INDIAN RAILWAYS - AN INTRODUCTION

History of Rail roads

• 1550 AD –
❑Roads of rails called wagon ways used in Germany—wooden rails, horse drawn
carriages
• 1776 AD
❑Rails now of metal. Wheels metal—called tram ways—horse drawn-spread all
over Europe
• 1789AD
❑William Jessop- invented the flanged wheel
• 1803 AD
❑Steam engine built by Richard Trevethick
 HISTORY OF RAIL ROADS
• 1804 –First tramway steam engine built and used

• 1814-George Stephenson –built first rail engine

• 1825- Stockton and Darlington railways functional

• 1826- First American railroad

• 1857 –First sleeping car built –Pullman

• 1869- George Westinghouse –invention of air brakes

• 1970’s – High speed technology

 HISTORY OF RAILRODS IN INDIA
• 1832 first proposed in Madras—Bangalore

• 1836-survey carried out

• 1840- Lord Hardinge decides to support building of railways—irrespective of

commercial viability

• 1845-two companies EIR and GIPR operating

• Dec 22 1851—Roorkee functional railway system to haul construction material

• April 16 1853- Bombay –thane first passenger train run

• 15 august 1854 –Howrah to Hoogly

 REGROUPING AND NATIONALIZATION OF INDIAN RAILWAYS
The major Railway zones that have been covered here are as follows:

❖ Central Indian Railway

❖ Eastern Indian Railway

❖ Northern Indian Railway

❖ Southern Indian Railway

❖ Western Indian Railway

 Advances in Indian Railways post Independence
• The Railway has changed from meter gauge to broad gauge and the people have given
it a warm welcome.

• Rajdhanis and Shatabdis train at speeds of 145 kmph with all amenities and comfort.

• The Research, Designing and Standardizing Organization at Lucknow, the largest

Railway research organization in the world was constituted in 1957.

• The workshops of the Railways as well have been given new equipment to create
sophisticated coaches at Perambur and Kapurthala and diesel engine parts at Patiala.

• Locomotives are being made at Chittaranjan and Varanasi.

• Calcutta is also the only city where the Metro Railway started operating from September
27, 1995 over a length of 16.45 km.
RAILWAY ZONES
 RAILWAY ZONES AND DIVISONS
Sl. No Name Abbr. Date Established
Headquarters Divisions
1 Central CR 5-Nov-51 Mumbai Mumbai, Bhusawal, Pune, Solapur, Nagpur
2 East Central ECR 1-Oct-02 Hajipur Danapur, Dhanbad, Mughalsarai, Samastipur, Sonpur
3 East Coast ECoR 1-Apr-03 BhubaneswarKhurda Road, Sambalpur, Visakhapatnam
4 Eastern ER April, 1952 Kolkata Howrah, Sealdah, Asansol, Malda
5 North Central NCR 1-Apr-03 Allahabad Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi
6 North Eastern NER 1952 Gorakhpur Izzatnagar, Lucknow, Varanasi
7 North Western NWR 1-Oct-02 Jaipur Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur
8 Northeast Frontier NFR 1958 Guwahati Alipurduar, Katihar, Lumding, Rangia, Tinsukia
9 Northern NR 14-Apr-52 Delhi Delhi, Ambala, Firozpur, Lucknow, Moradabad
10 South Central SCR 2-Oct-66 SecunderabadSecunderabad, Hyderabad, Guntakal, Guntur, Nanded, Vijayawada
11 South East Central SECR 1-Apr-03 Bilaspur, CGBilaspur, Raipur, Nagpur
12 South Eastern SER 1955 Kolkata Adra, Chakradharpur, Kharagpur, Ranchi
13 South Western SWR 1-Apr-03 Hubli Hubli, Bangalore, Mysore
14 Southern SR 14-Apr-51 Chennai Chennai, Madurai, Palakkad, Salem, Tiruchchirapalli, Thiruvanathapuram
15 West Central WCR 1-Apr-03 Jabalpur Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota
16 Western WR 5-Nov-51 Mumbai Mumbai Central, Vadodara, Ratlam, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Bhavnagar
Key Parameters of Indian Railways
 Traffic Density

Growth Pattern since independence

 Network Expansion during last 5 years

Earning of Indian Railways Earning of Indian Railways

 Classification of Indian Railways
1. Trunk routes
• Delhi-Mugalsarai-Howrah
• Delhi- Kota- Mumbai
• Delhi- Jhansi- Nagpur- Chennai
• Howrah – Bagpur- Mumbai
• Mumbai- Guntakal- Chennai
• Howrah- Vijaywada- Chennai
2. Main Lines
• Line carrying more than 10 Gross Million Tones (G.M.T.) or
more per annum are called main lines.
3. Branch Lines
• Line carrying less than 10 Gross Million Tones (G.M.T.)
or more per annum are called main lines.
PERMANENT WAY and IT’s COMPONENTS
Elements of Railway tracks
• The track on a railway or railroad, also known as the permanent way, is the
structure consisting of the rails, fasteners, sleepers and ballast (or slab
track), plus the underlying sub grade.

• For clarity it is often referred to as railway track or railroad track.

Track Formation
The purpose of track is to transfer train loads to the formation.

Requirements for Choosing a Track System:

1. Trains running on Track do not cause excessive environmental pollution in
the form of noise and ground vibration.
2. Costs of the total service life of the track must be as low as possible.
3. Maintenance should be low and as inexpensive as possible
Load Bearing Function of the Track
The load transfer works on the principle of stress reduction - layer by layer.

✓ The greatest stress occurs between

wheel and rail and is in the order of 30
per square cm (= 300 MPa).

✓ Between rail and sleeper the stress is

two orders smaller and diminishes
between sleeper and ballast bed down
to about 30 N per square cm.

✓ Finally the stress on the formation is

only about 5 N per square cm.
Loading gauge…
• A loading gauge defines the maximum height and width for railway
vehicles and their loads to ensure safe passage through bridges,
tunnels and other structures.

• The loading gauge determines the sizes of passenger trains and the
size of shipping containers that can be conveyed on a section of
railway line and varies across the world and often within a single
railway system.

• A loading gauge is the envelope or contoured shape within which all

railroad cars, locomotives, coaches, buses, trucks and other vehicles,
must fit.
Loading Gauge
Loading Gauge…

• Indian Railways 1,676mm (5ft6in) gauge track have very large loading
gauge. 3,660mm (12ft0in) wide and 5,300mm (17ft5in) high for
passenger traffic.

• In India 3,250mm (10 ft8in) wide and 7,000mm (23ft0in) high on the
freight only lines, and 3,250mm (10ft8in) wide and 6,150mm (20ft2in)
high on the goods trafic.

• The smallest loading gauge for a railway of the1,676mm(5ft6in)gauge

track is Delhi Metro. Which is 3,250mm (10ft8in) wide and 4,140mm
(13ft7in) high.
Running Rails…
• Rail is similar to steel girders. These are placed end to end to provide
continuous and level surface for the trains to move.
Functions of Rail
I. To provide continuous and level surface for movement of train.
II. To provide a smooth pathway so that friction between rail and wheel
become less.
III. Serve as a lateral guide for the running of wheels.
IV. Transferring the load into the sleeper.
V. To bear the stresses developed in the track due to temperature
changes and loading patterns.
VI. To resist breaking forces caused due to stoppage of trains.
Requirements of an ideal rail…
(1) The section of the rail should be such that the load of the wheels is
transferred to the sleepers without exceeding the permissible stresses.

(2) The section of the rail should be able to withstand the lateral forces
caused due to fast moving trains.

(3) The underside of the head and top of the foot of the rail section should be
of such a slope that the fishplates fit smoothly.

(4) The centre of gravity of the rail section should preferably coincide the
centre of the height of the rail so that maximum tensile and compressive
stresses are nearly equal.
Requirements of an ideal rail…
(5) The web of the rail section should be such that it can safely bear the vertical load
without buckling.
(6) The head of the rail should be sufficiently thick for adequate margin of vertical
wear.
(7) The foot of rail should provide sufficient bearing area on the underlying sleepers
so that the compressive stresses on the timber sleeper remain within permissible
limits.
(8) The section of the rails should be such that the ends of two adjacent rails can be
efficiently jointed with a pair of fish plates.
(9) The surfaces for rail table and gauge face should be sufficiently hard to resist the
wear.
(10) The contact area between the rail and wheel flange should be as large as
possible to reduce the contact stresses.
Requirements of an ideal rail…
(12) The composition of the steel should conform to the specifications
adopted for its manufacture by Open Hearth of Duplex Process.
(13) The overall height of the rail should be adequate to provide sufficient
stiffness and strength as a simply supported beam.
(14) The stiffness of a rail section depends upon the moment of inertia.
The economical design should provide maximum moment of inertia
per unit weight of rail with due regard to other factors.
(15) The section moduli of the rail section and that of a pair of fish plates
should be adequate so as to keep the rail and fish plates within
permissible limits.
(16) The foot of the rail should be wide enough so that the rail is stable
against overturning.
Running Rails…
Double headed rails…

• These were the rails which were used in the beginning, which were
double headed and consisting of a dumb-bell section.
• The idea behind using these rails was that when the head was worn
out in course of time, the rail can be inverted and reused.
• But as time passed indentations were formed in the lower table due to
which smooth running over the surface at the top was impossible.
Bull headed rails…
• In this type of rail the head was made a little thicker and stronger than the lower
part by adding more metal to it, so that it can withstand the stresses.
Flat footed rails has the following advantages…
• They do not need any chair and can be directly spiked or keyed to the
sleepers. Thus they are economical.

• They are much stiffer both vertically and laterally. The lateral stiffness is
important for curves.

• They are less liable to develop kinks and maintain a more regular top surface
than bull headed rails.

• They are cheaper than bull headed rails.

• The loads from wheels of trains are distributed over large number of sleepers
and hence larger area which results in greater track stability, longer life of rails
and sleepers, reduced maintenance, costs, less rail failure and few
interruptions to traffic.
Coning of Wheels in Railways…

• The Surface of wheels are made in cone shape at an inclination of 1 in 20, and
the same slope is provided in the rails, this is known as coning of wheels.

Advantages:
❖ Helps in negotiation of curves
❖ Provides a smoother ride

Disadvantages:
• High stress on the rail
Slip = θ (𝑅2 - 𝑅1 ) θ = Angle at center in radians
𝐺
Outer Radius (𝑅2 ) = R + G = Gauge
2
𝐺
Inner Radius (𝑅2 ) = R -
2
Slip = θ X G G = 1.676 meter for B.G.
2𝜋𝜃°
Slip = X 1.676
360
𝜃° = angle at the center in degrees, say 1°

Slip = 0.029

Therefore, the slip is about 0.029 m per

degree of central angle
Adzing of sleeper…

1. It maintains the gauge properly.

2. The wear at the head of rail is uniform.
3. It increases the life of sleepers and the rails.
Length of rails…
▪ The most common length for BG rails is 13m (42'8'') although
double-length rails (26m, 85'4'') are seen in some places.
▪
▪ MG rails are usually 12m (39'4'') in length.

▪ NG rails vary, but the commonest length is 9m (29'6'').

▪ Much earlier (before the metric system was adopted!), rails were
generally produced in sizes of 11, 12, or 14 yards (33', 36', 42'), less
commonly 13 yards (39') or 10 yards (30' -NG).
Factors governing length of rails…
Manufacturing cost
Transportation facility
Lifting and handling operation

Welding of rails

❑ To increase the length of the rails

❑ To repair the worn out or damaged rails
❑ To build up worn out points and rails on
the sharp curves
Welded rail sections types…
• Short Welded Rail or SWR which consists of just two or three rails welded
together, and Long Welded Rail or LWR which covers anything longer.
• The welding of rails is carried out in a depot by the "Flash butt welding”
process and at site by the "Thermit Welding" process.
• Other two methods of welding are Electric arc welding and Gas pressure
welding.
Advantages of welding rails…
(1) Welding of rails increases the life of the rails due to decrease in
wear of the ends.
(2) Welded rails provide more comfort to the passengers due to
smooth running of wheels over welded joints.
(3) Welding of rails reduces the creep because frictional resistances
increase with the increase in rail length.
(4) As discontinuity of rails is reduced, the defects such as hammering
rail joints, displacement of joint, disturbance in alignment and
running surface, are also eliminated.
(5) Welded rails provide better performance and reduce the effects of
impact on large span bridges.
(6) Long welded rail length dampens the intensity of high frequency
vibrations due to moving loads.
Advantages of welding rails…
(7) Welding increases the life and decreases the wear of rails.
(8) By welding of rails, the cost of track construction decreases due to
elimination of a large number of rail joints.
(9) Fast and heavy traffic may be permitted on track with welded rails.
(10) The use of long welded rails, affords better longitudinal, lateral and
vertical stability to the track.
(11) In a welded rail panel, the number of joints is less. This saves the fuel
consumption as it eliminates the loss of strain and impact energy at
the rail joints.
(13) In welded rail panels, the risk of sabotage and accidents, are
considerably reduced.
(14) Welding of rails reduces the maintenance cost by about 20% to 40%.
 RAIL FALIURE
Wear of rails…
• The separation or cutting of rail due to friction and abnormal heavy load is called
wear.

Wear on head of rail Wear on ends of rail Wear of rail on curve

Wear on head of rail…
❑ Wear on head of rail is due to abrasion
on moving rails.

❑ Due to grinding action of sand or dust

between the rails and wheels of the train.

❑ When train starts or applies brakes, the

wheel just slides on the rails causing
wear on the head.

❑ Load coming on to a track may exceed

the carrying capacity of the section. Thus
causing the wear in the head of rail.
Wear on ends of rail…
• It is much greater than the wear on the head of the rail.

• This type of the wear is resulted due to the blows which the rail receive when the
wheel jumps the space between the rail ends.

• The ends are effected by such blows.

• The contact surface between the sleepers and the rail is worn as the as the effect
of these blows increased.

• The ballast under the sleepers will loosen due to increase in the intensity of
vibrations, also he sleeper will depressed due the displacement of ballast, also the
fish plates will get loose under the constant impact of increasing vibrations
Wear of rail on curve…
• On the curve the wear of the
rail takes place in both inner
and outer rails.
• On the curve, the outer wheel
has to move through greater
distance than the inner wheel.
And the inner wheel has to
slide over the inner rail.
• As a result of this sliding wear
of the inner rail occur because
the metal in the rail head is
burnt.
Hogged rails…
• A hogged rail is one with its end or
ends bent in vertical direction.
Caused due to battering action of
wheels
Cause of Hogging…
Due to loose packing under the joints
and loose fish plates.
Preventing steps…
✓ Hogged rails are removed and
replaced by new rails.
✓ Deflected ends can be brought in
to their original shape and size by
welding
✓ The deflected ends of the rails are
cut off and fresh holes drilled for
fixing the fish plates.
✓ The bent or deflected ends of rails
can be straightened
Corrugation of Rail…
Cause of Corrugation
• Humidity, especially in long tunnels or in
tunnels near or under the water.
• High speeds trains, especially at electrified
sections.
• Slipping of loco wheels, because of
accelerating and braking actions especially at
steep gradients and in case of emergency.
• Presence of rigid track, soft ballast and yielding
formations.
• Non-uniformity of diameter of loco wheels and
coning.
• Use of light railway wagons and coaches.
• Use of rails having high tensile strength i.e.
composition of steel etc
Kinks in Rail… Rail buckling…

• End of rails get move slightly out of position Rail buckling is caused by the compressive
kinks or shoulders are formed. forces generated by the heat expanded
rails in one section of rail.
 Creep of Rails
Creep is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rail with respect to the sleepers.
Rails have a tendency to gradually move in the direction of dominant traffic.

✓ Theories for the Development of Creep

❑ Wave Motion Theory:
o According to wave motion theory, wave motion
is set up in the resilient track because of
moving loads, causing a deflection in the rail
under the load.
o The portion of the rail immediately under the
wheel gets slightly depressed due to the wheel
load. Therefore, the rails generally have a wavy
formation.
o As the wheels of the train move forward, the
depressions also move with them and the
previously depressed portion springs back to
the original level.
 Creep of Rails
❑Percussion Theory:
o According to percussion theory, creep is developed due to the impact of wheels at the
rail end ahead of a joint.
o As the wheels of the moving train leave the trailing rail at the joint, the rail gets
pushed, forward causing it to move longitudinally in the direction of traffic, and that is
how creep develops.
 Creep of Rails

• Drag Theory: According to drag theory, the backward thrust of the driving wheels of
a locomotive has the tendency to push the rail backwards, while the thrust of the
other wheels of the locomotive pushes the rail in the direction in which the
locomotive is moving.
• This results in the longitudinal movement of the rail in the direction of traffic,thereby
causing creep.
Causes of Creep…
✓ Ironing effect of the wheel: The ironing effect of moving wheels on the waves
formed in the rail tends to cause the rail to move in the direction of traffic, resulting
in creep.
✓ Starting and stopping operations: When a train starts or accelerates, the backward
thrust of its wheels tends to push the rail backwards. Similarly, when the train slows
down or comes to a halt, the effect of the applied brakes tends to push the rail
forward. This in turn causes creep in one direction or the other.
✓ Changes in temperature: Creep can also develop due to variations in temperature
resulting in the expansion and contraction of the rail. Creep occurs frequently during
hot weather conditions.
✓ Unbalanced traffic: In a double-line section, trains move only in one direction, i.e.,
each track is unidirectional. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of traffic. In a
single-line section, even though traffic moves in both directions, the volume of the
traffic in each direction is normally variable. Creep, therefore, develops in the
direction of predominant traffic.
Causes of Creep…
Poor maintenance of track Some minor factors, mostly relating to the poor maintenance
of the track, also contribute to the development of creep. These are as follows:

(a) Improper securing of rails to sleepers

(b) Limited quantities of ballast resulting in inadequate ballast resistance to the
movement of sleepers
(c) Improper expansion gaps
(d) Badly maintained rail joints
(e) Rail seat wear in metal sleeper track
(f) Rails too light for the traffic carried on them
(g) Yielding formations that result in uneven cross levels
(h) Other miscellaneous factors such as lack of drainage, and loose packing, uneven
spacing of sleepers.
Effects of Creep…
• Sleepers out of square: The sleepers move out of their position as a result of creep
and become out of square. This in turn affects the gauge and alignment of the track,
which finally results in unpleasant rides.
• Disturbance in gaps get disturbed: Due to creep, the expansion gaps widen at some
places and close at others. This results in the joints getting jammed.
• Distortion of points and crossings: Due to excessive creep, it becomes difficult to
maintain the correct gauge and alignment of the rails at points and crossings.
• Difficulty in changing rails: Due to operational reasons, it is required that the rail be
changed, the same becomes difficult as the new rail is found to be either too short or
too long because of creep.
• Effect on interlocking: The interlocking mechanism of the points and crossings gets
disturbed by creep.
• Possible buckling of track: If the creep is excessive and there is negligence in the
maintenance of the track, the possibility of buckling of the track cannot be ruled out.
• Other effects: There are other miscellaneous effects of creep such as breaking of
bolts and kinks in the alignment, which occur in various situations.
Measurement of Creep…
• Creep can be measured with the help of a device called creep indicator.
• It consists of two creep posts, which are generally rail pieces that are driven at 1-km
intervals on either side of the track.
• According to the prescribed stipulations, creep should be measured at intervals of
about three months and noted in a prescribed register, which is to be maintained by
the permanent way inspector (PWI).
• Creep in excess of 150 mm (6 in.) should not be permitted on any track and not
more than six consecutive rails should be found jammed in a single-rail track at one
location.
Measurement of creep
• On the side of bottom flange of rail on either sides, a mark is made by chisel
• Two posts of rail are driven in the formation and their tops are in level with top of
sleeper
• String fastened to the post and passed through markings towards rail
• Distance between string and the marks on the bottom of rails will indicate creep
during a course of time
 Sleepers
Sleepers are used as a base for laying railway tracks. Sleepers were traditionally
made from wood but are now usually made from concrete.
Functions of sleeper…
(1) To hold the rails t proper gauge in all situations. i.e. exact gauge along
straights and flat curves, slightly loose on sharp curves and slightly tight
in diamond crossings.
(2) To support the rails firmly and evenly throughout.
(3) To distribute the load transmitted through rails over large area of ballast
underneath or to the bridge girders as the case may be.
(4) To hold the rails to proper level in turnouts and crossovers, and at 1 in
20 in ward slope along straight tracks.
(5) To provide and elastic medium between the rails and ballast and also to
absorb the vibrations caused due to moving axle loads.
(6) To maintain proper alignment of the track. On curves proper cant is
provided by raising the outer rail and tamping he required quantity of
ballast bellow the rails.
Functions of sleeper …
(7) To provide the general stability of the permanent way throughout.
(8) To provide the insulation of track for the electrified for signaling.
(9) To provide easy replacement of the rail fastenings without any serious
traffic disturbances
(10) Holding rails to correct gauge and alignment.
(11) Firm and even support to rails.
(12) Transferring the load evenly from rails to wider area of ballast.
(13) Elastic medium between rails and ballast.
(14) Providing longitudinal and lateral stability
Requirements of a good Sleeper…
(1) The initial cost and the maintenance cost of the sleepers should
be low.
(2) The fittings required for fixing the rails on to the sleepers, should
be simple which can be easily adjusted during the maintenance.
(3) The crushing strength of the sleepers should be more with
moderate weight.
(4) They should be able to maintain a perfect alignment, gauge and
levels of the rails and should afford efficient adjustment and
maintenance.
(5) They should provide sufficient bearing area to hold the rail seats
and for the ballast to be supported on, to resist the crushing due to
movement of heavy axle loads.
Requirements of a good Sleeper
(6) The sleeper spacing should be such as to remove and replace the
ballast during regular maintenance operation.
(7) They should be capable to resist the shocks and vibrations caused
due to fast moving vehicles at high speeds.
(8) They should provide insulation facilities for track circuiting in the
electrified sections.
(9) The sleepers should be strong enough to withstand the pressure
during packing process.
(10) The sleepers should be of such a design that they remain in their
positions and do not get disturbed due t moving trains.
(11) The material used for the sleeper be such that it does not attract the
sabotage and the theft qualities.
Types of Sleepers…

Sleepers depending on the location Sleepers based on the materials

1. Longitudinal sleepers 1. Timber sleepers
2. Transverse sleepers 2. Steel sleepers
3. Cast iron sleepers
4. R.C.C sleepers
5. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers
Longitudinal sleepers…
• These are earlier form of sleepers which
are not in use nowadays.
• It consists of slabs or pieces of timber
placed parallel to the rails.
• To maintain the correct gauge cross
pieces were provided.
• These sleepers were costly
• Noise created by the track is considerable
Transverse sleepers…
• Also knows as cross sleepers.
• Placed at right angles under the rails.
• Eliminated the inconvenience of longitudinal sleepers
Timber Sleepers
The timber sleepers nearly fulfilled all the requirements of ideal sleepers and hence
they are universally used. The wood used may be like teak, sal etc or it may be
coniferous like pine.
• Advantages of Timber Sleepers
• They are much useful for heavy loads and high speeds
• They have long life of 10-12 years depending upon the climate, condition, rain,
intensity, nature of traffic, quality of wood etc
• Good insulators and hence good for track circuited railway tracks
• They are able to accommodate any gauge
• Suitable for salty regions and coastal areas
• Can be used with any section of rail
• Can be handled and placed easily
• They are not badly damaged in case of derailment
• They are not corroded
• Cheaper than any other types of sleepers
Disadvantages of Timber Sleepers

• Liable to be attacked by vermin so, they must be properly treated before use
• Liable to catch fire
• They do not resist creep
• They are affected by dry and wet rot
• Become expensive day by day
• Life is shorter compare to others
Types of Sleepers
• Steel Sleepers
• Wooden Sleepers
• Concrete Sleepers

Steel sleepers

They are in the form of steel trough

inverted on which rails are fixed directly
by keys or nuts and bolts and used
along sufficient length of tracks.
Advantage of Steel sleepers…
❑ Have a useful life of 20-25 years.
❑ Free from decay and are not attacked by insects
❑ Connection between rail and sleeper is stronger
❑ Connection between rail and sleeper is simple
❑ More attention is not required after laying
❑ Having better lateral rigidity
❑ Good scrap value
❑ Suitable for high speeds and load
❑ Easy to handle
❑ Good resistance against creep
Disadvantages of Steel sleepers…
• Liable to corrosion by moisture and should not because in salty regions
• Good insulators and hence cannot be used in track circuited regions
• Cannot be used for all sections of rails and gauges
• Should not be laid with any other types of ballast
• Very costly
• Can badly damaged under derailments
 Concrete sleepers…
• R.C.C and pre-stressed concrete sleepers are now replacing all other types of sleepers except to
some special circumstances such as crossing, bridges etc here timber sleepers are used.
• They were first of all used in France round about in 1914 but are common since 1950. They may
be a twin block sleepers joined by an angle iron. It may be a single block pre-stressed type.

Advantages Concrete Sleepers

• Durable with life range from 40-50 years
• They can be produced on large quantities locally by installing a plant
• Heavier than all other types thus giving better lateral stability to the track
• Good insulators and thus suitable for use in track circuited lines
• Efficient in controlling creep - They are not attacked by corrosion
• Free from attacks of vermin and decay, suitable for all types of soils
• Most suitable for welded tracks- Prevent buckling more efficiently
• Initial cost is high but proves to be economical in long run
• Effectively and strongly hold the track to gauge
• Inflammable and fire resistant
Disadvantages Concrete Sleepers…

• Difficult to be handled
• Difficult to be manufactured in different sizes thus cannot be used
in bridges and crossing
• Can be damaged easily while loading and unloading
Sleeper Density and Spacing of Sleepers
• Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length.
• It is specified as M + x M is the length of the rail in metres and x is a number that varies
according to factors such as (a) axle load and speed, (b) type and section of rails, (c)
type and strength of the sleepers, (d) type of ballast and ballast cushion, and (e) nature
of formation.
• If the sleeper density is M + 7 on a broad gauge route and the length of the railis 13 m,
it means that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per rail on that route.
• The number of sleepers in a track can also be specified by indicating the number of
sleepers per kilometre of the track. For example, 1540 sleepers/km.
• The spacing of sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper density. Spacing is not
kept uniform throughout the rail length.
• It is closer near the joints because of the weakness of the joints and impact of moving
loads on them.
Spacing of sleepers for a fish-plated track
BALLAST
 BALLAST
The ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or any other granular material
placed and packed below and around sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers
to the formation.
o Functions of Ballast:
I. Provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on.
II. Holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.
III. Transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area of the formation.
IV. Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.
V. Provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateral
stability.
VI. Provides effective drainage to the track.
VII. Provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the track.
Types of Ballast
• Sand ballast: Sand ballast is used primarily for cast iron (CI) pots. It is also used
with wooden and steel trough sleepers in areas where traffic density is very low.
• Moorum ballast: The decomposition of laterite results in the formation of moorum.
It is red, and sometimes yellow, in colour. The moorum ballast is normally used as
the initial ballast in new constructions and also as sub-ballast.
• Coal ash or cinder: This type of ballast is normally used in yards and sidings or as
the initial ballast in new constructions since it is very cheap and easily available. It
is harmful for steel sleepers and fittings because of its corrosive action.
• Broken stone ballast: This type of ballast is used the most on Indian Railways. A
good stone ballast is generally procured from hard stones such as granite,
quartzite, and hard trap. Good quality hard stone is normally used for high-speed
tracks.
• Other types of ballast: There are other types of ballast also such as the brickbat
ballast, gravel ballast, kankar stone ballast, and even earth ballast. These types of
ballast are used only in special circumstances.
Sizes of Ballast…
• Previously, 50-mm (2") ballasts were specified for flat bottom sleepers such as
concrete and wooden sleepers and 40-mm (1.5") ballasts were specified for metal
sleepers. Now, to ensure uniformity, 50-mm (2") ballasts have been adopted
universally for all type of sleepers.

• As far as points and crossings are concerned, these are subjected to heavy blows
of moving loads and are maintained to a higher degree of precision. A small sized,
25-mm (1") ballast is, therefore, preferable because of its fineness for slight
adjustments, better compaction, and increased frictional area of the ballast.
Size and Gradation

Methods of Measurement
Stack Measurement: Stacking should be done on an almost plane and firm ground with good
drainage. The height of the stack should not be less than 1 m except in hilly areas, where it may be
0.5 m. The top width of the stack should not be less than 1 m and should be kept parallel to the
ground plane. The volume of each stack should normally not be less than 30 m3 in plain areas and 15
m3 in hilly areas.

Wagon Measurement : In the case of the ballast supply being directly loaded into wagons, a
continuous
white line should be painted inside the wagon to indicate the level up to which the ballast can be
loaded. The volume in cubic metres corresponding to white line should also be painted outside the
wagon on both sides.
Laboratory Tests for Physical Properties of Ballast
• Aggregate Abrasion Value
• Aggregate Impact Value
• Flakiness Index
• Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test
Requirements of a Good Ballast

(a) It should be tough and wear resistant.

(b) It should be hard so that it does not get crushed under the moving loads.
(c) It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.
(d) It should be non-porous and should not absorb water.
(e) It should resist both attrition and abrasion.
(f) It should be durable and should not get pulverized or disintegrated under
adverse weather conditions.
(g) It should allow for good drainage of water.
(h) It should be cheap and economical.
Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion
• The load on the sleeper is transferred through the medium of the ballast to the
formation. The pressure distribution in the ballast section depends upon the size
and shape of the ballast and the degree of consolidation.

• Though the lines of equal pressure are in the shape of a bulb, yet for simplicity, the
dispersion of load can be assumed to be roughly 45° to the vertical.

• In order to ensure that the load is transferred evenly on the formation, the depth of
the ballast should be such that the dispersion lines do not overlap each other.
Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion
Sleeper spacing = width of the sleeper + 2 × depth of ballast
o If a BG track is laid with wooden sleepers with a
sleeper density of N + 6, then the sleeper
spacing would be 68.4 cm.
o If the width of the sleeper is 25.4 cm, then the
depth of the ballast cushion would be

A minimum cushion of 15–20 cm of ballast below the sleeper bed is normally prescribed on Indian Railways.
Ballast Profile for Fish-plated Track
Ballast Profile for Long Welded Rail Tracks…
• The minimum clean stone ballast cushion below the bottom of sleeper (A) is 250
mm.
• For routes where speeds are to be more than 130 kmph, A is 300 mm– 200 mm
along with 150 mm of sub-ballast.
 Ballast requirement (mm) for single-line BG LWR tracks

† 200 mm over 150 mm sub-ballast.

Specifications for Track Ballast…
All ballast samples should possess the physical properties given in Table 8.4 when
tested in accordance with IS:2386 (IV)–1963.