Electrical Systems Notes - Handout 1 - Introduction

Course code: ELE1201Course name: ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS Handout I
Course name: ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Course code: ELE1201
Course level: Level 1
Credit units: 4 CU
Brief Course Description

The course introduces concepts, laws and their applications for DC and AC circuits. It presents basic units theory that
enables students to understand and analyze circuits.
Objectives
By the end of the course students should be able to:
➢ To have a good understanding of the basics of circuit theory and acquire engineering analytic techniques and
skills.
➢ To apply circuit theorems to simplify and find solutions to electrical circuits.
➢ To interpret, develop and design electrical engineering circuits. A student should also be able to analyze and
simulate circuits using PSPICE and compare the calculated and measured results with the circuits constructed
in the laboratory.
Course Content
1. Basic concepts in electrical systems
Systems of units, review of circuit concepts of resistance, capacitance and inductance, ohm’s law, concept of input
output resistance of networks, single-port and two-port network, electric power, electric energy/work, energy sources,
sources transformations,
2. DC circuit analysis
Kirchhoff’s circuit laws (KVL and KCL), current and voltage divider theorems, mesh and Nodal analysis, DC power
supplies and their industrial applications, power transfer and maximum power transfer. Superposition Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems.
3. AC Circuits
Time-varying and alternating quantities, period, fundamental frequency, concept
of harmonics; mean/average, rms, sinusoidal signals, phase difference; complex numbers; representation of time-
varying/sinusoidal quantities, phasors, rectangular and polar representation; concept of reactance impedance,
conductance, admittance, susceptance, phasor diagrams, resistive, purely inductive and purely capacitive impedances;
simple circuit solution using phasor diagrams, power in AC circuits, power factor and power factor correction complex
power, real and apparent power and the power triangle. Application of circuit laws and theorems.
3. Elementary transient signals

Simple functions; step, ramp, impulse, transient analysis of circuits with one energy storage element, impulse response,
step response, time constant concept of damping, undamped circuits.
4. Three Phase Circuits

Concept of three-phase supply, phase diagram for the-phase circuits, balanced three-phase supply, star and delta
circuits, analysis of simple balanced 3-phase circuits, power in three-phase circuits power measurement in three phase
circuits.
5. Frequency Response Curves

Resonance, series and parallel resonance, the concept of Q-factor, tuned circuits frequency selective networks.
6. Practicals.
©ALVINWILLIAMZ2019 Page 1
Mode of Delivery
The course will be taught by using lectures, tutorials, assignments and laboratories
Assessment
Assignments, laboratory reports, end of module tests and final examination. Their relative contributions to final grade
are shown as follows:
Requirement Percentage contribution

Course work (assignments, tests and laboratory work) 40 %
Final examination 60 %
Total 100%
NB: We shall assignments at every end of a topic, two tests and one exam.
LECTURER AND CONTACTS:
Mr Fredrick. William Mukalazi 0776-134472
0702-134472
alvinwilliamzready@yahoo.com.
alvinwilliamzexisting@gmail.com.
Reading references:
Electrical and electronic principles and technology (John Bird).
Fundamentals of electric circuits 5th edition.(Sadiku)
Electronic - circuit and systems (4th edition)- slicer
www.all about circuits.com
1. DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
1.1.Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon which all branches of
electrical engineering are built. Many branches of electrical engineering, such as power, electric machines, control,
electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit theory.
In electrical engineering, interest is based in communicating or transferring energy from one point to another. To do
this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit, and each
component of the circuit is known as an element.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements. In addition an electrical circuit is a path in which
electrons form a voltage or current source flow.
Figure 1.1 shows a simple electrical circuit. This circuit has a power source, a complete path for electrons to
flow and a resistor as the load.
Figure 1.1 a simple electrical circuit
The point where those electrons enter an electrical circuit is called the source of electrons represented by V
(voltage). The point where the electrons leave an electrical circuit is called the return or earth ground. The
exit point is called the return because electrons always end up at the source when they complete the path of
an electrical circuit.
The part of an electrical circuit that is between the electrons' starting point and the point where they return to
the source is called an electrical circuit's load represented by R(resistor). Examples of electrical loads include
refrigerators, televisions, or lamps etc.
Circuits use two forms of electrical power that is alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). AC often
powers large appliances and motors and is generated by power stations. DC powers battery operated cars and
other machines and electronics. Converters can change AC to DC and vice versa.
1.1.1 Electrical/ electronic system

An electrical/ electronic system is a group of components connected together to perform a desired function.
Figure 1.2 shows a simple electrical system public address system, where a microphone is used to collect
acoustic energy in form of sound pressure waves and converts this to electrical energy in form of small
voltages and currents. The signal from the microphone is then amplified by means of an electronic circuit
containing transistors/ integrated circuits before it applied to the loud speaker.
Figure 1. 2 a simple electrical system public address system.
A sub-system is a part of a system which performs an identified function within the whole system. The amplifier in
this case is an example of a subsystem.
A component or element is usually the simplest part of a system which has a specific and well-defined function for
example a microphone.
The illustration in figure 1.2 is called a block diagram of an electrical system. For a real electrical system, it is quite
complicated and can be better understood when broken down this way.
1.1.2 Circuit elements

Circuit elements are the basic building block of a circuit. There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:
passive elements and active elements. An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is
not. Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers. Our aim in this section is to gain
familiarity with some important active elements. The most important active elements are voltage or current sources
that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them. There are two kinds of sources: independent and
dependent sources.
Independent source: An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current
that is completely independent of other circuit elements.
In other words, an ideal independent voltage source delivers to the circuit whatever current is necessary to maintain its
terminal voltage. Physical sources such as batteries and generators may be regarded as approximations to ideal voltage
sources. Figure 1.3 shows the symbols for independent voltage sources. Notice that both symbols in Fig. 1.3(a) and (b)
can be used to represent a dc voltage source, but only the symbol in Fig. 1.3(a) can be used for a time-varying voltage
source.
Similarly, an ideal independent current source is an active element that provides a specified current completely
independent of the voltage across the source. That is, the current source delivers to the circuit whatever voltage is
necessary to maintain the designated current. The symbol for an independent current source is displayed in Fig. 1.4,
where the arrow indicates the direction of current i.
Fig 1.3 Symbols for independent voltage sources: Fig 1.4 Symbol for independent current source.
(a) used for constant or time-varying voltage, (b) used for constant voltage (dc).
Dependent sources: An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another voltage or current.
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.5. Since the control of the
dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in the circuit, and the source can be voltage
or current, it follows that there are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
Fig 1.5 Symbols for: (a) dependent voltage source, (b) dependent current source.
These sources are very important because they are an integral part of the mathematical models used to describe the
behavior of many electronic circuit elements.
For example, metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and bipolar transistors, both of which are
commonly found in a host of electronic equipment, are modeled with dependent sources, and therefore the analysis of
electronic circuits involves the use of these controlled elements.
Example 1.1 Determine the power of each element in the circuit. Given Io = 1A
From power = Current*Voltage (IV)

P2A = (6)(-2) = -12W.
P1Ω = (1)(6) = 6W.
P2Ω = (12)(-9) = -108W.
P3Ω = (10)(-3) = -30W.
P4V = (4)(-8) = 32W
PDS = (8IX)(11) = 176W.
Note: Power with a positive quantity is absorbed and that with negative quantity is supplied.
Exercise 1.1 Find the power of each element in the network below. Given Ix = 2A.
1.2 Units associated with basic electrical quantities
1.2.1 SI units
The system of units used in engineering and science is the Système Internationale d’Unités (International
system of units), usually abbreviated to SI units, and is based on the metric system.
The basic units in the SI system are listed below with their symbols, in Table 1.1
Table 1.1 The basic units in the SI system.
Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Metre M
Mass kilogram Kg
Time Second S
electric current Ampere A
thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
luminous intensity Candela Cd
Charge coulomb C
Table 1.2The SI prefixes.
Multiplier Prefix Symbol
1018 Exa E
1015 Peta P
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo K
2
10 Hector H
10 Deka Da
10-1 Deci D
10-2 Centi C
-3
10 Milli M
10 -6
Micro µ
10-9 Nano N
10-12 Pico P
-15
10 Femto F
-18
10 Atto A
1.2.2 Charge and current.
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) where one coulomb is one ampere second. (1 coulomb = 6.24×1018
electrons). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows past a given point in an electric
circuit when a current of one ampere is maintained for one second.
Thus, charge, in coulombs Q=It, where I is the current in amperes and t is the time in seconds.
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of electromotive
force), the charges are compelled to move; positive charges move from positive to negative while negative
charges move in the opposite direction. This motion of charges creates electric current, as Fig. 1.3 illustrates.
Figure 1.3 Electric current flow of electronic charge in a conductor.

Although current in metallic conductors is due to negatively charged electrons, follow the universally
accepted convention that current is the net flow of positive charges.
Thus, Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is
𝒅𝒒
𝒊≜ 1.1
𝒅𝒕
where current is measured in amperes (A), and
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/ second.
The charge transferred between time t0 and t is obtained by integrating both sides of Eq. (1.1). We obtain
𝒕
𝑸 ≜ ∫t0 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 1.2
If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc).
A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time. By convention the symbol I is used to
represent such a constant current.
A time-varying current is represented by the symbol i. A common form of time-varying current is the
sinusoidal current or alternating current (ac).
An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time. Such current is used in households
to run the air conditioner, refrigerator, washing machine, and other electric appliances. Figure 1.4 shows
direct current and alternating current; these are the two most
common types of current.
(b)
Figure 1. 6 The two common types of current: (a) direct current (dc), (b) alternating current (ac).
Example 1.2 If a current of 5A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.
Quantity of electricity Q=It coulombs
I =5A, t =2×60=120s
Hence Q=5×120=600 C
Example 1.3
Exercise:
1. Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t =1s and t =2s if the current passing through
the terminal is I = (3t2 - t) A.
2. The current flowing through an element is
4𝐴 0<𝑡<1
i ={4𝑡2
𝑡>1
Calculate the charge entering the element from t=0 to t = 2s.
1.2.3 Electrical potential and e.m.f

To move an electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy transfer. This work
is performed by an external electromotive force (e.m.f), usually represented by a battery. This emf is also
known as voltage or potential difference. Potential difference/ voltage is the energy required to move a unit
charge through an element.
The voltage between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit
charge from a to b; mathematically,
𝒅𝒘
Vab≜ 1.3
𝒅𝒒
where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage or simply v is measured in volts
(V), named in honor of the Italian physicist Alessandro Antonio Volta (1745–1827), who invented the first
voltaic battery. From Eq. (1.3), it is evident that
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 Newton-meter/coulomb
Thus,
One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points in a conductor which,when carrying a
current of one ampere, dissipates a power of one watt, i.e.
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Volts =𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
= 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
= 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
= 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a source of energy such as a battery or a generator is measured in
volts.
1.2.4 Force
The unit of force is the newton (N) where one newton is one kilogram metre per second squared. The newton
is defined as the force which, when applied to a mass of one kilogram, gives it an acceleration of one metre
per second squared.
Thus, force, in newtons is
F=ma
where m is the mass in kilograms and a is the acceleration in metres per second squared.
Gravitational force, or weight, is mg, where g=9.81m/s2.
Example 1.4 A mass of 5000g is accelerated at 2m/s2 by a force. Determine the force needed.
Force =mass × acceleration
=5kg×2m/s2
=10N
Example 1.5 Find the force acting vertically downwards on a mass of 200 g attached to a wire.
Mass=200g=0.2 kg and acceleration due to gravity,g=9.81m/s2
Force acting downwards=weight =mass × acceleration
=0.2kg×9.81m/s2
=1.962N.
1.2.5 Work
The unit of work or energy is the joule (J) where one joule is one Newton metre.
The joule is defined as the work done or energy transferred when a force of one Newton is exerted through
a distance of one metre in the direction of the force.
Thus work done on a body, in joules is
W=Fd joules
where F is the force in newtons and d is the distance in metres moved by the body in the direction of the
force. Energy is the capacity for doing work measured in joules (J).
1.2.6 Power
The unit of power is the watt (W) where one watt is one joule per second. Power is defined as the rate of
doing work or transferring energy.
Thus, power in watts,
W
P=
t
where W is the work done or energy transferred in joules and t is the time in seconds.
Thus energy, in joules, W=Pt
Mathematical relationship between power and energy to voltage and current,
𝑑𝑤
P≜ 1.4
𝑑𝑡
Where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s). From eqns. (1.1), (1.3),
and (1.4), it follows that
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
P= = * 1.5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
Or P = vi 1.6
The power p in Eq. (1.6) is a time-varying quantity and is called the instantaneous power. Thus, the power
absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage across the element and the current through
it. If the power has a + sign (i.e. p = +vi), power is being delivered to or absorbed by the element. If, on the
other hand, the power has a – sign (i.e. p = -vi), power is being supplied by the element. But how do we know
when the power has a negative or a positive sign?
Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in determining the sign of power. The voltage polarity
and current direction must conform with those shown in Fig. 1.5(a) in order for the power to have a positive
sign. This is known as the passive sign convention.
Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive terminal of an element and
p = + vi. If the current enters through the negative terminal, p= - vi.
Unless otherwise stated, we will follow the passive sign convention throughout.
Figure 1.7 polarities of power using the passive sign convention.
Example 1.6 A portable machine requires a force of 200N to move it. How much work is done if the machine
is moved 20m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 25s?
Solution
Work done =force×distance= 200N×20m
= 4000Nm or 4 kJ
Power = work done/time taken
= 4000J/25s
=160W.
1.2.7 Resistance and conductance

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is measured in ohms
(Ω ).
The unit of electric resistance is the ohm (Ω) whereone ohm is one volt per ampere.
An ohm is defined as the resistance between two points in a conductor when a constant electric potential of
one volt applied at the two points produces a current flow of one ampere in the conductor.
Thus,resistance, in ohms
𝑽
R=
𝑰
where V is the potential difference across the two points in volts and I is the current flowing between the two
points in amperes.
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance and is measured in siemens (S). Thus,conductance, in
siemens
𝟏
G= where R is the resistance in ohms.
𝑹
Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos (℧) or siemens
(S).
Example 1.7 Find the conductance of a conductor of resistance (a) 10Ωand (b) 100m Ω
(a) Conductance G = 1/R
= 1/10
=0.1 S
(b) G =1/R
=1/100×10−3
=103/100
=10 S.
1.3.3 Ohms law

Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage V and
inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains constant. Thus,
𝑽 𝑽
I = 𝑹 or V = IR or R = 𝑰
Example 1.9 The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20V is applied. Determine the
value of the resistance.
From Ohm’s law, Resistance R =V/I
= 20/0.8
= 200/8
= 25Ω.
1.2.8 Electrical power and energy

Electrical power
When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the voltage across the circuit is V
volts, then power, in watts is
P = VI
Power P in an electrical circuit is given by the product of potential difference V and current I, unit of power
iswatt, W.
From Ohm’s law, V =IR Substituting for V in P gives:
P = (IR) × I
i.e. P = I2R, watts.
Also, from Ohm’s law, I = V/R, Substituting for I in P gives:
P = V × V/R
𝑽𝟐
i.e. P = 𝑹 , watts.
There are thus three possible formulae which may be used for calculating power.
Electrical Energy
If the power is measured in watts and the time in seconds then the unit of energy is watt-seconds or joules.
If the power is measured in kilowatts and the time in hours then the unit of energy is kilowatt-hours, often
called the ‘unit of electricity’. The ‘electricity meter’ in the home records the number of kilowatt-hours used
and is thus an energy meter.
Electrical energy = Power×time
=VIt Joules
Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of energy, the unit used is the
kilowatt hour (kWh) where
1kWh = 1000 watt hour
= 1000×3600 watt seconds or joules
= 3600000J
Example 1.10-1 A 100W electric light bulb is connected to a 250V supply.

Determine (a) the current flowing in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb.
Power P=V ×I, from which, current I = P/V
(a) Current I = 100/250
= 10/25
=0.4A
(b) Resistance R = V/I
= 250/0.4
= 2500/4
=625Ω.
Example 1.10-2 A source e.m.f. of 5V supplies a current of 3A for 10 minutes. How much energy is provided
in this time?
Energy =power×time
and power=voltage ×current.
Hence, Energy=VIt
=5×3×(10×60)
=9000Ws or J
=9kJ
Example 1.11 A 12V battery is connected across a load having a resistance of 40Ω. Determine the current
flowing in the load, the power consumed and the energy dissipated in 2 minutes.
Current I = V/R
= 12/40
=0.3A
Power consumed, P=VI =(12)(0.3)=3.6W
Energy dissipated = power × time.

= (3.6W)(2×60s)
=432 J (since 1 J=1Ws).
Example 1.12 Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13A from a 240V supply.
Estimate the cost per week of electricity if the equipment is used for 30 hours each week and
1kWh of energy costs 13.56p
Solution
Power=VI watts=240×13=3120W=3.12kW
Energy used per week
=power×time
=(3.12kW)×(30h)=93.6kWh
Cost at 13.56p per kWh =93.6×13.56=1269.216 p
Hence weekly cost of electricity=£12.69
Exercise: An electric heater consumes 1.8MJ when connected to a 250V supply for 30 minutes. Find the
power rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply.
1.2.9 Applications
In this section, we will consider two practical applications of the concepts developed in this topic. The first
one deals with the TV picture tube and the other with how electric utilities determine a household’s electric
bill.
TV Picture Tube
One important application of the motion of electrons is found in both the transmission and reception of TV
signals. At the transmission end, a TV camera reduces a scene from an optical image to an electrical signal.
Scanning is accomplished with a thin beam of electrons in an iconoscope camera tube.
At the receiving end, the image is reconstructed by using a cathode ray tube (CRT) located in the TV receiver.
The CRT is depicted in Fig 1.6. Unlike the iconoscope tube, which produces an electron beam of constant
intensity, the CRT beam varies in intensity according to the incoming signal. The electron gun, maintained
at a high potential, fires the electron beam. The beam passes through two sets of plates for vertical and
horizontal deflections so that the spot on the screen where the beam strikes can move right and left and up
and down. When the electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, it gives off light at that spot.
Thus, the beam can be made to “paint” a picture on the TV screen.
Figure1. 8 cathode ray tube.

The second application deals with how an electric utility company charges their customers. The cost of
electricity depends upon the amount of energy consumed in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
However, even if a consumer uses no energy at all, there is a minimum service charge the customer must pay
because it costs money to stay connected to the power line. As energy consumption increases, the cost per
kWh drops.
1.3 Electric circuits

Below are some of the most common symbols used for components in electrical circuit diagrams.
1.3.1 Basic measuring instruments
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and must be connected in series with the circuit. Since
all the current in the circuit flows through the ammeter it must have a very low resistance.
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure p.d. and must be connected in parallel with the part of the
circuit whose p.d. is required. To avoid a significant current flowing through it a voltmeter must have a very
high resistance.
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring resistance.
A multimeter, or universal instrument, may be used to measure voltage, current and resistance.
The oscilloscope may be used to observe wave forms and to measure voltages and currents. The display of
an oscilloscope involves a spot of light moving across a screen. The amount by which the spot is deflected
from its initial position depends on the p.d. applied to the terminals of the oscilloscope and the range selected.
A wattmeter is an instrument for the measurement of power in an electrical circuit.
A BM80 or a 420 MIT megger or a bridge megger may be used to measure both continuity and insulation
resistance. Continuity testing is the measurement of the resistance of a cable to discover if the cable is
continuous, i.e. that it has no breaks or high resistance joints. Insulation resistance testing is the
measurement of resistance of the insulation between cables, individual cables to earth or metal plugs and
sockets, and so on. An insulation resistance in excess of 1Megaohm per kV is normally acceptable.
A tachometer is an instrument that indicates the speed, usually in revolutions per minute, at which an engine
shaft is rotating.
1.3.2 Linear and nonlinear devices

A resistor is an example of a linear device (figure 1.8 (a)), and the lamp is an example of a non-linear
device (figure 1.8 (b)), shown by the graphs below which exhibit when a current flows in each of the
mentioned devices.
Figure 1.9
1.3.4 Conductors and insulators

A conductor is a material having a low resistance which allows electric current to flow in it. All metals are
conductors and some examples include copper, aluminium, brass, platinum, silver, gold and carbon.
An insulator is a material having a high resistance which does not allow electric current to flow in it. Some
examples of insulators include plastic, rubber, glass, porcelain, air, paper, cork, mica, ceramics and certain
oils.
1.3.6 Main effects of current.
The three main effects of an electric current are:
(a) Magnetic effect.
(b) Chemical effect.
(c) Heating effect.
Some practical applications of the effects of an electric current include:

Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers, telephones, car-ignition and lifting magnets.
Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and electroplating.
Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons, furnaces, kettles and soldering irons.
1.3.7 Fuses
If there is a fault in a piece of equipment then excessive current may flow. This will cause overheating and
possibly a fire; fuses protect against this happening. Current from the supply to the equipment flows through
the fuse.
The fuse is a piece of wire which can carry a stated current; if the current rises above this value it will melt.
If the fuse melts (blows) then there is an open circuit and no current can then flow thus protecting the
equipment by isolating it from the power supply.
The fuse must be able to carry slightly more than the normal operating current of the equipment to allow for
tolerances and small current surges.
Example 1.13 If 5A, 10A and 13A fuses are available, state which is most appropriate for the following
appliances which are both connected to a 240V supply
(a) Electric toaster having a power rating of 1kW.
(b) Electric fire having a power rating of 3kW.
Solution
Power P=VI, from which, current I = P/V
(a) For the toaster,
Current I = P/V
= 1000/240
= 100/24
= 4.17A.
Hence a 5A fuse is most appropriate.
(b) For the fire,

Current I = P/V
= 3000/240
= 300/24
= 12.5A
Hence a 13A fuse is most appropriate.
Exercise on fuses
1. A television set having a power rating of 120Wand electric lawn-mower of power rating 1 kWare both
connected to a 240V supply. If 3A, 5A and 10A fuses are available state which one is the most appropriate
for each appliance, and why?
1.4 Resistance variations.
1.4.1 Resistance and resistivity.

The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on 4 factors, these being:
➢ the length (l) of the conductor,
➢ the cross-sectional area (A) of the conductor,
➢ the type of material and
➢ the temperature of the material.
Resistance, R, is directly proportional to length, l, of a conductor, i.e. R∝l. Thus, for example, if the length
of a piece of wire is doubled, then the resistance is doubled.
Resistance, R, is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area, a, of a conductor, i.e. R∝1/a. Thus, for
example, if the cross-sectional area of a piece of wire is doubled then the resistance is halved.
Since R∝l and R∝1/a then R∝l/a. By inserting a constant of proportionality into this relationship the type of
material used may be taken into account. The constant of proportionality is known as the resistivity of the
material and is given the symbol ρ (Greek word rho).
Thus, resistance
𝝆𝒍
R = ohms
𝒂
ρ is measured in ohm metres (Ωm).
The value of the resistivity is that resistance of a unit cube of the material measured between opposite faces
of the cube.
Resistivity varies with temperature and some typical values of resistivities measured at about room
temperature are given below:
Copper 1.7×10−8Ωm (or 0.017μΩm)

Aluminium 2.6×10−8Ωm (or 0.026μΩm)
Carbon (graphite) 10×10−8Ωm (or 0.10μΩm)
Glass 1×1010Ωm (or 104μΩm)
Mica 1×1013Ωm (or 107μΩm)
Note that good conductors of electricity have a low value of resistivity and good insulators have high value
of resistivity.
Example 1.14 A piece of wire of cross-sectional area 2mm2 has a resistance of 300Ω.
Find: (a)the resistance of a wire of the same length and material lif the cross-sectional area is 5mm2,
(b)the cross-sectional area of a wire of the same length and material of resistance 750Ω.
Solution:
Resistance R is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area, a, i.e. R∝ 1/a
1
Hence 300Ω ∝1/2mm2 or 300 = (k)
2
from which, the coefficient of proportionality ,k=300×2=600
(a) When the cross-sectional area a=5mm2

1
Then R=(k)
5
=(600)1/5
=120Ω
(Note that resistance has decreased as the cross sectional area is increased.)
(b) When the resistance is 750Ω then 750=(k)(1/a), from which cross-sectional area,
a = k/750
= 600/750
= 0.8mm2.
1.4.2 Temperature coefficient of resistance.
In general, as the temperature of a material increases, most conductors increase in resistance, insulators
decrease in resistance, whilst the resistance of some special alloys remain almost constant.
The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material is the increase in the resistance of a 1Ω resistor of
that material when it is subjected to a rise of temperature of 10C. The symbol used for the temperature
coefficient of resistance is α (Greek word alpha). Thus, if some copper wire of resistance 1Ω is heated
through 10C and its resistance is then measured as 1.0043Ω then α=0.0043Ω/Ω◦C for copper. The units are
usually expressed only as ‘per ◦C’, i.e. α=0.0043/◦C for copper. If the 1Ω resistor of copper is heated through
100◦C then the resistance at 100◦C would be1+100×0.0043=1.43Ω.
Some typical values of temperature coefficient of resistance measured at 0◦C are given below:
Copper 0.0043/◦C Aluminium 0.0038/◦C
Nickel 0.0062/◦C Carbon −0.00048/◦C
Constantan 0 Eureka 0.00001/◦C
(Note that the negative sign for carbon indicates that its resistance falls with increase of temperature.)
If the resistance of a material at 0◦C is known the resistance at any other temperature can be determined from:
Rθ= R0(1+α0θ)
whereR0 = resistance at 0◦CRθ= resistance at temperature θ◦C and α0= temperature coefficient of resistance
at 0◦C.
Example 1.15 A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 100Ω when its temperature is 0◦C. Determine its
resistance at 70◦C if the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 0◦C is 0.0043/◦C.
Solution:
Resistance Rθ= R0(1+α0θ)
Hence resistance at 70◦C, R70 = 100[1+(0.0043)(70)]
= 100[1+0.301]
= 100(1.301)
= 130.1Ω.
Example 1.16 The resistance of a coil of Aluminium wire at 18◦C is 200Ω. The temperature of the wire is
increased and the resistance rises to 240Ω. If the temperature coefficient of resistance of Aluminium is
0.0039/◦C at 18◦C, determine the temperature to which the coil has risen.
Solution:
Let the temperature rise to θ◦, Resistance at θ◦C,
Rθ=R18[1+α18(θ −18)]
240=200[1+(0.0039)(θ −18)]
240=200+(200)(0.0039)(θ −18)
240−200=0.78(θ −18)
40=0.78(θ −18)
40/0.78=θ −18
51.28=θ −18,
Hence θ=51.28+18=69.28◦C
Hence the temperature of the coil increases to 69.28◦C.
Note: If the resistance at 0◦C is not known, but is known at some other temperature θ1, then the resistance
at any temperature can be found as follows:
R1= R0(1+α0θ1) and R2= R0(1+α0θ2)
Dividing one equation by the other gives:
whereR2=resistance at temperature θ2.
Exercise
1. Some copper wire has a resistance of 200Ω at 20◦C. A current is passed through the wire and the
temperature rises to 90◦C. Determine the resistance of the wire at 90◦C, correct to the nearest ohm,
assuming that the temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.004/◦C at 0◦C.[Hint: using the previous principle]
2. A copper cable has a resistance of 30Ω at a temperature of 50◦C. Determine its resistance at 0◦C. Take
the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 0◦C as 0.0043/◦C.
3. The temperature coefficient of resistance for carbon at 0◦C is−0.00048/◦C. What is the significance of
the minus sign? A carbon resistor has a resistance of 500Ω at 0◦C. Determine its resistance at 50◦C.
1.4.3 Resistor colour coding and ohmic values.
a) Colour code for fixed resistors

The colour code for fixed resistors is given in Table 1.3 below.
(i) For a four-band fixed resistor (i.e. resistance values with two significant figures) :yellow-violet-orange-
red indicates 47kΩ with a tolerance of -+2%. (Note that the first band is the one nearest the end of the resistor)
(ii) For a five-band fixed resistor (i.e. resistance values with three significant figures): red-yellow-white-
orange-brown indicates 249kΩwith a tolerance of -+1%. (Note that the fifth band is 1.5 to 2 times wider than
the other bands).
Table1. 3 colour code for fixed resistors
Example 1.17 .Determine the value and tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding of: orange-orange-
silver-brown
The first two bands i.e. orange-orange, give 33 from Table 1.3.The third band, silver, indicates a multiplier
of 10-2 from table 1.3,which means that the value of the resistor is 33×10−2=0.33Ω
The fourth band, i.e. brown, indicates a tolerance of -+1% from Table 1.3. Hence a colour coding of orange-
orange-silver-brown represents a resistor of value 0.33Ω with a tolerance of -+1%.
Example 1.18 .Between what two values should a resistor with colour coding brown-black-brown-silver lie?
From Table 1.3, brown-black-brown-silver indicates10×10, i.e. 100Ω, with a tolerance of -+10%.
This means that the value could lie between
(100−10% of 100)Ω
and(100+10% of 100)Ω
i.e. brown-black-brown-silver indicates any value between 90Ω and 110Ω.
Example1.19 Determine the colour coding for a47kΩ having a tolerance of -+5%.
From Table 1.3, 47kΩ =47×103 has a colour coding of yellow-violet-orange. With a tolerance of -+5%, the
fourth band will be gold.
Hence 47 kΩ-+5% has a colour coding of: yellow-violet-orange-gold.
b) Letter and digit code for resistors.

Another way of indicating the value of resistors is the letter and digit code shown in Table 1.4.
Tolerance is indicated as follows: F= -+1%, G= -+2%, J= -+5%, K = -+10% and M= -+20%
Thus, for example,
R33M = 0.33Ω -+20%
4R7K = 4.7Ω -+10%
390RJ = 390Ω -+5%
Table 1. 4 letter digit representation for resistors
Example 1.20 Determine the value of a resistor marked as 6K8F.

From Table 1.4, 6K8F is equivalent to: 6.8Ω -+1%.
Example 1.21 Determine the letter and digit code for a resistor having a value of 68 kΩ -+10%.
From Table 3.2, 68kΩ -+10% has a letter and digit code of: 68KK.
Exercise.
1. Determine the value and tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding of: blue-white-black-black-gold.
2. Determine the colour coding for a 51 kΩ four band resistor having a tolerance of -+2%.
3. Determine the letter and digit code for a resistor having a value of 100 kΩ -+5%.
4. Determine the value of a resistor marked as a) R22G (b) 4K7F.
1.5 Series and parallel networks.
1.5.1 Series network.

Figure 1.9 below shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected end to end, i.e. in series, with a battery source
of V volts. Since the circuit is closed a current I will flow and the p.d. across each resistor may be determined
from the voltmeter readings V1, V2 and V3.
Figure 1.10 a series circuit.
In a series circuit,
(a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit and hence the same reading is found on each of the two
ammeters shown above, and
(b) the sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is equal to the total applied voltage, V , i.e.
V =V1 +V2 +V3
From Ohm’s law:

V1 = IR,V2 = IR2,V3 = IR3 and V = IR where R is the total circuit resistance.
Since V =V1 +V2 +V3, then IR =IR1+IR2+IR3.
Dividing throughout by I gives
R = R1+R2+R3
Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance is obtained by adding together the values of the separate
resistances.
Example 1.22 .For the circuit shown below, determine (a) the battery voltage V , (b) the total resistance of
the circuit, and (c) the values of resistance of resistors R1, R2 and R3, given that the p.ds across R1, R2 and R3
are 5V, 2V and 6V respectively.
(a) Battery voltage V = V1 +V2 +V3

=5+2+6=13V
(b) Total circuit resistance R= V/I
= 13/4=3.25
(c) Resistance R1 = V1/I
= 5/4
=1.25Ω.
Resistance R2 = V2/I
= 2/4
=0.5 Ω.
Resistance R3 =V3/I
=6/4
=1.5 Ω.
(Check: R1+R2+R3=1.25+0.5+1.5=3.25 Ω =R).
Example 1.23 For the circuit shown below, determine the p.d. across resistor R3. If the total resistance of the
circuit is 100Ω, determine the current flowing through resistor R1. Find also the value of resistor R2.
P.d. across R3, V3 =25−10−4=11V

Current I = V/R
= 25/100
=0.25A, which is the current flowing in each resistor.
Resistance R2 = V2/I
= 4/0.25
=16Ω.
1.5.2 Potential divider.
The voltage distribution for the circuit shown in Figure 1.10 (a) is given by:
Figure 1.11 potential meter.

The circuit shown in Figure 1.10 (b) is often referred to as a potential divider circuit. Such a circuit can
consist of a number of similar elements in series connected across a voltage source, voltages being taken
from connections between the elements. Frequently the divider consists of two resistors as shown in Figure
1.10(b), where,
A potential divider is the simplest way of producing a source of lower e.m.f. from a source of higher e.m.f.,
and is the basic operating mechanism of the potentiometer, a measuring device for accurately measuring
potential differences.
Example 1.24 Determine the value of voltage V shown in figure below
6
Solution V = ( 6+4) 50
=30 V.
Example 1.25 Two resistors are connected in series across a 24V supply and a current of 3A flows in the
circuit. If one of the resistors has a resistance of 2Ω, determine (a) the value of the other resistor, and (b) the
p.d. across the 2Ω resistor. If the circuit is connected for 50 hours, how much energy is used? The circuit
diagram is shown in figure below.
(a) Total circuit resistance R =V/I

= 24/3
=8Ω.
Value of unknown resistance, Rx =8−2=6Ω.
(b) P.d. across 2Ω resistor, V1=IR1 =3×2=6V
Alternatively, from above,

𝑅1 2
V1 = ( )V =( )24 = 6V
𝑅1+ 𝑅𝑥 2+6
Energy used = power× time

= V × I ×t
= (24×3W) (50h)
= 3600Wh = 3.6 kWh.
1.5.3 Parallel network.

Figure 1.11 shows three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 connected across each other, i.e. in parallel, across a battery
source of V volts.
Figure 1.11Parellel network.

In a parallel circuit:
(a) the sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is equal to the total circuit current, I, i.e. I=I1+I2+I3, and
(b) the source p.d., V volts, is the same across each of the resistors.
From Ohm’s law:
This equation must be used when finding the total resistance R of a parallel circuit. For the special case of
two resistors in parallel,
Example 1.26 For the circuit shown in below, determine (a) the reading on the ammeter, and (b) the value
of resistor R2.
Solution: P.d. across R1 is the same as the supply voltage V.

Hence supply voltage, V =8×5=40V
(a) Reading on ammeter, I= V/R3

= 40/20
=2A.
(b) Current flowing through R2 =11−8−2=1A

Hence, R2 = V/I2
= 40/1
=40Ω.
Example 1.27 Two resistors, of resistance 3Ωand 6Ω, are connected in parallel across a battery having a
voltage of 12V. Determine (a) the total circuit resistance and (b) the current flowing in the 3Ωresistor. The
circuit diagram is shown in figure below.
.
(a) The total circuit resistance R is given by
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
1 1 1
= +
𝑅 3 6
1.5.4 Current division.
For the circuit shown in Figure 1.12, the total circuit resistance, RT is given by:
Figure 1.12 current division representation.
Example 1.28 For the series-parallel arrangement shown in figure below, find (a) the supply current, (b) the
current flowing through each resistor and (c) the p.d. across each resistor.
Solution
1.5.5 Potentiometers and Rheostats.
It is frequently desirable to be able to vary the value of a resistor in a circuit. A simple example of this is the
volume control of a radio or television set. Voltages and currents may be varied in electrical circuits by using
potentiometers and rheostats.
Potentiometers
When a variable resistor uses three terminals, it is known as a potentiometer. The potentiometer provides an
adjustable voltage divider circuit, which is useful as a means of obtaining various voltages from a fixed
potential difference. Consider the potentiometer circuit shown in Figure below incorporating a lamp and
supply voltage V.
In the circuit of Figure above, the input voltage is applied across points A and B at the ends of the
potentiometer, while the output is tapped off between the sliding contact S and the fixed end B. It will be
seen that with the slider at the far left-hand end of the resistor (potentiometer), the full voltage will appear
across the lamp, and as the slider is moved towards point B the lamp brightness will reduce. When S is at the
far right of the potentiometer, the lamp is short-circuited, no current will flow through it, and the lamp will
be fully off.
Example 1.29 Calculate the volt drop across the 60Ω load in the circuit shown in Figure below, when the
slider S is at the halfway point of the 200Ω potentiometer.
With the slider halfway, the equivalent circuit is shown in Figure below.
(b)
The equivalent circuit is now as shown in figure below.
The volt drop across the 37.5Ωresistor in Figure above is the same as the volt drop across both of the parallel
resistors in Figure b.
There are two methods for determining the volt drop VSB:
Method 1
Total circuit resistance, RT= 100+37.5 = 137.5Ω.
Hence, the volt drop across the 60Ω load is 8.18 V.
Rheostats
A variable resistor where only two terminals are used, one fixed and one sliding, is known as a rheostat. The
rheostat circuit, shown in Figure below, similar in construction to the potentiometer, is used to control current
flow. The rheostat also acts as a dropping resistor, reducing the voltage across the load, but is more effective
at controlling current.
For this reason the resistance of the rheostat should be greater than that of the load, otherwise it will have
little or no effect.
Typical uses are in a train setor Scalextric. Another practical example is in varying the brilliance of the panel
lighting controls in a car.
The rheostat resistance is connected in series with the load circuit, RL, with the slider arm tapping off an
amount of resistance (i.e. that between A and S) to provide the current flow required. With the slider at the
far left-hand end, the load receives maximum current; with the slider at the far right-hand end, minimum
current flows. The current flowing can be calculated by finding the total resistance of the circuit (i.e. RT =
RAS + RL), then by applying Ohm’s law,
Calculations involved with the rheostat circuit are simpler than those for the potentiometer circuit.
Example 1.30 In the circuit of Figure below, calculate the current flowing in the 100Ω load, when the sliding
point S is 2/3 of the way from A to B.
Summary
A potentiometer (a) has three terminals, and (b) is used for voltage control.
A rheostat (a) has two terminals, (b) is used for current control.
A rheostat is not suitable if the load resistance is higher than the rheostat resistance; rheostat resistance must
be higher than the load resistance to be able to influence current flow.
1.5.6 Earth potential and short circuits

The earth, and hence the sea, is at a potential of zero volts. Items connected to the earth (or sea), i.e. circuit
wiring and electrical components, are said to be earthed or at earth potential. This means that there is no
difference of potential between the item and earth. A ship’s hull, being immersed in the sea, is at earth
potential and therefore at zero volts.
Earth faults, or short circuits, are caused by low resistance between the current carrying conductor and earth.
This occurs when the insulation resistance of the circuit wiring decreases, and is normally caused by:
1. Dampness.
2. Insulation becoming hard or brittle with age or heat.
3. Accidental damage.
1.5.7 Wiring lamps in series and parallel.

Series connection
Figure 1.12 shows three lamps, each rated at 240V, connected in series across a 240V supply. Characteristics
of lamps in series:
❖ Each lamp has only 240/3V, i.e. 80V across it and thus each lamp glows dimly.
❖ If another lamp of similar rating is added in series with the other three lamps then each lamp now
has240/4V, i.e. 60Vacross it and each now glows even more dimly.
❖ If a lamp is removed from the circuit or if a lamp develops a fault (i.e. an open circuit) or if the switch is
opened then the circuit is broken, no current flows, and the remaining lamps will not light up.
❖ Less cable is required for a series connection than for a parallel one.
Figure 1.12 series connection of lamps.
The series connection of lamps is usually limited to decorative lighting such as for Christmas tree lights.
Parallel connection
Figure 1.13 shows three similar lamps, each rated at 240V, connected in parallel across a 240V supply.
Figure 1.13 Parallel connection of lamps.

Characteristics of lamps in parallel:
❖ Each lamp has 240V across it and thus each will glow brilliantly at their rated voltage.
❖ If any lamp is removed from the circuit or develops a fault (open circuit) or a switch is opened, the
remaining lamps are unaffected.
❖ The addition of further similar lamps in parallel does not affect the brightness of the other lamps.
❖ More cable is required for parallel connection than for a series one.
The parallel connection of lamps is the most widely used in electrical installations.
1.6 Capacitors and capacitance.
1.6.1 Introduction to capacitors.

A capacitor is an electrical device that is used to store electrical energy.
Applications of Capacitors:
(a) Capacitors are used to smooth rectified a.c. outputs,
(b) They are used in telecommunication equipment such as radio receivers for tuning to the required
frequency.
(c) They are used in time delay circuits, in electrical filters, in oscillator circuits
(d) They are used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medical body scanners.
1.6.1 Electrostatic field
Figure 1.14 represents two parallel metal plates, A and B, charged to different potentials.
Figure 1.14 Electrostatic field.

If a negatively charge electron is placed between the plates, a force will act on the electron tending to push
it away from the negative plate B towards the positive plate, A. Similarly, a positive charge would be acted
on by a force tending to move it toward the negative plate. Any region such as that shown between the plates
in Figure 1.14, in which an electric charge experiences a force, is called an electrostatic field.
Figure 1.15(a) shows a typical field pattern for an isolated point charge, and Figure 1.15(b) shows the field
pattern for adjacent charges of opposite polarity. Electric lines of force (often called electric flux lines) are
continuous and start and finish on point charges. Also, the lines cannot cross each other. When a charged
body is placed close to an uncharged body, an induced charge of opposite sign appears on the surface of the
uncharged body. This is because lines of force from the charged body terminate on its surface.
Figure 1.15 Typical field pattern
The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged bodies is proportional to the
magnitude of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them, i.e. force
This is known as Coulomb’s law. Hence the force between two charged spheres in air with their centres
16mm apart and each carrying a charge of +1.6μC is given by:
1.6.3 Electric field strength.

Figure 1.16 shows two parallel conducting plates separated from each other by air. They are connected to
opposite terminals of a battery of voltage V volts.
Figure 1.16 Two parallel conducting plates.

There is therefore an electric field in the space between the plates. If the plates are close together, the electric
lines of force will be straight and parallel and equally spaced, except near the edge where fringing will occur.
Over the area in which there is negligible fringing,
𝑽
Electric field strength, E = volts/metre
𝒅
where d is the distance between the plates. Electric field strength is also called potential gradient.
1.6.4 Capacitance.
Let a charge be +Q coulombs on one plate and −Q coulombs on the other. The property of this pair of plates
which determines how much charge corresponds to a given p.d. between the plates is called their
capacitance:
𝑸
Capacitance, C =
𝑽
The unit of capacitance is the farad F (or more usually μF= 10−6F or pF = 10−12F), and is defined as the
capacitance when a p.d. of one volt appears across the plates when charged with one coulomb.
1.6.5 Capacitors.
Every system of electrical conductors possesses capacitance. For example, there is capacitance between the
conductors of overhead transmission lines and also between the wires of a telephone cable. In these examples
the capacitance is undesirable but has to be accepted, minimized or compensated for. There are other
situations where capacitance is a desirable property.
Devices specially constructed to possess capacitance are called capacitors (or condensers, as they used to be
called). In its simplest form, a capacitor consists of two plates which are separated by an insulating material
known as a dielectric. A capacitor has the ability to store a quantity of static electricity. The symbols for a
fixed capacitor and a variable capacitor used in electrical circuit diagrams are shown below.
The charge Q stored in a capacitor is given by: Q = I ×t coulombs, where I is the current in amperes and t
the time in seconds.
Example 1.31
(a) Determine the p.d. across a 4μF capacitor when charged with 5mC.
(b) Find the charge on a 50pF capacitor when the voltage applied to it is 2kV.
Solution
1.6.6 Electric flux density.
Unit flux is defined as emanating from a positive charge of 1 coulomb. Thus electric flux Ψ is measured in
coulombs, and for a charge of Q coulombs, the flux Ψ=Q coulombs.
Electric flux density D is the amount of flux passing through a defined area A that is perpendicular to the
direction of the flux:
𝑸
Electric flux density, D = coulombs/metre2
𝑨
Electric flux density is also called charge density, σ.
1.6.7 Permittivity.
At any point in an electric field, the electric field strength E maintains the electric flux and produces a
particular value of electric flux density D at that point. For a field established in vacuum (or for practical
purposes in air), the ratio D/E is a constant ε0, i.e.
𝑫
= ε0
𝑬
whereε0 is called the permittivity of free space or the free space constant. The value of ε0 is 8.85×10−12 F/m.
When an insulating medium, such as mica, paper, plastic or ceramic, is introduced into the region of an
electric field the ratio of D/E is modified:
𝑫
= ε0 ε r
𝑬
Where εr, the relative permittivity of the insulating material, indicates its insulating power compared with
that of vacuum:
flux density in material
Relative permittivity εr= flux density in vacuum .
εr has no unit. Typical values of εr include: air, 1.00; polythene, 2.3; mica, 3–7; glass, 5–10;water, 80;
ceramics, 6–1000.
The product ε0εr is called the absolute permittivity, ε, i.e. ε = ε0εr.
The insulating medium separating charged surfaces is called a dielectric. Compared with conductors,
dielectric materials have very high resistivities .They are therefore used to separate conductors at different
potentials, such as capacitor plates or electric power lines.
Example 1.32 Two parallel rectangular plates measuring 20cm by 40cm carry an electric charge of 0.2μC.
Calculate the electric flux density. If the plates are spaced 5mm apart and the voltage between them is 0.25kV
determine the electric field strength.
Solution
Charge Q=0.2μC=0.2×10−6C;
Example 1.33The flux density between two plates separated by mica of relative permittivity 5 is 2μC/m2.
Find the voltage gradient between the plates.
1.6.8 The parallel plate capacitor.

For a parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Figure 1.17(a), experiments show that capacitance C is proportional
to the area A of a plate, inversely proportional to the plates spacing d (i.e. the dielectric thickness) and depends
on the nature of the dielectric:
Figure 1.17 Parallel plate capacitor.
𝜺𝟎𝜺𝒓𝑨
Capacitance, C = farads
𝒅
where ε0 = 8.85×10−12 F/m (constant)
εr= relative permittivity.
A = area of one of the plates, in m2, and
d = thickness of dielectric in m.
Another method used to increase the capacitance is to interleave several plates as shown in Figure
1.17(b).Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with a capacitance nine times that of one pair of plates.
If such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance C∝(n−1).
Thus capacitance
𝜺𝟎𝜺𝒓𝑨(𝒏−𝟏)
C= farads.
𝒅
Example 1.34 A ceramic capacitor has an effective plate area of 4cm2 separated by 0.1mm of ceramic of
relative permittivity 100. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor in pico farads. (b) If the capacitor in part
(a) is given a charge of 1.2μC what will be the p.d. between the plates?
Exercise:
1. A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel plates, each of effective area 800cm2. If the capacitance of
the capacitor is 4425pF determine the effective thickness of the paper if its relative permittivity is
2.5.
2. A parallel plate capacitor has nineteen interleaved plates each 75mm by 75mm separated by mica
sheets 0.2mm thick. Assuming the relative permittivity of the mica is 5, calculate the capacitance of
the capacitor.
1.6.9 Capacitors connected in parallel and series
(a) Capacitors connected in parallel
Figure 1.18 shows three capacitors, C1,C2 and C3, connected in parallel with a supply voltage V applied across
the arrangement. When the charging current I reach point A it divides, flowing into C1, C2and C3. Hence the
total charge QT (=I ×t )is divided amongst the three capacitors. The capacitors each store a charge and these
are shown as Q1, Q2 andQ3 respectively.
Hence QT= Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Figure 1.18 capacitors connected in parallel.
But QT=CV, Q1=C1V, Q2=C2V and Q3=C3V

Therefore CV =C1V +C2V +C3V where C is the total equivalent circuit capacitance i.e. C = C1+C2 + C3
It follows that for n parallel-connected capacitors,

C = C1 +C2 +C3 +・・・+Cn
i.e. the equivalent capacitance of a group of parallel connected capacitors is the sum of the capacitances of
the individual capacitors. (Note that this formula is similar to that used for resistors connected in series.)
(b) Capacitors connected in series

Figure 1.19 shows three capacitors, C1,C2 and C3, connected in series across a supply voltage V. Let the p.d.
across the individual capacitors be V1,V2 and V3 respectively as shown.
Let the charge on plate ‘a’ of capacitor C1 be +Q coulombs. This induces an equal but opposite charge of −Q
coulombs on plate ‘b’. The conductor between plates ‘b’ and ‘c’ is electrically isolated from the rest of the
circuit so that an equal but opposite charge of +Q coulombs must appear on plate ‘c’, which, in turn, induces
an equal and opposite charge of –Q coulombs on plate ‘d’, and so on.
Figure 1.19 shows three capacitors connected in series
Hence when capacitors are connected in series the charge on each is the same.
In a series circuit: V =V1+V2+V3
i.e. for series-connected capacitors, the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances. (Note that this formula is similar to that used for resistors
connected in parallel.)
For the special case of two capacitors in series:
Example1.35 Calculate the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors of 6μF and 4μF connected (a) in parallel
and (b) in series.
Example 1.36 What capacitance must be connected in series with a 30μF capacitor for the equivalent
capacitance to be 12μF?
1.6.10 Dielectric strength.

The maximum amount of field strength that a dielectric can withstand is called the dielectric strength of the
material.
Dielectric strength, Em= Vm/d
Example 1.37 A capacitor is to be constructed so that its capacitance is 0.2μF and to take a p.d. of 1.25kV
across its terminals. The dielectric is to be mica which, after allowing a safety factor of 2, has a dielectric
strength of 50MV/m. Find (a) the thickness of the mica needed, and (b) the area of aplate assuming a two-
plate construction. (Assume εr for mica to be 6.)
1.6.11 Energy stored
The energy, W, stored by a capacitor is given by
Example1.38 (a) Determine the energy stored in a 3μF capacitor when charged to 400V. (b) Find also the
average power developed if this energy is dissipated in a time of 10μs.
1.6.12 Discharging capacitors.

When a capacitor has been disconnected from the supply it may still be charged and it may retain this charge
for some considerable time. Thus precautions must be taken to ensure that the capacitor is automatically
discharged after the supply is switched off. This is done by connecting a high value resistor across the
capacitor terminals.

Electrical Systems Notes - Handout 1 - Introduction

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Electrical Systems Notes - Handout 1 - Introduction

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Course code: ELE1201Course name: ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS Handout I

Course name: ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Brief Course Description

3. Elementary transient signals

4. Three Phase Circuits

5. Frequency Response Curves

Requirement Percentage contribution

LECTURER AND CONTACTS:

Mr Fredrick. William Mukalazi 0776-134472

Electrical and electronic principles and technology (John Bird).

Fundamentals of electric circuits 5th edition.(Sadiku)

Electronic - circuit and systems (4th edition)- slicer

www.all about circuits.com

Figure 1.1 a simple electrical circuit

1.1.1 Electrical/ electronic system

1.1.2 Circuit elements

From power = Current*Voltage (IV)

1.2 Units associated with basic electrical quantities

Table 1.1 The basic units in the SI system.

Quantity Unit Symbol

1.2.2 Charge and current.

Figure 1.3 Electric current flow of electronic charge in a conductor.

1.2.3 Electrical potential and e.m.f

Gravitational force, or weight, is mg, where g=9.81m/s2.

Mathematical relationship between power and energy to voltage and current,

1.2.7 Resistance and conductance

1.3.3 Ohms law

1.2.8 Electrical power and energy

Example 1.10-1 A 100W electric light bulb is connected to a 250V supply.

Power P=V ×I, from which, current I = P/V

Energy dissipated = power × time.

Figure1. 8 cathode ray tube.

1.3 Electric circuits

An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring resistance.

A wattmeter is an instrument for the measurement of power in an electrical circuit.

1.3.2 Linear and nonlinear devices

1.3.4 Conductors and insulators

Some practical applications of the effects of an electric current include:

(b) For the fire,

1.4 Resistance variations.

1.4.1 Resistance and resistivity.

Copper 1.7×10−8Ωm (or 0.017μΩm)

(a) When the cross-sectional area a=5mm2

whereR2=resistance at temperature θ2.

a) Colour code for fixed resistors

Table1. 3 colour code for fixed resistors

b) Letter and digit code for resistors.

Table 1. 4 letter digit representation for resistors

Example 1.20 Determine the value of a resistor marked as 6K8F.

1.5 Series and parallel networks.

1.5.1 Series network.

From Ohm’s law:

(a) Battery voltage V = V1 +V2 +V3

P.d. across R3, V3 =25−10−4=11V

Figure 1.11 potential meter.

Example 1.24 Determine the value of voltage V shown in figure below

(a) Total circuit resistance R =V/I

(b) P.d. across 2Ω resistor, V1=IR1 =3×2=6V

Alternatively, from above,

Energy used = power× time

1.5.3 Parallel network.

Figure 1.11Parellel network.

From Ohm’s law: