AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

In this chapter, much emphasis is made in sinusoidally time-varying excitation or simply, excitation by a
sinusoid.
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac).Such a current reverses at regular time
intervals and has alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage
sources are called ac circuits. A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.

3.1 Wave forms

If values of quantities which vary with time t are plotted to a base of time, the resulting graph is called a
waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown in Figure 3.1. Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional
waveforms, for, although they vary considerably with time, they flow in one direction only (i.e. they do not
cross the time axis and become negative). Waveforms(c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms since their
quantities are continually changing in direction (i.e. alternately positive and negative).

Figure 3.1 wave forms

A waveform of the type shown in Figure 3.1(g) is called a sine wave. It is the shape of the waveform of e.m.f.
produced by an alternator and thus the mains electricity supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form. One complete series of
values is called a cycle (i.e. from O to P in Figure 3.1(g)).

The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called the period or the periodic time, T,
of the waveform. The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency, f , of the supply and
is measured in hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of the electricity supply in Uganda & in Great Britain is
50Hz.
1 1
T = or f =
f T
Example 3.1 Determine the periodic time for frequencies of (a) 50Hz and (b) 20kHz.

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Example 3.2 Determine the frequencies for periodic times of (a) 4ms, (b) 4μs.

Example 3.3 An alternating current completes5 cycles in 8ms. What is its frequency?

3.2 A.C Values

Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any instant of time. They are represented
by small letters, i, υ, e, etc. (see Figures 3.1(f) and (g)). The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the
peak value or the maximum value or the amplitude of the waveform. Such values are represented by Vm, Im,
etc. (see Figures 3.1(f) and (g)).

A peak-to-peak value of e.m.f. is shown in Figure 3.1(g) and is the difference between the maximum and
minimum values in a cycle.
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the average value
measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete cycle the average value is zero).

The area under the curve is found by approximate methods such as the trapezoidal rule, the mid-ordinaterule
or Simpson’s rule. Average values are represented by VAV , IAV, etc.
For a sine wave,
average value=0.637×maximumvalue(i.e. 2/π ×maximum value)
The effective value of an alternating current is that current which will produce the same heating effect as an
equivalent direct current. The effective value is called the root mean square (r.m.s.) value and whenever an
alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to be the r.m.s.value. For example, the domestic mains supply in
Uganda is 240V and is assumed to mean 240Vr.m.s.r.m.s is the square root of the mean of the squares of the
current.
The symbols used for r.m.s. values are I ,V, E, etc. Fora non-sinusoidal waveform as shown in Figure 3.4
ther.m.s. value is given by:

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 Figure 3.4

For a sine wave, r.m.s value = 0.707 x maximum value (i.e. 1 / 2 x maximum value)

The values of form and peak factors give an indication of the shape of waveforms.

3.3 The equation of a sinusoidal wave form

In Figure 3.5, OA represents a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity of ω
rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor.

Figure 3.5
After time t seconds the vector OA has turned through an angle ωt. If the line BC is constructed perpendicular
to OA as shown, then

If all such vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a sine curve gives
a maximum value OA. Any quantity which varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as a phasor.

A sine curve may not always start at 0◦. To show this a periodic function is represented by y=sin (ωt-+φ),
where φ is the phase (or angle) difference compared with y= sin ωt. In Figure 3.6 (a), y2 = sin (ωt+φ) starts φ
radians earlier than y1= sinωt and is thus said to lead y1 by φ radians. Phasors y1 and y2 are shown in figure 3.6
(b) at the time when t =0.
In Figure 3.6(c), y4=sin(ωt−φ) starts φ radians later than y3= sin ωt and is thus said to lag y3 by φ radians.
Phasors y3 and y4are shown in Figure 3.6(d)at the time when t=0.

Given the general sinusoidal voltage, v =Vm sin (ωt -+φ), then
(i) Amplitude or maximum value =Vm.
(ii) Peak-to-peak value =2Vm.
(iii) Angular velocity = ωrad/s.
(iv) Periodic time, T =2π/ω seconds.
(v) Frequency, f =ω/2π Hz (since ω=2π f )
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(vi) φ=angle of lag or lead (compared withv= Vmsinωt ).

Figure 3.6
Example 3.4 An alternating voltage is given by v = 282.8 sin 314t volts. Find (a) the r.m.s. voltage, (b) the
frequency and (c) the instantaneous value of voltage when t=4ms.

Exercise 3.2
1. An alternating voltage, v, has a periodic time of 0.01s and a peak value of 40V. When time t is zero,
v=−20V. Express the instantaneous voltage in the form v=Vmsin (ωt ±φ).
2. The current in an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is given by: i =120sin(100πt +0.36)amperes. Find:
(a) the peak value, the periodic time, the frequency and phase angle relative to 120 sin100πt
(b) the value of the current when t =0
(c) the value of the current when t =8ms
(d) the time when the current first reaches 60A,and
(e) the time when the current is first a maximum.

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3.4 Combination of wave forms
The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two sinusoidal quantities may be determined either:
(a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically (see worked example 3.8 below), or
(b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calculation (see worked example 3.9 below).

Example 3.5 The instantaneous values of two alternating currents are given by i1=20sinωt amperes and i2=10
sin(ωt +π/3) amperes. By plotting i1 and i2 on the same axes, using the same scale, over one cycle, and adding
ordinates at intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for i1+i2.

are plotted on figure 3.7 as below.

Let wt = 30 , 60 , 150 and
0 0 0 
3 = 60 . Then compute the addition of the two currents as shown below.
0

Figure 3.7
Ordinates of i1 and i2 are added at, say, 150intervals (a pair of dividers are useful for this). For example,

The resultant waveform for i1+i2 is shown by the broken line in Figure 3.7. It has the same period, and hence
frequency, as i1 and i2. The amplitude or peak value is 26.5A.
The resultant waveform leads the curve i1=20sinωt by 19◦

Hence the sinusoidal expression for the resultant i1+i2 is given by:
iR =i1+ i2=26.5sin (ωt +0.332)A.

Example 3.9 Two alternating voltages are represented by v1=50sinωt volts andv2=100sin (ωt −π/6)V. Draw
the phasor diagram and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal expression to represent v1+v2.

Phasors are usually drawn at the instant when time t =0.Thus v1 is drawn horizontally 50 units long and v2 is
drawn 100 units long lagging v1 by π/6 rads, i.e. 30◦. This is shown in Figure 3.8(a) where 0 is the point of
rotation of the phasors.
Procedure to draw phasor diagram to represent v1+v2:
(i) Draw v1 horizontal 50 units long, i.e. Oa of Figure 3.8(b)

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 (ii) Join v2 to the end of v1 at the appropriate angle, i.e. ab of Figure 3.8 (b)
(iii) The resultant vR=v1+v2 is given by the lengthOb and its phase angle φ may be measured with
respect to v1

Figure 3.8
Alternatively, when two phasors are being added the resultant is always the diagonal of the parallelogram, as
shown in Figure 3.8(c). From the drawing, by measurement, vR=145V and angle φ=20◦ lagging v1.
A more accurate solution is obtained by calculation, using the cosine and sine rules. Using the cosine rule on
triangle Oab of Figure 3.8 (b) gives:

Exercise 3.3
1. Find a sinusoidal expression for (i1 +i2) of example 3.8, (a) by drawing phasors, (b) by calculation.

2. Two alternating voltages are given by v1=120 sinωt volts and v2=200 sin(ωt −π/4) volts. Obtain
sinusoidal expressions for v1−v2 (a) by plotting waveforms, and (b) by resolution of phasors.

Read about Complex Numbers in the supplementary hand issued

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3.5 Application of complex numbers in a. c circuits.
3.5.1 Introduction
Simple a.c. circuits may be analyzed by using phasor diagrams. However, when circuits become more
complicated analysis is considerably simplified by using complex numbers.
3.5.2 Series a.c circuits
(a) Pure resistance
In an a.c. circuit containing resistance R only (see Figure 3.9(a)), the current IR is in phase with the applied
voltage VR as shown in the phasor diagram of Figure 3.9(b). The phasor diagram may be superimposed on the
Argand diagram as shown in Figure 3.9(c). The impedance Z of the circuit is given by

Figure 3.9 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram (c) Argand diagram.

(b) Pure inductance

In an A.C. circuit containing pure inductance L only (see Figure 3.10(a)), the current IL lags the applied
voltage VL by 90◦ as shown in the phasor diagram of Figure 3.10(b). The phasor diagram may be
superimposed on the Argand diagram as shown in Figure 3.10 (c). The impedance Z of the circuit is given by

Where XL is the inductive reactance given by X L = wL = 2fL ohms, f is the frequency in hertz and L is the
inductance in henrys.

Figure 3.10 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram (c) Argand diagram.

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(c) Pure capacitance.
In an A.C. circuit containing pure capacitance only (see figure 3.11(a)), the current IC leads the applied
voltage VC by 90◦ as shown in the phasor diagram of figure 3.11 (b). The phasor diagram may be
superimposed on the Argand diagram as shown in Figure 3.11 (c). The impedance Z of the circuit is given by

1 1
where X C is the capacitive reactance given by X C = = ohms, and C is the capacitance
C 2fC
in farads.
 − j − j ( j ) − j 2 − (−1) 1 
 Note : − jX = = = = = 
C C ( j ) jC jC j C 
C


Figure 3.11 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram (c) Argand diagram

(d) R-L series circuit.

In an A.C. circuit containing resistance R and inductance L in series (see Figure 3.12 (a)), the applied voltage
V is the phasor sum of VR and VL as shown in the phasor diagram of Figure 3.12 (b). The current I lags the
applied voltage V by an angle lying between 00 and 900 — the actual value depending on the values of VR and
VL, which depend on the values of R and L. The circuit phase angle, i.e. the angle between the current and the
applied voltage, is shown as angle φ in the phasor diagram. In any series circuit the current is common to all
components and is thus taken as the reference phasor in Figure 3.12 (b). The phasor diagram may be
superimposed on the Argand diagram as shown in Figure 3.12 (c), where it may be seen that in complex form
the supply voltage V is given by:
V = VR + j VL

Figure 3.12 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram (c) Argand diagram

Figure 3.13 (a) shows the voltage triangle that is derived from the phasor diagram of Figure 3.12 (b) (i.e.
triangle Oab). If each side of the voltage triangle is divided by current I then the impedance triangle of Figure

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3.13 (b) is derived. The impedance triangle may be superimposed on the Argand diagram, as shown in Figure
3.13 (c), where it may be seen that in complex form the impedance Z is given by:
Z = R +j XL
Thus, for example, an impedance expressed as (3+ j 4) Ω means that the resistance is 3Ω and the inductive
reactance is 4Ω.
In polar form, Z =|Z|∠φ where, from the impedance triangle, the modulus of impedance
|Z| = √(R2 +XL2 )and the circuit phase angle φ= tan−1(XL/R) lagging.

Figure 3.13 (a) Voltage triangle (b) Impedance triangle (c) Argand diagram
Example 3.5.1

A resistance of 7.0 Ω is connected in series with a pure inductance of31.8 mH

and the circuit is connected to a 100 V, 50 Hz, sinusoidal supply (Fig. besides).
Calculate:
(a) the circuit current;
(b) the phase angle.
Solution

(e) R-C series circuit.

In an A.C. circuit containing resistance R and capacitance C in series (see Figure 3.14(a)), the applied voltage
V is the phasor sum of VR and VC as shown in the phasor diagram of Figure 3.14 (b). The current I leads the
applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0◦ and 90◦ — the actual value depending on the values of VR and
VC, which depend on the values of R and C.

The circuit phase angle is shown as angle φ in the phasor diagram. The phasor diagram is superimposed on
the Argand diagram as shown in Figure 3.14 (c), where it may be seen that in complex form the supply
voltage V is given by:
V =VR– jVC
Figure 3.15 (a) shows the voltage triangle that is derived from the phasor diagram of Figure 3.15 1(b). If each
side of the voltage triangle is divided by current I, the impedance triangle is derived as shown in Figure 3.15
(b). The impedance triangle is superimposed on the Argand diagram as shown in Figure 3.15 (c), where it is
seen that in complex form the impedance Z is given by
Z = R−jXC
Thus, for example, an impedance expressed as (9− j 14)Ω means that the resistance is 9Ω and the capacitive
reactance XC is 14Ω.
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In polar form, Z =|Z|∠θ where, from the impedance triangle, |Z|=√(R2 + X2C) and
Θ = tan−1(XC/R)leading.

Fig 3.14 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram(c) Argand diagram

Figure 3.15 (a) Voltage triangle (b) Impedance triangle(c) Argand diagram

Example 3.5.2
A capacitor of 8.0 μF takes a current of 1.0 A when the alternating voltage applied across it is
230 V. Calculate:
(a) the frequency of the applied voltage;
(b) the resistance to be connected in series with the capacitor to reduce the current in the
circuit to 0.5 A at the same frequency;
(c) the phase angle of the resulting circuit.
Solution

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(f) R-L-C series circuit
In an A.C. circuit containing resistance R, inductance Land capacitance C in series (see Figure 3.16 (a)), the
applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC as shown in the phasor diagram of Figure 3.16 (b) (where
the condition VL>VC is shown). The phasor diagram may be superimposed on the Argand diagram as shown in
Figure 3.16 (c), where it may be seen that in complex form the supply voltage V is given by:
V =VR + j(VL−VC)
From the voltage triangle the impedance triangle is derived and superimposing this on the Argand diagram, in
complex form, gives:
Impedance Z = R + j (XL−XC) or Z =|Z|∠φ
 2
  X − XC 
Where Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) and  = tan −1  L
 R


When VL=VC, XL=XC and the applied voltage V and the current I are in phase. This effect is called series
resonance and is discussed separately in the coming lectures.

\
Figure 3.16 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram (c) Argand diagram

Example 3.5.3
A circuit having a resistance of 12 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a capacitance of 100 μF in series, is
connected across a 100 V, 50 Supply. Calculate:
(a) the impedance;
(b) the current;
(c) the voltages across R, L and C;
(d) the phase difference between the current and the supply voltage.
Solution
The circuit and phasor diagrams areas shown below.

Figure 4.13.1 (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Phasor diagram

(a) Given the equation below,

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Then Z is calculated as:

These voltages and current are represented by the respective phasors in Fig. 4.13.1 above.
(d) Phase difference between current and supply voltage is

OR

Note: the determined values for φ are slightly different and this is because we have inferred too great an
accuracy to the angles. Given that the input information is only accurate to two decimal places, it follows that
the angles can only be given to about one decimal point of a degree, i.e. the answer might better be given as
51.8°.

Further Examples:
Problem 1.Determine the values of the resistance and the series-connected inductance or capacitance for each
of the following impedances:
(a) (12+ j 5) Ω (b) −j 40Ω (c) 30∠60◦Ω
(d) 2.20 × 106∠−30◦ Ω. Assume for each a frequency of 50Hz.

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Problem 2. Determine, in polar and rectangular forms, the current flowing in an inductor of negligible
resistance and inductance 159.2mH when it is connected to a 250V, 50Hz supply.

Problem 3.A 3μF capacitor is connected to a supply of frequency 1kHz and a current of 2.83∠90◦ A flows.
Determine the value of the supply p.d.

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Problem 4.The impedance of an electrical circuit is (30− j 50)ohms. Determine (a) the resistance, (b) the
capacitance, (c) the modulus of the impedance, and (d) the current flowing and its phase angle, when the
circuit is connected to a 240V, 50Hz supply.

Problem 5.A 200V, 50Hz supply is connected across a coil of negligible resistance and inductance 0.15H
connected in series with a 32Ω resistor. Determine (a) the impedance of the circuit, (b) the current and circuit
phase angle, (c) the p.d. across the 32Ω resistor, and (d) the p.d. across the coil.

(a) Inductive reactance XL= 2π f L = 2π(50)(0.15)

= 47.1Ω
Impedance Z =R+ j XL
=(32 +j47.1)Ω or 57.0∠55.81◦Ω

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The circuit diagram is shown below.

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3.6 Application of complex numbers to parallel a.c networks
3.6.1 Introduction
As with series circuits, parallel networks may be analyzed by using phasor diagrams. However, with parallel
networks containing more than two branches this can become very complicated. It is with parallel A.C.
network analysis in particular that the full benefit of using complex numbers may be appreciated.

3.6.2 Admittance, conductance and susceptance

Admittance is defined as the current I flowing in an A.C. circuit divided by the supply voltage V (i.e. it is the
reciprocal of impedance Z). The symbol for admittance is Y . Thus

I 1
= =
V Z
The unit of admittance is the Siemen, S. An impedance may be resolved into a real part R and an imaginary
part X, giving Z = R±jX. Similarly, an admittance may be resolved into two parts — the real part being called
the conductance G, and the imaginary part being called the susceptance B — and expressed in complex
form. Thus admittance  = G  jB

Thus conductance, G=R/|Z|2 and inductive susceptance, BL=−XL / |Z|2(Note that in an inductive circuit, the
imaginary term of the impedance, XL, is positive, whereas the imaginary term of the admittance, BL, is
negative.)

Thus conductance, G=R/|Z|2 and capacitive susceptance, BC =XC/|Z|2(Note that in a capacitive circuit, the
imaginary term of the impedance, XC, is negative, where as the imaginary term of the admittance, BC,
ispositive.)

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Thus conductance, G=1/R and inductive susceptance,BL=−1/XL.

1 j
OR = +
R XC
Thus conductance, G=1/R and capacitive susceptance, BC =l/XC
The conclusions that may be drawn from Sections (d) to (g) above are:
(i) that a series circuit is more easily represented by an impedance,
(ii) that a parallel circuit is often more easily represented by an admittance especially when more than two
parallel impedances are involved.

Worked examples
Problem 1.Determine the admittance, conductance and susceptance of the following impedances: (a) −j 5Ω
(b) (25+ j 40)Ω (c) (3 − j 2)Ω (d) 50∠40◦ Ω.

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Problem 2.Determine expressions forthe impedance of the following admittances:
(a) 0.004∠300S (b) (0.001− j 0.002)S (c) (0.05+ j 0.08)S

Problem 3.The admittance of a circuit is (0.040+ j 0.025)S. Determine the values of the resistance and the
capacitive reactance of the circuit if they are connected (a) in parallel, (b) in series. Draw the phasor diagram
for each of the circuits.

(a) Parallel connection

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Admittance Y =(0.040+ j 0.025)S, therefore conductance, G=0.040S and capacitive susceptance, BC=0.025S.
From equation (1) when a circuit consists of resistance R and capacitive reactance in parallel, then Y =(1/R)+(
j/XC).

The circuit and phasor diagrams are shown in figure below

Figure 3.17 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

Figure 2 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

The circuit and phasor diagrams are shown in Figure 2.

The circuits shown in Figures 1(a) and 2(a) are equivalent in that they take the same supply current I for a
given supply voltage V ; the phase angle φ between the current and voltage is the same in each of the phasor
diagrams shown in Figures .1(b) and 2(b).

3.6.3 Parallel A.C networks

Figure 3.18 shows a circuit diagram containing three impedances, Z1, Z2 and Z3 connected in parallel. The
potential difference across each impedance is the same, i.e. the supply voltage V. Current I1=V/Z1, I2=V/Z2 and
I3=V/Z3. If ZT is the total equivalent impedance of the circuit then I =V/ZT. The supply current, I
=I1+I2+I3(phasorially).

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 Figure 3.18

It is in parallel circuit analysis that the use of use of admittance has its greatest advantage.

Current division in a.c circuits

For the special case of two impedances, Z1 and Z2, connected in parallel (see Figure 3.19),

The total impedance, ZT= Z1Z2 / (Z1 + Z2 ) (i.e product/ sum).

Figure 3.19
From figure 3.19

Note that all of the above circuit symbols infer complex quantities either in Cartesian or polar form.
The following problems show how complex numbers are used to analyze parallel a.c. networks.

Problem 4.Determine the values of currents I ,I1 and I2 shown in the network of Figure below.
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Total circuit impedance,

Problem 5.For the parallel network shown inFigure below, determine the value of supply current I and its
phase relative to the 40V supply.

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Problem 6.An a.c. network consists of a coil, of inductance 79.58mH and resistance 18Ω, in parallel with a
capacitor of capacitance 64.96μF. If the supply voltage is 250∠0◦V at 50Hz, determine (a) the total
equivalent circuit impedance, (b) the supply current, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the current in the coil, and
(e) the current in the capacitor.
The circuit diagram is shown in Figure below.

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Problem 7.(a) For the network diagram of Figure below, determine the value of impedance Z1, (b) If the
supply frequency is 5kHz, determine the value of the components comprising impedance Z1

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Take home exercise
1. For the series-parallel arrangement shown in Figure below, determine (a) the equivalent series circuit
impedance, (b) the supply current I, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the values of voltages V1 and V2, and
(e) the values of currents IAand IB .

2. The admittance of a network is (0.05−j 0.08)S. Determine the values of resistance and reactance in the
circuit if they are connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel.
3. A 4500pF capacitor is connected in series with a 50 Ω resistor across an alternating voltage
v=212.1sin(π106t +π/4) volts. Calculate(a) the r.m.s. value of the voltage,(b) the circuit impedance, (c)
the r.m.s. currentflowing, (d) the circuit phase angle, (e)the voltage across t he resistor, and (f)
thevoltage across the capacitor.

4. A coil has a resistance of 40Ωand an inductive reactance of 75Ω. The current in the coil is 1.70∠0◦A.
Determine the value of (a) the supply voltage, (b) the p.d. across the 40Ω resistance, (c) the p.d. across
the inductive part of the coil, and (d) the circuit phase angle. Draw the phasor diagram.

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 5. A capacitor C is connected in series with a coil of resistance R and inductance 30mH. The current
flowing in the circuit is 2.5∠−40◦A when the supply p.d. is 200V at 400Hz. Determine the value of (a)
resistance R, (b) capacitance C, (c) the p.d. across C, and (d) the p.d., across the coil. Draw the phasor
diagram.

6. Three impedances are connected inseries across a 120V, 10kHz supply. Theimpedances are:
(i) Z1, a coil of inductance 200μH andresistance 8Ω
(ii) Z2, a resistance of 12Ω
(iii) Z3, a 0.50μF capacitor in series with a15Ωresistor.
Determine (a) the circuit impedance, (b) thecircuit current, (c) the circuit phase angle, and
(d) thep.d. across each impedance.

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