesis 7 was partially confirmed because the EI dimension of
TMMS repair, in part, mediates the relationship of the personality trait (7a)
Neuroticism on salary: Neuroticism influenced TMMS repair (β = −.27;
p = .003). Hypothesis (7b) was rejected. However, one relationship emerged,
which was not considered in the initial hypotheses: Openness influenced
TMMS repair (β = .34; p = .001).
Hypothesis 8 was supported by the data: EI dimensions mediate the relationship
between personality traits and salary through a process that follows this order:
TMMS attention has an influence on TMMS clarity (β = .40; p = .001), which in
turn influences TMMS repair (β = .36; p = .001), and the latter influences salary
(β = .36; p = .002).
Finally, the results did not show statistically significant direct relationships
between personality traits. IQ is not linked, either directly or indirectly, to the
criteria nor to any dimensions of emotional intelligence.

Discussion
This study has explored the role of EI as a mediator in the relationship between
personality traits and earnings at early career. The study’s overall results showed
that salary was directly predicted by the personality trait Openness (negatively),
and by the EI dimension TMMS repair (positively), and indirectly predicted by
the personality traits of Neuroticism (both positively and negatively), Extraversion
(positively) and Openness (positively) via the EI dimensions.
 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT  13

As for the direct effects, none of the ones that were considered in hypothesis
1 were proven. Therefore, hypotheses 1, 2 and 3, were not confirmed. According
to our results, this means that Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness
have no significant direct relationship with salary at the beginning of one’s profes-
sional career. Hypothesis 4 was not confirmed; even though Openness is indeed
related to salary, the relation is negative, not positive. Regarding the no-relation of
the factors of Neuroticism, Extraversion and Agreeableness with the criteria, we
can potentially explain these results: some of the social and interpersonal aspects
connected to these traits are not relevant at the beginning of the career. Another
alternative explanation would be that these factors have a more indirect effect on
the criteria, as we shall see later. With regard to the trait of Conscientiousness,
in contrast to the studies cited in the introduction (Staw & Cohen-Charash,
2005), the lack of a direct relationship between this trait and the criteria could
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be explained by the fact that the participants have not worked long enough in
the organization; hence, the tenacity implied has not yet been able to lead to the
evident results. Finally, there is a non-predicted negative relationship between
Openness and salary, consistent with some studies, for example, Gelissen and De
Graaf (2006). One explanation that justifies the negative effects of Openness on
career success might be the greater need to focus and concentrate at this stage.
Regarding the verification of the indirect relationship of personality traits and
salary, produced through the EI dimensions, our results have shown that these are
higher than the direct relationships and that they are produced as described below.
TMMS attention mediates the relationships of Neuroticism (hypothesis 5a),
Extraversion (hypothesis 5b) and Openness (hypothesis 5c) with salary. The
results, however, showed that the relationship between Neuroticism and TMMS
attention is positive, and consistent with the outcomes in studies that indicate
positive relationships between neuroticism and attention to feelings (Extremera &
Fernández-Berrocal, 2005), which could explain a greater attention to emotions,
but in a non-adaptive way. The relationship between Extraversion and TMMS
attention can be explained, according to Fredrickson’s broaden and build the-
ory (2001), by the broader behavioral repertoires that extroverts have, which
would lead them to an improved behavioral flexibility and a higher attention span.
Finally, the positive indirect relationship between Openness and TMMS attention
over salary was confirmed, which supports the suggestion that connects curiosity
and a desire for a new stimulus and sensations with attention to internal feelings
and perception of emotions (Law et al., 2004).
TMMS clarity mediates the relationship of Extraversion (hypothesis 6a) with
salary, but not the relationship of Conscientiousness (hypothesis 6b) with salary,
which in part confirms this hypothesis. Regarding the first of them, the relation-
ship of extraversion with clarity of feelings, the results are consistent with the
findings of authors such as Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004), which highlights
the importance of sociability and positivism associated with this factor in the
processes of emotional learning and understanding. Regarding the second one, the
 14  J. M. DE HARO ET AL.

lack of relationship with TMMS clarity can be explained by individual differences

when processing and responding to emotional stimuli (Fiori, 2009). Moreover, a
new indirect relationship which had not been foreseen, emerged between neurot-
icism and TMMS clarity, which is similar to several relationships found in other
studies such as Extremera & Fernández-Berrocal, 2005, which shows that a low
level of emotional stability makes it more difficult to learn and regulate emotions.
TMMS repair mediates the relationships of Neuroticism (hypothesis 7a) and
Extraversion (7b) with salary, which confirms this hypothesis. The negative
relationship between Neuroticism and TMMS repair could be explained by the
negative effect that anxiety, linked to emotional instability, has on emotional man-
agement. The positive and significant relationship found in this study between
Extraversion and TMMS repair is consistent with the findings of Van Rooy and
Viswesvaran (2004). It supports the connection that aspects such as enthusiasm,
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positivism and flexibility, which are all related to Extraversion, have with emo-
tional self-regulation.
Finally, the results illustrate the connection considered in hypothesis 8: emotion
perception (TMMS attention) precedes emotion understanding (TMMS clarity),
which in turn precedes emotional regulation (TMMS repair) prior to its con-
nection with the extrinsic success criteria, according to the model suggested by
Joseph and Newman (2010).
In sum, there is confirmation of the mediator effect of EI in the connection
between personality traits and earnings, and the relationship among the three EI
dimensions (attention, understanding, and especially repair) and professional suc-
cess, measured by earnings at the beginning of an individual’s career. The results
suggest that low openness and higher emotional regulation determine higher
salaries. TMMS repair, also known as emotion management ability, becomes a
key factor in the final stage of enhancing job performance. These findings, con-
sistent with the results in other works, suggest that the ability to manage emotions
and control one’s mood is one of the strongest predictors of job performance
(Kluemper et al., 2013). The partial mediation effect of EI may be due to there
being mechanisms others than EQ through which personality influences individ-
ual earnings. Although strong causal conclusions may not be derived from these
results, an explanation of this finding is that higher levels of EI is and indicative
of success, the personality traits that leads to individuals’ attainment of greater
levels of EI, are more likely to be successful and obtain greater levels of earnings.
In terms of the specific, original and unique contributions of this study, we
emphasize that this study is the first to analyze the mediating effect of EI with
regard to extrinsic criteria of career success and that the sample consists of gradu-
ates and workers instead of students, an approach in which different time-delayed
measures were taken. This study contributes to the career success literature by
highlighting the mediating effect of EI to capture the indirect effects of person-
ality on earnings. The results of this study supports research proposals that are
more focused on analyzing the specific dimensions of EI, rather than assessing
 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT  15

the impact of general EI measures, which seems to have provided unclear results
(Rode et al., 2008). Working with more operational indicators, derived from the
mediator variables, and given their more proximal characters, will allow us to
obtain better results than the ones expected if the work was only conducted with
traits. Results also support a process-oriented approach to the influence of per-
sonality on career outcomes, in which the more distal personality variables have
indirect influences on more proximal variables like EI, which in turn, have and
influence on success criteria as earnings.
As for the practical implications of this study and its contribution to the HRM
literature, this research provides concise suggestions to improve HRM practices like
personnel recruitment and people training and development. It seems worthwhile
that recruiters and personnel developers pay attention to both more distal personal-
ity variables and more proximal like EI, because all of these variables as predictors of
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career success, may help to find successful employees. As an empirical contribution

our findings suggest that low neuroticism and high extraversion together with low
openness seems to be the personality profile that positively influences salary levels
mediated by EI. The mediators analyzed here are important vehicles in achieving
positive salary levels over the analyzed period of time. This potential mechanism
between personality and earnings merits additional empirical investigation. This
understanding will lead to advances in our knowledge of the connections between
the predictors and criteria for achieving extrinsic success at the early career stage.
Regarding the limitations of this study, despite the fact that this study does not
test a comprehensive model of the variables linked to career success but rather a
model that analyzes the influence of the dimensions of EI in predicting career suc-
cess, the model may contain a specification error (which would affect the results)
if relevant variables are omitted. Another limitation is related to the sample size.
This study may lack sufficient strength to corroborate the statistical significance
of the relationships that would have been found if a larger sample had been used.
A third limitation, also derived from the sample size, could be the difficulty in
disaggregating the subsamples by qualification to ascertain the likely differential
behavior of the variables studied in different qualifications. One more limita-
tion refers to the non-normality of the data regarding the general mental ability
variable. This might be due to a bias produced by the type of sample: University
graduates. The test used may not discriminate properly among the participants,
since there is lower variability in scores in this sample.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This work was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation [PSI2009-12696].
 16  J. M. DE HARO ET AL.

ORCID
Juan Luis Castejon http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0743-0882

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