Experiment 1: Introduction to Electrical Engineering and Lab Equipment

Objectives:
• Defining Engineering & Electrical engineering
• Circuit theory and Electromagnetic Theory
• Direct and Alternating current
• Drift velocity
• Active and Passive Devices
• Voltage and Current
• Breadboard
• DMM
• DC Power Supply

Theoretical Background:

 Engineering:
Engineering is a broad discipline associated with science and technology. It is defined as:
"the application of mathematical and scientific principles through which the properties of matter
and natural energy resources are rendered useful for the service of mankind."

It also focuses on the development and devising of engineering methods for optimum productivity.
Types of engineering include mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, software engineering,
environmental engineering etc.

 Electrical Engineering:
Electrical Engineering is
"a branch of engineering which is concerned with the study, design and application of equipment,
devices and systems which use phenomena of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. It is
the branch of engineering which deals with practical implementation of physical study of electric
charges, conductors, primary circuit elements and electrical components"

A few applications of electrical engineering include electric motors, radar and navigation system,
communication system, power generation and transmission devices.
Basic Electrical Theory has following two main divisions:

 Circuit Theory:
Electrical Circuit Theory is related to the working, performance and analysis of electronics and
electrical networks. All the electrical parameters such as potential difference, current, resistance,
capacitance, electromotive force, power rating etc. are studied in circuit theory.
It also encompasses knowledge about different types of circuit assemblies e.g. series circuit,
parallel circuit, series-parallel combination circuits.
Basic laws such as Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's Laws are studied in circuit theory as well.

 Electromagnetic Theory:
The electromagnetic theory explains the natural phenomena of electromagnetism. It is a
fundamental part of the electrical engineering study as it states that
"when an electric charge accelerates under the application of potential difference, two types of
fields are produced around it namely, electric field and magnetic field."
This relationship between electricity and magnetism suggests that a changing electric flux produces
magnetic field and similarly changing magnetic flux produces an electric field
Concepts of Faraday's Laws of Induction, Lorentz force and Lenz's law are a part of electromagnetic
theory.

Current (I) is flow of charge in a conductor per unit time under the influence of potential
difference. I=Q/t. There are two main types of current, A.C. and D.C.
 Alternating Current:
Alternating Current (A.C.) is defined as the type of current which continuously changes its
magnitude and reverses its direction, in a periodic manner, for the time it is being supplied.
A.C. is usually produced by a time-varying voltage source which means that the alternating current
has an alternating voltage supply. The waveform of A.C. is generally given by a sinusoidal wave to
represent the rising and decaying current due to changing/fluctuating polarity. The number of
cycles per unit time in the wave give the frequency of the alternating current.
Alternating current is preferred for electrical power transmission and distribution.

 Direct Current:
Direct Current (D.C.) is the unidirectional or one directional flow of current which is produced by a
steady voltage source e.g. an electrochemical cell is a common source. The polarity of Direct
current also remains constant as the current flows from positive terminal to the negative terminal.

 Drift Velocity:
Conductors are composed of a large amount of free electrons which being far from the nuclei of
conductor atoms, freely move around the positively charged ions and form an electron pool.
When there is no potential difference, these electrons possess random motion. However, as soon
as voltage is applied, the electrons align and begin movement from high potential towards low
potential. The average velocity with which the free electrons drift along the conductor when
electric potential is applied is known as drift velocity. Its value is about 0.1m/s.

 Active Devices:
Those components of an electrical circuit which produce, generate, manipulate and amplify
electrical energy are known as active devices. They often supply electrical energy to the circuit e.g.
battery, generators, solar cells.

 Passive Devices:
Passive devices are characterized by the utilization, dissipation, absorption and storage of
electrical energy. e.g. resistor, capacitor, transformers etc.
 Voltage:
Voltage is also known as potential difference, it is the Work done per unit charge to move it from
one point to another in an electric field is known as Voltage. The units of voltage are V (volts) or
J/C.
V=W/q

 Breadboard:
A bread board is used to make a temporary, detachable circuit, which helps in troubleshooting and
testing of the network before permanently soldering the components and forming the final circuit
on PCB.

 DMM:
The digital multi-meter or DMM is a testing device used to measure different electrical parameters,
principally voltage, current, resistance and continuity. Both AC and DC amperage and voltage can
be determined. The measured values are digitally displayed. It possesses the combined testing
capabilities of voltmeter, ohmmeter and ammeter and can be used as necessary by appropriate
connections of test leads from available input jacks, depending on the range of values.

 DC Power Supply:
A DC power supply acts as a constant direct current voltage source to power the components
under test. It converts the input AC wall power which is being delivered initially, to DC output. It
operates on two modes, in which either current or voltage are regulated. Multi channel DC power
supply has more than one output terminals. These power supplies can also be regulated such that
the slave unit is dependent on the master unit.

Procedure and Results:

1. Understanding connections on Breadboard:
 Different combinations of circuit (series, parallel and series-parallel) were constructed on the
breadboard.
 The bread board consists of rows of tiny holes which are connected, meaning the circuit is short
between those holes.
 Alternative rows are isolated from each other meaning that the circuit is open and they do not
have any connection.
 The rows and columns are labelled with letters and numbers which guide us while building the
circuit.
 The blue and red lines help identify if the holes are connected or not, a continuous horizontal or
vertical line represents uninterrupted connection in the direction of the rail and vice versa.
 The colour of the rail can be helpful in identifying the positive and negative side. Red for
positive and blue for negative.

2. Understanding the working of a Multi-meter:

The objective was to understand the working of a multi-meter as a voltmeter, ammeter and
ohmmeter.
 The multi-meter was switched on.
 The test lead was inserted in the input jack on the bench meter conforming to the symbols of
parameter to be measured, for example to measure resistance the red coloured lead was
connected to the port with the Ω symbol.
 Correct measuring mode was selected, for example to measure the resistance, it was selected
to work as an ohmmeter.
 The common lead was connected to the common port.
 Probes at the end of the lead were carefully positioned on the circuit board and the measured
value was displayed on the multi-meter.
Precautions:
 The test leads must be attached to the right terminals.
 The multi-meter must not be overloaded. To avoid such a situation a proper range for the
parameter under observation should be chosen.
 During current measurement the multi-meter must be connected in series to the circuit. If
voltage is measured instead of current in this case and the multi-meter is connected in parallel,
it may cause large surge of current towards the multi-meter and ultimate blowing of fuse due
to small resistance.

3. DC Power Supply:
In order to obtain a 25 V output from a DC power supply following procedure was adopted:
 The display unit was switched to display voltage instead of amperage.
 The current control knob was switched to maximum so that the circuit elements can draw
current according to their requirement.
 This caused the power supply to switch to constant voltage mode.
 Using the voltage control knob the potential was brought up to 25 V. Maximum range of the
given DC supply was about 30-31 V.
 The supply leads were attached to respective voltage output knobs and were connected to the
circuit to supply constant voltage of 25 V.
 The voltage was cross checked by attaching the multi-meter to the power supply.

There are two modes in which the power supply operates:

CC stands for constant current. When current is fixed according to the limiting current for our
circuit, the voltage is determined by Ohm's Law
CV stands for constant voltage. When voltage is set according to the power rating of components
of circuit, the current varies according to the current drawing ability of the components.
Precautions:
 Ohm's law must be used to check whether the circuit elements can bear the current being
supplied as a result of voltage supply, otherwise the components of the circuit can experience
damage.
 Supply Leads should be attached carefully.
It was observed that the DC power supply had 3 sets of power supply outlets. Two sets consisted of
red, green and black knobs which provided a variable/adjustable voltage supply
Red- positive terminal
Green- earth/neutral terminal
black- negative terminal

The third power supply had fixed voltage of 5V.

Quick-search:
Difference between PCB and Breadboard:
Printed Circuit Board(PCB) is a compact circuit assembly of an electrical prototype. The circuit
elements are soldered and fixed in place permanently. It forms an integral part of all electrical
devices whereas a breadboard allows us to make circuit models without having to solder the
components. The components easily get secured in the holes of the breadboard and can be
removed, replaced, analysed and tested when needed.
Why Current flows with the speed of light but drift velocity of free electrons is in 0.1m/s?
The flow of current is not dependent on the drift velocity of charges. Current flows due to the
transfer of electrical energy from one electron to another. As there are millions of free electrons in
a conductor hence the energy is rapidly transferred from one end of the conductor to the other
due to potential difference and reaches the component before the electrons do. It is the work done
per unit charge which travels through the circuit in the form of electricity. This phenomena can be
observed when a light bulb is switched on, the free electrons align under potential difference and
start moving towards the bulb. Due to very small velocity of the order 0.1m/s, electrons may take a
lot of time to travel from one end to another but they collide with each other during the journey
and transfer current.

Conclusion:
Through this lab we acquire knowledge about working, designing and construction of simple
circuits and their importance in the field of electrical engineering. It provided a brief understanding
of different electrical parameters i.e. current and voltage. Application of multi-meter was explained
for the analysis of electrical network.
 Experiment 2: Electrical Engineering Symbols and Usage of Digital Multi-meter

Objectives:
• Electrical Engineering Symbols
• DMM as Ohmmeter
• DMM as Ammeter
• DMM as Voltmeter

Theoretical Background:
 Ohmmeter:
Ohmmeter is an electrical measuring device used to measure the magnitude of electrical
resistance. It works on the principle of Ohm's Law. The ohmmeter directs a small amount of
current towards the path where the resistance is to be measured by applying potential
difference. As the current flows it experiences resistance. Using the values of current and voltage
the ohmmeter calculates resistance and displays the measured value. Ohmmeters are usually
connected in parallel to the circuit where resistance is being measured.
 Ammeter:
An ammeter is a current measuring device. It is always connected in series with the component
or path where the current is being measured. In series circuit, voltage is divided but current
remains same. Ammeter has a very low resistance so that accurate value of current can be
obtained without changing circuit resistance appreciably.
 Voltmeter:
It is an instrument used to determine the voltage or potential difference. Voltmeter is always
connected in parallel to the component across which the voltage drop is being measured
because, in parallel circuit, voltage remains constant and current is divided in each branch of the
circuit. Ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.

Procedure and Results:

1. Basic Electrical Symbols

AC Voltage Source Variable Resistor

DC Voltage Source Dependent voltage source

Resistors Dependent and independent current

source

Variable resistor

Non polar Capacitor

Ohmmeter

Polar Capacitor

2. Procedure to measure current from DMM:

 The digital multi-meter was powered on.
 The black probe was inserted in the common terminal labelled as COM on the multi-meter. The
red probe was inserted in the red terminal labelled with A.
 The DC Ampere button was located and pressed for measurement of DC Current. The digital
multi-meter was thus converted into an ammeter.
 Voltage was already being supplied to the circuit from DC power supply.
 The circuit was broken from the point where the current reading was to be taken and the
probes were linked in series with the load
 The current was displayed on the screen.

3. Procedure to measure voltage through DMM:

 The DMM was converted into voltmeter by connecting the positive (red) lead to the terminal
labelled by V,Ω and diode symbol and the negative (black) lead to COM or common terminal.
 The DC voltage button was located and pressed for measurement of DC voltage.
 Voltage was already being supplied to the circuit from DC power supply.
 The voltmeter was connected in parallel to the component across which the potential
difference was to be determined.
 The voltage measurement was displayed on the screen

4. Procedure to measure resistance through DMM:

 DMM was set to ohmmeter as the red probe was inserted in the terminal labelled by V/Ω while
the black lead was attached to the COM terminal.
 A button labelled by Ω sign was located and pressed and the multi-meter started functioning as
ohmmeter.
 Ohmmeter was connected across the resistors and circuit combinations to measure resistance
which was displayed on the screen.
 The measured resistances were compared to the calculated resistances by applying Ohm's Law
V=IR .
Calculations:
R1= 1800 Ω, R2=680Ω, R3=680Ω

Sr. Combination Rcalc (Ω) Rmeasured (Ω)

no.
 1 R1 1800 1800
2 R2 680 675
3 R3 680 679
4 R1+R2+R3 3160 3154
5 1 285.9 285
1 1 1
+ +
R1 R2 R3
6 1 774.7 773
1 1
+
R 1 R 2+ R 3
7 1 2140 2139
R1+ 1 1
+
R2 R3
(the slight difference between calculated and measured values of resistance is possibly due to the
tolerance of the resistors which was ±5%)
Precautions:
 It is necessary to check whether the connections of multi-meter are in accordance with the
function chosen before using it to measure any parameter.
 When being used for current measurement it should not be used to measure voltage or be
connected to the circuit in parallel as low resistance of the ammeter may provide an easier path
for the current and cause damage to the multi-meter by sudden current surge.
 Range of parameters must be selected according to the limiting values of parameters which the
components can bear, otherwise it may result in component damage.

Quick-search:
What causes death? Voltage or current?
Voltage and current have a direct relation which is supported by Ohm's Law. The electric shock
experienced by human body is due to the flow of current from tissues and muscles. The internal
resistance of human body is only against current having amperage in the order of milli-amperes.
Any amount larger than that can be felt and may even cause death. However, current only flows
when there is some potential difference. In absence of potential difference, no current flows. The
higher the potential difference, the larger the current.
Why ammeter has shunt resistance connected with galvanometer?
Galvanometer is a sensitive instrument which cannot bear large amount of current and can only
detect small currents. It is converted into ammeter by connecting shunt resistance in parallel with
it so that a larger proportion of current passes through the shunt resistance and a only a small
fraction passes through the galvanometer. Potential difference across both shunt resistance and
galvanometer is same.
Why voltmeter has high resistance connected with galvanometer in series?
A voltmeter must not draw any current from the circuit otherwise an inaccurate potential
difference measurement will be obtained. To prevent current from flowing through it and so to
determine the true potential difference, a high resistance is connected to the galvanometer in
series.

Conclusion:
Through this experiment the working and conversion process of multi-meter as a voltmeter,
ohmmeter and ammeter was studied. Calculated and measured values of resistance through
resistance measuring function of multi-meter were also compared.
Experiment 3: Resistor Types, Color Coding, Power rating and Combination

Objectives:

• Fixed and variable carbon resistor

• Color coding
• Tolerance
• Power rating
• Series, Parallel and Mixed combination

Apparatus used:
1. Resistors of various values
2. DMM (digital multi meter)
3. Bread board
4. Rectifier usually a part of the digital multi meter

Theoretical Background:
Carbon Resistors:
Carbon resistors are made from a solid cylindrical resistive element
embedded with wire leads. They are most commonly used in
electronics.
Fixed Carbon Resistors:
Carbon resistors always have fixed value of resistance. Their resistance
cannot be altered.
Variable Carbon Resistors:
The carbon composition resistor is a type of fixed resistor that reduces or restricts the
electric current flow to a certain level. The material used is a mixture of carbon and a filler
material, the combination determining the resistivity of the carbon composition film of the
potentiometer element.
Color coding:
Color coding helps us to determine the value of resistance conveniently. Carbon resistors
have fixed value of resistance. They are coded with colors to determine their resistance.
Twelve colors are used, and each color has its own value. Four bands of color are present on
each resistor. First and second band show digits. Third band shows number of
zeroes. Fourth band shows tolerance.
Tolerance:
Tolerance is the percentage of error in the measured value of resistance. Fourth band in
color coding indicates tolerance. Gold band indicates 5% tolerance where as silver band
indicates 10% tolerance and if no band in present then it shows 20% tolerance.
Power Rating:
Power Rating of a resistor indicates how much power it can handle before it burns Thicker
the resistor, higher will be the power rating. Two resistors having the same values of
resistance can have different values of power rating.
Combination types:
Series combination:
In series combination, resistors are connected end to end. The total resistance of the circuit
becomes the sum of the resistors connected in series.
Parallel combination:
In parallel combination, one side of the resistors is connected to one point and the other
side of the resistors is connected to other point. In this combination, total resistance of the
circuit is less than the minimum resistance.
1/Rtotal =1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+......
Mixed combination:
In this combination, resistors are connected in both series and parallel to one another.

Lab Work:
Finding resistance through color coding:
Four bands of color are present on each resistor. First and second band show digits. Third
band shows number of zeroes. Fourth band shows tolerance.
For R1,
First band______ Brown
Second band____ Grey
Third band______ Red
Fourth band_____ Golden
Resistance=1800(±)5%
For R2,
First band______ Blue
Second band____ Grey
Third band______ Brown
Fourth band_____ Silver
Resistance=680(±)5%
For R3,
First band______ Brown
Second band____ Grey
Third band______ Red
Fourth band_____ Golden
Resistance=680(±)5%
Power rating and its effects on bearable current through a resistor:
The power rating of a resistor indicates how much power a resistor can handle before it
becomes too hot and burns up.

For the resistors that we were provided the value of resistance when
they were connected in series and parallel was:
Series: 3160 Ω
Parallel: 285.9 Ω
to calculate the power rating, we will consider the series combination.
We know that the power rating is to be measured at the voltage value that is obtained by
substituting the maximum value of current for the most sensitive resistor in the circuit.
For our experiment the values for maximum currents were:
R1: 20/1800=0.01
R2: 20/680=0.029
R3: 20/680=0.029
Since R1 had the least value so we used it to calculate the power rating
as
𝑃=𝐼2𝑅1
P= (0.01)(0.01)(3160)
P= 0.316 W

Resistors in Parallel, Series and Complex combination:

Resistance Experimental Resistance Actual Resistance
R1 1800 1800
R2 675 680
R3 679 680

Series:

R total=R1+R2+R3 =3154Ω
R theory=3160 Ω

Max Voltage is calculated using the max value of current of the most sensitive resistor. Here
R1 is the most sensitive so its value of current i.e. 0.01 A since

Applied Voltage (V) Resistance (Ω) Current (A) I=V/R

20 1800 0.01
20 680 0.029
20 680 0.029
So Max value of limiting current in this series circuit is 0.01 A as calculated above
And Max voltage in this series circuit is: 0.01(R+R3+R3) =
0.01*3160=31.6V

Parallel combination:

1/R total=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
R total=285 Ω
R theory=285.9 Ω

Here the max value of limiting current will be the same as calculated in the series circuit that
is = 0.01 A
And Max voltage in this series circuit is: 0.01(1/R+1/R3+1/R3) =
0.01*285.9=2.85 V

Quick-search:
Reciprocal Devices:
Reciprocal devices are those which follow the reciprocity theorem.
According to this theorem, current at one point in a circuit due to voltage at second point is
same as the current at the second point due to the same voltage at first.
Non-Reciprocal Devices:
Non-reciprocal devices are those which do not follow the reciprocity theorem. According to
this theorem, current at one point in a circuit due to voltage at second point is same as the
current at the second point due to the same voltage at first.
Difference between fixed and variable resistor:
Variable resistors means that a resistor can change its resistance value through the control
of a person or himself. Fixed resistance means that it cannot change its value. The fixed
resistance has only one value and never changes (except through temperature, age, etc.)

Conclusion:
Resistance can easily be predicted from color coding. Power rating is an important
parameter as it helps us to predict the value of maximum bearable current so that the
circuit does not overload. Changing the combination of resistors changes the value of
equivalent resistance. It is maximum for series and minimum for parallel combination.
Experiment # 4: Verification of Ohms Law

Objectives:

• To verify Ohm’s law.

• Ohmic and Non Ohmic components.

Apparatus used:
1. DMM (digital multi meter)
2. Bread board
3. Resistances
4. Power supply

Theoretical Background:
Ohm’s law states the relationship between voltage and current.
It states that:
“In a conductor the current flow is directly proportional to the
provided voltage as long as the conditions of constant
temperature, constant pressure are taken into account”.
Mathematically:
IαV or V=IR
Ohmic devices.
The devices for which this law holds are called Ohmic devices.
For Example: Almost all metals such as Silver and Copper etc. are ohmic.
Non Ohmic Devices:
The devices for which Ohm’s law cannot be verified are non-ohmic.
For Example: Tungsten filament, diodes and transistors are non ohmic.

Lab work
Procedure:
1. Implement the circuit on the breadboard
2. Initially set the VDC supply to 0 V and note the current on ammeter.
3. Increase the voltage to 2 V, observe the ammeter and note the readings.
4. Repeat the above step for 4 V, 6V ... 20 V.
5. Plot a graph for measured readings.
6. Compare the plot with theoretical calculations.
Sr. Voltage (Volts) Current (mA) Resistance Resistance
no measured Ω calculated Ω
.
1 2 0.59 3155 3160
2 4 1.18 3155 3160
3 6 1.8 3155 3160
4 8 2.4 3155 3160
5 10 3.05 3155 3160
6 12 3.6 3155 3160
7 14 4.2 3155 3160
8 16 4.8 3155 3160
9 18 5.65 3155 3160
10 2o 6.28 3155 3160
We were supposed to get a straight slope but actually it is deviating a little bit from the
theoretically predicted values as the said conditions of constant temperature and pressure
can never be achieved so as they change resistance also changes and does not remain
constant.

(constant temperature and pressure can never be achieved so as they change

resistance also changes and does not remain constant.)

Quick search:
• Increase in the temperature of a conductor increases the resistance as kinetic energy of
vibrating atoms increases so they hinder the motion of flowing charges.
• The slope of the I-V graph gives us a straight line as the resistance and its reciprocal and
throughout constant and this show a linear relation between I and V.

Conclusion:
A graph between current and voltage is obtained which gives a somewhat straight-line
slope, so we get to learn that the relation between a voltage and current is direct i.e. by
increasing voltage current increases.
Experiment 5: Verification of KVL and Voltage divider rule

Objectives:

 To verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law(KVL)

 Defining nodes, loops and elements
 Voltage divider

Theoretical Background:
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, which is his second law, states that in a closed circuit, the algebraic
sum of all the voltages is equal to zero. Mathematically

V1+V2+V3+………………………+Vn=0

KVL is not applicable in every condition. It can’t be applied when there’s a fluctuating
magnetic field in a closed loop. The presence of time varying magnetic field makes the
measured voltage non-unique (depends on the branch used to measure the voltage).
Another thing is that energy must always be conserved in the closed circuit.

This circuit is composed of nodes, loops and circuit elements like resistors.

A node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit where two or more circuit
elements are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more
branches. A node is indicated by a dot.

A loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is encountered
more than once.

A circuit element is the electric device implanted in the circuit. Such as resistors and
batteries.

The voltage divider rule is used to solve circuit problems to make the solution simple. It
states that the voltage is divided between two resistors which are connected in series in
direct proportion to their resistance.

Lab Work:

Figure
Procedure:

 Measure the resistance of each resistor and put them in a circuit as shown above
with a DC supply.
 Set the voltage V=10V then measure the value for voltages across each resistor
 Repeat the same for V=20V and V=30V.
 Then compare the obtained values with the values calculated theoretically using the
formula.
Vn=(Rn/Req)×V

Applied V V1 V2 V3
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts)

10 Measured:2.13 Measured:2.13 Measured:5.7

Calculated:2.1305 Calculated:2.1305 Calculated:5.69

20 Measured:4.3 Measured:4.3 Measured:11.4

Calculated:4.2631 Calculated:4.2631 Calculated:11.38

30 Measured:6.39 Measured:6.39 Measured:17.1

Calculated:6.391 Calculated:6.391 Calculated:17.07

Quick-search:
 KVL is applicable to both AC and DC circuits. In case of AC circuits, however, AC must have
low frequency and summation should be done in vector form or using the instantaneous
value for AC components of the circuit.
 Kirchhoff used Ohm’s work as foundation to invent this law in 1845.
 The drawback of KVL is that it only works under a non -fluctuating magnetic field in a
closed loop.

Conclusion:
It was observed in this experiment that in a closed loop attached in series the potential
difference divides itself between the loads. Greater is the resistance of the load more is the
potential across it.