MECHANICS OF STYLE

I. STYLE
■ The rules or guidelines a publisher observe to ensure clear, consistent
presentation in scholarly article
à To avoid inconsistencies among journal articles or book chapters
PUNCTUATION
Ø Establishes the rhythm of a sentence
Ø Tells the reader where to pause, stop or take a detour
Ø Indicates a pause in thoughts
1. SPACING AFTER PUNCTUATION MARKS
One space is needed after
Ø Commas, colons, and semicolons.
Ø Periods that separate parts of a sentence citations; and
Ø Periods of the initials in personal names
Exception: No space after internal periods in abbreviations (W.H.O), including identity
concealing labels (U.S), or colons in ratio (1:2)
2. PERIOD

Do not use periods with

Use period with Ø Abbreviations of states names
Ø Initials of names Ex: MO, TX, Washington, DC
Ex: J. K. Rowling Ø Capital letter abbreviations and
Ø Abbreviations for United acronyms
States Ex: IQ, APA, REM
when it is used as an adjective Ø Abbreviations for routes of
Ex: U.S. Navy administrations
Ø Identity concealing for study Ø Web address in text or in the
participants reference list
Ex: F.I.M Ex: http://www.online.hcmue.edu.vn
Ø Latin abbreviations Ø Metric and nonmetric
Ex: e.g, a.m, i.e, etc, abbreviations
Ø Reference abbreviations Ex: cm,ft ,hr, lb
Ø Exception: in. for inch Period
3. COMMA
Use a comma
Ø Between elements in a series of three or more items.
Ex: in a study by Stacy, Newcomb, and Bentler(1991)
Ø To make a nonrestrictive clause
Ex: The items, which are believed to be family heirlooms, included a grandfather clock
worth around £3,000.
Ø To separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunction.
Ex: Ex I’ve started dating one soccer player, so now I can watch the game each week.
Ø To set off the year in exact dates (April 15, 1991)
Ø To set off the year in parenthetical reference citations. (Wordsworth, 1798)
Ø To separate groups of three digits (1,000)
Do not use a comma
Ø Before a restrictive clause
Ø Between two parts of a compound predicate
Ex: All subjects completed the first phase of experiment and returned the following
week for phase 2.
Ø To separate parts of a measurement
Ex: 3 min 40s
4. SEMICOLON
Ø To separate two independent clauses.
Ø To separate elements in a series that already contain commas.
Ex: The color order was red, yellow, blue; blue, yellow, red; or yellow, red, blue.
5. COLON
Use a colon
Ø Between a grammatically complete introductory clause and a final clause
or phrase.
Ex: they have agreed on the outcome: informed participants performed better than
uninformed participants.
Ø In ratio and proportions. (the proportion was 1:8.)
Ø In references between place of publication and publisher.
Ex: New York, NY: Wiley
Do not use a colon
Ø After an introduction that is not independent clause
6. DASH
Use a dash to indicate only a sudden interruption in continuity of the sentence.
OVERUSE weakens the flow of materials
Ex: These two participants—one from the first group and one from the second—were
tested separately.
7. QUOTATION MARK
Use double quotation mark
Ø To introduce a new word or phrase used as an ironic comment, as slang,
or as an invented expression. The “good-outcome” variable … the good-
outcome variable
Ø To set off the title of an article in a periodical or book when title is
mentioned in the text.
Riger’s (1992) article, “Epistemological Debates, Feminist Voices: Science, Social Values,
and the Study of Women”
Ø To reproduce material from a test item to participants.
The first fill-in item was “could be expected to ______.”
Do not use double quotation mark
Ø To identify the anchors of a scale. Instead, italicized them.
Ex: We ranked the items on a scale ranging from 1 (all of the time) to 5 (never)
Ø To cite a letter, word, phase, or sentence as a linguistic example, instead,
italicized the term
Ex: He clarified the distinction between farther and further
Ø To introduce a technical or key term. Instead, italicize the term
Ex: The term zero-base budgeting appeared frequently in the speech.
Ø To hedge, do not use any punctuation with each expression
Ex: The teacher “rewarded” the students with tokens. -> incorrect
8. DOUBLE OR SINGLE QUOTATION MARK
Single quotations within the double quotations
“Miele (1993) found that “the ‘placebo effect,’ which have been verified in previous
studies, disappeared when [only the first group’s] behaviors were studied in this
manner” (p. 276)
Block quotations (any quotations of 40 or more words):
q Don’t use double quotations to enclose block quotations.
q Use double quotations for the quotations within the block quotations.
Use periods and commas within closing single or double quotations.
9. PARENTHESES
Use parentheses
Ø To set off structurally independent elements.
Ex: The patterns were statistically significant. (see figure 5)
 Ø To set off a reference in text
Ø To introduce an abbreviation
Ø To set off letters that identify items in a series within a sentence or
paragraph.
Ex: The subject areas included (a) synonyms associated with cultural interactions, (b)
descriptors for ethnic group membership, and (c) psychological symptoms and
outcomes associated with bicultural adaptation.
Ø To group mathematical expressions Ex: (k—1)/(g—2)
Ø To enclose the citation or page number of a direct quotation
Ex: The author stated, "The effect disappeared within minutes" (Lopez, 1993, p.311),
but she did not say which effect. Lopez (1993) found that "the effect disappeared
within minutes" (p. 311). But she did not say which effect.
Ø To enclose numbers that identify displayed formulas and equations.
Ø To enclose statistical values. was statistically significant (p = .031)
Ø To enclose degrees of freedom.
Ex: t(75)= 2.19 F(2, 116H3.71
Do not use parentheses
Ø To enclose material within other parentheses.
(the Beck Depression Inventory [BDI])
Ø Back-to-back
(e.g., defensive pessimism) (Norem & Cantor, 1986)
10. BRACKETS
Use brackets
Ø To enclose the values that are the limits of a confidence interval
Ex: 95% CIs [—7.2, 4.3], [9.2, 12.4], and [—1.2, -0.5]
Ø To enclose material inserted in a quotation by some person other than the
original writer.
Ex: (The results for the control group [n = 8] are also presented in Figure 2.)
Exception 1: Do not use brackets if the material can be set off easily with commas
without confounding meaning. (as lmai, 1990, later concluded) not (as lmai [1990] later
concluded)
Exception 2: In mathematical material, the placement of brackets and parentheses is
reversed; that is, parentheses appear within brackets.
Do not use brackets
Ø To set off statistics that already include parentheses.
Ex: Correct: was statistically significant, F (l, 32) = 4.37, p = .045. Incorrect: was
statistically significant (FR, 32] = 4.37, p = .045).
Incorrect: was statistically significant EF(I, 32) = 4.37, p = .045].
11. SLASH
Use a slash (also called a virgule, solidus, or shill)
Ø To clarify a relationship in which a hyphenated compound is used.
Ex: the classification/similarity-judgment condition hits/false-alarms comparison
Ø To separate numerator from denominator. Ex: X/Y
Ø To indicate per to separate units of measurement accompanied by a
numerical value. Ex: 0.5 deg/s 7.4 mg/kg
Ø To set off English phonemes.
Ø To cite a republished work in text. Freud (1923/1961)
Do not use a slash
Ø When a phrase would be clearer.
Ex: Each child handed the ball to her mother/guardian. -> use “or” instead
Ø For simple comparisons. Use a hyphen or short dash (en dash) instead.
Ex: test-retest reliability does not test/retest reliability
more than once to express compound units. Use centered dots and parentheses as
needed to prevent ambiguity.
nmol • hr-1 • mg-1 not nmol/hr/mg

II. SPELLING
Preferred spelling
Spelling should conform to standard American English as exemplified in Merriam-
Webster collegiate dictionary(2005).
• Spelling of psychological terms should conform to the APA Dictionary of Psychology
(Vanden Bos,2007)
• If there is a choice for spelling, use the first spelling listed
• Use preferred spelling of some of more common Latin or Greek origin word.

Singular Plural
Appendix appendices
Cannula cannulas
Datum datas
Exceptions: Use an apostrophe only with the
singular form of names ending in
Use only an apostrophe with the
possessive of plural name unpronounced s (e.g., Descartes').
Singular plural It is preferable to include “of” when referring
freud’s the Freuds’ to the plural form of names ending in
James’s the Jameses’
unpronounced s (e.g., the home of the
Descartes).
Hyphenation
• Compound words take many forms that is two words as two separate words. (self-
esteem, open-minded)
• hyphen: no space before and after. (trial-by-trial analysis)
• em dash: longer than a hyphen.
■ e.g., Studies-published and unpublished-are included
• en dash: longer and thinner than a hyphen. Shorter than em dash.
■ e.g., Chicago London flight
• Minus: slightly thicker and higher than end dash.
■ e.g., -5 .25
III. CAPITALIZATION

Use an uppercase letter for the first letter of word.

Ø Words beginning a sentence.
The first word in a complete sentence
The first word after a colon that begins a complete sentence.
Ø Major words in titles and headings.
In her book, History of pathology
The criticism of the article Attitudes Toward Mental Health Workers

Ø Proper nouns and trade names.

Proper nouns and adjectives and words used as proper nouns
Names of both specific university department
Ex: Department of Sociology, University of Washington and complete names of
specifically academic courses ; Psychology 101
Trade or brand names of drugs, equipment, food
Ø Nouns followed by numerals or letters.
On Day of Experiment 4, during Trial 1
§ Do not capitalize nouns that indicate common parts of books or tables
followed by numerals or letters.
page IV, row 3
§ Do not capitalize nouns that precede a variable
Trial n and item x but Trial 3 and Item b (the number and letter are not variables)

Ø Titles of tests.
Capitalize exact, complete titles or published and unpublicized test but except test or
scale if they refer to subscales of tests.
Ex: Advanced Vocabulary Test
§ Do not capitalize shortened, inexact, or generic titles of tests. Ex: a
vocabulary test
Ø Names of variables, factors and effects.
Capitalize names of derived variables within a factor or principal components analysis
but except factor or component unless followed by a number
Ex: Mealtime Behavior( Factor 4)
§ Do not capitalize effects or variables unless they appear with
multiplication signs
Ex: a small age effect, the age, height variables
• Name of Conditions or groups in an Experiment
§ Do not capitalize names of conditions or groups in an experiment.
IV. ITALICS

Italics is used for:

Titles of books, periodicals, films, videos, TV shows, and microfilm publications.
EX: The Elements of Style
* Exception: Words within the title of a book in text that would normally be italicized
should be set in Roman type
- Genera, species, and varieties. EX: Macaca mulatta
Introduction of a new, technical, or key term or label (after a term has been used
once, do not italicize it).
EX: The term backward masking

A letter, word, or phrase cited as a linguistic example.

EX: words such as big and little the letter a
Words that could be misread.
the small group [meaning a designation, not group size]
Letters used as statistical symbols or algebraic variables.
a/b = c/d
Some test scores and scales.
EX: Rorschach scores: F+%, Z
Periodical volume numbers in reference lists.
EX: American Psychologist, 26, 46-67
Anchors of a scale.
EX: health ratings ranged from 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent)
Do not use italics for
■ Foreign phrases and abbreviations common in English
■ Chemical terms EX: NaCl, HCL
■ Trigonometric terms EX: sin, cos, tan
■ Nonstatistical subscripts to statistical symbols or mathematical expressions. EX:
Fmax , Sa + Sb
■ Greek letters EX : β, θ
■ Letters used as abbreviations EX: intertrial interval (ITI)
V. ABBREVIATION

Use of abbreviations
To maximize clarity, use abbreviations sparingly.
Although abbreviations are sometimes useful for long, technical terms in scientific
writing, communication is usually garbled rather than clarified if, for example, an
abbreviation is unfamiliar to the reader
■ Avoid overusing or underusing Abbreviations to help communicate with
your readers better ( except in the reference list and the abstract)

Explanation of Abbreviations
A term to be abbreviated must, on its first appearance, be written out completely and
followed immediately by its abbreviation in parentheses.
Thereafter, use the abbreviation in text without further explanation (do not switch
between the abbreviated and written-out forms of a term).
EX: The results of studies of simple reaction time (RT) to a visual target have shown a
strong negative relation between RT and luminance.

Abbreviations Accepted as Words

-Such abbreviations do not need explanation in text.( permitted by APA Style )
IQ REM ESP AIDS HIV NADP ACTH
Abbreviations Used Often in APA Journals
-Although probably well understood by many readers, these abbreviations should still
be explained when first used.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
conditional stimulus (CS)
intertrial interval (ITI)
Latin Abbreviations
Use the following standard Latin abbreviations only in parenthetical material
In non-parenthetical material, use the English translation of the Latin terms
In both cases, include the correct punctuation that accompanies the term:
cf. compares i.e., that is,
e.g., for example, viz., namely,
, etc. , and so forth vs. versus, against

Scientific· Abbreviations
Ø Units of measurement
4 cm, 30 s, 12 min, 18 hr , 45°
Ø Abbreviate the following units of time
hr, hour
min, minute
ms, millisecond
ns, nanosecond
s, second

Plurals of Abbreviations
Ø To form the plural of most abbreviations and statistical symbols, add s
alone, but not italicized and without an apostrophe.
EX : lOs Eds. vols. Ms ps ns
Exception: Do not add an s to make abbreviations of units of measurement plural
(e.g., 12 cm )
Exception: To form the plural of the reference abbreviation p. (page), write pp.; do not
add an s.

Abbreviations Beginning a Sentence:

Never begin a sentence with a lowercase abbreviation (EX: lb) or a symbol that stands
alone (EX: α).
Begin a sentence with a capitalized abbreviation or acronym (EX: U.S. or APA) or with
a symbol connected to a word (EX: β-Endorphins)-> to avoid awkward writing

VI. NUMBERS

Numbers Expressed in Numerals: Use numerals to express

Numbers 10 and above. EX: 12 cm wide, 25 years old, 13 lists
Numbers in the abstract of a paper or in a graphical display within a paper.
Numbers that immediately precede a unit of measurement. EX: a 5-mg dose, with 1
0.54 cm of
 Numbers that represent statistical or mathematical functions, fractional or decimal
quantities, percentages, ratios, and percentiles and quartiles.
EX: multiplied by 5, 3 times as many

Numbers Expressed in Numerals: Use numerals to express

Numbers that represent time, dates, ages, scores and points on a scale, exact sums of
money, and numerals as numerals. EX: 1 hr 34 min, at 12:30 a.m, 2-year-olds, scored 4
on a 7-point scale
Exception: Use words for approximations of numbers of days, months, and years
(e.g., about three months ago}.
Numbers that denote a specific place in a numbered series, parts of books and tables,
and each number in a list of four or more numbers. EX: Grade 8, Table 3, row5

Numbers Expressed in Words: Use words to express

q any number that begins a sentence, title, or text heading.
EX: Twelve students improved, and 12 students did not improve.
q common fractions.
EX: one fifth of the class, two-thirds majority
q universally accepted usage
EX: the Twelve Apostles, Five Pillars of Islam

Combining Numerals and Words to Express Numbers:

A combination of numerals and words in these situations increases the clarity and
readability of the construction
Use a combination of numerals and words to express back-to-back modifiers. :
EX: 2 two-way interactions, ten 7-point scales

Ordinal Numbers: Treat ordinal numbers as you would cardinal numbers

Ordinal Cardinal base

second-order factor two orders
the fourth graders four grades
the first item of the 75th trial one item, 75 trials
the first and third groups one group, three groups

Decimal Fractions (counted in tens or tenths)

Use a zero before the decimal point with numbers that are less than 1 when the statistic
can exceed 1. EX: 0.23 cm, Cohen's d = 0.70, 0.48 s
Do not use a zero before a decimal fraction when the statistic cannot be greater than
1. EX: r(24) = -.43, p = .028
*General principle: Round as much as possible while keeping prospective use and
statistical precision in mind.
Roman Numerals
If Roman numerals are part of an established terminology, do not change to Arabic
numerals; for example, use Type II error. Use Arabic, not Roman, numerals for routine
seriation

Commas in Numbers
Use commas between groups of three digits in most figures of 1,000 or more.
Exceptions:

page numbers page 1029

binary digits 00110010
serial numbers 290466960
degrees of temperature 3071 °F
acoustic frequency designations 2000Hz
degrees of freedom F(24, 1000)
Plurals of Numbers
To form the plurals of numbers, whether expressed as figures or as words, add s or es
alone, without an apostrophe. EX: fours and sixes, 1950s, 10s and 20s

VII. METRICATION

Policy on Metrication
All references to physical measurements, where feasible, should be expressed in metric
units.
-In preparing manuscripts, use metric units if possible.
-If you use instruments that record measurements in nonmetric units, you may report
the nonmetric units but also report the established SI equivalents in parentheses
immediately after the nonmetric units.
EX: The rods were spaced 19 mm apart. [Measurement was made in metric units.]
The rod was 3 ft (0.91 m) long.

Style for Metric Units

Abbreviation. -Use the metric symbol to express a metric unit when it appears with a
numeric value (e.g., 4 m)
-If a metric unit does not appear with a numeric value, spell out the unit in text (e.g.,
measured in meters)
Capitalization.
-Use lowercase letters when writing out full names of units (e.g., meter, nanometer)
Plurals.
-Make full names of units plural when appropriate. EX: Meters
Do not make symbols or abbreviations of units plural.
EX:3 cm, not 3 cms

Periods
Do not use a period after a symbol, except at the end of a sentence.
Spacing
Use a space between a symbol and the number to which it refers, except for measures
of angles (e.g., degrees, minutes, and seconds). EX: 4.5 m, 12 °C, but 45° angle
Compound units
Use a centered dot between the symbols of a compound term formed by the
multiplication of units.
EX:Pa • s
Use a space between full names of units of a compound unit formed by the
multiplication of units; do not use a centered dot.
EX: pascal second

VIII. SATISTICAL AND MATHEMATICAL COPY

Selecting Effective Presentation
Select the form of your presentation( text, table, figures)
An useful general rule:
-if you need to present three or fewer numbers, first try using a sentence;
- if you need to present four to 20 numbers, first consider using a well-prepared table;
and
-if you have more than 20 numbers, a graph is often more useful than a table.

References for Statistics

Do not give a reference for statistics in common use
Do give a reference when less common statistics are used
Formulas
Do not give a formula for a statistic in common use; do give a formula when the
statistic
or mathematical expression is new, rare, or essential to the manuscript.
STATISTICS IN TEXT
-When reporting inferential statistics (e.g., t tests, F tests, X2 tests, and associated effect
sizes and confidence intervals), include sufficient information to allow the reader to
fully understand the analyses conducted.
-If you present descriptive statistics in a table or figure, you do not need to repeat
them in text ( you should mention the table in which the statistics can be found and
emphasize particular data in the narrative)
- Use words such as respectively and in order to clarify the relation between the
statistics and their referents when enumerating a series of similar statistics
EX: Means (with standard deviations in parentheses) for Trials 1 through 4 were 2.43
(0.50), 2.59 (1.21 ), 2.68 (0.39), and 2.86 (0.12), respectively.

Statistical Symbols
When using a statistical term in the narrative, use the term, not the symbol.
Ex: use “The means were” not “The Ms were”
Symbols for population versus sample statistics.
Population parameters are usually represented by Greek letters. Most estimators are
represented by italicized Latin letters.

Symbols for number of subjects

Use an uppercase, italicized N to designate the number of members in the total sample
(e.g., N = 135) and a lowercase, italicized n to designate the number of members in a
limited portion of the total sample (e.g., n = 30).
Symbol for percentage
Use the symbol for percent only when it is preceded by a numeral. Use the word
percentage when a number is not given. EX: found that 18% of the rats , determined
the percentage of rats

Standard, boldface, and italic type

-Greek letters, subscripts, and superscripts that function as identifiers and
abbreviations that are not variables) are set in standard typeface. EX: α, β
-Symbols for vectors and matrices are set in boldface. EX: V
-All other statistical symbols are set in italic type. EX: N, Mx. df, SSE, MSE, t, F

Spacing, Alignment, and Punctuation

-Space mathematical copy as you would space words:
EX: a + b = c not a+b=c
-Align signs and symbols carefully
-Use the subscript and superscript features in your word-processing software. In most
cases, type subscripts first and then super- scripts

CREDITING SOURCES
WHEN TO CITE
You have to cite the work of those individuals whose ideas, theories, or research have
directly influenced your work.

Direct Quotation of Sources

The quotation comprises fewer than 40
words:
- Incorporate it into text.
- Enclose it with double quotation marks “
”.
- Cite the source with ( ) immediately after
the double quotation marks.
Appear in mid-sentence:
- Continue the sentence.
- No punctuation (unless the meaning of the
sentence requires such punctuation).
Appear at the end of sentence:
- End with a period or other punctuation
outside the final parentheses.

Ex:
Interpreting these results, Robbins et al. (2003) suggested that the “therapists in
dropout cases may have inadvertently validated parental negativity about the
adolescent without adequately responding to the adolescent’s needs or concerns” (p.
541), contributing to an overall climate of negativity.
Confusing this issue is the overlapping nature of roles in palliative care, whereby
“medical needs are met by those in the medical disciplines; nonmedical needs may be
addressed by anyone on the team” (Csikai & Chaitin, 2006, p. 112).

The quotation comprises 40 or
more words
- Display the quote as an indented block of text without
quotation marks.
-Start the quote on a new line, and indent about half inch
from the left margin.
- If there are additional paragraphs, indent the first line of
each one haft inch.
- At the end of the quote, include the authors’ names, year,
and page number in parentheses after the final
punctuation mark.

Ex:
Others have contradicted this view:
Co-presence does not ensure intimate interaction among all group members.
Consider large-scale social gatherings in which hundreds or thousands of
people gather in a location to perform a ritual or celebrate an event.

In these instances, participants are able to see the visible manifestation of the
group, the physical gathering, yet their ability to make direct, intimate
connections with those around them is limited by the sheer magnitude of the
assembly. (Purcell, 1997, pp. 111–112)

If the quoted source is cited in the sentence introducing the block quote, only the page
or paragraph number is needed at the end of the quotation.

Paraphrasing Material
When paraphrasing or referring to an idea contained in another work, you are required
to include the author and the year in the citation. You are encouraged (but not
required) to provide a page or paragraph number.

Direct Quotations of Online Material without Pagination

• Give the authors, years, and page number in parentheses.
 Paragraph numbers are visible - Use them in place of page numbers.
- Use the abbreviation para.

- Include headings. Cite the heading and the number of the

- Paragraph and page numbers are paragraph following it.
invisible.

- No page or paragraph numbers are Use a short title enclosed in quotation marks
visible. for the parenthetical citation.
- Headings may be too unwieldy to
cite in full.

Ex:
- Basu and Jones (2007) went so far as to suggest the need for a new “intellectual
framework in which to consider the nature and form of regulation in cyberspace” (para.
4).
In their study, Verbunt, Pernot, and Smeets (2008) found that “the level of perceived
disability in patients with fibromyalgia seemed best explained by their mental health
condition and less by their physical condition” (Discussion section, para. 1).
“Empirical studies have found mixed results on the efficacy of labels in educating
consumers and changing consumption behavior” (Golan, Kuchler, & Krissof, 2007,
“Mandatory Labeling Has Targeted,” para. 4).

Accuracy of Quotations
• Direct quotations must be accurate. The quotation must follow the wording,
spelling, and interior punctuation of the original source.
• In the case there are incorrect spelling, punctuation, or grammar in the source,
insert the word sic italicized and bracketed, immediately after the error in the
quotation.
Ex: The notice outside the office said “Closed on Wedensday” (sic).

NOTES:
• Use p. for a single page number (Example: p. 15) and pp. for multiple page
numbers (Examples: pp. 125-126).
• General use of et al.
 Number of authors First text citation Subsequent text citations
(either parenthetical or (all)
narrative)
One or two Palmer & Roy, 2008 Palmer & Roy, 2008
Three, four, or five Sharp, Aarons, Sharp et al., 2007
Wittenberg, & Gittens,
2007
Six or more
Mendelsohn et al., 2010 Mendelsohn et al., 2010

Changes from the source requiring no explanation

- Capitalization:
+ The first letter of the first word in a quotation may be changed to an uppercase
or a lowercase letter.
+ The first word in a quotation that is a complete sentence is capitalized, but the
first word in a partial quotation is not.
Ex:
• He said, “Life is just one damned thing after another.”
• He called journalism “literature in a hurry.”
- Placement of punctuation: The punctuation mark at the end of a sentence may be
changed to fit the syntax.

- Single quotation marks may be changed to double quotation marks and vice versa.
Changes from the source requiring explanation
- Omitting material:
+ Omissions of portions of the original are marked by three spaced ellipsis points (. .
.).
Ex: Aldiabat and Le Navenec (2014) warned, “As the health care system has become
more complicated . . . investing in nursing students to take a role in health education
for rural older adults is not only necessary, it is imperative” (p. 477).
+ Use four points (. . . . ) to indicate any omission between two sentences. The first
point indicates the period at the end of the first sentence quoted, and the three spaced
ellipsis points follow.

Ex: From Bennet B.Murdock, Jr.'s Human Memory: Theory and Data: The problem of
serial order is basically the problem of how the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves
strings of items presented in a temporally-ordered format. Or, more briefly, the
concern is for one aspect of the problem of the temporal format of storage. How is
temporal information represented in memory? (p. 139).

You could omit it this way:

Murdock (1974) explained, “the problem of serial order is basically the problem of how
the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves strings of items presented in a temporally-
ordered format. . . .How is temporal information represented in memory?” (p.139).

- Inserting material: Use brackets, not parentheses, to enclose material such as an

addition or explanation inserted in a quotation by some person other than the original
author.
Ex: Flores noted that when “[students] get the diploma, they‟ll more likely get a job”
(Hensley, GalileeBelfer, & Lee, 2013, p. 564), a response that reflects the view that
benefits of education are typically private, not public.
The original text used “they,” which has been replaced by “students”.

- Adding emphasis: If you want to emphasize a word or words in a quotation, italicize

the word or words. Immediately after the italicized words, insert within brackets the
words emphasis added, that is, [emphasis added].
Ex: Wang, Koh, Song, & Hou (2015) hypothesized that “compared with their Asian
American counterparts, European American adults and children would endorse more
self, social and emotion regulation functions and fewer [sic] directive functions” (p.
28).
=> An interpolation can also mark a mistake in the original. Adding the Latin word
sic (meaning “thus,” an abbreviated form of the phrase “sic erat scriptus,” “thus was it
written”) italicized in square brackets indicates that that the error was made by the
original writer.

Citations within quotations

Do not omit citations embedded within the original material you are quoting.
Ex: “In the United States, the American Cancer Society (2007) estimated that about 1
million cases of NMSC and 59,940 cases of melanoma would be diagnosed in 2007,
with melanoma resulting in 8,110 deaths” (Miller et al., 2009, p. 209).
Permission to quote, reprint, or adapt
- You may need written permission from the owner of copyrighted work.
- Reprinting indicates that the material is reproduced exactly as it appeared
originally, without modifications, in the way in which it was intended.
- Adaptation refers to the modification of material so that it is suitable for a new
purpose.
- Requirements for obtaining permission to quote copyrighted material vary from
one copyright owner to another.
- It is the author’s responsibility to find out whether permission is required from
the copyright owner and to obtain it for both print and electronic reuse. APA
cannot publish previously copyrighted material that exceeds the copyright
holder’s determination of “fair use” without permission.
- If you must obtain written permission from the copyright owner, append a
footnote to the quoted material with a superscript number, and in the footnote
acknowledge permission from the owner of the copyright.
- Copyright permission footnotes acknowledge the source of lengthy
quotations, scale and test items, and figures and tables that have been
reprinted or adapted. Authors must obtain permission to reproduce or
adapt material from a copyrighted source.
- A numbered footnote is generally used to provide source material for long
quotations. For tables, the source material is provided in a table note, and
for figures, the source is credited at the end of the caption. Use the wording
below for copyright permission footnotes.

Type of source Copyright permission footnote

 Journal From [or The data in column 1 are from] “Title of Article,”
by A. N. Author and C. O. Author, year, Title of Journal,
Volume,p. xx. Copyright [year] by the Name of Copyright
Holder. Reprinted [or adapted] with permission.
Book From [or The data in column 1 are from] Title of Book (p.
xxx), by A. N. Author and C. O. Author, year, Place of
Publication: Publisher. Copyright [year] by the Name of
Copyright Holder. Reprinted [or adapted] with permission

- Footnote numbers should be superscripted, like this,1 following any

punctuation mark except a dash. A footnote number that appears with a dash—
like this2—always precedes the dash. (The number falls inside aclosing
parenthesis if it applies only to matter within the parentheses, like this.3) Do not
place footnote numbers in text headings.
- When using the footnote function in your word- processing program, place
each content or copyright permission footnote at the bottom of the page on
which it is discussed. Be sure that the number of the footnote corresponds with
the appropriate text discussion.

One work by one author

The author-date method
Surname of the author, the year of publication

• Part of the narrative

→ cite only the year of publication in parentheses
Example: Kessler (2007) found that among epidemiological samples…
• Otherwise,
→ place both the name and the year, separated by a comma, in parentheses
Example: Early onset results in a more persistent and severe course (Kessler,
2003).

Within a paragraph (do include the year in all parenthetical citations.)

• When the name of the author is part of the narrative, you need not include
the year in subsequent nonparenthetical references
 Example: Among epidemiological samples, Kessler (2003) found that early
onset social anxiety disorder results in a more potent and severe course.
Kessler also found… The study also showed that there was a high rate of
comorbidity with alcohol abuse or dependence and major depression (Kessler,
2003).

• When both the name and the year are in parentheses, include the year in
subsequent citations.
Example: Early onset results in a more persistent and severe course (Kessler,
2003). Kessler (2003) also found…

One work by multiple authors

• When a work has two authors
→ cite both names
• When a work has three, four, or five authors
→ cite all authors the first time the reference occurs.
Example: Kisangau, Lyaruu, Hosea, and Joseph (2007) found…

• In subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first author followed
by et al. and the year if it is the first citation of the reference within a
paragraph.

Examples:
Kisangau et al. (2007) found [Use as subsequent first citation per paragraph
thereafter.]
Kisangau et al. found [Omit year from subsequent citations after first
nonparenthetical citation within a paragraph. Include the year in subsequent
citations if first citation within a paragraph is parenthetical.]

• Exception: If two references of more than three surnames with the same year
shorten to the same form (e.g., both Ireys, Chernoff, DeVet, & Kim, 2001, and
Ireys, Chernoff, Stein, DeVet, & Silver, 2001, shorten to Ireys et al., 2001), cite
the surnames of the first
authors and of as many of the subsequent authors as necessary to distinguish
the two references, followed by a comma and et al.

Example: Ireys, Chernoff, DeVet, and Kim (2001) and Ireys, Chernoff, Stein, et
al. (2001).
 Groups as authors
Type of citation First Subsequent Parenthetical Parenthetical
citation in citations in text format, first format,
text citation in text subsequent
citations in text

Groups National NIMH (2003) (National (NIMH, 2003)

(readily Institute of Institute of
identified Mental Mental Health
through Health [NIMH], 2003)
abbreviation) as (NIMH,
authors 2003)
Groups (no University of University of (University of (University of
abbreviation) as Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, 2005) Pittsburgh, 2005)
authors (2005) (2005)

Authors with the same surname

• If a reference list includes publications by two or more primary authors with
the same surname, include the first author’s initials in all text citations
• References:
Light, I. (2006). Deflecting immigration: Networks, markets, and regulation in
Los Angeles. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Light, M. A., & Light, I. H. (2008). The geographic expansion of Mexican
immigration in the United States and its implications for local law
enforcement. Law Enforcement Executive Forum Journal, 8, 73–82.
Text Cites:
Among studies, we review M. A. Light and Light (2008) and I. Light (2006).

Works with no identified author or with an anonymous author

→ cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title)
and the year
on free care (“Study Finds,” 2007)
the book College Bound Seniors (2008)
legal materials (court cases, statutes, and legislation) → references to works
with no author
 When a work’s author is designated as “Anonymous,” cite in text the word
Anonymous followed by a comma and the date.
Example: (Anonymous, 1998)

Two or more works within the same parentheses

q Arrange the citations of two or more works within the same parentheses
alphabetically in the same order in which they appear in the reference list.
q Arrange two or more works by the same authors and by year of publication;
place in-press citations last; give the authors’ surnames once; for each
subsequent work, give only the date.
EX:
Training materials are available (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2001,
2003)
Past research (Gogel, 1990, 2006, in press)

q Identify works by the same author(s) with the same publication date by the
suffixes a, b, c and so forth; after the year, repeat the year.
q The suffixes are assigned in the reference list, where these kinds of references
are ordered alphabetically by title of the article, chapter, or complete work.
EX:
Several studies (Derryberry & Reed, 2005a, 2005b, in press-a; Rothbart,
2003a, 2003b)
q List two or more works by different authors who are cited within the same
parentheses in alphabetical order by the first author’s surname; Separate the
citations with semicolons.
EX:
Several studies (Miller, 1999; Shafranske&Mahoney, 1998)
& A major citation may be separated from other citations within parentheses
by inserting the phrase ” see also”, before the first of the remaining citations.
EX:
(Minor, 2001; see also Adams, 1999; Storandt, 2007)

Secondary sources
Why do we have to cite secondary sources ?
The original work was published in another language or in a book that is
difficult to obtain.
à Cite the original or primary source in the text of the paper but provide a
reference in the reference list for the secondary source.
 EX:
Ø Within the Text
According the Skinner (as cited in Freud, 1923), Freud took the position ….
Ø In the Reference List
Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behavioralism. New York, NY: Knopf.

Classical Works
q When a date of publication can’t be used, cite the year of the translation we
used, preceded by “trans.”, or the year of the version you used, followed by
version.
q When we know the original date of publication, include it in the citation.
EX:
(Aristotle, trans. 1931)
James (1890/1983)
q Reference list entries are not required for major classical works (ancient Greek
and Roman works or classical religious works)
ð Just identify the version you used in the first citation in the text.
q Parts of classical works (e.g., books, chapters, verses, lines, cantos) are
numbered systematically across all editions
ð Use these numbers instead of page numbers when referring to specific
parts of your source.

EX:
1 Cor. 13:1 (Revised Standard Version)
(Qur'an 5:3–4)

Citing Specific Parts of a Source

q Indicate the page, chapter, figure, table, or equation at the appropriate point
in text and give page numbers for quotations (see section 6.03).
& Note that page, but not chapter, is abbreviated in such text citations:
EX:
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005, p. 10)
(Shimamura, 1989, Chapter 3)

Personal Communications
q Personal communications include conversations, phone calls, email messages,
class lectures, interviews, and online chats.
q For recoverable data we just cite personal communications in the text, give
the initials as well as the surname of the communicator, and provide the exact
date if possible.
EX:
T. K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001)
(V.-G. Nguyen, personal communication, September 28, 1998)
q If the personal communication is recoverable, then the source should be cited
as an archived material.
Citations in Parenthetical Material
q In a citation that appears in parenthetical text, use commas, but not brackets,
to set off the date.
EX:
(see Table 3 of U.S. Department of Labor, 2007, for complete data)

REFERENCE LIST
• At the end of the journal
• Provides information to identify and retrieve sources
q Include only the sources used in research and preparation for your article.
q The reference list is required to be double-spaced: (APA style)
Here is an example of how a
Here is an example of how a
sentence with double spacing sentence with single spacing might
look.
might look.

q And entries have a hanging indent (APA style)

 Construction of an Accurate and Complete Reference List

q Reference data must be correct and complete.

q Each entry contains
ü author,
ü year of publication,
ü title
ü publishing data
è For identification and library search
q Ensure the information is accurate by:
ü Check each reference carefully against the original publication.
ü Pay attention to spelling of proper names and words in foreign languages,
journal titles, years, volume and issues numbers, page numbers, and
electronic retrieval data.
q Authors are responsible for all information in their reference lists.

ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviation Book or publication part

ed. edition

Rev. ed. Revised edition

2nd ed. Second edition

Ed. (Eds.) Editor (Editors)

Trans. Translator(s)

n.d. no date

p.(pp.) page (pages)

Vol. Volume (as in Vol.4)

Vols. Volumes (as in Vols. 1-4)

No. Number

Pt. Part

Tech. Rep. Technical Report

Suppl. Supplement

ARABIC NUMERALS
q APA journals use Arabic numerals (e.g., Vol. 3, not Vol III) à they use less
space and are easier to comprehend than Roman numerals.
q If a Roman numeral that is part of a title should remain Roman (e.g., Attention
and Performance XIII)

Consistency
q Computer programs use algorithms to capture data from primary articles as
well as from the article reference list.
q If reference elements are out of order or incomplete, the algorithm may not
recognize them, the reference will not likely be captured for indexing.
Using the Archival Copy or Version of Record
An archival copy is a copy of a document, data, software or other object that is
maintained in a long-term storage media.
 q When using information or data online, check if you are citing the appropriate
version of your reference source.
q Cite the archival version or version of record which has been peer-reviewed
and may provide additional links to online supplemental material.
q Recheck the source and update its publication status ASAP to the publication
date of your work when the most current version available was an advance
release version at the time you cited it.
Order of References in the Reference List
ALPHABETIZING NAMES
Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author followed by
the initials of the author’s given name.

Rules for special cases:

ü Alphabetize by the author’s surname
ü Alphabetize letter by letter
ü Alphabetize the prefixes
ü Alphabetize entries with numerals chronologically
Alphabetize by the author’s surname
q The format: surname/given name is commonly used in Western countries but
not in many Eastern countries.
q Check with the author for the preferred form or consult the author’s previous
publication for the commonly used form.
o Chen Zhe may publish under Zhe Chen in the US.
Alphabetize letter by letter

“Nothing precedes something”: Brown, J.R., precedes Browning, A.R,. even though i
precedes j in the alphabet.
o Girard, J. B., precedes Girard-Perregaux, A. S.
o Ben, M. S., precedes Benjamin, R. J.
o Eliza, S precedes Eliza-Amber, G. K.
o Villafuerte, S. A., precedes Villa-Lobos, J.
o Ibn Abdulaziz, T., precedes Ibn Nidal, A. K. M.
Alphabetize the prefixes

q M’, Mc, and Mac literally, not as if they were all spelled Mac.
q Disregard the apostrophe
o MacArthur precedes McAllister
o MacNeil precedes M’Carthy
Alphabetize entries with numerals chronologically
o Macomber, J., II, precedes Macomber, J., III

ORDER OF SEVERAL WORKS BY THE SAME FIRST AUTHOR

When ordering several works by the same 1st author, give the author’s name in the
first and all subsequent references, and use the following rules to arrange the
entries

One-author entries by the same author are arranged by year of publication, the
earliest first
o Upenieks, V. (2003).
o Upenieks, V. (2005).
One-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same
surname
(even if the multiple-author work was published earlier)
o Alleyne, R.L. (2001).
o Alleyne, R.L., & Evans, A.J. (1999).

References with the same 1st author and different 2nd or 3rd authors are
arranged alphabetically by the surname of the second author or, if the 2nd
author is the same, the surname of the 3rd author, and so on

o Boockvar, K. S., & Burrack, O. R. (2007).

o Boockvar, K. S., Carlson LaCorte, H., Giambanco, V., Friedman, B., & Siu, A.
(2006).
o Hayward, D., Firsching, A., & Brown, J. (1999).
o Hayward, D., Firsching, A., & Smigel, J. (1999).

References with the same authors in the same order are arranged by year of
publication, the earliest first

o Cabading, J. R., & Wright, K. (2000).

o Cabading, J. R., & Wright, K. (2001).

References by the same author (or by the same two or more authors in the same
order) with the same publication date are arranged alphabetically by title
(excluding A or The)
Exception:
• If the references with the same authors published in the same year are
identified as articles in a series (e.g., Part 1 and Part 2)
à order the references in the series order, not alphabetically by title.
• Place lowercase letters (a, b, c) and so forth immediately after the year, within
the parentheses:
Baheti, J. R. (2001a). Control…
Baheti, J. R. (2001b). Roles of…
Order of several works by different first authors with the same surname
• Arrange works by different authors with the same surname alphabetically by
first initial
Mathur, A. L., & Wallston, J. (1999).
Mathur, S. E., & Ahlers, R. J. (1998).
• Note: Include initials with the surname of the first author in text citations.

ORDER OF WORKS WITH GROUP AUTHORS OR WITH NO AUTHORS

Occasionally, a work will have as its author an agency, association, or institution, or it
will have no author at all.

Alphabetize group authors

• Associations/government agencies, by the 1st significant word of the name.
• Full official names should be used:
ü American Psychological Association, not APA
• A parent body precedes a subdivision:
ü University of Michigan, Department of Psychology
When the work is signed “Anonymous”

• Begin the entry with the word Anonymous spelled out

• Alphabetize the entry by the 1st significant word of the title.
Treat legal references like references with no author
• Alphabetize legal references by the 1st significant item in the entry (word or
abbreviation).
References Included in a Meta-Analysis
• Integrate studies alphabetically within the References section, and identify
each by preceding it with an asterisk.
• Add the following statement before the 1st reference entry:
 • References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-
analysis.
• The in-text citations to studies selected for meta-analysis are not preceded by
asterisks.
Bandura, A. J. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJL Prentice
Hall.
*Bretschneider, J. G., & McCoy, N. L. (1968). Sexual interest and behavior in
healthy 80- to 102-year-olds. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 14, 343-350.

Reference Components
• A reference should contain the author name, date of publication, title of
the work, and publication data.
Author and Editor Information
Authors
• Invert all authors’ names; give surnames and initials for up to and including
seven authors (e.g., Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C.).
• When authors number eight or more, include the first six authors’ names, then
insert three ellipsis points, and add the last author’s name.
Ex:
Gilbert, D. G., McClernon, J. F., Rabinovich, N. E., Sugai, C., Plath, L. C., Asgaard,
G., . . . Botros, N. (2004). Effects of quitting smoking on EEG activation and
attention last for more than 31 days and are more severe with stress,
dependence, DRD2 A1 allele, and depressive traits. Nicotine and Tobacco
Research, 6, 249–267. doi:10.1080/14622200410001676305

• If the reference list includes different authors with the same surname and first
initial, the authors’ full first names may be given in brackets
Ex:
Janet, P. [Paul]. (1876). La notion de la personnalité [The notion of personality].
Revue Scientifique, 10, 574–575.
Janet, P. [Pierre]. (1906). The pathogenesis of some impulsions. Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 1, 1–17.

• If an author’s first name is hyphenated, retain the hyphen and include a period
after each initial : Lamour, J.-B., for Jean-Baptiste Lamour

• Use commas to separate authors, to separate surnames and initials, and to

separate initials and suffixes (e.g., Jr. and III )
 • With two to seven authors, use an ampersand (&) before the last author.

Ex: Strong, E. K., Jr., & Uhrbrock, R. S. (1923). Bibliography on job analysis. In L.
Outhwaite (Series Ed.), Personnel Research Series: Vol. 1. Job analysis and the
curriculum (pp. 140–146). doi:10.1037/10762-000

• Spell out the full name of a group author (e.g., Royal Institute of Technology;
National Institute of Mental Health)
• In a reference to a work with a group author (e.g., study group, government
agency, association, corporation), a period follows the author element.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health,

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2003). Managing asthma: A guide
for schools (NIH Publication No. 02-2650). Retrieved from
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/lung/asthma/asth_sch.pdf

• If authors are listed with the word with, include them in the reference in
parentheses: Bulatao, E. (with Winford, C. A.). The text citation refers to the
primary author only.
• In a reference to a work with no author, move the title to the author position,
before the date of publication. A period follows the title.
• Six sites meet for comprehensive anti-gang initiative conference. (2006,
November/December). OJJDP News @ a Glance. Retrieved from
http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/news_at_glance/216684/topstory.html

Editors

• In a reference to an edited book, place the editors’ names in the author

position, and enclose the abbreviation Ed. or Eds. in parentheses after the last
editor’s name. The period follows the parenthetical abbreviation (Eds.).
• In a reference to a chapter in an edited book, invert the chapter authors’
names as noted above but do not invert book editors’ names.
• The name of the book editor should be preceded by the word In. Provide
initials and surnames for all editors (for substantial reference works with a
large editorial board, naming the lead editor followed by et al. is acceptable).
• For a book with no editor, simply include the word In before the book title.
 Author, A. A. (2008). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. xx–
xx).Location: Publisher.

Publication Date
• Give in parentheses the year the work was published.
• For unpublished or informally published works, give the year the work was
produced.
• For magazines, newsletters, and newspapers, give the year and the exact date
of the publication (month or month and day), separated by a comma and
enclosed in parentheses .
• If the date is given as a season, give the year and the season, separated by a
comma and enclosed in parentheses.
Chamberlin, J., Novotney, A., Packard, E., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing
worker well-being: Occupational health psychologists convene to share their
research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology, 39(5), 26–29.

Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the
misuse of
research. Monitor on Psychology, 39(6). Retrieved from
http://www.apa.org/monitor/

• For papers and posters presented at meetings, give the year and month of the
meeting, separated by a comma and enclosed in parentheses.
• Write in press in parentheses for articles that have been accepted for
publication but that have not yet been published .
Briscoe, R. (in press). Egocentric spatial representation in action and perception.
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. Retrieved from
http://cogprints.org/5780/1/ECSRAP.F07.pdf

• Do not give a date until the article has actually been published.
Ting, J. Y., Florsheim, P., & Huang, W. (2008). Mental health help-seeking in
ethnic minority populations: A theoretical perspective. Manuscript submitted for
publication.

• If no date is available, write n.d. in parentheses.

 O’Keefe, E. (n.d.). Egoism & the crisis in Western values. Retrieved
from http://www.onlineoriginals.com/showitem.asp?itemID=135

• For several volumes in a multivolume work or several letters from the same

Koch, S. (Ed.). (1959–1963). Psychology: A study of science (Vols. 1–6). New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill.

• For archival sources, indicate an estimated date that is reasonably certain but
not stated on the document by using ca. (circa) and enclose the information in
square brackets .
• Finish the element with a period after the closing parenthesis

[Allport, A.?]. [ca. 1937]. Marion Taylor today—by the biographer. Unpublished
manuscript,
Marion Taylor Papers. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College,Cambridge, MA.

Title

v Article or chapter title.

• Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, and proper nouns
• Do not italicize the title or place quotation marks around it.
• Finish the element with a period.
Mental and nervous diseases in the Russo-Japanese war: A historical analysis.

v Periodical title:
• (Journals, newsletters, magazines.)
• Give the periodical title in full, in uppercase and lowercase letters. Italicize the
name of the periodical.
• Social Science Quarterly

v Nonperiodical title: (Books and reports)

• Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, and any proper
nouns; italicize the title.
• Enclose additional information given on the publication for its identification
and retrieval (e.g., edition, report number, volume number) in parentheses
immediately after the title.
• Do not use a period between the title and the parenthetical information; do
not italicize the parenthetical information.

Development of entry-level tests to select FBI special agents (Publication No.FR-

PRD-94–06).

• If a volume is part of a larger, separately titled series or collection, treat the

series and volume titles as a two-part title.
• Finish the element with a period.
Strong, E. K., Jr., & Uhrbrock, R. S. (1923). Bibliography on job analysis. In L.
Outhwaite (Series Ed.), Personnel Research Series: Vol. 1. Job analysis and the
curriculum (pp. 140–146). doi:10.1037/10762-000

v Nonroutine information in titles.

• If nonroutine information is important for identification and retrieval, provide
it in brackets after the title and any parenthetical information. (Brackets
indicate a description of form, not a title)
• Capitalize the first letter of the notation.
• Some of the common notations that help identify works:

[Letter to the editor]

[Special issue]
[Computer software]
[Video webcast]
[Supplemental material]

v Periodicals (newsletters, magazines)

• Give the volume number after the periodical title and italicize it.
• Do not use Vol. before the number.
• Include the journal issue number (if available) along with the volume number
if the journal is paginated separately by issue.
• Give the issue number in parentheses immediately after the volume number,
do not italicize it.
• Give inclusive page numbers on which the cited material appears.
• Finish the element with a period.
EX: Social Science Quarterly, 84, 508–525.
• Periodical publisher names and locations are generally not included in
references.
• If the publisher is a university and the name of the state or province is included
in the name of the university, do not repeat the name in the publisher location.

v Non-periodicals (Books and reports)

• Give the location where the publisher is located as noted on the title page for
books; reports; other non-periodical publications.
• The names of U.S. states and territories are abbreviated in the reference list
and in the Method section (suppliers’ locations); use the official two-letter U.S.
Postal Service abbreviations.
• To cite locations outside the United States, spell out the city and the country
names.
• Use a colon after the location.
• Write out the names of associations, corporations, and university presses, but
omit superfluous terms, such as Publishers, Co., and Inc.
• Retain the words Books and Press.
• If two or more publisher locations are given in the book, give the location
listed first.
• Author = publisher àuse “Author” to indicate publisher.
• Finish the element with a period.
EX:
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Washington, DC: Author.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Pretoria, South Africa: Unisa.
 QUANTITY AND QUALITY, SAMPLING
I. Types of data:
II. Quantity

v Key concept :
v Sample

• Population the collection of elements which has some characteristic in

common.
• Sample the subset of the population.
• Sampling the process of selecting a sample
• Population the collection of elements which has some characteristic in
common.
• Sample the subset of the population.
• Sampling the process of selecting a sample
III. Types of sample

Probability sampling: a generic term used for several scientific procedures.

 v Random sampling
- Every element has an equal chance of getting selected to be the part sample.
- It is used when we don’t have any kind of prior information about the target
population

Example: A teachers puts students' names in a hat and chooses without looking to
get a sample of students.

v Stratified random sampling

- The elements of the population are divided into small subgroups (strata)
based on the similarity.
- The elements are randomly selected from each of these strata.
- We need to have prior information about the population to create subgroups.

Example: Teacher surveys 100 students by getting random samples of

25 freshmen, 25 sophomores, 25 juniors, and 25 seniors.

v Systematic sampling
- The selection of elements is systematic and not random except the first
element.
- Elements of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of population.
- All the elements are put together in a sequence first where each element has
the equal chance of being selected.
Example:
- A principal takes an alphabetized list of student names and picks a random
starting point.
- Every 20th student is selected to take a survey.

v Cluster sampling
- Our entire population is divided into clusters or sections and then the clusters
are randomly selected.
- All the elements of the cluster are used for sampling. Clusters are identified
using details such as age, sex, location etc.
Non-probability sampling
5. Intervention/manipulation

Intervention: Anything the researchers did to the participants

Including:
• support groups
• educational sessions
• treatments for a condition
Correlation
Definition: The statistical procedure to achieve examining the relationship between
variables
We compute a ‘correlation coefficient’ between the two variables ranging from -I - +I:
• A high coefficient: a high relationship 0< x<=1 -> Positive correlation
•A coefficient of 0: no relationship between the 2 variables.
•Negative correlation coefficients: inverse relationships
Running correlation analysis in SPSS
SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
Running ‘ordinary’ correlation is straightforward: ANALYSE-
CORRELATE-BIVARIATE
• visual representation of the data distribution by generating a
scatterplot
• we can detect a ‘cigar-shaped’ cluster, which suggests a
reasonably strong correlation (r=.57). The main cluster of the
points form a curved line -> using correlation is not appropriate

Running correlation analysis in SPSS

REPORTING CORRELATIONS
EXPERIMENTAL
The context of experimentation
Experiments are carried out to explore the strength of relationship
between variables,
example: Teaching method – Test scores
The logic of statistical inference
We must be familiar with these concepts: mean, standard deviation,
normal distribution, and standard error.
• Mean: The average of a set of scores (obtained by adding the
individual scores together and dividing by the total number of
scores). It gives us information about the central tendency of the
scores
• Standard deviation (SD): Give us the information to which extent
a set of scores varies in relation to the mean.
• Normal distribution: The sample scores vary, and this variation is
systematic. If we plot them as a frequency distribution, they are
close to what is known as a normal distrubution. Throught this, we
can determine the probability that our sample is representative of
the population from which it was drawn
• Normal distribution: The sample scores vary and this variation is
systematic. If we plot them as a frequency distribution, they are
close to what is known as a normal distrubution. Throught this, we
can determine the probability that our sample is representative of
the population from which it was drawn
• Standard error: The standard deviation of sample means is
known as the standard error. We can use this information to place
a single sample mean in relation to the population mean from
which it is drawn.
ADDITIONAL STATISTICAL TOOLS
Chi-square test
• The Chi-square test compares the frequencies and tests
whether the observed data differ significantly from that of the
expected data if there were no differences between groups (i.e.,
the null hypothesis).

• It is calculated by the sum of the squared difference between

observed (O) and the expected (E) data (or the deviation, d)
divided by the expected data by the following formula:

• For example: In testing this hypothesis, an independent

observer might observe several integrated and withdrawal
classrooms (Students are ‘on-task’ when they are actively
engaged in the pedagogic work of the day. They are ‘off-task’
when doing other things such talking to friends, etc.)
• Such observation might result in this
 Correlation
• The correlation between two variables is shown through
correlation coefficient (A correlation coefficient is a statistical
measure that calculates the strength of the relationship between
two variables), that is a value measured between -1 and +1.
When the correlation coefficient is close to +1 then there is a
positive correlation between the two variables and the value is
close to -1, then there is a negative correlation between the two
variables and when the value is close to zero then there is no
relationship between the two variables (i.e. These tests estimate
the degree of association between two variables)
Quiz

1. Which concept of the qualitative that is to ensure the procedures

remain stable across investigators and subject?
à STANDARDIZED
2. ….………. is the subset of the population
à SAMPLE
3. What analysis can range from calculating the average of several
figures on a pocket calculator to running complex multivariate
analyses on a computer?
à STATISTICS
4. Which terminologies of sample is the process of selecting a
sample?
à SAMPLING
5. Quantitative methods are aimed at identifying the relationship
between what by measuring them and often also manipulating
them.
à VARIABLES
6. The work required to specify the categories and values needs to
be done …… to the actual study
à PRIOR
7. Which terminologies of sample is the collection of the elements
which has some or the other characteristic in common?
à POPULATION
8. The sample is the group of participants whom the researcher
actually examines in an ……….. investigation and the population is
the group of people whom the story is about.
à EMPIRICAL
9. When a sampling is done in a way so it is easy for you, which type
of sampling is this?
à CONVENIENCE
10. Which sampling method consist of dividing the population first into
subgroups?
à STRATIFIED
11. What type of sampling is this?
A principal orders t-shirt and wants to check some of them to
make sure they were printed properly. She randomly selects 2 of
the 10 boxes of shirts and checks every shirt in those 2 boxes.
à GLUSTER
12. Quantitative data research involves data collection procedures
that result primarily in numerical data which is then analyzed
primarily by ……….methods.
à STATISTICAL
13. Two major types of sample are ………….. Sampling and Non-……………..
Sampling
à PROBABILITY
14. What type of sampling is this?
While students are lined up for school pictures, a teacher passes
out a survey to every 10th student.
à SYSTEMATIC
15. Which key concepts of quantity opens up a range of possibilities
and sets some limitations for researchers?
à USING NUMBERS
16. One of the strengths of quantitative research is:
à SYSTEMATIC
17. What type of sampling is this?
Each student at a school has a student identification number.
Counselors have a computer generate 50 random identification
numbers and those students are asked to take a survey.
à RANDOM
18. Probability sampling is a ……………………… term used for a number
scientific procedures.
à GENERIC
19. What type of sampling is this?
A quality control worker at a factory selects the first 10 items she
sees as her sample for the day.
à CONVENIENCE
 MEAN AND MEDIAN
Content
A. SIMPLE NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS
1. Frequency & Frequency Distributions
2. Simple frequency
3. Relative Frequency
4. Cumulative Frequency
B. DISPLAYING THE DATA
1. Table forms
2. Visual forms
2.2 Graphs
2.3 Polygons

I. DEFINITION

Numerical computation
§ the basic principles of arithmetic like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division
§ mathematical terms and methods such as percentages, ratios, fractions and
decimals...
Frequency
ü The frequency of an event i is the number ni of time the event occurred in an
experiment or study.
ü 3 types: simple frequency, relative frequency, cumulative frequency.
 What is a frequency distribution?
An organized tabulation of the number of individuals located in each category
on a scale of measurement
ü A method for simplifying and organizing data
ü Presents an organized picture of the entire set of scores
• Are scores generally high or low?
• Are the scores clustered together or spread out?
ü Shows where each individual is located relative to others in a distribution
• Where does one score fall relative to all others?

Frequency Distribution Tables

ü Consists of at least two columns
• Categories on the scale of measurement (X), ordered from lowest to
highest
• Frequency for each category (how often each category was reported)
Original scores: 1, 2, 3, 5, 4, 4, 2, 3, 1, 3, 2, 3, 2, 2
II. SIMPLE FREQUENCY

Example: An experiment using a sample of Chicago graduate students at San

Jose State
Step 1: check the number of each in the population of Chicano graduate
students.
Step 2: code them as l-2
Step 3: tally them
 Ratio

Simple frequencies Proportion

Percentage

à Simple frequencies are useful first ways of reducing the data,

but such counts don’t always give us a precise picture of the
data.

III. RELATIVE FREQUENCY

Example: Report the frequency of high scores on reading tests for two
different schools
School A School B => Similar
2 of 2 high marks 2 of 2
School A School B => Different
2 of 10 high marks 2 of 80
To show this difference, we would compute the relative frequency.

!"# %&#'(#)*+ ,% #-*" .*,&#

Relative frequency = !"# !,!-/ )(01#& ,% 2.
IV. RATE

ü Rate is used to show how often an event happens compared with how often it
might happen.
ü For example; we might use rate to show the number of people who do learn a
language compared with the number of people who might learn the language.

There are more ESL speakers who are in the age group 25-44
However, there is a greater proportion of ESL speakers in the 6-16 age group.

è your chances of finding someone to talk to in English is best if you walk up to

someone between 6 and 16 years of age.
There are more ESL speakers who are in the age group 25-44
However, there is a greater proportion of ESL speakers in the 6-16 age group.

è your chances of finding someone to talk to in English is best if you

walk up to someone between 6 and 16 years of age.

2 reasons:
ü to compare different populations with respect to frequency of some
variable
ü to compare the same population at different times
Example: twenty years after we collected the above data, we conducted
another survey of Galaxy people.
V. CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY

• If you want to show the standing of any particular score in a group of scores
• This will show us how many scores fall below that particular point in the
distribution.
• It is also the basis for calculating percentile scores.
VI. PERCENTILES & PERCENTILE RANKS
• Percentile rank
ü The percentage of individuals in the distribution with scores at or below
the particular value
• Percentile
ü When a score is identified by its percentile rank
For example:
ü Your exam score is X = 43
ü 60% of the class had scores of 43 or lower
ü Your score has a percentile rank of 60% and is called the 60th percentile.
VII. TABLE FORMS

v The most conventional way to display simple frequency data is in

table form
v Nominal data are easily presented in this way.
v Ribbonlike tables (if they spread across a page) are usually considered
unattractive, as are long thin tables. They count as “bad style.”
VIII. VISUAL FORMS
v 2 basic types of graphic displays
ü Graphs (either histograms or bar graphs)
ü Polygons (line drawings).
The techniques for constructing them are almost the same:
1. Draw two axes (a vertical and a horizontal line).
2. On the horizontal line, enter the scores for the variable.
3. On the vertical line, enter the frequency of each of these scores.
4. Construct the graph or polygon around these frequency points.

Histogram
a graphic version of a frequency distribution.

Multiple Bar Graph

Median Income of Males and Females
 Polygon
Uses line segments connected to points directly above class midpoint
values
Features
• One half of the curve looks like the other half (symrnetric distribution)
• Most of the scores fall in the middle of this curve, the high part.
• There is a nice gradual slope of scores below and scores above that one
midpoint.

The Shape of a Frequency Distribution

Skewed Distributions
IX. DESCRIBING THE DATA

The purpose of this chapter

1. Show how you can arrive at these most typical scores and the reservations
that you must keep in mind when you interpret them.
• The typical score is also important, for it allows us to compare different
groups.
• Using a pretest posttest control group design

2. You have four different distributions:

• two for the pretest (experimental and control)
• two for the posttest

Suppose the representative typical scores of each distribution on a scale of 50 were

the following:

Control 25 27

Experimental 26 40

Pretest Posttest
It tells you:

At the time of the pretest there appears to be no difference between the groups.

At the time of the posttest (after the treatment). there appears to be a large
difference between the groups (your treatment worked).

The difference is in favor of you r experimental group, not the control. Thus, the most
typical score is both useful and crucial to your research.
X. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Only with ordinal and interval variables

MEAN
The formula for obtaining the mean is

åX
X =
N
MEDIAN
The median score is also easy to find. Arrange your scores in rank order. The
median is the score which is at the center of the distribution.
Half of the scores are above the median and half are below.
If the number of scores is odd, the median is the middle score:
4 4 5 7 9 10 11.
If the number of scores is even, use the midpoint between the two middle scores as
the median:
4 5 7 9 10 12

(7 + 9) ÷ 2 = 8

Ex: There were 20 items and the scores you obtained were:
16 10 5 6 8 15 20 14 16 10
 MODE
The mode is the most frequently obtained score in the data. For example, in the
following data the mode is 25:

20 22 23 23 25 25 25 25 27 29 30

In bimodal · distributions there are two values which are obtained most often, e.g.:

2 3 4 4 4 4 5 7 7 9

10 10 10 10 12 12 13 15

This distribution has two modes, 4 and 10.

The mode is the easiest measure of central tendency to identify

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
Just as there are three ways of talking about the most typical score in your data,
there are three major ways, too, to show how the data are spread out from that point
the range, the standard deviation, and variance.

RANGE
§ The easiest, most informal way to talk about the spread of the distribution of
scores is the range.
§ Arrange the scores from the highest to the lowest.
§ Subtract the lowest score from the highest score.

Range = X -X
highest lowest

Standard Deviation
• The most frequently used measure of variability is the standard deviation
• The larger the standard deviation, the more variability from the central point in
the distribution. The smaller the standard deviation, the closer the distribution
is to the central point.
• Consider, for example, the data on scores of ten Ss on a short cloze passage:
2, 3, 3, 4. 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 8.
• The mean (X = I X -c- N) is 47 -; - J O = 4.7. The individual deviation of each
score is:

Variance
sample varience (s 2 )
å( xi - X ) 2
s =
2

n -1
s 2 = varience
xi = term in data set
X = sample mean
å = sum
n = sample size
 Standard Deviation
Độ lệch chuẩn (Standard Deviation).
Ký hiệu: s
Công thức: Standard Deviation = +√𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Độ lệch chuẩn = +)𝑝ℎươ𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑖

å( xi - X )2
s=
n -1

Definition of some analyses

• Independent-samples T-test: Compare ONE value between TWO subjects.
Ex. Compare HAPPINESS between Male and Female
• Paired-samples T-test: Compare TWO values between TWO subjects. Ex.
Compare pre-test sores and post-test scores of G1 & G2
• The researcher wants to find out whether there is a difference between Male
and Female towards Happiness. Write a report with based on following data.

Independent-samples t-tests
sex N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
Mean

Happy 633 1.76 .593 .024

1

871 1.83 .632 .021

2
 Independent Samples Tests
Levenes
Test for
t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of
Variances

95% Confidence
Interval of the
Std. Difference
Sig. Mean
Error
F Sig. t df (2- Differe
Differe
tailed) nce
nce
Lower Upper

Equal .02 .865 -2.196 1502 .028 -.071 .032 -.134 -.008
variance
assumed
9

Equal -2.219 1409. .027 -.071 .032 -.133 -.008

variance
not
089
assumed

• If Sig.<0.05 ->Equal variance not assumed

• If Sig.>=0.05-> Equal variance assumed
* If Sig. (2-tailed) <0.05-> there is a difference between two
subjects
* If Sig. (2-tailed) >=0.05-> there is no difference between
two subjects
Conclusion
As Sig. (2-tailed) = 0.028<0.05, there is significant
difference in HAPPINESS between Male and Female
 Paired-samples T-test
• Used to determine if there is any difference between TWO
VALUES before and after a treatment has been applied.
• Ex: Determine if there is any difference between the control
group and experimental group after TOEIC TEST
PREPARATION has been applied.

STT Pre-test Post-test STT Pre-test Post-test

1 7 8 11 7 9
2 8 9 12 7 5
3 6 5 13 8 9
4 8 9 14 9 10
5 7 8 15 7 7
6 7 9 16 7 9
7 7 7 17 8 7
8 6 7 18 7 9
9 8 7 19 6 6
10 6 8 20 8 8

Paired sample statistics

Mean N Std. Std.
Deviation Error
mean
Pair 1 Pre-test 7.20 20 .834 .186
scores
Post-test 7.80 20 1.399 .313
scores

Paired sample correlation

N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 Pre-test scores 20 .533 .016
and Post-test
scores
Paired Samples Test
Pair 1

Pre-test scores - Post-

test scores

Mean -6.0

Std. Deviation 1.188

Paired differences Std. Error Mean .266

95% Confidence Interval of the Lower -1.16

Difference Upper - .04

t -2.259

Df 19

Sig. (2-tailed) .036

Conclusion
As Sig. (2-tailed) = .036<0.05, there is significant difference between
pre-test and post-test scores. Specifically, the post-test scores are
6% higher than pre-test scores.
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
ANOVA: Compare ONE value among 3 or above subjects. Ex. Compare
HAPPINESS among people aged 10-15, 15-20, 20-25, etc.

ONE WAY ANOVA

1= white people
2= black people
3= other people

Descriptive

95%
Confidence
Std. Interval for
Std. Minim Maxim
N Mean Deviat Mean
Error um um
ion
Lower Upper
Bound Bound

1 1256 1.77 .604 .017 1.73 1.80 1 3

2 201 1.97 .651 .046 1.87 2.06 1 3

3 47 1.94 .673 .098 1.74 2.13 1 3

Total 1504 1.80 .617 .016 1.77 1.83 1 3

ANOVA

Sum of Mean F
df Sig.
Squares Square

Between
7.680 2 3.840 10.225 .000
Groups

Within
563.679 1501 .376
Groups

Total 571.359 1503

• If Sig >=0.01, there is an opposite movement.

• If Sig< 0.01, there is parallel movement.
Conclusion
As Sig.=.000<0.01, there is a significant difference among 3 groups,
white people are the happiest one.

Post Hoc Tests

Used to indicate to which groups the difference belong.

Subset for alpha = .05

race N 1 2
1 1256 1.77
3 47 1.94
2 201 1.97
Sig. 1.000 .725
Conclusion
Between white and black people, there is no difference in
HAPPINESS since Sig= (.725) > 0.05 (the significance).

Chi-square test
• Used to indicate whether there is a relationship between VARIABLES
to ONE VARIABLE.
• Variables: TWO NOMINAL VARIABLES or ONE NOMINAL VARIABLE
and ONE ORDINAL VARIABLE
• Ex. To indicate whether there is a relationship between MALE AND
FEMALE to EDUCATIONAL LEVEL.
Sex race Crosstabulation

Race
High University Total
Post-graduate
school graduate
Sex Male Count 545 71 20 636

Expected 529.9 85.5 20.5 636.0

count
Residual 15.1 -14.5 -5
Female Count 719 133 29 881
Expected 734.1 188.5 28.5 881.0
count
Residual -15.1 14.5 .5
Total Count 1264 204 49 1517
Expected 1264.0 204.0 49.0 1517.0
count
 Chi-square test
• Those figures in RED are actual values.

Value Asymp. Sig. (2-

Df
sided)

Pearson Chi-square 5.011a 2 .082

Likelihood Ratio 5.094 2 .078

Linear-by-linear
2.944 1 .086
Association

N of Valid cases 1517

• If Sig. <0.05 there is a relationship between Gender and

educational level.
• If Sig. >0.05 there is no relationship between Gender and
educational level.
• Chi square = là 5.011, df = 2, Sig. = 0.082 > 0.05. There is no
relationship between Gender and educational level.

Pearson Correlation
• Used to indicate the relationship between INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
• Ex. Between LISTENING SCORE and SPEAKING SCORE,
WRITING SCORE, READING SCORE; between HEIGHT and
WEIGHT.
• If Sig. <0.05, there is a relationship between VARIABLES
• If Sig. >0.05, there is no relationship between VARIABLES. In
other words, VARIABLES are independent.
• -1<= r< = 1
ü If r -> -1 : negative correlation
ü If r -> 1: positive correlation
ü If r = 0: no correlation

Conclusion
If Sig. = .000 < 0.05, there is a relationship between HEIGHT and
WEIGHT
• The researchers want to answer the following research question:
“Is there any relationship between the HAI LONG and LUONG?”
Data were collected and analyzed with SPSS 16.0. From the
SPSS output below, write a report.
 PART A (2 marks): Multiple choice
Set 1
1. __________are the basic building blocks of qualitative data
A. Categories
B. Units
C. Individuals
D. None of the above
2. When each member of population has an equal chance of being selected,
this is called_________________.
A. A nonrandom sampling method
B. A quota samples
C. A snowball samples
D. An equal probability selection method
3. Which of the following techniques yields a simple random sample?
A. Choosing volunteers from an introductory psychology class to participate
B. Listing the individuals by ethnic group and choosing a proportion from within
each ethnic group at random.
C. Numbering all the elements of a sampling frame and then using a random
number table to pick cases from the table.
D. Randomly selecting schools, and then sampling everyone within the school.
4. Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative research?
A. Design flexibility
B. Inductive analysis
C. Context sensitivity
D. All of the above
Set 2

1. Research is
a. Searching again and again
b. Finding solution to any problem
c. Working in a scientific way to search for truth of any problem
d. None of the above
Answer: c

2. The essential qualities of a researcher are

a. Spirit of free enquiry
b. Reliance on observation and evidence
c. Systematisation or theorising of knowledge
d. All the above

Answer: d

3. “Controlled Group” is a term used in _______

a. Survey research
b. Historical research
c. Experimental research
d. Descriptive research

Answer: c

4. How would you define 'the research process'?

a. The researcher's plan of action to be followed when carrying out research.
b. A method of collecting research data.
c. The stages or steps the researcher follows in carrying out a research
project.
d. The account of a study the researcher will write at the end of the study
ready for publication.

Answer: c

5. A researcher wants to study the relationship of family size to income. He

classifies his population into different income slabs and then takes a random
sample from each slab in order. Which technique of sampling is he working
with?
a. Cluster sampling
b. Random sampling
c. Stratified random sampling
d. Systematic sampling

Answer: c

6. Random sampling is helpful as it is __________.

a. An economical method of data collection
b. Free from personal biases
c. Reasonably accurate
d. All the above
Answer: d

7. _________ is a preferred sampling method for the population with finite

size.
a. Area sampling
b. Cluster sampling
c. Purposive sampling
d. Systematic sampling

Answer: d

8. What is a research design?

a. A way of conducting research that is not grounded in theory
b. The choice between using qualitative or quantitative methods
c. The style in which you present your research findings, e.g. a graph
d. A framework for every stage of the collection and analysis of data

Answer: a

9. When each member of a population has an equally likely chance of being

selected, this is called:
a. A nonrandom sampling method
b. A quota sample
c. A snowball sample
d. An Equal probability selection method

Answer: d

10. Which of the following techniques yields a simple random sample?

a. Choosing volunteers from an introductory psychology class to participate
b. Listing the individuals by ethnic group and choosing a proportion from
within each ethnic group at random.
c. Numbering all the elements of a sampling frame and then using a random
number table to pick cases from the table.
d. Randomly selecting schools, and then sampling everyone within the
school.

Answer: c

11. Which of the following is not true about stratified random sampling?
a. It involves a random selection process from identified subgroups
b. Proportions of groups in the sample must always match their population
proportions
c. Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for
getting large enough subgroup samples when subgroup comparisons are to
be done
d. Proportional stratified random sampling yields a representative sample

Answer: b

12. Which of the following statements are true?

a. The larger the sample size, the greater the sampling error
b. The more categories or breakdowns you want to make in your data
analysis, the larger the sample needed
c. The fewer categories or breakdowns you want to make in your data
analysis, the larger the sample needed
d. As sample size decreases, so does the size of the confidence interval

Answer: b

13. Which of the following sampling techniques is an equal probability

selection method (i.e., EPSEM) in which every individual in the population
has an equal chance of being selected?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Proportional stratified sampling
d. All of the above

Answer: d

14. Which of the following is not a form of nonrandom sampling?

a. Snowball sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. They are all forms of nonrandom sampling

Answer: d

15. Which of the following will give a more “accurate” representation of the
population from which a sample has been taken?
a. A large sample based on the convenience sampling technique
b. A small sample based on simple random sampling
c. A large sample based on simple random sampling
d. A small cluster sample

Answer: c

16. Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in

quantitative research?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. Purposive sampling

Answer: d

17. Which of the following would generally require the largest sample size?
a. Cluster sampling
b. Simple random sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Proportional stratified sampling

Answer: a

18. People who are available, volunteer, or can be easily recruited are used
in the sampling method called ______.
a. Simple random sampling
b. Cluster sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Convenience sampling

Answer: d

19. Which of the following types of sampling involves the researcher

determining the appropriate sample sizes for the groups identified as
important, and then taking convenience samples from those groups?
a. Proportional stratified sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. One-stage cluster sampling
d. Two-stage cluster sampling
Answer: b

20. A type of sampling used in qualitative research that involves selecting

cases that disconfirm the researcher's expectations and generalisations is
referred to as _______________.
a. Extreme case sampling
b. Typical-case sampling
c. Critical-case sampling
d. Negative-case sampling

Answer: d

21. In which of the following nonrandom sampling techniques does the

researcher ask the research participants to identify other potential research
participants?
a. Snowball
b. Convenience
c. Purposive
d. Quota

Answer: a

22. A number calculated with complete population data and quantifies a

characteristic of the population is called which of the following?
a. A datum
b. A statistic
c. A parameter
d. A population
Answer: c

23. Which of the following would usually require the smallest sample size
because of its efficiency?
a. One stage cluster sampling
b. Simple random sampling
c. Two stage cluster sampling
d. Quota sampling

Answer: b

24. The process of drawing a sample from a population is known as

_________.
a. Sampling
b. Census
c. Survey research
d. None of the above

Answer: a

25. It is recommended to use the whole population rather than a sample

when the population size is of what size?
a. 500 or less
b. 100 or less
c. 1000 or less
d. you should always use a sample

Answer: b
26. Which of the following is not an example of a nonrandom sampling
technique?
a. Purposive
b. Quota
c. Convenience
d. Cluster

Answer: d

27. Which of the following sampling methods is the best way to select a
group of people for a study if you are interested in making statements about
the larger population?
a. Convenience sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Purposive sampling
d. Random sampling

Answer: d

28. ___________ is a set of elements taken from a larger population

according to certain rules.
a. Sample
b. Population
c. Statistic
d. Element

Answer: a
29. Determining the sample interval (represented by k), randomly selecting
a number between 1 and k, and including each kth element in your sample
are the steps for which form of sampling?
a. Simple Random Sampling
b. Stratified Random Sampling
c. Systematic Sampling
d. Cluster sampling

Answer: c

30. The nonrandom sampling type that involves selecting a convenience

sample from a population with a specific set of characteristics for your
research study is called _____.
a. Convenience sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Purposive sampling
d. Snowball sampling

Answer: c

31. Which research paradigm is least concerned about generalising its

findings?
a. quantitative research
b. qualitative research
c. mixed research
d. none of the above

Answer: b
32. Which of the following best describes quantitative research?
a. the collection of nonnumerical data
b. an attempt to confirm the researcher’s hypotheses
c. research that is exploratory
d. research that attempts to generate a new theory

Answer: b

33. A condition or characteristic that can take on different values or

categories is called ___.
a. a constant
b. a variable
c. a cause-and-effect relationship
d. a descriptive relationship

Answer: b

34. A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is

called a(n):
a. categorical variable
b. dependent variable
c. independent variable
d. intervening variable

Answer: c

35. All of the following are common characteristics of experimental

research except:
a. it relies primarily on the collection of numerical data
b. it can produce important knowledge about cause and effect
c. it uses the deductive scientific method
d. it rarely is conducted in a controlled setting or environment

Answer: d

36. Qualitative research is often exploratory and has all of the following
characteristics except:
a. it is typically used when a great deal is already known about the topic of
interest
b. it relies on the collection of nonnumerical data such as words and pictures
c. it is used to generate hypotheses and develop theory about phenomena in
the world
d. it uses the inductive scientific method

Answer: a

37. Which type of research provides the strongest evidence about the
existence of cause-and-effect relationships?
a. non experimental Research
b. experimental Research

Answer: b

38. What is the key defining characteristic of experimental research?

a. extraneous variables are never present
b. a positive correlation usually exists
c. a negative correlation usually exists
d. manipulation of the independent variable
Answer: d

39. In _____, random assignment to groups is never possible and the

researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable.
a. basic research
b. quantitative research
c. experimental research
d. causal-comparative and correlational research

Answer: d

40. What is the defining characteristic of experimental research?

a. resistance to manipulation
b. manipulation of the independent variable
c. the use of open-ended questions
d. focuses only on local problems

Answer: b

41. A positive correlation is present when _______.

a. two variables move in opposite directions.
b. two variables move in the same direction.
c. one variable goes up and one goes down
d. several variables never change.

Answer: b

42. ______ research occurs when the researcher manipulates the

independent variable.
a. causal-comparative research
b. experimental research
c. ethnography
d. correlational research

Answer: b

43. Which of the following includes examples of quantitative variables?

a. age, temperature, income, height
b. grade point average, anxiety level, reading performance
c. gender, religion, ethnic group
d. both a and b

Answer: d

44. What is the opposite of a variable?

a. a constant
b. an extraneous variable
c. a dependent variable
d. a data set

Answer: a

45. In research, something that does not "vary" is called a ___________.

a. variable
b. method
c. constant
d. control group
Answer: c

46. The statement of purpose in a research study should:

a. Identify the design of the study
b. Identify the intent or objective of the study
c. Specify the type of people to be used in the study
d. Describe the study

Answer: b

47. A qualitative research question:

a. Asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored
b. Is generally an open-ended question
c. both a and b are correct
d. None of the above

Answer: c

48. Sources of researchable problems can include:

a. Researchers’ own experiences as educators
b. Practical issues that require solutions
c. Theory and past research
d. All of the above

Answer: d

49. The feasibility of a research study should be considered in light of:

a. Cost and time required to conduct the study
b. Skills required of the researcher
c. Potential ethical concerns
d. All of the above

Answer: d

50. A research plan _____.

a. Should be detailed
b. Should be given to others for review and comments
c. Sets out the rationale for a research study
d. All of the above

Answer: d
Set 3
1) Which of the following is not a criticism of qualitative rescarch?
a) e difficult to replicate
b) There is a lack of transparency
c)The approach is too ngid and inflexible ;
d) The accounts are too subjective and impressionistic

2) Which scientific method focuses on testing hypotheses developed from

theories?
a) Inductive method:
b) Deductive method;
c) Hypothesis method,
d) Pattem method

3) Which scientific method often focuses on generating new hypotheses and

theories?
a) Inductive method;
b) Deductive method;
c) Hypothesis method;
d) Pattern method

4) Which of the following is nor a contrast between quantitative and

qualitative research?
a) Distance vs. proximity of researcher to participants ;
b) Generalization vs. contextual understanding
c) Hard, reliable data vs. rich, deep data
d) Interpretivist vs. feminist

5) A sensitizing concept is one that:

a) Provides general guidance for more flexible research ;
b) Imposes a predetenmiped theoretical model on the social world
c) Helps the researcher to investigate sensitive issues ;
d) Allows the researcher to measure very small changes in a variable

6) To apply the teehnique of ………….. sampling, you first divide the

population list into sublists according tosome relevant trait and then sample
from the sublists.
a) simple;
b) systematic;
c) stratified;
d) cluster

7) Which of the following independent variables cannot be manipulated in a

research study?
a) Gender,
b) Ethnicity
c) Intelligence and other traits
d) None of the above can be manipulated in a research study

8) The primary data analysis approach in ethnography is

a) Open, axial, and selective coding/
b) Holistic description and search for cultural themes,
c) Cross-case analysis;
d) Identifying essences of a phenomenon

9) If a test was generally very easy, except for a few students who had very
low scores, then the distribution of scores would be …………
a) Positively skewed
b)Negatively skewed;
c) Not skewed at all;
d) Normal

10) Respondent validation is the process by which:

a) The validity of an interview schedule can be measured :
b) Researchers ask their participants to comment on an account of the
findings;
c) The problem of low response rates to a survey can be overcome;
d) Participants collaborate with the researcher to design the research

11) The flexibility and limited structure of qualitative research designs is an

advantage because:
a) The researcher does not impose any predetermined formats on the social
world ;
b) It allows for unexpected results to emerge from the data
c) The researcher can adapt their theories and methods as the project unfolds
d) All of the above

12) ……………. is type of non-probability sampling

a) Simple
b) Systematic
c) Purposive
d) Stratified

13) Which of the following is not a type of research question?

a) Predicting an outcome
b) Evaluating a phenomenon ;
c) Developing good practice;
d) A hypothesis

14) What does 'sampling cases' mean?

a) Sampling using a sampling frame;
b)Identifying people who are suitable for research ;
c) Literally, the researcher's brief- case ;
d) Sampling people, newspapers, television programs etc.

15) What is the Independent Variable in this research question? "Will

students' scores on a grammar test differ between grammar translation and
communicative language teaching

a) Grammar score;
b) Grammar translation method;
c) Communicative language teaching
d) Teaching methods
16) The most frequently occuring number in a set of values is called the ----
a) Mean
b) Median:
c) Mode
d) Range)

17) A graph that uses vertical bars to represent data is called a_____
a) Line graph
b) Bar graph
c) Scatterplot;
d) Vertical graph

18) You have worked out a whole series of role-play activities for your adult-
school ESL class because you believe that practice in role-play promotes
overall language proficiency. Your study shows that you are correct. What
was the dependent variable?
a) adult-school ESL class
b) language proficiency;
e) your belief,
b) role-play activities

19) People who are available, volunteer, or can be casily recruited are used in
the sampling method called
a) Simple random sampling
b) Cluster sampling
c) Systematic sampling:
d) Convenience sampling

20) The standard deviation is:

a) The square root of the variance,
b) Amcasure of variability,
e) An approximate indicator of how numbers vary from the mean
d) All of the above

21) Approximately what percentage of sogres fall within one standard

deviation of the mecan in a normal distribution?
a) 34%:
b) 95%
c) 9%:
d) 68%

22) Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative research?

a) Generalization to the population;
b)Random sampling
c) Unique case orientation;
d) Standardized tests and measures

23) What is the Dependent Variable in this statement?" The main purpose of
this study is to compare the effectiveness of two teaching methods, Audio-
lingual and Task-based teaching. in increasing listening comprehension."
a) Audio-lingual method
b) Listering comprehension;
c) Task-based teaching method;
d) Teaching metheds

24) Akey characteristic of past research that guides researchers in new

research questions is that:
a) Extensive research conclusively and definitively answers research
questions;
b) Studies typically generate more research questions than they answer

25) Which of these is not a method of data collection.

a) Questionnaires;
b) Interviews
e) Experiments,
d) Observations

26) All of the following are common characteristics of experimental research

except:
a) it relies primarily on the collection of numerical data;
b) it can produce important knowledge about cause and effect
c) it uses the deductive scientific method
d) it rarely is conducted in a controlled setting or environment

27) A(n) _______________ is a variable that mediates the effect of ope

variable on another
a) intervening variable;
b) moderator variable;
c) control variable,
d) independent variable

28) Which of the following is not used to test whether the difference in the
means of the two groups is statistically significant?
a) A paired-samples t-test;
b) An independent-samples t- test:
c) ANOVA (analysis of variance)
d)A Chi square test
29) In the following data the mode is ____________. 20 22 23 23 25 25 25
25 27 29 30;
a) 22; b) 23; c)25 d)29

30) Because of the number of things taht can gowrong in research there is a
need for
a) Flexibility and perseverance ;
b) Sympathetic supervisors ;
c) An emergency soutee of finance ;
d) Wisdom to know the right time to quit

31) Which of the following is a method that is commonly used in qualitative

research?
a) Self-completion questionnaires ;
b) Surveys
c) Ethnography;
d) Structured observation

32) What is meant by the term "grounded theory"?

a) Theories should be tested by rigorous scientific experiments ;
b) As a social researcher, it is important to keep your feet on the ground
c) Theories should be grounded in political values and biases
d) Theoretical ideas and concepts should emerge from the data

33) An ordinal scale is used to rank people, objects, or characteristics

a)True;
b) False
34) An ordinal scale is:
a) The simplest form of measuremen
b) rank-order scale of measurement;
c) A scale with equal intervals between adjacent numbers
d) A scale with an absolute zero point;
e) A categorical scale

35) Which scale is the simplest form of measurement?

a) Nominal;
b) Ordinal;
c) Interval;
d) Ratio

36) Which of the following is the rescarcher usually interested in supporting

when he or she is engaging in hypothesis testing?
a) The altemative hypothesis,
b)The null hypothesis;
c) Both the alternative and null hypothedis
d) Neither the atemative or null hypothesis

37) When p>05 is reported in a jourmal article that you read for an observed
relationship, it means that the author has rejected the null hypothesis
(assuming that the author is using a significance or alpha level of .05)
a) True,
b) False

38) You are completing a study on the effect of participation in a volunteer

aiding program on later performance in ESL practice teaching. You also
believe that type of class in which aiding was done (elementary school, adult
school, university class) might have some relationship to success in student
teaching if it wa or wasn't in the same type of school. Identify this variable
type.
a) Control variable
b)Dependent variable;
e) Intervening variable;
d) Moderator variable

39) The research participants are described in detail in which section of the
research plan?
a) Introduction
b) Method
c) Data analysis;
d) Discussion

40) A challenge of qualitative data analysis is that it often includes data that
gre unwieldy and complex; it is a major challenge to make sense of the large
pool of data
a True
b) False

41)__________ are the basic building blocks of qualitative data

a) Categories,
b) Units,
c) Individuals:
d) None of the above

42) What is the Dependent Variable in this research question? "Is there a
relationship betwee students family background and their peformance at
school
a) Family background,
b) Performance at school;
e) Relationshipd Family background and performance

43) Which of the following is a good research question?

a) Is the back to the basics" movement good for public schools?
b) Are teachers underpaid
c) Does the cognitive approach to reading lead to higher achievement?,
d) How many stadents enroll in Writing 4 course?

44) What is the Independent Variable in this research question? "Are students
aged 55 and older more likely to drop out of college than students of ages
between 30 and 40
a) Age,
b) Drop- out rate;
c) Students,
d) College

45) Which of the following is not an example of a nonrandom sampling

technique?
a) Purposive
b) Quota
c) Convenience,
d) Cluster

46) Which of the following sampling methods is the best way to select a group
of people for a study if you are interested in making statements about the
larger population?
a) Convenience sampling
b) Quota sampling
c) Purposive sampling
d) Random sampling

47) Focusing on describing or explaining data versus going beyond

immediate data and making inferences is the difference between
a) Centraltendepcy and common tendency;
b) Mutually exclusive and mutually exhaustive properties,
c)Descriptive and inferential;
d) Positive skew and negative skew

48) We review the relevant literature to know:

a) What is already known about the topic;
b) What concepts and theories have been applied to the topic;
c) Who are the key contributors to the topic
d) All of the above

49) A deductive theory is one that:

a) Allows theory to gmerge out of the data
b) Involves testing an explicitly defined hypothesis :
c) Allows for findings to feed back into the stock of knowledge ;
d) Uses qualitative methods whenever possible

50) The type of qualitative research that describes the cuture of a group of
people is called ---------
a) Phenomenology;
b) Grounded theory
c) Ethoography,
d) Case study
51) When planning to do social research, it is better to
a) Approach the topic with an open mind;
b) Do a pilot study before getting stuck into it
c) be fmiliar with the literature on the topic:
d) Forget about theory because this is a véry practical undertaking

52) Which comes first, theory or research?

a) Theory, because otherwise you are working in the dark;
b) Research, because that's the only way you can develop a theory
c) It depends on your point of view ;
d) The question is meaningless, because you can't have one without the other

53) Why has qualitative research been seen to have an affinity with feminism?
a) It allows women's voices to be heard, rather than objectifying and
exploiting them;
b) It has always been carried out by female sociologists:
e)t allows the researcher to control variables and suppress women's voices d)
It claims to be value free and non- political

54) IQ score is a(n) ___________variable.

a) nominal b) ordinal c) interval d) ratio

55) Why do qualitative researchers like to give detailed descriptions of social

settings?
a) To provide a contextual understanding of social behavior
b) Because once they have. left the field, it is difficult to remember what
happened
c)So that they can compare their observations as a test of reliability ;
d) Because they do not believe in going beyond the level of description

56) Left-handed is a(n)_________ variable.

a) nominal b) ordinale c) interval d) ratio

57) The dependent variable is _________

a) the major variable which is selected, manipulated,and measured by the
researchers
b) the variable which you observe and measure to determine the effect of the
independent variable
c) special type of independent variable which you may select for study in
order to investigate whether it modifies the relationship between the
dependent and the major independent variables:

d) a variable which is held constant in order to neutralize the potential effect

it might have on behavior

58) When a segment of textual data has overlapping codes this is called a(n)
_______
a) Inductive code;
b) Co-occurring codes
c) Priori code;
d) Facesheet code

59) This is the process of transforming qualitative research data from written
interviews or field notes into typed text.
a) Segmenting;
b) Coding
e) Transcription;
d) Memoing

60) What is the recording of reflective notes about what you are learning from
your data during data analysis called?
a) Coding;
b) Segmenting
c)Memoing;
d) Reflecting

61) Codes that apply to acomplete documient or case are called ______
a) Cover codes;
b)False sheet codes,
c) Factual codes
d) Facesheet codes

62) Which of the following orders is the recommended in the flowchart of the
development of a research idea
a) Research topic, research problem, resecarch purpose, research question,
hypothesis;
b) Research topic, research purpose, research problem, research question,
hypothesis;
c) Research topic, research problem, research purpose, hypothesis, research
question, ;
d) Research topic, hypothesis, research problem, research question, research
purpose
63) The is the most frequently obtained score in the data.
a) mean
b) mode
c) median
d) range

64) If categories can be related as proportions (e.g. income, years at school),

we have a(n) scale.
a) nominal b) ordinad e) intermal d) ratio

65) Why is the statement "What are the effects of extracurricular activities on
cognitive development of school age children" not a good statement of a
quantitative research question?
a) Because there is no connection between extracurricular activities and
cognitive development,
b) Because there are not enough school age children engaged in
extracurricular activities to conduct the study
c) Because the study would be too difficult to do given all the different
extracurricular activitie
d) Because the statement was not specific enough to provide an understanding
of the vieablés being investigated

66) The Introduction section of the research plan

a) Gives an overview of prior relevant studies
b) Contains a statement of the purpose of the study
e)Concludes with a statement o research questions and, for quantitative
research, it includes the research hypothesis,
d) All of the above

67) A variable that is presumed to cayse a chánge in another variable is called

a(n)

a) categorical variable;
b) dependent variable
c)ndependent variable,
d) intervening variable

68) la rescarch, something that does not "vary" is called a

a) variable; b) method c) constant; d) control group

69) Sources of researchable problems can include:

a) Researchers' own experiences as educators;
b) Practical issues that require solutions
c)Theory and past researchy
d) All of the above

70) Which of the following is nof a compopent of Guba & Lincoln's criterion,
"trustworthiness"?
a) Transferability
b) Measurability
c) Dependability;
d) Credibility

71) "Married, single, divorced, and widowed" are values of an__________

a) variable;
b) ordinal variable;
c) interval variable;
d) ratio variable

72) Which of the fellowing should be used to display central tendency

a) Variance b) standard deviation
c) Median d) Range
73 ) Which topics below do not lend themselves well to ethnographic research
a) Topics that can be best understood in a palural setting,
b) Topics that involve studying individual or group activities overtimey
c) Topics that require quantification,
d) Topics that involve sudying the behavios of grouph

74) You are commpleting a study on the effect of participation in a volunteer

aiding program on later performance in ESL practice teaching. What is the
dependent variable
a) participation in a volunteer aiding progra,
b) performance in ESL practice teaching
c) completion of a study,
d) ESL

75) You are completing a study on the effect of participation in a volunteer

on later performance in ESL. practice teaching. What is the independent
variable
a) a participant in a volunteer aiding program;
b) performance in ESL practice teaching
c) completion of a study,
d) ESL

76) In which of the following nonrandom sampling techniques does the

peesher ask the research participants to identify other potential research
participant
a) snowball b) Convenience c) Purposive; d) Quota
77) ------------is a set of elements taken from a larger population according to
certain rules
a) Sample b) Population c) Statistic; d) Element

78) What is(are) the problem(s) with this set of response categories to the
question "What is your current age" 1-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40;
a) The categories are not mutually exclusive,
b) The categories are not exhaustive
c) Both a and b are problems;
d) There is no problem with the above set of response categories

79) Which of the following are principles of questionnaire construction

a) Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract constructs;
b) Use multiple items to measure abstract constructs;
c) Avoid double-barreled questions
d) All of the above
e) Only b and c

80) Which of the following is a form of research typically conducted by

teachers, counselors, and other professionals to answer questions they have
and to specifically help them solve local problemy
a) action research;
b) basic research,
c) predictive research;
d) orientational research

81) Which resgarch paradigm is least.concerned about generalizing its

findings?
a) quantitative research,
b) qualitative research
c) mixed research
d) none of the above

82) Which of the following can best be described as a categorical variable?

a) age, b) annual income
c) grade point average d) religion

83) Which of the following includes examples of quantitative variables?

a) age, temperature, income, height,
b) grade point average, anxiety level, reading performance,
c) gender, religion, ethnic group
d) both a and b

84) Which corelation is the strongest

a) +.10 b) -.95 c) +.90 d)-1.00

85) A qualitative research question

a) Asks a question about some process or phenonmenon to be explored,
b) Is generally an open-ended question
c) Both a and b corect
d) None of the above

86) The process of marking segments of data with symbols, descriptive words
or category names is known as_________
a) Concurring
b) Coding
c) Coloring
d) Segmenting
87) Which of the following statements soupds like a null hypothesis?
a) The coin is not fair;
b) There is a correlation in the population
c) There is no difference between male and female incomes in the population,
d) The defendat is guilty

88) A ________is a subset of a _______

a) Sample, population b) Population, sample
c) Statistic, parameter d) Parameter, statistic

89) Identify which of the following steps would not be included in hypothesis
testing
a) State che null and altemative hypotheses;
b) Set the significance level before the research study
c) Eliminate all outliers
d) Obtain the probability value using a computer program such as SPSS;
e) Compare the probability value to the significance level and make the
statistical decision

90) The median is ___________

a) The middle point,
b) The highest mumber,
c) The average;
d) Affected by extreme scores

91) What is the mean of this set of numbers 4, 6, 7,9, 2000000?

a) 75 b) 400.005.
c) 7 d) 4
92) Which of the following is not a data-collection methodt
a) Research questions b) Unstructured interviewing
c) Postal survey questionnaires d) Participant observation

93) Why is data analysis concemed with data reduction?

a) Because far too much data is collected than is required
b) Because we need to make sense of the data
c) Because of the repetitions in answers to questionnaires ;
d) Because the sample size has been exceeded

94) The core ingredients of a diasertation are:

a) Introduction Data collection: Data analysis Conclusions and
recommendations
b) Executive summary, Literature review; Duta gathered Conclusions;
Bibliography
c) Research plan: Research data Analysis References/:
d) Introduction; Literature review, Research methods; Results Discussion;
Conclusion

95) What is the median of this set of numbers: 4,6, 7,9, 2000000?
a) 7.5 b) 6
c) 7 d) 4

96) As a general rule, the _______ is the best measure of central tendency
because it is more precise
a) Mean b) Median, c) Mode d) Range

97) Which of the following does not apply to qualitativa research

a) Data are often words and pictures;
b) Uses the inductive scientific method,
c) Ends withastatistical report,
d) Involves direct and personal contact with participants

98) Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative research?

a) Design flexibility, b) Inductive analysis;
c) Context sensitivity, d) All of the above

99) You have worked out a whole series of role-play activities for your adut-
school ESL. class because you believe that practice in role-play promotes
overall language proficiency. Your study shows that you are correct. What
was the independent variable?
a) adult-school ESL class; b) language proficiency;
c) your belief d) role-play activities

100) Which of the following is usually not a characteristic of qualitative

research?
a) Design flexibility b) Dynamic systems;
c) Naturalistic inquiry d) Deductive design

101) Which of the following techniques yields a simple random sample?

a) Choosing volunteers from an introductory psychology class to participate;
b) Listing the individuals by ethnic group and choosing a proportion from
within cach ethnic group at random.
c) Numbering all the elements of a sampling frame and then using a random
number table to pick cases from the table.;
d) Randomly selecting schools, and then sampling everyone within the
school.
102) __________ is a type of probability sampling
a) Haphazard b) Quota c) Snowball d) Cluster

103) The word "random" is normally used with ________

a) simple sampling
b) purposive sampling
c) stratified sampling
d) cluster sampling

104) Which of the following is not a form of nonrndom sampling

a) Snowball sampling
b) Convenience sampling
c) Quota sampling,
d) Purposive sampling
e) They are all forms of nonrandom sampling

105) Which of the following would generally require the largest sample size
a) Cluster sampling:
b) Simple random sampling
c)Systematie sampling
d) Proportional sttified sampling

106) The process ofawing a sample from a population is known as

a) Sampling b) Census
c) Survey research; d) None of the above

107) Which of the following is not a type of nonrandom sampling

a) Cluster sampling
b) Convenience sampling
c) Quota sampling
d) Purposive sampling
e) They are all type of monrandom sampling

108) When p < .05 is reported in a joumal article that you read for an oberved
relationship. it means that the author has rejected the nu hypothesis (assuming
that the author is using a significance or alpha level of .05)
a) True b) False

109) The use of the laws of probability to make inferences and draw statistical
conclusions about populations based on sample data is referred to as
________

a) Descriptive to statistics; b)Inferential statistic

c)Sample statistics, d) Population statistics

110) As a general rule, researchers tend to use _______percent confidence

intervals.
a) 99% b) 95%
c)50% d) none of the above

111) _______________are used when you want to visually examine the

relatjonship between two quantitative variables.
a) Bar graphs, b) Pie graphs,
c) Line graphs d) Scaterplots to
112) The goal of is to focus on summariajng and explaining a specific set of
data.
a) Inferential statistics b) Descriptive statisticsy
c)None of the above, d) All of the above

113) The_________ is ofee the prefered measure of central tendency if the

data are severely skewed.
a) Mean, b) Median,
c) Mode, d) Range

114) If a distribution is skewed to the left, then it is ________

a) Negatively skewed; b) Positively skewed,
c) Symmetrically skewed; d) Symmetrical

115) Non-overlapping categories or intervals are known as _________

a) Inclusive, b) Exhaustive
c) Mutually exclusive; d) Mutually exclusive and exhaustive

116) In a grouped frequency of distribution, the intervals should be what?

a) Mutually exclusive; b) Exhaustive;
c) Both A and B; d) Neither A nor B

117) The _________ is the value you calculate when you want the arithmetic
average.
a) Mean; b) Median;
c) Mode; d) All of the above

118) Why are variance and standard deviation the most popular measures of
variability?
a)They are the most stable and are foundations for more advanced statistical
analysis,
b) They are the most simple to calculate with large data sets
c) They provide nominally scaled data,
d) None of the above

119) The "equals" sign (=) is included in which hypothesis when conducting
hypothesis testing
a) Null;
b)Alternative
c) it can appear in both the null and the alternative hypothesis

120) A classification system generally used in social sciences that breaks

something down into different types or levels is called a ____________
a) Diagram;
b) Flow chart
c) Hierarchical category system;
d) Category
121) The process of quantifying data is referred to as ___________
a) Diagramming:
b)Typology
c) Egumeration;
d) Coding

122) a What is the median of the following set of scores? 18, 6, 12, 10, 14?
a) 10; b) 14; c) 18 d) 12
123) Determining the sample interval (represented by k), randomly selecting
a number between 1 and k, and including each kth element in your sample are
the steps for which form of sampling?
a) Simple Random Sampling
b) Stratified Random Sampling
c) Systematic Sampling,
d) Cluster sampling

124) Which of the following statements is'are true according to the logic of
hypothesis testing?
a) When the null hypothesis is true, it should be rejected;
b) When the null hypothesis is true, it should not be rejected
c) When the null hypothesis is false, it should be rejected;
d) When the null hypothesis is false, it should not be rejected
e) Both b and c are true

125) The "equals" sign ( = ) is included in which hypothesis when conducting

hypothesis testing
a) Null,
b) Alternative
c)It can appear in both the null and the alternative hypothesis

126) The statement of purpose in a research study sbould:

a) Identify the design of the study;
b) Identify the intent or objective of the study;
c) Specify the type of people to be used in the study,
d) Describe the study
127) What is the defining characteristic of experimental rejearch?
a) resistance to manipulation
b) manipulation of the independent variable
c) the use of open-ended questions;
d) focuses only on local problems

128) A statistical test used to determine whether a correlation coefficient is

statistically significant is called ________
a) One-way analysis of variance
b) t-test for the independent samples
c) Chi-square test for contingency tables,
d) test for correlation

129) When interpreting a correlation coefficient expressing the relationship

between two variables, it is very important to avoid _________
a) checking the strength of relationship:
b) jumping to the conclusion of causality
c) checking the direction of the relationship;
d) expressing a relationship with a corelation coefficient

130) Qualitative research is often exploratory and has all of the following
characteristics except:
a) it is typically used when a great deal is already known about the topic of
interest;
b) it relies un che collection of non-numerical data such as words and
picturese
c) it is used to generate hypotheses and develop theory about phenomena in
the world;
d) it uses the inductive scientific method
131) The strongest evidence for causality comes from which of the following
research method?
a) Experimental; b) Causal-comparative
c) Correlational; d) Ethnography

132) A positive correlation is present when _________

a) two variables move in opposite directions
b) two variables move in the same direction
c) one variable goes up and one goes down
d) sevetal variables never change

133) Which of the following best describes quantitative research?

a)the collection of non- numerical data,
b) an attempt to confirm the researcher's hypotheses
c)research that is exploratory;
d)research that attempts to generate a new theory

134) Research hypotheses are

a) Formulated prior to a review of the literature;
b) Statements of predicted relationships between variables;
c) Stated such that they can be confirmed or refuted
d) b and c

135) The Method section of the research plan typically specifies

a) The research participants,
b) The results of prior studies that address the phenomena of interest,
c) The apparatus, instruments, and materials for the research study,
d) The planned research procedureş
e) a, c and d
136) A review of the literature prior to formulating research questions allows
the researcher to do which of the following?
a) To become familiar with prior research on the phenomenon of interest;
b) To identify potential methodological problems in the researca area;
c) To develop a list of pertinent problems relative to the phenomenon of
interest;
d)All of the above

137) Secondary/existing data may include which-of the following?

a) Official documents;
b) Personal documents;
c) Archived research
d) All of the above

138) Which of the following terms best describes data that were originally
collected at an earlier time by a different person for a different purpose?
a) Primary datag
b) Secondary data,
c) Experimental data;
d) Field notes

139) What does it mean when you calculate a 95% confidence interval?
a) The process you used will capture the true parameter of 95% of the time in
the long run,
b) You can be "95% confident" that your interval will include the population
parametek
c)You can be "5% confident" that your interval will not include the population
parameter,
d) All of the above statements are true.
140) An advantage of using computer programs for qualitative data is that
they
a) Can reduce time required to analyze data (i.e, after the data are transcribed),
b) Help in storing and organizing data
c) Make many procedures available that are rarely done by hand due to time
constraints;
d) All of the above
PART B (1.5 marks): Revise and rewrite the following reference entries in
the APA style where necessary.
Work cited

1. Diana Larsen -Freeman and Lynne Cameron. (2008). Complex Systems

cand Applied Linguistics. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
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2. Logan Fiorella. (2013). The Relative Benefits of Learning by Teaching

and Teaching Expectancy. Contemporary Educational Psychology 38
(2013) 281–288.
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3. Buton, A. (2005). Task Based Language Learning: For the state
secondary FL classroom? Language Learning Journal, No 31, 55-68.
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4. Asifa Sultana. (2009). Peer correction in ESL classrooms. BRAC

University Journal, vol.1, No.1, 2009, Pp. 11-19.
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5. Williams, J. (1995). Focus on form in communicative language teaching:

research findings and the classroom teacher. TESOL Journal volume 4,
issue 4, pages 12-16.
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PART C (1 mark): The ages of students enrolled in on Detroit Community
Adult School ESL class are: 21, 28, 42, 31, 24, 26,24 ,23, 29, 32, 33,41, 37,
22, 24, 21, 21. Find MEAN, MODE, MEDIAN for age. What are the
RANGE, VARIANCE and STANDARD DEVIATION for age?
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 PART D (1.5 marks): The researcher wanted to answer the main research
question about the educational value of applying rhetorical schema into
improving learners' listening comprehension in academic situations. The
results of the pre-test for the two groups are presented in the following tables.
Is the disparity in the means statistically significant? What inferential
conclusion can you make at the start of research? Write a report.

Std.
Class N Mean Std. Error Mean
Deviation
Pre-test
EG 21 5.095 1.5217 .3321
CG 19 5.184 1.4739 .3381

Levene’s Test for

Equality of t-Test for Equality of Means
Variances
Sig.
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df (2-
difference Difference
tailed)
Pre-test Equal
variances .000 .983 .187 38 .852 .0890 .4747
assumed
Equal
variances
.188 37.81 .852 .0890 .4739
not
assumed
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PART E (2.0 marks): Children in an elementary school were tested for
speech and hearing disabilities. Is there a difference in frequency related to
gender? Write a report.
Boys Girls
Normal 250 264
Disorder 19 7

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PART F (2.0 marks): The researcher wants to find out if there is any
correlation between aptitude and achievement in language leaming. Use
Pearson Product Moment Correlation to check and write a report.
Aptitude Achievement
10 20
25 10
20 30
30 30
10 80
40 80
50 50
60 30
 Bài làm
8.(10.20 + 25.10 + 20.30 + 30.30 + 10.80 + 40.80 + 50.50 + 60.30) - (10 + 25 + 20 + 30 + 10 + 40 + 50 + 60)(20 + 10 + 30 + 30 + 80 + 80 + 50 + 30)
r=
éë8.(102 + 252 + 202 + 302 + 102 + 402 + 502 + 602 ) - (10 + 25 + 20 + 30 + 10 + 40 + 50 + 60)2 ùû . éë8.(202 + 102 + 302 + 302 + 802 + 802 + 502 + 302 ) - (20 + 10 + 30 + 30 + 80 + 80 + 50 + 30)2 ùû
8.10250 - 245.330
r=
[8.9825 - 60025].[8.18500 - 108900]
1150
r=
726282500
r » 0,04267

df = (c - 1)(r - 1) = (2 - 1).(8 - 1) = 7
critical value = 0,666
r = 0,0426 < critical value
p = 0.025

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 Abbreviation Meanings
df Degree of freedom Bậc tự do
Sig. Significant level Mức ý nghĩa
p-value probability value. Giả thiết
Std. Deviation Standard Deviation Độ lệch chuẩn
Variance Phương sai
Mean Trung bình
Mode Mode
Median Trung vị
p Percentile Phân vị
Std. Error Mean Standard Error of the Sai số chuẩn
Mean
N Sample size Kích thức mẫu