A Pumps & System s eb o o k

Variable Frequency Drives

Understanding the basics of selection,
operation, and the efficiency they provide

S po n s o re d by
2 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology

Contents

VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES

2 EDITOR’S NOTE

3 How fluid drive, eddy current drive and wound rotor

motors work to achieve true variable speed control.
By William Livoti

6 How electronic speed control drives, adjustable

frequency drives, magnetic drives and steam turbine drives
work to achieve true variable speed controL
By William Livoti

10 Determining if a Motor Needs a VFD and Differences Between

NPSHa & NPSHr and more
By Hydraulic Institute

15 Advances in Motor Technology and

Energy Efficiency Initiatives Demand
Next-Generation, Multiple-Capability Drives
By Mitsubishi Electric

Editor’s Note
While pumps over time have not fundamentally changed,
the advent of variable frequency drives (VFDs) changed the
way the process industries run equipment. In addition to
their many benefits, VFDs allow for energy efficiency that
was before near impossible.
This ebook covers some best practices and tips about
operation with VFDs. There are articles from the Hydraulic
Institute as well as industry thought-leader, William Livoti.
There is also information from Mitsubishi Electric, which
sponsored this ebook. We trust you will find it all helpful
as you seek to do your job better and become more
energy efficient.
If you have ideas for other ebooks, or would like to share
your thoughts on Pumps & Systems, please email me at
jdking@cahabamedia.com. We appreciate your comments
and critique.

Livoti is now retired after more than 40 years of working in Thank you,
the pump industry. He is a former member of the Pumps & Jennifer King
Systems Editorial Advisory Board, and has been a columnist Editor, Pumps & Systems
for the publication.

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3 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: Part 1

How fluid drive, eddy current drive and wound rotor

motors work to achieve true variable speed control
By William Livoti

T
o achieve true variable speed control actual speed range desired by the pump
of a centrifugal pump, this article application. However, the only type of
will look at the following methods variable speed drive that includes a gearbox
or technologies: fluid drive, eddy current within the drive is the type called “variable
drive, wound rotor motor, adjustable voltage speed geared fluid drive.”
direct current (DC), adjustable frequency Fixed speed motor and eddy current
alternating current (AC), magnetic drive and clutch.
steam turbine.
Part 1 of this article will focus on fluid EDDY CURRENT DRIVE OR
drive, eddy current drive and wound rotor COUPLING
motor. Part 2, which will be published in An eddy current drive, also known as
an upcoming issue, will focus on electronic electo-mechanical drive, consists of a fixed
speed control drives, adjustable frequency speed motor and an eddy current clutch.
drives, magnetic drives and steam turbine The clutch contains a fixed speed rotor and
drives. an adjustable speed rotor separated by a
small air gap. A DC in a field coil produces a
FLUID DRIVE magnetic field that determines the torque
Variable speed fluid drives, known as transmitted from the input to the output
hydro-kinetic, are typically used in high rotor. The controller provides closed-loop
horsepower (hp) applications. However, speed regulation by varying the clutch
this type of fluid drive can be made from current, allowing the clutch to transmit
a few horsepower to over 40,000 hp. For
horsepower ratings under this level, other
methods of speed control are generally used.
It should be noted the terms fluid coupling
and hydraulic coupling are sometimes used
interchangeably with fluid drive.
In most applications, a variable speed fluid
drive is driven by a constant speed motor of
either induction or synchronous type and
delivers variable speed power to a process
pump. The fluid drive output shaft speed
(pump speed) is controllable in step-less
speed changes in a range, typically, from 20
to 97.5 percent of the input shaft speed. The
output shaft speed is extremely smooth,
eliminating torsional excitation pulsations.
Fluid drive technology is still popular for
boiler feed and fan applications such as
forced and induced draft.
It should be noted that every type of
variable speed drive can be used with
a constant ratio gearbox to achieve the
Image 1. Fixed speed motor and eddy current clutch. (Images courtesy of the author)

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4 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: Part 1
enough torque to operate at the desired
speed. Speed feedback is provided by an
integral AC tachometer.
By regulating voltage to the clutch coil,
a magnetic flux field is generated in the
gap and distortion of the flux field creates
torque. Output speed is governed by the
digital control.
The greater the power is to the clutch coil,
the greater the strength of the magnetic
flux field, and the greater the output torque
or speed.
The tachometer’s feedback signal is
compared to a reference signal within the
controller to maintain accurate speed within
0.5 percent. This closed-loop speed system
typically uses less than 1 percent of the total
AC input current to the motor.
The only wear parts are bearings and
brushes, since the motors and drives are
separated by an air gap.
EFFICIENCY
Eddy current drives use a DC magnetic field
to link two members, one on the input shaft
and one on the output shaft. Increasing the
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DC to the coil increases the coupling of the
two members, thus delivering more torque
to the load. A tachometer is used to control
the velocity and torque.
Eddy current losses in efficiency in an AC
motor are equal to nameplate rating as the
motor is running across the line. This is true
for power factor and efficiency. With DC
control losses in efficiency are typically 2
percent or less.
And in a slip the reduction in speed is
dissipated in the drum and rotor (the coupled
members). It reduces efficiency in proportion
to reduction in speed.
It is best to run an eddy current device
at or near rated speed. Typically, 82 to 100
percent is best to optimize efficiency.
MAINTENANCE
Bearing lubrication is needed to maintain an
eddy current drive. The control, which can
be a single printed circuit board, requires no
maintenance. A typical eddy current drive
should last 40 years.
the speed or current and speed or torque
curves of the induction motor can be altered.
Image 2. By changing the external
impedance connected in the rotor
circuit, the speed or current and
speed or torque curves of the
induction motor can be altered.
5 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: Part 1
WOUND ROTOR MOTOR
Wound rotor (also called slip ring) motors
are based on inserting external resistances
into the induction motor rotor circuit for
induction motor torque controls.
Prior to the advent of variable frequency
drives (VFDs), there was no other way for an
induction motor to develop high overload
torques (200 to 280 percent) over a wide
speed range as required for many industrial
applications such as crane hoists, pulpers
or trolley drives and in some centrifugal
pumping applications where the solids in
the pumpage may have dropped out of
suspension during brief shutdowns.
The wound rotor motor is an induction
motor where the rotor circuit is terminated in
slip rings to which external impedances can
be connected. The stator is essentially the
same as used in any standard squirrel cage
motor. By changing the external impedance
connected in the rotor circuit, the speed or
current and speed or torque curves of the
induction motor can be altered.
A three-phase wound rotor induction
motor consists of a stator core with three-
phase winding; a wound rotor with slip rings,
brushes and brush holders; and two end
shields to house the bearings that support
the motor shaft. While this technology is
popular in many large motor applications,
there are still a few wound rotor applications
in the 20- to 500-hp range.
Wound rotor technology is not the
most cost-effective solution for high-torque
variable torque applications, especially
with those centrifugal pumping (variable
torque) applications.
A few advantages of wound rotor
motor technology include: high capacity
of overloading; lower starting current as
compared to squirrel cage motor; maintains
a constant speed while running; high-torque
value at the start; and ability to vary speed by
use of external rotor resistance.
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MAINTENANCE
While the resistor banks may not be prone
to failure, the contractors, which switch
resistor banks in and out of service for
speed control of the wound rotor motor,
can be replaced or serviced yearly, or more
depending on usage.
Wound rotor motors may experience slip
ring brush contamination; slip ring brush Prior to
maintenance; slip ring brush rigging, burning the advent
and melting; resistor contactor bank pitting of variable
and maintenance; and energy losses in the frequency
resistor bank during low speed operation. drives (VFDs),
Users occasionally inquire about the there was no
feasibility of converting an existing wound other way for an
rotor motor to operate as a squirrel cage induction motor
design. One way is to short circuit the slip to develop
rings and eliminate the variable resistance high overload
speed control in the external circuit. torques (200
This can cause inrush current to become to 280 percent)
high, with starting torque so low that the over a wide
motor may be unable to accelerate its load. speed range.
And the rotor winding remains a potential
source of failure caused by the effects of
heat, vibration and centrifugal force.
A conversion is best done by replacing
the rotor shaft assembly with a simple
“deep bar” rotor, based on what would be
used in a squirrel cage design for the parts
involved. Some increase in horsepower may
be possible because of the elimination of the
rotor slot space taken up by insulation..
6 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: Part 2
How electronic speed control drives, adjustable
frequency drives, magnetic drives and steam turbine
drives work to achieve true variable speed control
ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROL
DRIVES: ADJUSTABLE VOLTAGE DC
The oldest electronic speed control methods
are the DC drives, which are also known as
DC motor speed control systems. The speed
of a DC motor is directly proportional to
armature voltage and inversely proportional
to motor flux; either armature voltage or field
current can be used to control the motor
speed. DC motors have become expensive
and most DC motor speed control systems
have been retrofitted with an AC motor and
AC variable speed drive.
AC variable speed drives are less expensive,
more available and more efficient than DC
systems. Many DC drive systems have been
replaced where possible with AC variable
frequency drives (VFDs).
ADJUSTABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES
A VFD is the most popular method to
control the speed of an electric motor driven
pumping system.
A VFD is defined as an electronic device
used for controlling the rotational speed
of an AC electric motor by controlling the
frequency and voltage of the electrical
power supplied to the motor. A basic drive
system consists of an AC motor and VFD
managed by a control system (Image 1).
A method of control is required to vary the
speed of the drive. This control method can
be as simple as an on/off switch and a speed
potentiometer controlled by the operator.
More complex systems often incorporate a
programmable logic controller (PLC).
Larger systems will usually use a
distributed control system. This is basically
a host computer running a software package
that allows the operators to both monitor
and control their overall system by one or
multiple interface screens.
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By William Livoti
The drive has an embedded
microprocessor that governs the overall
operation of the VFD controller. This
microprocessor has an operating system
firmware that is not accessible to the VFD
user. User-defined programming and
parameter adjustment is usually done
through the operator keypad. This allows
the user to customize the VFD controller to
meet specific process, motor and equipment
requirements.
Unlike the other speed control methods
discussed in this article when applying a VFD,
the following concerns must be addressed
to ensure optimum reliability: added heating
of winding (Class F or H Insulation); added
winding insulation stresses; reflective
wave or voltage overshoot; added chance
of bearing currents (insulated bearing,
grounding brush, earth ground); added
chance of vibration issues; effect on sound
levels; large motor concerns; how VFD will be
used and key details needed to choose large
motors for VFDs.
The nonsinusoidal VFD waveform contains
harmonics and peak voltage or current in
excess of normal sine wave grid power.
On low voltage VFDs, it is common for the
motor to see an additional 10 to 15 degree
temperature rise.
Image 1. Basic drive system (Images courtesy of the author)
7 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: Part 2

On medium voltage VFDs, motors typically

see only a 3 to 5 degree temperature rise.
Additional concerns specific to the motor
when applying a VFD: motor torque, speed
and temperature; operation above base
speed; running current; starting current;
motor efficiency; sound levels; motor cable
length and grounding.

MAINTENANCE
The VFD must be in a clean, filtered
environment. Heat the sinks, vacuum away
dust and do not use compressed air. If heavily
soiled, used a light natural fiber brush.
Do not use a synthetic brush. For Type 12
enclosures with cooling fans, replace the air
filters as necessary.
Conduct a thermal scan, paying special
attention to the connections. Check the
cable lug torque. Use a megger to measure
insulation resistance.
The typical life expectancy of a VFD is
five to 10 years. After 10 years, most drive
OEMs will discontinue the manufacturer
or replacement parts. In addition, VFD
technology continues to change, making
older drives obsolete.
MAGNETIC DRIVE
The principle behind a magnetic drive or
coupling is like that of an eddy current drive.
The magnetic drive replaces the physical
connection between motor and load with
a gap of air. Motor torque is transferred to
the load across an air gap. Varying the air
gap between the magnets and conductor
changes the strength of the magnetic field
and, hence, controls output speed.
A few features of magnetic drive technology:
• No-contact power transfer. This
eliminates vibration, reduces noise,
tolerates misalignment, provides
overload protection, extends motor
and equipment life and reduces overall
maintenance costs.
• Energy efficiency. The application and
load requirements will determine the
efficiency.
• Quality. Technology improves product
quality and optimizes process rates.
Image 2. Components of a typical steam turbine driver
• Soft start/stop. Reduces the motor’s
startup power demands and the
resulting brownouts, alleviates paying
for peak power, allows downsizing of
motors, increases motor life and reduces
maintenance.
• Simplicity and ruggedness. System can
be maintained in-house and used in
harsh conditions.
STEAM TURBINE DRIVE
Steam power is one of the oldest
technologies in the industrial sector
providing power through the industrial
revolution and into the 20th century.
However, there are some limitations when
applying a steam turbine.
First and foremost, you need steam and
you need a source to generate the steam.
This requirement limits the use of turbines in
certain applications.
The most notable pumping application for
steam turbine drivers is powering boiler feed
pumps.
A steam turbine is powered by the hot
gaseous steam generated by a boiler.
The steam enters the turbine through a

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8 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: Part 2

nozzle that controls the speed of the steam
(Image 2). The turbine is fitted with blades
mounted on a shaft that is coupled to the
driven component (pump) that turn as the
steam blows past them. The blades have
tight clearances that contain the steam,
maximizing the efficiency of the turbine. The
steam expands and cools as it flows through
the turbine blades.
The rotating element (shaft and turbine
blades) are contained in the turbine’s outer
casing. This casing must handle the high
pressure and temperature produced by
the steam.
There are two types of steam turbines:
• An impulse steam turbine features a jet
of steam from a fixed nozzle that pushes
against the rotor blades driving the
blades forward (Image 3). Pressure drops
take place in the fixed blade (nozzle).
• A reaction steam turbine does not use
nozzles. The rotor blades are configured
to form convergent nozzles using the
reaction force produced as the steam
accelerates through the nozzles. The
steam is directed onto the rotor by the
fixed vanes in the stator (casing).
must be properly configured for condensate
removal, correctly sized drip pockets and
steam traps.
Additionally, excessive forces to the
turbine flanges should be mitigated.
They include pipe dead weight, thermal
expansion, thrust and spring rate caused by
different expansion joints.
Impact as a result of improper installation
will result in premature bearing failure,
nozzle degradation, turbine blade failure or
distortion and premature coupling failure.
Which speed control is best? It depends
on the application and business model. Also,
consider your issues and concerns—such
as energy efficiency, reliability, uptime,
production concerns or environmental.

EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a steam turbine driver or
any engine can be defined as its ability to
convert the input energy into useful output
energy, which is expressed in Equation
1. Steam turbine efficiency or isentropic
efficiency is the efficiency that compares
the actual output with the ideal isentropic
output to measure the effectiveness of
extracted work.

Efficiency (ŋ) = Output/Input

Equation 1

MAINTENANCE
Steam turbines require the correct steam
pressure at the turbine inlet and high steam
quality in order to ensure optimum reliability.
One guideline for maintenance to keep in
mind is that the steam must be of highest
quality. Also, steam supply lines, valves and
casing should be insulated to prevent loss
of latent energy. The steam supply lines Image 3. How an impulse turbine works vs. a reaction turbine

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10 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: HI Pump FAQs
Determining if a Motor Needs a VFD and
Differences Between NPSHa & NPSHr
Q. HOW DO I DETERMINE IF A
MOTOR IS SUITABLE FOR USE
WITH A VARIABLE FREQUENCY
DRIVE (VFD)?
A. Three major factors should be considered
in determining if a motor is compatible with
a VFD: the motor winding insulation, motor
bearings and pump operating speed range.
The reason motor winding insulation
needs to be taken into consideration is that
the typical voltage and current output of a
VFD may impose high frequency “spikes”
onto the motor windings. These high
frequency spikes are due to the nature of the
semiconductor switching technology used in
VFD power circuits. As a result, it is important
to know the capabilities of the motor
winding insulation. Manufacturers offer
motors with various nameplate annotations,
such as “Inverter Ready,” “Inverter Suitable,”
“Inverter Duty” and “Inverter Capable.”
While all of these annotations are
descriptive to a point, none of them have
a standard definition across the industry.
Generally, these terms describe motors with
winding insulation that may be suitable for
use on VFDs, but they might also include
other features related to operation on VFDs.
The manufacturer should be consulted
directly for determining the winding
insulation of a specific motor. In addition,
any motors manufactured prior to the NEMA
MG 1 Motors and Generators motor standard
should be carefully evaluated prior to the
implementation of a VFD.
When implementing a VFD, proper care
needs to be taken to ensure the motor
bearings are protected from common mode
voltages (CMVs). VFDs can cause common
mode voltages when supplying power to
three-phase motors. Common mode voltage
is a voltage potential between at least one
phase and voltage source ground.
CMV can cause a buildup of shaft voltage,
which can potentially discharge through the
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Hydraulic Institute
motor bearings and cause serious damage
to the bearings/motor. A shaft grounding
system can be used in combination with
electrically isolating the shaft and motor
bearings to prevent these damaging
discharges. However, CMVs are not always
significant enough for bearing damages, so
the degree to which motor bearings need to
be protected will vary from system to system.
The pump operating speed range needs
to be considered. VFDs vary the speed of the
pump to optimize system control, usually
by lowering the speed below the baseline
frequency. When the motor is operated at
lower speeds, the ability of the motor cooling
system is reduced because the fans produce
less airflow. Sometimes the motor can be
operated above baseline frequency.
When a rotodynamic pump is operated
at a speed above the baseline speed, the
power draw increase is proportional to the
cube of speed increase. So, define the pump
operating speed range to ensure the motor
is not overloaded at increased speed and the
motor can withstand decreased coolings.
For more, consult HI standard, “Variable
Frequency Drives: Guidelines for Application,
Installation, and Troubleshooting.”
Figure 9.6.1.2c. NPSH3 determination for a constant flow rate (Images
courtesy of Hydraulic Institute)
11 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: HI Pump FAQs

Site Condition, Treatment Stage & VFD

Considerations for Wastewater Pumps
Hydraulic Institute

Q. WHAT TYPES OF PUMPS Because of their design with

ARE RECOMMENDED FOR THE a metallic rotor in direct contact
PRIMARY TREATMENT STAGE IN A with a stationary elastomeric
WASTEWATER FACILITY? stator, PC pumps must not run
dry. If using a PC pump, install
A. The primary treatment step physically a pressure guard that shuts the
separates insoluble solids from floatable pump off when it experiences a
materials contained in the wastewater. pressure drop indicating dry run.
For example, primary sludge consists of For more information on
the solids generated from the primary wastewater treatment pumps, see
sedimentation process. HI’s newest guidebook Wastewater
The primary sludge may be transferred Treatment Plant Pumps: Guideline
to a solids-processing system, such as a for Selection, Application, and
gravity sludge thickener, where the solids are Operation.
concentrated and pumped to the solids-
handling facilities.
The primary sludge stage can incorporate
many types of pumps, including horizontal
and vertical solids-handling rotodynamic,
submersible solids-handling rotodynamic, Figure 4.3. Vertical solids-handling pump
piston, progressive cavity (PC) and rotary (Images courtesy of Hydraulic Institute)
lobe pumps.
When incorporating a solids-handling
rotodynamic pump (see Figure 4.3), end users
must consider the change in consistency
because the most concentrated sludge is
pumped in the beginning of a pumping
cycle. When most of the sludge has been
pumped, diluted sludge with consistency
and hydraulic characteristics similar to water
will be pumped.
To determine the required motor power
for a rotodynamic pump, users should plot
system curves and pump curves for both the
most dense sludge and water.
A PC pump (see Figure 4.18) can be used in
the primary treatment stage and will deliver
constant flow regardless of pressure.
The flow is controlled by the pump speed.
For low-solids contents, full speed is typically
allowed. If sand and grit are in the sludge,
the speed should be adjusted down to
reduce wear. Figure 4.18. Progressive cavity solids-handling pump

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12 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: HI Pump FAQs

Motor Efficiency with VFDs & Constant and

Variable Torque in Variable Speed Pumping
Hydraulic Institute

Q. HOW IS MOTOR EFFICIENCY stay constant with constant flux, but can be
IMPACTED WHEN THE MOTOR reduced with more sophisticated flux control.
IS CONTROLLED BY A VARIABLE As mentioned previously, the efficiency
FREQUENCY DRIVE (VFD)? of a motor will change when operated at
reduced speed or torque. Figure 6.4 shows
A. Typical motor losses for a 4-pole 15 a reduced efficiency at reduced torque,
horsepower (hp) motor are analyzed in Table independent of speed, and when speed is
6.3. End users are typically aware of the reduced efficiency is reduced additionally.
nominal motor efficiency that is listed on the When VFDs are applied to control a
pump nameplate and represented in this pump, it is typically done to match the
table; however, motor efficiency does change pump hydraulics to the system, which
as speed and torque change and is also eliminates throttling of unnecessary head or
affected by voltage harmonics present in the bypassing of unnecessary pump flow. These
VFD output. The magnitude of losses due to improvements to overall system efficiency
voltage harmonics will vary with the can greatly outweigh the reduction in motor
motor design. efficiency.
In most cases, these additional losses will For more information on applying VFDs to
be relatively small with a modern VFD and pump motors, refer to HI’s newly published
motor combination, and the additional losses Application Guideline for Variable Speed
within the motor at full speed and full power Pumping at www.pumps.org.
will be less than 5 percent of the total motor
losses. The distribution of losses in a motor Q. WHAT DO THE TERMS CONSTANT
is specific to a particular type of motor and AND VARIABLE TORQUE PUMPING
power drive system. APPLICATIONS MEAN? HOW DO
Copper losses will reduce with load, while THEY IMPACT VARIABLE SPEED
bearing and windage losses reduce with PUMPING?
speed. In a cage induction motor, iron losses

Table 6.3. The energy cost balance sheet for the operating system

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13 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: HI Pump FAQs
A. One characteristic of a variable torque
load is that the torque loading is a function
of speed, and this type of load requires
less torque at lower speeds than constant
torque loads. Conversely, one characteristic
of a constant torque load is that the torque
loading is not dependent on speed and will
require a higher torque at reduced speed
than a variable torque load.
• Rotodynamic pumps are variable torque
loads due to the nature of the pump
affinity rules, whereby, head changes
proportional to the square of the speed
change.
• Positive displacement pumps are
constant torque loads because the head
they are capable of pumping against
is independent of speed. Positive
displacement pumps deliver a volume
of fluid for every revolution of the
shaft, so a reduced speed will directly
impact the flow delivered, but it has no
direct impact on the differential head
or pressure the pump will deliver flow
against.
When selecting a VFD for a rotodynamic
pump application, many manufacturers
recommend a variable torque or standard-
duty-rated VFD. This labeling is commonly
referenced for the overload capacity of the
drive. An industry standard for a variable
torque (VT) overload is 110 percent for
60 seconds.
When selecting a VFD for a positive
displacement pump application, the VFD
Figure 6.4. Motor efficiency versus speed (nominal 95% efficient motor) (Courtesy of Hydraulic Institute)
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manufacturer will recommend a drive
specific to that application that is suitable for
the constant torque (CT) load. An industry
standard for a CT overload is 150 percent for
60 seconds.
For more information on applying VFDs in
pumping applications refer to HI’s guidebook
Variable Frequency Drives: Guidelines for
Application, Installation and Troubleshooting
at www.pumps.org.
Q. CAN I HAVE MY CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP TESTED INCLUSIVE OF THE
MOTOR AND VFD?
A. The American National Standard for
testing of centrifugal pumps is ANSI/HI
14.6 Rotodynamic Pumps for Hydraulic
Performance Acceptance Tests. Per this
standard, generating a pump curve requires
the measurement of head, rate of flow and
power. The efficiency of the pump can be
calculated from this information.
Historically, the power and efficiency
shown on the pump curve and what may
be guaranteed for acceptance has been
respective to the pump shaft input power.
Thus the efficiency published is only that
of the pump, not of any other component.
From a testing standpoint, the most accurate
way to obtain the pump input power data is
by direct measurement of the shaft torque
and rpm.
This is typically done using a torque
transducer between the pump and driver
and a tachometer.
14 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology: HI Pump FAQs
The standard does provide provisions
for guaranteeing the combined pump and
motor unit, combined efficiency or the
maximum motor input power.
To have your extended pump product
tested inclusive of the motor and VFD,
you can typically work with the pump
manufacturer or independent laboratory.
One method that may be specified is a string
test using the complete assembly with VFD,
motor, gearbox, belt drive, etc.
The accuracy of this test in determining
pump input power will be lower than when
the pump is tested by itself, but gives the
added benefit of measuring total power
consumed by the extended product. In this
instance, the power measured is the input
power to the motor or VFD inclusive of all
losses downstream.
The input power to the pump shaft can
then be calculated by taking into account
the published motor and drive efficiencies.
Since these efficiencies may not be known
precisely, this method of calculating pump
input power is less accurate than when the
shaft torque and rpm are directly measured.
Be advised that when a VFD is used as a
part of the string, it becomes very difficult
to obtain an accurate value of input power
to the pump shaft. In general, a standard
wattmeter cannot accurately measure the
power from the VFD to the motor because
of the non-sinusoidal wave form generated
by the VFD.
A wattmeter can measure the input power
to the VFD. But the efficiency of the VFD must
be known to calculate VFD output power to
the motor. This information may be available,
but it adds another degree of error and
uncertainty since the motor efficiency will
change due to the non-sinusoidal wave form
of the output power from the VFD.
Certain pumps, such as submersible
pumps, have integral motors and industry
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standards state that they are tested inclusive
of the motor that is shipped with the pump.
This is outlined in ANSI/HI 11.6 Submersible
Pumps for Hydraulic Performance, Hydrostatic
pressure, Mechanical and Electrical Acceptance
Tests. Additionally, other close coupled
pumps have special purpose motors and are
not easily tested with calibrated motors.
Therefore, the pump shaft power is not
easily measured.
These pumps can be more easily tested
by measuring the power into the motor
and reporting the motor input power or
wire-water-efficiency.
When the U.S. Department of Energy
regulated the efficiency of pumps, they
defined a pump to be inclusive of the
driver (motor) and control (VFD) when Generating a
applicable. This definition required creation pump curve
of a standard to state specifically how to requires the
measure the efficiency in three different
configurations: (1) a bare pump (2) a bare
measurement
pump and motor and (3) a bare pump,
of head, rate
motor and control. HI 40.6 Methods for
of flow and
Rotodynamic Pump Efficiency Testing was power. The
developed for this need. HI 40.6 is not an efficiency of
acceptance test standard, meaning it does the pump can
not provide criteria that pumps must meet be calculated
if it is specified. However, it provides specific from this
procedures to determine an accurate and information.
repeatable efficiency.
For more information on pump testing
refer to www.pumps.org.
15 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology
FROM OUR SPONSOR
Advances in Motor Technology and
Energy Efficiency Initiatives Demand
Next-Generation, Multiple-Capability Drives
F
actories and machine builders are
seeking ways to boost motor efficiency
to intelligently maximize energy
savings. At the same time, these users are
transitioning from induction motors to
interior permanent motors (IPM).
These trends are propelling the need for
higher performance drives that are facilitated
through such innovations as variable
frequency inverter technology.
Variable frequency drives (VFDs) are
electronic systems used to control motor
speed by changing the frequency and
voltage supplied to the motor. FDs provide
energy savings by matching power
consumption to actual power needs.
Any machine or process that can be
improved by varying speed or flow is a
candidate for a VFD. Variable frequency
drives are used in all types of industries to
achieve multiple speeds of operation in
induction motors.
But, industries that are adopting the use of
IPMs, such as oil and gas, metals and mining,
power generation, water and wastewater,
cement, and wind energy, demand high
power, high performance drives in order to
maximize productivity.
Original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs), end users and systems integrators
are increasingly seeking a multiple-
capability VFD that can be used in both
induction motors and next-generation
interior permanent motors—one that
would be suitable for both low performance
applications such as pumps and fans, as well
as high performance industrial applications.
The drive would have to be fast, dependable,
easy to use, easy to integrate and install, and
built for the long run.
This industry demand calls for an all-in
one, variable frequency inverter that
delivers outstanding performance in any
environment.
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Mitsubishi Electric
VFD TECHNOLOGY DRIVES
ENERGY SAVINGS
Specific factors driving the need for VFD
technology to increase energy efficiency
include rising energy prices and stringent
energy efficiency regulations imposed by
various regulatory authorities around the
world. (In the U.S., the Energy Independence
and Security Act (EISA) mandated upgrades
to full-load efficiencies, and the Committee
of European manufacturers of Electrical
Machines and Electronic Power (CEMEP) also
developed its efficiency classification for
induction motors.)
Within the industrial automation market,
these factors are compounded by the
need for increasing plant and machinery
efficiencies, and the demand for higher
performance at reduced costs.
Using VFDs for energy efficiency initiatives
within HVAC applications is evident, since
these drives allow the use of only the power
needed to cool or heat a room or building.
Conventional building HVAC applications
operate fans and pumps at a constant speed.
Building loads, however, are not constant. In
a conventional system, the use of mechanical
throttling can reduce water or air flow in the
system. The drive motor, however, continues
to operate at full speed, using approximately
the same amount of energy regardless of the
cooling or heating load on the system. While
mechanical throttling can provide a good
level of control, it’s not efficient.
VFDs offer an efficient and effective
alternative. Since building systems are sized
for peak load conditions, pump and fan
motors use more energy than necessary
during most of their operating hours.
Variable frequency drives allow the use of
energy as demand increases, and only in the
amounts necessary.
Additionally, using VFDs in air handlers,
pumps, chillers and tower fans, for example,
16 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology

FIGURE 1, VFD Benefits

Reduced Reduced
not only saves energy, but reduces the motor conditions, for example, mechanical mechanical
starting current. Variable frequency drives in response to shock stresses positioning
also reduce thermal and mechanical stresses loads. VFD-driven
on motors and belts during starts, resulting motors also provide
in a higher power factor and lower kVA. precision torque Energy Savings
Consequently, using VFDs not only lowers output.
energy costs, but can also mean greater Precise
operational savings. Additionally, the Efficient
torque
majority of heavy speed control
control Dynamic load
FURTHER BENEFITS OF VFD USE equipment is designed adjustment
Beyond its use for energy and cost savings in and manufactured
HVAC applications, VFD technology facilitates so that it can operate
energy efficiency in all types of motors efficiently at peak loads. However, user
used in industrial plants. Electric motors demand doesn’t always necessitate running
represent nearly 50 percent of industrial equipment at peak levels. In fact, in many
energy consumed in the U.S., according instances, companies keep equipment
to the Natural Resources Defense Council. running even when it’s not needed because
Consequently, controlling the speed of these of the effort it takes to shut machines down
motors can have a dramatic impact on a completely, and then ramp them up again.
plant’s ability to optimize energy use, as well VFDs allow the option to put equipment in
increase machinery efficiencies and meet the idle mode.
demand for higher performance. VFDs also help to achieve tighter process
Variable frequency inverters are extremely control. No other AC motor control method
valuable in applications that require precise compares to variable speed drives when it
speed control. And, by operating motors at comes to accurate process control. Variable
the most efficient speed for the application, frequency drives can be programmed to
fewer mistakes occur, and thus, production run the motor at a precise speed, stop at a
levels increase. precise position, or apply a specific amount
Variable frequency drives, by controlling of torque. In addition, VFDs also extend
the speed of a motor in real time, are able equipment life and reduce downtime.
to adjust energy use according to need. Because of the variable speed drive’s
By varying motor speed to meet the exact optimal control of the motor’s frequency
process demand, VFDs eliminate the excess and voltage, the VFD will offer better
energy used when running a motor at a protection of the motor from issues such as
fixed speed. Consequently, VFDs can lower electrothermal overloads, phase protection,
energy consumption by allowing a motor’s under voltage and overvoltage.
power level to be adjusted exactly to Also, single-speed starting methods
performance needs. activate motors abruptly, subjecting the
In a pipeline, for example, the motor runs motor to a high starting torque and current
at the same speed and consumes virtually surges. VFDs, on the other hand, gradually
the same amount of energy whether it’s ramp the motor up to operating speed. This
20 percent or 100 percent full of fluid. By lessens mechanical and electrical stress,
installing a VFD, the motor can be slowed reducing maintenance and repair costs,
to 20 percent speed, thus saving money by and extending the life of the motor and the
consuming less energy. driven equipment.
Variable frequency drives offer many VFDs can also run a motor in specialized
advantages beyond energy savings, thus patterns to further minimize mechanical
their adoption in industrial applications and electrical stress. For example, an S-curve
continues to grow. pattern can be applied to a conveyor
One such advantage is that VFD driven application for smoother deceleration/
motors respond rapidly to changing load acceleration control, which reduces the

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17 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology

backlash that can occur when a conveyor accelerates or decelerates.

Factory automation professionals are continuously pressured to increase productivity
by improving equipment reliability and plant availability. However, with the realities of
increasing operations costs, decreased operating budgets and rising energy costs, these
goals can be at odds with one another. Because of their high performance and lower power
consumption, VFDs can help end users achieve these goals in a variety of demanding
industrial applications.

INCREASING USE OF INTERIOR PERMANENT MOTORS (IPMS)

As adjustable speed drives increase in popularity, interior permanent magnet (IPM) motors
are gaining more recognition for highefficiency performance. In principle, there are no size
limitations to IPM designs; they can be developed from fractional horsepower to very high
HP ratings, making them ideally suited to complex, demanding applications.
A relatively new design, an IPM motor
uses reluctance through magnetic
resistance in addition to magnetic torque
by embedding a permanent magnet in
the rotor itself. Because the magnets are In an application
mounted within the rotor structure, unlike
requiring constant
conventional permanent magnet motors
where magnets are mounted on the rotor
torque, such as a
surface, IPM motors provide improved motor
conveyor, factory
performance and integrity. IPM motors energy savings
are particularly beneficial when used in can be achieved
conjunction with vector control, in which by replacing
case, the electronic controller tracks the induction motors
rotor position with respect to the stator field with IPM motors.
and injects the current to optimize torque IPM motors are
production and efficiency. more efficient
In an application requiring constant because the
torque, such as a conveyor, factory energy current doesn’t
savings can be achieved by replacing
flow to the rotor,
induction motors with IPM motors. IPM
motors are more efficient because the
so there is
current doesn’t flow to the rotor, so there
no secondary
is no secondary copper loss. Magnetic flux copper loss.
is generated by the permanent magnets,
so less current is required to drive a motor.
Thus, an IPM motor used in a conveyor can
maintain a constant carrying speed, while
saving energy.
Recent advances in IPM motor technology
have resulted in motors that are markedly
more efficient over a broad operating range
compared with AC induction motor designs.
These advances, combined with modern
control methods, are fueling the acceptance
of IPM motors in the most challenging
applications. The power density of an IPM
motor is greater than an induction motor, so

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18 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology
it produces more power at a smaller size. IPM
motors can also continuously deliver high
torque at low speed. The high power density
of IPM motors combined with the ability to
deliver high continuous torque over their
entire speed range eliminates the need for
gearing or other mechanical transmission
devices in some applications. They can
also reduce maintenance costs and space
requirements, while increasing reliability.
IPM MOTORS AND CHALLENGING
APPLICATIONS DRIVE VFD DEMAND
As adjustable speed drives increase in
popularity, The union of IPM motors
and VFDs in high performance industrial
applications creates the need for even
greater advances in variable frequency
technology to ensure performance,
reliability, precision, speed, and networking.
While the number of applications suitable
for early generation VFDs was limited based
on the horsepower of the motor, innovations
in variable frequency technology now
make them well suited to high performance
industrial applications.
Early generation systems also suffered
from low power factor. Today’s VFDs operate
at a nearly constant power factor over the
entire speed range of the motor. As VFDs
continue to evolve, they are proving to be
more useful and powerful.
For most end users of high performance
drives, reliability is an absolute
necessity. This is especially true
for operations where machines far
outnumber personnel, such as in a
Fan
FIGURE 2, Typical AC Motor
Motor terminal block
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sawmill. For one employee in a control room
loading trees on a conveyor, a failed drive
means the entire operation shuts down. In
the process of loading trees on a conveyor,
analyzing lumber sizes for optimum yield,
then cutting up the log, drive reliability is
imperative. If the drive trips from overuse or
if there is a hiccup in the system, there’s a
big price tag to find the problem and fix or
reset it.
Variable frequency
In some applications, such as material
handling, speed is just as important as
drives are also
reliability. For mail and package delivery,
seeing increased
especially in December when services can use in high-speed
increase by as much as 13 percent, a delivery winding, because
company’s reputation is contingent upon of the precision
ontime delivery. required in such
Moving thousands of letters and packages applications.
on a large conveyor, scanning bar codes,
looking up the bar code information in a
database, then sending the signal via the
VFD to the diverter requires an extremely
high rate of speed. There’s a small window
in which the diverter takes that signal and
reacts. Only a variable frequency drive offers
both the high rate of speed, and the ability
to control the speed required in such a
demanding application.
Similarly, in the food and beverage
industry, where speed is critical to
throughput and productivity, using a
combination of IPM motors and VFDs can
help companies stay competitive.
Motor Housing/construction
Concentrated windings
Insulation
IP54 Protection
Shaft
NEMA or IEC mounting
19 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology
VFDs are also seeing increased use in high-
speed winding, because of the precision
required in such applications. In the intricate
and complex printing process, for example,
in order to achieve a crisp image, unfolding
the paper and feeding it through the printing
press requires tight synchronization.
The VFD must control speed and accuracy,
and maintain tension as the paper is fed
through the machine so the ink is properly
distributed and doesn’t create a smeared
image. Using a VFD with sensorless vector
control can further ensure precision because
it minimizes speed fluctuations of the ink
roller axis and water roller axis to eliminate
print unevenness.
SPECIFIC ANSWERS
Most variable frequency drives provide
improved process control, energy savings
and reduced maintenance. Competitive
pressures within manufacturing and other
industries require that they also provide
high performance, reliability, precision and
network compatibility, as well as a lower
total cost of ownership, reduced spares
and a smaller footprint. This can only be
achieved with a multi-capability VFD that
can be used in induction motors as well
as next generation IPM motors, and in low
performance applications as well as the most
demanding industrial applications.
Until now, engineers had to consider many
factors in choosing a VFD or motor controller.
Motor variables such as horsepower, full load
amps, voltage, RPM, and service factor had to
be considered. In addition, other information
specific to the needs of the system and
application, such as type of load (constant
torque or variable torque), speed range,
control method, and special enclosure
needs, would have to be matched to the
drive specifications.
The Mitsubishi Electric FR-A800 all-in-
one variable frequency inverter enables
engineers to specify a single VFD solution
for all their motor control needs. The
FR-A800 VFD is designed for maximum
capacity, to optimize motor efficiency in
peak situations and ensure that there are no
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failures at times of highest demand. While
the FR-A800 provides high performance in
severe duty situations, it can be scaled to fit
any environment, eliminating the need for
multiple solutions to address various motor
control challenges. It’s also designed for
flexibility to grow with an application.
A permanent motor auto-tuning function Engineers can now
allows the F-A800 to operate with all specify one VFD
Mitsubishi Electric induction motors and for all their motor
mermanent magnet motors as well as control needs.
virtually all induction motors and permanent
magnet motors from other manufacturers.
This requires fewer motors to be stocked.
The FR-A800 inverter features real
sensorless vector control to provide high-
precision, fast response speed control.
The inverter also offers a choice of V/F
control or advanced magnetic flux vector
control, allowing simple replacement of a
conventional unit inverter drive.
A PLC function has also been added
to Mitsubishi Electric’s latest generation
VFD. Now, when using sensors to check
the presence and arrival of goods on a
conveyor, for example, the drive can directly
receive such signals from sensors and then
command the speed accordingly.
FIGURE 3, IPM Solution Benefits
Accuracy
Reliability Speed
IPM Solution
Communication Precision
The drive system’s energy monitor allows
users to confirm energy saving at a glance.
This provides the ability to visualize energy
usage in real time, rather than waiting for
energy bills, allowing the management
and optimization of energy use. Mitsubishi
Electric’s energy-optimization software
boosts motor efficiency and intelligently
20 A Review of Variable Speed Drive Technology
maximizes energy savings. Meanwhile,
optimum control of the excitation current
maximizes motor efficiency for additional
energy reduction.
The FR-A800 premium VFD offers
compatibility with various open networks.
It’s equipped with USB, RS485 and Modbus®-
RTU interfaces. Communication options
are also available for the major network
protocols such as CC-Link® IE Field and
CC-Link, EtherCat®, and SSCNET III/H as
well as DeviceNet™, PROFIBUS®-DP, and
LONWORKS®. Other Ethernet networks are
also supported. With a 10-year design life,
the FR-A800 inverter is built for reliable,
long-term operation and is backed by
Mitsubishi Electric’s superior maintenance
and service for the life of the drive. Its total
cost of ownership is not only measured by
amortizing the cost of the drive over its
10-year life, but by the reduction in energy
costs over those 10 years.
Designed for ease of use anywhere in the
world, the FR-A800 includes a multilanguage
LCD parameter unit and complies with
the most demanding global standards.
With unparalleled drive precision, speed
control, powerful startup, ease of use,
simple installation and integration, and long
operating life, the FR-A800 all-in-one inverter
meets the demands of OEMs, systems
integrators and end users for a multiple-
capability inverter that can deliver superior
performance in any environment.
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SUMMARY
Historically, motor purchases have essentially
been based on dollars-per-horsepower costs.
Increasingly, savvy buyers are now looking
closely at the true cost of ownership for
both the motor itself and the drive system.
This broad perspective includes the cost of
powering the equipment over its useful life
and the opportunity to substantially reduce
those costs. Short-term hardware expense Variable
of motors and drives must be evaluated frequency drives
against the long-term cost savings. With can significantly
few exceptions, variable frequency drives reduce the total
can significantly reduce the total cost of cost of ownership
ownership of both the motor and the drive.
of both the motor
The versatility of the Mitsubishi Electric
FR-A800 exponentially reduces total cost of
and the drive.
ownership of a typical VFD by decreasing the
number of spares required and providing
industry-leading energy- savings capabilities.
Even more important than its TOC
advantages, the FR-A800 meets industry
demands for a fast, reliable, dependable,
VFD that can deliver superior performance in
both induction motors and next- generation
interior permanent motors.
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