Literature review

2.1 X-ray Computed Tomography

2.1.1 Generation of X-rays
2.1.2 Interaction of X-rays with matter
2.1.2.1 Pair production
2.1.2.2. Compton scattering
2.1.2.3. Photoelectric effect
2.1.3 X-ray attenuation
2.1.3.1. Beer-Lambert Law
2.1.3.1. Radon Transform
2.1.4 Major components of the CT scanner
2.1.4.1. X-ray tube
2.1.4.2. X-ray detector
2.1.4.3. Mechanical equipments
2.1.4.4. Computer system
2.1.5. CT artefacts
2.1.5.1. Noise
2.1.5.1. Ring artefacts
2.1.5.1. Beam hardening
2.1.5.1. Partial volume effect
2.1.6. Image reconstruction & post processing
2.1.6.1. Filtered Back Projection
2.1.6.2. Iterative reconstruction
2.1.6.3. Advanced reconstruction
2.1.6.4.Segmentation

2.2 Composites
2.2.1 Use of composites in engineering
2.2.2 Processing of composites - defects and fabrication

2.3. Engineering applications

2.3.1. Industrial applications of XCT
2.3.2. XCT polymer matrix composites
2.1 X-ray Computed Tomography

2.1.1 Generation of X-rays

X-ray computed tomography (CT) is a technique for obtaining comprehensive

cross-sectional scans of objects, including their internal structure, in a noninvasive and
nonintrusive manner. Noninvasive imaging does not need the placement of sensors
within the item for measurement, and so does not change the object being scanned. This
makes X-ray CT a suitable alternative for acquiring data that might otherwise be
unavailable through standard testing procedures. [1]

Penetrating radiation is classified according to its manner of origin. Gamma rays are
emitted from the atomic nucleus during nuclear transitions. Characteristic X rays create
atomic transitions of bound electrons that emerge from the electronic cloud. [2]
Continuous X-rays, or bremsstrahlung, are produced by speeding or decelerating
charged particles such as free electrons or ions. Annihilation radiation is created when
electron-positron couples are mixed and then decomposed into photon pairs. All data
suggests that the interaction of these photons with matter is exclusively determined by
their energy and is unaffected by their source. [3]

An x-ray is an electromagnetic waveform that belongs to the electromagnetic spectrum,

which includes radio waves, radar, microwaves, infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light, as
well as x-rays and γ-rays in increasing energy order [4], highlighted in figure 1. X-ray
wavelengths range from 10 nanometers to 0.01 nanometers [4]. The energy of x-ray
radiation, 𝛦, is proportional to its frequency 𝜈, and it may be expressed as follows:

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = h𝜈 = 𝜆
[equation 1]

Where h is the Planck’s constant and equals 6.63× 10−34Js, 𝑐 is the speed of light and
equals 3x108m/s, and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the x-ray.

Figure 1: EM spectrum schematic, showing photon energy in eV [5]

There are 2 types of X-rays emitted by inelastic scatterings [6]: The first kind of x-rays
consists of a succession of distinct wavelength rays that create the element's specific
emission spectra [6]. Electrons inhabit orbits with specified quantised energy levels, as
suggested by the standard Bohr model of an atom. The incoming beam knocks off the
inner shell electron, resulting in the creation of a distinctive X-ray [6]. An electron from
a higher shell fills the ensuing electron vacancy, and an X-ray is released to balance the
energy difference between the two electrons. Because each element has a distinct
electronic structure, the energy of the photons produced are specific to that element
(Figure 2) [6].

When an electron approaches the nucleus of an atom and experiences a radiation loss,
the second sort of interaction happens [7]. Bremsstrahlung radiation, which consists of
rays with a continuum of wavelengths, results in a backdrop of X-rays in an X-ray
spectrum due to the rapid deceleration of the electron (figure 2). The bremsstrahlung
radiation has a higher energy because it interacts with the nucleus more closely [7].
When an electron collides directly with a nucleus, the complete energy of the electron is
emitted as bremsstrahlung.[7]

Figure 2: X-ray spectrum for 100kV accelerating voltage electron beam striking a
tungsten target [7]

2.1.2 Interaction of x-rays with matter

X-rays can only interact with matter in four ways, according to theory: they can interact
with atomic electrons, nucleons, electric fields connected with atomic electrons and/or
nuclei-related electric fields, and nuclei-surrounding meson fields [8]. Total absorption,
elastic scattering, or inelastic scattering are three potential results of these
interactions[9]. As a result, 12 different methods for X-ray photons to interact with
matter are enumerated in figure 3. However, It should be noted that some of these
interactions have not yet been observed.
 Figure 3: 12 possible outcomes of X-ray interaction with matter [3]

The Photoelectric Effect, Compton Scattering, and Rayleigh Scattering are the three
primary processes that occur most frequently among the 12 potential findings presented
in the table (figure 3)[3][8][9][10]. However, it is worth noting that Rayleigh Scattering
occurs at radiation energies approaching the outside limits of the energy range for
typical industrial CT, only photoelectric and Compton scattering concerning almost all
laboratory CT. [3]

2.1.2.1 Pair production

Only photon energies greater than 1.02 MeV result in pair formation [11]. An incident
x-ray interacts with the electric field of the atomic nucleus in this manner. As a result of
this collision, an electron (e) and positron (e+) ion pair is generated [3] [12], as shown
in figure 4. Despite the fact that the electron and positron may collide and produce
annihilation radiation, this is not considered part of the pair creation process [3]. The
threshold photon energy required in x-ray CT imaging is far greater than the energies
used in conventional CT [15], therefore pair formation is less common.

Figure 4: Pair production mechanism, showing pair production from a single X-ray[15]
 2.1.2.2. Compton scattering

The inelastic scattering of an x-ray photon by an atomic electron is known as Compton

scattering. It usually happens at higher x-ray energies, when the incident x-energy ray's
E0 is substantially higher than the electron's binding energy. As a result, an electron
from the outer shell is most likely dispersed [11]. The collision produces a recoil
electron, an ionised atom, and an x-ray photon with lower energy E′ dispersed in a
different direction [3], portrayed in figure 5. The fractional energy loss as a result is
[3][10]:

𝐸' 1
𝐸0
= 𝐸0 [equation 2][10]
1 +( 𝑚𝑐2
)(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝚹)

Where m is the rest mass of an electron, c is the speed of light, and 𝜃 is the scattering
angle.

The percentage chance of a Compton interaction increases as the incident photon

energy increases [13]. The likelihood of Compton interaction is also affected by the
material's electron density, but not by its atomic number [13, 14]. The low-contrast
information produced by this phenomena is due to this. As a result, its impact is
frequently decreased because it just adds to the background noise.

Figure 5: Compton scatter mechanism [15]

 2.1.2.3. Photoelectric effect

The photoelectric effect occurs when an incoming X-ray photon hits an atom and is
entirely absorbed by an inner shell electron. This photoelectron is released from the
atom, causing the atom to ionise by creating a void in the inner shell. The vacancy is
filled by an outer shell electron in a mechanism known as a characteristic cascade, and
the ensuing energy loss causes the atom to release a distinctive X-ray photon, as seen in
figure 6[16]. The fact that this process uses the same processes as the processing of
characteristic X-ray photons is noteworthy, but the energy of the released photons is low
enough that only a few, if any, may leave the sample and expel the radiograph[17].

Figure 6: Photoelectric effect mechanism [18]

2.1.3 X-ray attenuation

2.1.3.1. Beer-Lambert Law

X-ray attenuation is defined as the reduction of intensity of an x- ray beam as it passes

through matter [19]. For a given energy level E of an X-ray beam and a rate of photon
propagation N(η), the intensity of the beam, I(η), at a distance η from the origin is
defined as:

I(η) = N(η) · E [equation 3] [19]

X-rays are attenuated when they pass through a sample material due to various
interactions with matter, as previously described. The linear attenuation coefficient (µ)
describes the material's linear attenuation, which is the sum of all attenuating processes.
Lambert's law of absorption [19] governs the attenuation of monoenergetic X-rays,
which stipulates that each layer of equal thickness absorbs an equal amount of the
radiation that passes through it, as seen in figure 7 [18]. The following is a mathematical
representation of this:

−𝜇ηΔη
I = I0 * 𝑒 [equation 4] [19]

Where:
• I(η) is the detected intensity of the X-ray beam,
• I0 is the initial intensity of the incident radiation,
• µ is the linear attenuation coefficient,
• Δη is the distance the radiation has travelled through the material.

Figure 8: Beer-Lambert law of homogeneous object [19]

By manipulating equation 4 slightly, one can get:

𝑝𝚹(𝑟) = − 𝑙𝑛(𝐼/𝐼0) = ∫ 𝝁(ղ)𝑑𝑠 [equation 5] [19]

𝑟𝑎𝑦

The logarithm of the attenuation ratio is identical to the line integrals of the attenuation
coefficient when this equation is manipulated. To look at it another way, the overall
attenuation, p(r), of an X-ray beam positioned at r is equal to the sum of the X-absorbed
ray's energy throughout its path [19]. Figure 8 shows how this functions.

Figure 8: X-ray attenuation along a straight line path [19]

As shown in equation 6, the overall linear X-ray attenuation is equal to the sum of the
cross-sectional values of each interaction. The chance of a certain interaction occurring
is known as the cross section.[18]

μ=𝛕+к+𝞼 [equation 6][18]

Where τ is the photoelectric cross section, σ is Compton, and κ is pair production.

In equation 6 [19], the X-ray beam energy in MeV and the atomic number (Z) of the
absorber will decide which interaction mechanism dominates. Figure 9 shows the
outline of these areas.

Fig. 9: Principal X-ray interactions with the matter: the photoelectric effect predominates at low
energies, Compton scattering predominates at intermediate energies and varies directly with atomic
number per unit mass and pair production predominates at high energies [3]

2.1.3.2. Radon Transform

J. Radon developed the theoretical mathematical underpinnings of CT in 1917, driven by

particular gravitational physics challenges. [20] If the set of line integrals of a function f,
which is finite over some area of interest and 0 outside it, is known for all ray pathways
across the region, Radon demonstrated that the value of the function over that region
may be uniquely determined [20].

Radon stated that for a function f(t, θ) defined on R2 with compact support the Radon
transform of f, denoted by Rf, is defined for t ∈ R and θ ∈ (0, 2π] as

∞
𝑅𝑓(𝑡, θ) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥(𝑠), 𝑦(𝑠))𝑑𝑠 (4)[20]
−∞
For a transform pair, a single function and its corresponding set of line integrals - the
set of integrals is known as "the Radon transform of the function." Radon established
the use of an inverse transform to recover a function from its Radon transform,
establishing a crucial existence theorem for what became known as CT. [20] If one
applies the Radon transform along numerous lines at different angles (here θ1 and θ2),
one may calculate various density functions for an object, as illustrated in Figure 10. The
Radon transform may be thought of as a "smeared" version of the original item [20].

Fig 10.: Radon transform for θ1 and θ2 [20]

2.1.4 Major components of the CT scanner

2.1.4.1. Industrial CT scanners

Material analysis CT scanners and other industrial applications like non-destructive

testing are fundamentally different from clinical scanners [21]. The subject is rotated in
the X-ray beam in these systems, while the X-ray source and detector remain stationary.
Furthermore, because the dosage of radiation transpiercing the object in industrial CT is
often not crucial, higher radiation intensities can be employed than in clinical CT [21].
Furthermore, owing of the differences in resolution and accuracy requirements,
scanning settings are frequently different from those used in clinical CT. Moving the
axis of rotation supporting the object closer to the source (greater image magnification
and pixel resolution, but more blurring) or closer to the detector (higher image
magnification and pixel resolution, but more blurring) can also affect resolution and
accuracy (sharper images, but less resolution)[22]. With clinical scanners, where the
rotation axis is centred between the source and detector, this is typically not
achievable[22]. Unlike clinical scanners, most CT systems for material analysis or
industrial usage employ cone beam geometry and flat panel detectors, which result in
hundreds of times faster scanning (many slices measured in one rotation) and better
picture quality[23]. However, systems with fan beam geometry and linear detectors are
also utilised, especially when large thicknesses need to be pierced with high voltage
tubes, to reduce scatter effects.

A complete collection of two-dimensional projections must be gathered in order to

create a three-dimensional CT picture [23]. These projections are typically taken in a CT
setup that includes four major components: (a) the x-ray source, (b) the x-ray detector,
(c) the mechanical scanning assembly, and (d) the computer system [23]. A
laboratory-scale CT typically consists of an X-ray source that converts electrical input
power into X-rays, a spinning stage in which the sample is mounted, and a detector, as
shown in Fig. 11 (b, a). [3]

Fig.11. (a) A typical laboratory XCT setup, (b) schematic representation of the setup and (c) stepwise
XCT data analysis procedure. [3]

2.1.4.1. X-ray tube

Recalling the concept from section 2.1.2, the interaction of an accelerating electron
beam with the atoms of a target produces Bremsstrahlung and distinctive x-rays. For the
creation of x-rays, micro-focus x-ray tubes are often used. A cathode and an anode are
the two essential components of an x-ray tube. The cathode is typically a tungsten
filament [24] that is heated by electrical current passing through it.

Fig 12: A traditional X-ray tube's schematic: electrons (e) are released from the cathode and collected at
the anode, resulting in X-ray radiation [16].

The filament emits electrons by a process known as thermionic emission [24, 25], and
the electron beam is then focused on the anode using an electric field. Electrons
decelerate and come to a halt when they connect with the anode. Because the majority of
the energy collected by the anode is in the form of heat, the anode's material must be
able to resist extremely high temperatures without vaporising [25]. Because the
intensity of the x-rays produced is proportional to the atomic number of the target
material [12,15] and the number of electrons bombarding the target [25], tungsten was
chosen as the anode's material partly because of its very high melting point (3300 0C)
and partly because of its atomic number (Z=74). [24]

The anode assembly is one component that has an influence on tube life. The anode is
spun at a very high speed, often between 8,000 and 10,000 rpm, to prevent the target
from melting [21]. The anode shaft is maintained in place by a pair of ball bearings in
the classic configuration, as shown in Fig. 13. (a). The tension at the contacting places is
quite great since the shaft and bearings are only connected by point contact. Tube
failures are frequently caused by ball bearing wear and tear due to the high-temperature
environment [23]. To overcome this flaw, the new design uses a spiral groove technique
in which the bearing component is eliminated [23]. To decrease stress, the whole shaft
surface is in direct touch with the housing rather than point contacts. Liquid metal is
used as a lubricant to reduce friction between the shaft and the housing [25]. As
illustrated in Fig. 13 the surface of the anode shaft is additionally carved with a
particularly designed groove pattern that allows the liquid metal to flow continuously to
the shaft–housing contact (b) [17]. Furthermore, particular surface chemistry is
required to guarantee that the liquid metal is evenly distributed across the shaft
surface.[17]

Fig. 13: X-ray tube shafts that support the rotating anode: (a) older vintage tube design where ball
bearing are used to support the shaft; (b) new spiral grove design where the shaft is supported without
the ball bearing and liquid metal material is used for lubrication. [17]

2.1.4.2. X-ray detectors

The incident photons are converted into an electrical signal using X-ray detectors. Gas
ionisation detectors and solid state detectors are the two primary types of x-ray
detectors. Solid state detectors composed of tiny blocks of scintillating material, a
substance that illuminates the energy absorbed, are commonly used in industrial CT
systems [26]. They have a reflective coating and are connected to a group of
photodiodes.Photoelectrons are emitted as a result of the photon-scintillator
interaction, which causes radiation to be released in the visible or UV light spectrum
when they return to their ground states. The light photons are then propagated towards
the photodiodes through optical diffusion [26, 27]. An analogue-to-digital converter
(ADC), which is commonly a thin film transistor (TFT), converts the charge of each
photodiode pixel into a digital value [26, 27]. Ionisation of a high-pressure inert gas
powers gas-filled detectors (i.e. Xenon, ZnS). Their construction comprises of two
electrodes separated by a gas, the ionisation of which is then transmitted to processing
circuitry to provide a radiation signal display [27].

2.1.4.3. Mechanical equipments

The relative motion between the sample, the x-ray source, and the detector is controlled
by the mechanical equipment in industrial CT machines. [27]

2.1.4.3. Computer system

The computer system is in charge of the scan motion equipment. Governing the source
operation and data collection functions are two more activities carried out by the
computer system. Finally, scan motion equipment is in charge of volume reconstruction,
picture analysis and interpretation, as well as data archiving and retrieval [27].

Fig 14: Analysis and visualisation suite at 𝝻-vis laboratory at the University of Southampton [28]

2.1.5. CT artefacts

All imaging methods, whether CT or traditional radiography, include artefacts. An

image artefact is a feature in an image that does not occur in the original captured item.
[3] CT imaging will be a genuine depiction of reality in an idealistic scenario, with high
photon counts due to high radiation dosage, monochromatic x-rays, limitless detector
resolution, faultless detectors, no motion, and no scatter. If any of those conditions are
not met, artefacts will arise. [29] Noise, beam hardening, scatter, motion, cone-beam,
helical, ring, and metal artefacts are only a few examples of CT artefacts. The most
prevalent artefacts in industrial CT scanning will be discussed in this section.

2.1.5.1. Noise

The statistical error of low photon counts causes noise in CT images, which manifests as
random bright and dark grains or streaks that appear preferentially in the direction of
greatest attenuation [29]. In CT, the signal to noise ratio (SNR) is obtained by
comparing the intended signal (photons) to the background noise level (pixels deviating
from normal). The higher the ratio, the less noise in the image. [29] A CT scan with a
high amount of noise (as seen in figure 15) runs the risk of concealing low contrast
borders and features, such as tiny density gradients.
 Fig 15: A noisy image is the sum of the clean image and the noise component [29]

The scan parameters, the X-ray detector, the item being measured, the reconstruction
method, and the data processing used all have an impact on the amount of noise in XCT
pictures.[30] Figure 16 depicts the key influence quantities.

Figure 16: Main influence quantities of XCT image noise [30]

2.1.5.1. Ring artefacts

Ring artefacts are a CT phenomena that occurs when one or more detector components
in a CT scanner are miscalibrated or malfunction. Insufficient radiation dosage or
contrast material contamination of the detector cover are less common causes. As a
result, at each angular position, the detector will continually report an incorrect signal,
resulting in a circular artefact, as seen in figure 17.[3, 18] Rings or bands are overlaid at
a constant distance from the isocenter of the rotation axis, and are frequently visible on
numerous slices at the same point, as the name suggests. The problem can be resolved
by recalibrating the scanner, repositioning the detector, or replacing it [18].

Figure 17: A reconstructed CT slice of a PET Phantom with air-filled holes exhibiting ring
artefacts [18].

2.1.5.1. Beam hardening

Because the X-ray beam employed in the CT scanner is not precisely monochromatic,
beam hardening occurs. When an X-ray travels through an object, the lower energy
photons are absorbed first, resulting in an attenuation that is not a linear function of the
X-ray absorption [31]. As a result of the lower energy photons being absorbed, a beam
with a greater average energy than the incident beam is detected, as seen in figure 18.

Figure 18: Effect of beam hardening on X-ray beam energy [31]

Between two high attenuation materials, such as metal, bone, iodinated contrast, or
barium, both beam hardening and scatter produce black streaks [32]. The increased
beam energy is attributed to the X-ray travelling through a less attenuating substance,
causing the final CT image to look darker, despite the fact that the material is
homogenous, as seen in figure 19.[32]

Fig. 19: Simulated scans without (top row) and with (bottom row) beam hardening, showing that
dark streaks occur along the lines of greatest attenuation, and bright streaks occur in other directions.
Scatter produces artefacts that look similar to this[32]
 2.1.5.1. Partial volume effect

Because each pixel in a CT image indicates the attenuation properties of a specific

material volume, whether that volume is made up of a variety of substances or not, the
CT value that arises is an average of those values, as shown in figure 20 [29]. This
phenomenon is known as the partial-volume effect. [29] The prevalence of this artefact
has dropped dramatically with the latest generation of CT scanners, which have a
smaller voxel volume. [29]

Figure 20: Visualisation of partial volume artefact - The large circle is set against a less dense
background. Since the object occupies detector stream 2, the attenuation is very high (white). Since
none of the dense objects is imaged in detector stream 3, the attenuation is low (black). The object is
only partly imaged in detector stream 1, so the attenuation is an average of the dense object and the less
dense background. [29]
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