Naval Architecture-II

UNIT-I Ship Resistance & Powering:- Components of Ship Resistance, Determination of Ship
Resistance, Froude’s Law of comparison, Effective power Calculations, Ship correlation factor (SCF),
Admiralty coefficient, Fuel coefficient & Fuel consumption, Application of ITTC method

INTRODUCTION

The resistance R of a ship is the force that opposes the forward motion of the ship at a constant speed V
in a straight line in still water. The power required to overcome this resistance is called the effective
power PE:
PE  R  V

• What is the unique feature of any type of ship? - ‘To move’ is a basic function of any type of ship
– On her own,
– Efficiently.

What is movement? - Movement creates resistance against the motion.

– Depends on the medium
• Water offers more resistance than air
• Man swimming
– Resistance needs to be overcome for mobility
• Create a thrust which will overcome the resistance.
– oars
– sails
– Paddle wheel
– Propeller
• Needs energy (prime mover) to create the thrust
–human power
–wind power
–IC engines
– Gas / steam turbines
– Nuclear.
Components of Ship Resistance:

For a ship moving at the surface of water, the resistance is composed of air and wind resistance and
hydrodynamic resistance.

 Water resistance (submerged part of a hull)

 Air resistance (upper part of hull & superstructure)

For practical purposes, it is sufficient to divide the total bare hull resistance into two components:

- frictional resistance,
- Residuary resistance, which is mainly wave resistance.

Wave-Making Resistance: Due to these dynamic pressures waves are generated on the surface of water
and spread away from a ship. Waves possess energy. Thus a ship making waves means a loss of its
energy. Wave-making resistance is important to surface ships, especially those of high speeds, but may
be negligible to submarines.

Frictional Resistance: arising due to the viscosity of water, i.e. tangential stresses. Because of viscosity &
velocity gradient in the direction normal to the ship hull, there is a mass of fluid being dragged along
with a ship. Energy necessary to drag the mass of fluid is the work done by the ship against the frictional
resistance.
The resistance calculated from the change of momentum in the wake is called wake resistance. (The
variation of flow behind the ship due to forward motion is called wake)

Viscous pressure resistance: - The pressure distribution around a three-dimensional body is different from
that around a two-dimensional body. In an inviscid flow, the pressure distribution does not lead to any
resistance. In viscous flow, the pressure gradually reduces from forward to aft compared to the pressure
in inviscid flow. This gives rise to viscous pressure resistance.

Eddy Resistance: If the hull is excessively curved at the stern, the flow separates from the hull surface
and gives rise to eddies or vortices. The additional resistance due to separation of flow and the
generation of eddies is called separation drag or eddy resistance.

Air resistance (mainly resulting from wind resistance).

Appendage resistances: are caused by the appendages of a ship, such as propellers, rudders and bilge
keels. Part of the pressure resistance that is due to viscosity is called the viscous pressure resistance.

Resistance determined from the wave pattern in called wave pattern resistance.

Ship Wave Pattern:-

Lord Kelvin (1887) considered a single pressure point traveling in a straight line over the surface of the
water, sending out waves which combine to form a characteristic pattern.

Kelvin wave pattern illustrates and explains many of the features of ship waves. Ship wave pattern is
similar to the combination of two Kelvin wave systems generated by two pressure points, with one near
the bow and the other near the stern.

The difference between the frictional resistance of a three-dimensional body such as a ship and a plane
surface (flat plate) is called form resistance.

In ships that have very full forebodies, the flow just ahead of the bow becomes disturbed and the bow
wave’s break, and this results in wave breaking resistance, and is a minor component of resistance that
is already included in wave resistance.
Determination of Ship Resistance:-

For practical purposes, it is sufficient to divide the total bare hull resistance into two components:
- frictional resistance,
- Residuary resistance, which is mainly wave resistance.

Frictional resistance:-

• As the ship moves through the water, friction between the hull and the water causes a belt of
eddying water adjacent to the hull to be drawn along with the ship, although at a reduced
speed.
• The belt moves aft and new particles of water are continually set in motion, the force required
to produce this motion being provided by the ship.
• The frictional resistance of a ship depends upon:
 the speed of the ship
 the wetted surface area
 the length of the ship
 the roughness of the hull
 the density of the water

Wm Froude developed the formula for calculation of frictional resistance:

Where
f, is a coefficient which depends upon the length of the ship
L, the roughness of the hull and the density of the water.
S, is the wetted surface area in m2
V is the ship speed in knots
n is an index of about 1.825

The vaIue of for a mild steel hull in sea water:-

f is reduced as the length of the ship is increased.

• In a slow or medium-speed ship the frictional resistance forms the major part of the total
resistance, and may be as much as 75 % of R.
• The importance of surface roughness may be seen when a ship is badly fouled with marine
growth or heavily corroded, when the speed of the ship may be considerably reduced.
Residuary resistance:-
Froude’s Law of comparison:-

Model Experiments:-
Effective power Calculations:-

The resistance R of a ship is the force that opposes the forward motion of the ship at a constant speed V
in a straight line in still water. The power required to overcome this resistance is called the effective
power PE:
PE  R  V

Ship correlation factor (SCF):-

The model is tested without appendages such as rudder and bilge keels. An allowance must therefore be
made for these appendages and also the general disturbance of the water at sea compared with tank
conditions. This allowance is known as the ship correlation factor (SCF).
The power obtained directly from the model tests is known as the effective power (naked)
(ep,). The true effective power is the e p multiplied by the ship correlation factor.

Admiralty coefficient:-
Fuel coefficient & Fuel consumption:-
Application of ITTC method:-

Fundamentals:-

Dimensional Analysis

The total resistance RT of a ship or model of a given geometry may be regarded as being a
function of the size of the ship expressed in terms of its length L, the ship speed V, the density  and
the viscosity  of the liquid in which the ship is moving, the acceleration of gravity g, and the pressure
p defined in some specific manner :

RT  f  L,V ,  ,  , g , p    k La V b  c  d g e p f

Where k is a constant. Dimensional analysis then gives :

RT   gL p 
 f , 2, 2 
.
L V   VL V  V 
2 2

This is normally written as follows:

RT VL V p  V L V p 
 f  , ,   f  , , 
1
 SV 2    gL 1  V 2    g L 1
 V 2 
2  2   2 

or

CT  f  Rn , Fn , En 

Where:

RT
CT  is the total resistance coefficient
1
2
 SV 2

S is the wetted surface, proportional to L2

VL
Rn  is the Reynolds number, named after Osborne Reynolds known for his experiments

on viscous fluids among other things,

    is the kinematic viscosity,

V
Fn  is the Froude number, and
gL
 p
En  is the Euler number.
1
2
V 2

“Froude similarity” automatically ensures the equality of Euler numbers if the pressure is hydrostaticOne
may therefore write:

CT  f  Rn , Fn 

Which, following Froude, can be written as :

CT  CV ( Rn )  CW ( Fn )

Where:

CV  RV 1
2
 SV 2 is the viscous resistance coefficient, assumed to be a function of
Reynolds number only for a given geometry, and

CW  RW 1
2
 SV 2 is the wave resistance coefficient, assumed to be a function of Froude
number only for a given geometry.

This gives another expression of the Froude law : for geometrically similar ships, the wave
resistance coefficient is constant if the Froude number is constant.

Resistance Experiment

The ship model is ballasted to the correct draught and trim and attached to the towing carriage through
the resistance dynamometer. The model is towed at a steady speed by the towing carriage and the tow
force (equal to the resistance) applied to the model through the resistance dynamometer is measured.
Resistance tests are carried out over a range of speeds for the bare model hull and also for the model
with appendages.

Analysis of Model Resistance Data

The differences between the model experiment and the ship trial are taken into account by adding a
correlation allowance CA to the total resistance coefficient CTS of the ship determined from the model
resistance. Alternatively, the total resistance coefficient of the ship may be multiplied by a ship
correlation factor. These correlation allowances or correlation factors are based on the experience with
previous ships. The International Towing Tank Conference has proposed a standard method to
determine the resistance of a ship from resistance experiments with a model.
ITTC METHOD:-
Problems
 Naval Architecture-II
UNIT-II
Ship Propulsion of ships and Propellers: - Propellers- geometry terminology, Apparent slip and real slip.
Power and efficiency in ship propulsion system. QPC, Law of similitude and model tests with propellers.
Open water characteristics, propeller diagrams, wake and wake distribution, Thrust deduction fraction.
Cavitation- Cavitation flows, types of propeller cavitation, effects of cavitation, Prevention of cavitation.
Special types of propeller- FPP, CPP, Propellers in Nozzles, Paddle wheel. Vertical axis propellers:- Voith
Schneider propellers, Jet propellers,. Ship Model correlation, ship trials.
Introduction:

Ships can be characterized in several ways. From the point of view of propulsion, ships may be either
self-propelled or non-propelled requiring external assistance to move from one point to another. Most
self-propelled ships have very similar propulsion arrangements. However, there are some types of very
high speed vessels such as hovercraft and hydrofoil craft that make use of unconventional propulsion
systems.
Historical development: Development of propulsion Propulsion Devices
machinery associated with development of
propulsive devices.Propulsion Machinery
 Sails, human power: earliest means of  Sails and oars.
propelling small ships.  Paddle wheel first mechanical propulsion
Mechanical propulsion for ships introduced in devices. Efficiency good, not suitable for ships
beginning of 19th century. Thereafter, ship size running at variable draft, increases beam of
began gradually increasing. ship, not effective during heavy rolling motions
 Steam reciprocating engines started of ships. The first mechanical propulsion device
operation in Scotland in 1801. Reciprocating to be widely used in ships was the paddle
steam engines were popular till beginning of wheel.
20th century. First marine steam turbine  Paddle wheels were gradually superseded by
fitted in Turbinia in 1894. Ships with steam screw propellers. The screw propeller has now
turbines are becoming fewer. become the predominant propulsion device
 Some ships are fitted with gas turbines. used in ships. Some variants of the screw
Steam turbines and gas turbines run at very high propeller are used for special applications.
speeds (rpm) and some arrangement such as  These include ducted propellers, controllable
reduction gearing to reduce the rpm to a value pitch propellers, supercavitating propellers,
suitable for the propeller is necessary. Gas turbines contrarotating propellers, surface piercing
are sometimes combined with other engines for propellers and podded propellers.
ship propulsion.  Cycloidal propellers and waterjet propulsion are
 From 1892, diesel engines became popular also used for ship propulsion.
for ships and have continued till date. Most  Magnetohydrodynamic drive
ships today are fitted with diesel engines for
propulsion.
 Some ships have electric propulsion in
which the main engine drives a generator to
produce electricity which is then used by an
electric motor to drive the propeller.
 Nuclear ship propulsion has been
considered, but apart from a few
 experimental ships, it has only been used
for the propulsion of large submarines.
Propellers- geometry terminology:- Screw propeller :
Apparent slip and real slip:-
Power and efficiency in ship propulsion system:-
QPC:-

Due to the losses in the propeller, the power delivered to the propeller (PD) at the shaft output
should be more than the effective power (PE). The ratio of the effective power to the delivered
power is called Quasi Propulsive Coefficient (QPC). QPC usually ranges from 0.55 to 0.65.

Law of similitude and model tests with propellers:-

Laws of similarity:-
For studying the performance of a propeller, or indeed studying hydrodynamic phenomena in
general through the use of models, the conditions that need to be fulfilled are:
(i) condition of geometrical similarity
(ii) condition of kinematic similarity
(iii) condition of kinetic (dynamic) similarity.

The laws of similarity for propellers may be obtained directly by dimensional analysis.
 If the thrust T of a propeller depends upon its size as characterized by its diameter D, its
speed of advance VA and revolution rate n, the density  and viscosity  of the fluid, the
acceleration due to gravity g and a suitably defined pressure p, one may write :
T  f  D, VA , n,  ,  , g , p 

Dimensional analysis then gives the result:

T  V   V D   V   p 
 f  A   A   A   1 
2 
 D 2 VA2  nD      gD 
  2 A 
V

T VA2 T  V VA VA D p 
Or   f  A
, , , 
 D 2 VA2 n 2 D 2  n 2 D 4  nD g D  1
 V 2 
 2 A 

This is written as: KT  f  J , Fn , Rn , En 

Similarly, it can be shown that: KQ  f  J , Fn , Rn , En 

T
where : KT  is the thrust coefficient
 n2 D 4

Q
KQ  is the torque coefficient
 n 2 D5

VA
J is the advance coefficient
nD

VA
Fn  is the Froude number
gD

VA D
Rn  is the Reynolds number


p
En  is the Euler number.
1
2
 VA2

The thrust and torque coefficients along with the advance coefficient J and the open water
efficiency :
T VA K J
O   T
2 n Q K Q 2

are generally used to describe the open water characteristics of a propeller.

 For most propellers, the effect of Froude number, Reynolds number and the Euler
number is small, and it is usual to regard the thrust and torque coefficients as functions only of
the advance coefficient. However, when a propeller “cavitates”, a form of the Euler number
called the cavitation number must be included.

Model tests with propellers:-

Typical Plotting of open water experiments results:-

Wake

The effect of the disturbance created behind the ship by its forward motion is to impart a velocity
to the particles of water in the wake.
This wake velocity arises basically from three causes:
(a) the velocity field (streamlines) around the three-dimensional hull form that can be calculated
for an inviscid fluid using potential theory,
(b) the effect of viscosity that results in the formation on the hull surface of a boundary layer
that continues behind the ship, and
(c) the orbital velocities of the water particles due to the waves generated by the ship. These
three components of the wake are known as potential or streamline wake, viscous, frictional or
boundary layer wake and wave wake respectively.

The wake velocity is not uniform over the propeller disc and has axial, radial and
tangential components. The ratio of the average axial wake velocity to the speed of the ship is
known as the wake fraction w, so that :

VA  1  wV

The wake fraction can be determined by measuring the axial wake velocity at a number of points
in the propeller disc and calculating the average. This is difficult, and the more usual method is
to compare at constant propeller revolutions per unit time the speed of advance of the propeller
in open water and the speed of the ship (or model) when the propeller produces either the same
thrust or the same torque in both the open water condition and the behind condition.

Thrust Deduction

When a propeller produces thrust it accelerates the water flowing through the propeller
disc and reduces the pressure in the flow field ahead of it. The increased velocity of water and
the reduced pressure at the stern of the ship cause an increase in its resistance. Since this
increase in resistance is the effect of the propeller producing thrust, it is convenient to regard it as
a decrease in the thrust. The ratio of this decrease in thrust to the actual thrust of the propeller is
the thrust deduction fraction t, and hence :

RT  1  t  T

The thrust deduction fraction is related to the wake fraction, a high wake fraction usually
being associated with a high thrust deduction fraction. The thrust deduction fraction also depends
to some extent on the rudder if placed in the slipstream of the propeller.

Relative Rotative Efficiency

 Since the propeller in the open water condition works in undisturbed water whereas the
propeller behind the ship works in water that has been disturbed by the ship, the efficiencies of
the propeller in the two conditions are not equal. The ratio of the efficiency  B of the propeller
working behind the ship to the efficiency O of the propeller in open water is called the relative
rotative efficiency R .

Cavitation- Cavitation flows, types of propeller cavitation, effects of cavitation, Prevention of

cavitation.

ACTION OF PROPELLER:-

Cavitation:-
Phenomenon on highly loaded propellers
How does it happen?
Drop of pressure on back of blade beyond certain limits
Bubbles form and then they move towards trailing edge
Bubbles collapse when pressure gets higher towards trailing edge.

Phenomena:-
Types of propeller cavitation:-
SHEET CAVITATION
–APPEARS LIKE A THIN SHEET ALL OVER THE SURFACE.
BUBBLE CAVITATION
–APPERARS AS LARGE INDIVIDUAL BUBBLES.
CLOUD CAVITATION
–APPEARS AS A CLOUD OF FINE BUBBLES
TIP VORTEX
–ATTACHED AND UNATTACHED
–HAPPENS AT THE TIP. LOOKS UNATTACHED TO THE TIP IN EARLY STAGES
–LATER IT APPEARS ATTACHED TO THE TIP
HUB VORTEX

Cavitation in a propeller may be classified according to the region on the propeller where it occurs, viz.
tip cavitation, root cavitation, boss or hub cavitation, leading edge cavitation, trailing edge cavitation,
face cavitation and back cavitation. Cavitation may also be classified according to the nature of the
cavities or their appearance: sheet cavitation, spot cavitation, streak cavitation, cloud cavitation, bubble
cavitation and vortex cavitation

Effects of cavitation:-
When cavitation occurs depending upon its extend and severity, the propeller may suffer from:-

i) Performance breakdown
ii) Noise
iii) Vibration
iv) Erosion

Cavitation affects the nature of the flow around a propeller since the flow is no longer
homogeneous. The formation of cavities has the effect of virtually altering the shape of the propeller
blade sections, and as a result the thrust and, to a lesser extent, the torque of the propeller are reduced,
and so also the propeller efficiency. Erosion due to cavitation can also cause serious damage to a
propeller, and sometimes to a rudder placed in the propeller slipstream. Another important effect of
propeller cavitation is vibration and noise.

Prevention of cavitation:-

Owing to the detrimental effects of cavitation, propellers are normally designed so that they do not
cavitate in their operating conditions, or at least so that cavitation is restricted to a level at which its
effects are negligible. Propeller cavitation can be reduced or eliminated basically by three methods :

(i) Increasing the cavitation number,

(ii) Decreasing the loading on the propeller,
(iii) Designing the propeller for uniform loading.
Special types of propeller- FPP, CPP, Propellers in Nozzles, Paddle wheel. Vertical axis propellers:-
Voith Schneider propellers, Jet propellers.
Propellers in Nozzles
Propellers in Nozzle:-

• A screw propeller surrounded by nozzle

• Two types – Accelerating & Decelerating
• Accelerating ducts are used in heavily loaded propellers
• The small clearance between the propeller blade tips and the duct suppresses the trailing free
vortices shed by the blades
• Duct develops thrust and also drag, drag substantially less than thrust
• Thrust of propeller + duct > an equivalent open propeller (i.e. one without a duct) whereas the
torque is smaller.

• The efficiency of the ducted propeller is therefore greater than that of the open propeller

• This may also be explained by the reduced kinetic energy losses in the slipstream due to the
suppression of the trailing vortices and the reduction of the slipstream contractionA
decelerating duct decreases the inflow velocity into the propeller

• Therefore the pressure at the propeller location increases and delays cavitation

• The duct generated thrust is negative (pointing aft)

• The efficiency of a ducted propeller with a decelerating duct is lower than that of an
equivalent open propeller, but its cavitation properties are superior.
• Decelerating ducts are usually used for high speed vessels where cavitation and underwater
noise reduction are vital.
Vertical axis propellers:- Voith Schneider propellers, Jet propellers:-

Horizontal disc carrying a number of aerofoil shaped vertical blades.

As the disc turns the blades are caused to turn about their vertical axes so that they create a thrust.
For normal propulsion the blades are set so that the thrust is fore and aft.
To turn the ship, the blades are adjusted so that the thrust is at an angle. They can produce lateral thrust
even at low ship speed.

Voith Schneider propellers:-

The system is also called vertical axis propellers which comprise a set of vertically mounted
vanes, six or eight in number, rotating on a disc mounted in a horizontal or near horizontal plane.
Consists of blades fitted to a disc which revolves about a vertical or nearly vertical axis while the
blades are made to rotate about their own individual axes through a mechanical linkage system.
By controlling the orientation of the blades the propeller can be made to produce a thrust in any
horizontal direction.
The system has considerable advantages when manoeuvrability or station keeping is an
important factor in the ship design.
A separate rudder installation on the vessel is not required.
The system provides with guards to help protect the propulsor from damage from external
sources.
Vertical axis propellers are fitted in tugs or other cases where low speed manoeuvrability is
desired.
These propellers are usually fitted in pairs.
Voith-Schneider propellers have a lower efficiency than conventional propellers but provide
exceptional manoeuvrability.
The complex mechanism requiring high maintenance is a disadvantage.
Ship Model correlation:-

Ship models for use in resistance tests are made of a variety of materials to be geometrically similar to
the ship.

The size of the model or model scale  is decided on the basis of several factors, including the capacity
of the laboratory, the dimensional accuracy of the model and the accuracy of measurements.

An important consideration in deciding model size is the need to have a sufficiently high Reynolds
number so that the flow around the model is turbulent.

It is usual to take special precautions to ensure turbulent flow around ship models, firstly by making
them sufficiently large and secondly by adopting methods for artificial turbulence stimulation.

The occurrence of laminar flow around a ship model can be deduced from the shape of the total
resistance coefficient curve.

There is also an upper limit to the size of a ship model due to the effects that the tank boundaries on the
flow around the ship model or blockage effects.
The differences between the model experiment and the ship trial are taken into account by adding a
correlation allowance CA to the total resistance coefficient CTS of the ship determined from the model
resistance.

Alternatively, the total resistance coefficient of the ship may be multiplied by a ship correlation factor.

These correlation allowances or correlation factors are based on the experience with previous ships.

The International Towing Tank Conference has proposed a standard method to determine the resistance
of a ship from resistance experiments with a model.

Self-propulsion experiments are used to determine the performance of the ship hull and propeller taken
together.
An analysis of the results of a self-propulsion experiment allows one to predict the delivered power and
the revolution rate of the ship propeller at a given speed of the ship, and to determine the wake
fraction, thrust deduction fraction and relative rotative efficiency.
For a self-propulsion experiment, the model propeller is fitted in its correct position at the stern of the
ship model and connected to a propeller dynamometer for measuring the thrust and torque of the
propeller at various revolution rates.
The ship model is attached to a resistance dynamometer, which in this test measures the force required
to make the ship model move at a constant speed with the propeller running.
The model is towed at a steady speed with the propeller running at a constant revolution rate, and the
thrust and torque of the propeller and the force applied to the ship model through the resistance
dynamometer are measured.
When the model moves at a constant speed due to the propeller thrust alone, no force being applied
through the resistance dynamometer, one obtains the “model self-propulsion point”.
This in general does not represent the actual conditions of the ship at the corresponding speed because
the total resistance coefficients of the model and the ship are not equal due to their Reynolds numbers
being different and other factors.
This difference is accounted for by applying an additional force to the model to obtain the “ship self-
propulsion point on the model”.
The measured propeller thrust and torque at this point, as well as the model speed and propeller
revolutions allow the propulsion factors – wake fraction, thrust deduction fraction and relative rotative
efficiency – to be determined along with the delivered power and propeller revolutions per unit time.
These values need to be multiplied by appropriate correlation factors based on experience.

Ship trials:-

A wide range of tests and trials are carried out on the ship as a part of its construction.
Tests- shop test & Installation test. Trials- dock trials and speed trials are basically tests of the
ship propulsion system.

Dock Trials
 Dock trials of the propulsion system are carried out basically to ensure that all the components
of the system are working satisfactorily so that the ship can be taken out to sea without risk of system
failure. The propulsion plant run is run with the ship is secured. Since the ship is stationary, the
maximum speed (rpm) at which the engine may be allowed to run is limited by the maximum torque or
thrust that is permissible, the allowable loads in the mooring system and the disturbance created by the
propeller in the dock or basin in which the dock trials are carried out.
Speed Trials

The speed trials of a ship may have many objectives:

 to determine the relationship between ship speed, engine power and propeller rpm,
 to see that the ship meets its contract requirements,
 to determine the correlation with model test data.

The basic procedure for carrying out speed trials is to run the ship several times in opposite
directions over a known distance (usually one nautical mile) and measure the time taken to traverse this
distance along with measurements of propeller rpm, engine power and, if possible, propeller thrust.
Runs in opposite directions are necessary to eliminate the effect of currents in the water and obtain the
true speed of the ship through the water. It is important to carry out the speed trials in good weather
with low winds and a calm sea. The “measured mile” over which the speed trials are carried out must
fulfill certain requirements.
Ship Propeller & Machinery Interaction:

Ship propulsion system is that part of marine engineering concerned by the design / selection of main
propulsion plant equipments and machineries. The main role of this plant is to produce enough power
to overcome the ship resistance and to generate the needed electric power for the various applications
onboard the ship (lighting, control systems, pumps, navigation equipments, HVAC, etc).
Ship Propeller Interaction

It can be seen in there 3 aspects:-

Certain mass of water is carried out along with the hull- considering such as the boundary layer. This
shows that avg velocity of water relative to the propeller disc, is not equal to velocity of advance of
propeller, relative to still water.

Velocity of water will vary both in magnitude and direction across the propeller disc and the
performance of propeller will differ from that in open water (where it allows the difference in avg
velocity).

Propeller action itself, will result in increase in resistance, bcoz the propeller causes variation in local
pressures in the water which will react on the hull.

Difference b/w the ship speed and the speed of water is known as “Wake”

Wake- combination of boundary layer associated with skin friction (flow velocities due to streamlined
form of ship and the orbital velocities of the waves created by the ship)

If the water is moving in the same direction as the ship, then the wake is said to be positive

If we take ship speed as V and the avg velocity of water relative to the hull at the propeller position is V1,
then

Wake= V- V1
To non-dimensionalize this relation, wake can be divided by V- V1, and which was proposed by Froude
and later by Taylor, leading to wake factors:-

which are clearly two ways of expressing the phenomena.

We have seen about the avg flow of water relative to the hull, there will be variations in velocity near
the propeller disc.

When we approach the hull very closely, it is seen that water moves less fast relative to the ship.

Apart from this general effect of hull, there will be deviation due to shaft, bossings, brackets, and
appendages, and the flow will not be same as seen around propeller disc.

This effect is known as relative rotative efficiency.

Since the propeller in the open water condition works in undisturbed water whereas the propeller
behind the ship works in water that has been disturbed by the ship, the efficiencies of the propeller
in the two conditions are not equal.

The ratio of the efficiency of the propeller working behind the ship to the efficiency of the
propeller in open water is called the relative rotative efficiency.

It is observed that, there is an influence on the hull of pressure variations induced due to the action of
propeller.

The objective of the propeller is concerned it has to produce a thrust “T” which is to be greater than the
resistance R of the hull without the propeller.

As with the wake, there are 2 ways of expressing this physical phenomenon, and is considered as an
“augment of resistance”, a, where
Or it can be regarded as thrust deduction fraction, t,
Influence of condition of Ship:-

Fouling:

The propeller must be kept unfouled by marine organisms and free of nicks and scratches. Fouling
causes a reduction in propeller efficiency as well as the increased chance for cavitation. Even a small
scratch can cause significant spot cavitation and result in an increase in radiated noise as well as erosion
of the blades. Regular underwater inspections and cleaning of propellers should be carried out to
prevent the effects of fouling.

Number of propeller blades:-

Propellers can be manufactured with 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 blades. The fewer the number of blades, the higher
the propeller efficiency will be. However, for reasons of strength, propellers which are to be subjected
to heavy loads cannot be manufactured with only two or three blades. Normally 4, 5 and 6-bladed
propellers are used on merchant ships. Ships with a relatively large power requirement and heavily
loaded propellers, e.g. container ships, may need 5 or 6-bladed propellers. The optimum propeller speed
depends on the number of propeller blades. Thus, for the same propeller diameter, a 6-bladed propeller
has an about 10% lower optimum propeller speed than a 5-bladed. For vibrational reasons, propellers
with certain numbers of blades may be avoided in individual cases in order not to give rise to the
excitation of natural frequencies in the ship’s hull or superstructure.

Influence of propeller diameter and pitch/diameter ratio on propulsive efficiency ηD.

As already mentioned, the highest possible propulsive efficiency required to provide a given ship speed
is obtained with the largest possible propeller diameter d, in combination with the corresponding,
optimum pitch/diameter ratio p/d.

Propeller diameter d
With a view to obtaining the highest possible propulsive efficiency, the largest possible propeller
diameter d will, normally, be preferred.
There are, however, special conditions to be considered.
For one thing, the aftbody form of the hull can vary greatly depending on type of ship and ship design,
for another, the necessary clearance between the tip of the propeller and the hull will depend on the
type of propeller.
For bulkers and tankers, which are often sailing in ballast condition, there are frequent demands that
the propeller shall be fully immersed also in this condition, giving some limitation to the propeller size.
This propeller size limitation is not particularly valid for container ships as they rarely sail in ballast
condition.
All the above factors mean that an exact propeller diameter/design draught ratio d/D cannot be given
here but, as a rule-of-thumb, the below mentioned approximations of the diameter/design draught ratio
d/D can be presented.
In general, the larger the propeller diameter, the higher the propeller efficiency and the lower the
optimum propeller speed referring to an optimum ratio of the propeller pitch and propeller
diameter.
Propeller Clearances
The propeller blades revolving regularly past fixed parts of the ship produce hydrodynamic impulses
which are transmitted into the ship's interior via both external shell and the propeller shaft. The
pressure impulses decrease the further the propeller blade tips are from the ship's hull and rudder.
These gaps are called propeller clearance. The propeller clearance affects:
 the power requirement,
 vibration-excitation of propeller and stern,
 propeller diameter and optimum propeller speed and
 fluctuations in torque

Vibrations may be disturbing to those on board and also cause fatigue in the structure. The
classification societies give the geometrical clearances

Heavy running of a propeller

Propeller law for heavy running propeller
When, the ship’s hull after some time in service has become fouled and thus become more rough, the
wake field will be different from that of the smooth ship (clean hull) valid at trial trip conditions.
A ship with a fouled hull will be subjected to extra resistance which will result to a “heavy propeller
condition”, i.e. at the same propeller power, the rate of revolution will be lower.
The same relative considerations apply when the ship is sailing in a heavy sea against the current, a
strong wind, and heavy waves, where also the heavy waves in tail wind may give rise to a heavier
propeller running than when running in calm weather. (tailwind is a wind that blows in the direction
of travel of an object, while a headwind blows against the direction of travel.)

On the other hand, if the ship is sailing in ballast condition, i.e. with a lower displacement, the “lighter”
propeller curve, i.e. at the same propeller power; the propeller rate of revolution will be higher.
Ship trials:-
 (i)
the displacement and trim of the ship,
(ii) the environmental conditions, and
(iii) the condition of the hull surface and the propeller.
Speed Trials

Suppose the owner cited a speed requirement of 15 knots. But the vessel is operating at a speed of 16
knots at the required draft. What happens next is a penalty imposed on the shipyard. However, there is
a grace margin of 0.3 knots above which for every 0.1 knots the penalty increases.
As mentioned under the draft requirement heading, speed trials are carried out to check the speed of
the vessel at the required draft as per the contract.
The test is carried out at a minimum of 3 powers – such as 75%, 85%, 100% MCR (Maximum Continuous
Rating) or any other power as per the contract.
The speed at each power is measured using the Global Positioning System (GPS) by running the ship in
two opposite directions (called double run).
Now the speed measured at suppose three powers are plotted to give a speed-power curve.
Finally, from the curve, the speed corresponding to the required power as outlined in the contract is
noted.

Crash Stop Tests

In this test, the stopping ability of a vessel is assessed.

When the vessel is moving at full ahead speed, the engine is reversed to full astern to commence
stopping of the vessel
The time taken by the vessel to come to a complete halt is recorded.
The distance travelled by ship starting from the moment the lever was put to full astern until the ship
stopped is noted

Astern Running

All vessels should have the manoeuvring capability to run in the astern direction as per rules. Hence
during sea trials, the vessel is run in the astern direction at about 70% ahead MCR by running the engine
in reverse direction.
When a rudder is turned from the centreline plane to any angle, the water flows round the rudder and
creates an additional resistance on that side of the centreline.

The force F which acts on the rudder parallel to the centreline has two components:

(a) the force created by the formation of streamlines round the rudder, i.e. due to the change in
direction of the water.

(b) the suction on the after side of the rudder caused by eddying.

This force “F” folIows the laws of fluid friction and may be determined from the expression.

The area of rudder is not specified by Classification Societies, but experience has shown that the area
should be related to the area of the middle-line plane (i.e. 1ength of ship x draught), and values of one
sixtieth for fast ships and one seventieth for slow ships have been found successful.
If the rudder is turned to an angle a, then the component of force acting normal to the plane of the
rudder F, is given by:

This force F, acts at the centre of effort of the rudder.

The position of the center of effort varies with the shape of the rudder and the rudder angle.

For rectangular rudders the centre of effort is between 20 % and 38 % of the width of the rudder from
the leading edge.,

The effect of the normal force is to tend to push the rudder back to its centreline position, Such
movement is resisted by the rudder stock and the steering gear.

It is therefore possible to calculate the turning moment or torque on the rudder stock.

If the centre of effort is b m from the centre of the rudder stock, then at any angle ,
From the basic torsion equation the diameter of the stock may be found for any given allowable stress.

For any rudder, at constant ship speed, values of torque may be plotted on a base of rudder angle.

The area under this curve up to any angle is the work done in turning the rudder to this angle, and may
be found by the use of Simpson's Rule.

Care must be taken to express the common interval in radians, not degrees.
If the centre of the rudder stock is between 20 % and 38 % of the width of the rudder from the Ieading
edge, then at a given angle the centre of stock will coincide with the centre of effort and thus there will
be no torque. The rudder is then said to be balanced.

At any other rudder angle the centre of stock and effort will not coincide and there will be a torque of
reduced magnitude. Thus it may be seen that the diameter of stock and power of the steering gear may
be reduced if a balanced rudder is fitted.

It is usual to limit the rudder angle to 35" on each side of the centreline, since, if this angle is exceeded,
the diameter of the turning circle is increased.

Angle of heel due to force on rudder

When the rudder is turned from its central position, a transverse component of normal rudder force
acts on rudder.
This transverse force acts at the centre of the rudder N, and tends to push the ship sideways.

A resistance R is exerted by the water on the ship, and acts as the centre of lateral resistance L, which is
the centroid of projected, immersed plane of the ship. (sometimes taken as CB),

This resistance is increased as the ship moves, until it reaches its maximum value when it is equal to the
transverse force. At this point a moment acts on the ship causing it to heel to an angle when the
heeling moment is equal to righting moment.
ANGLE OF HEEL WHEN TURNING

As the ship commences to turn a centrifugal+ force acts in addition to the rudder force.

The effect of this force is to create a moment opposing the rudder force, i.e. tending to heel the ship in
the opposite direction.

It is convenient to ignore the rudder force and consider only the centrifugal force.

This force acts at the centre of gravity of the ship and may be calculated from the formula:

A resistance R is again exerted by the water on the ship due to the transverse movement, and has its
maximum value when it is equal to the centrifugal force. This resistance is known as the centripetal
force. A moment then acts on the ship causing it to heel.
The ship will be in equilibrium when the heeling moment is equal to the righting moment.

It is usual in calculations of heel when turning, to ignore the heel due to the rudder force and consider it
to be a small factor of safety, i.e. the actual angle of heel will be less than that calculated.
If, when the ship is turning in a circle to port, the rudder is put hard over to starboard, the heel due to
the rudder force is added to the previous heel due to centrifugal force, causing an increase in angle of
heel. This may prove dangerous, especially in a small, high speed vessel.