Circuits

Look around you. Everything you see that has to be plugged in contains electric circuits. Anything that
has a battery also contains electric circuits. Our entire lives are surrounded by them, from televisions
to computers, from cell phones to microwave ovens.

Figure 1: Circuit

What is Electric Circuit?

An electric circuit is a set of electrical components that are connected together in a loop with a
power source, which allows current (electrons) to flow through them.

OR

The interconnection of various Electrical Circuit Elements in a prescribed manner to form a closed path
is called an electric circuit. The system in which electric current can flow from source to load through
one path and after delivering energy at load the current can return to the other terminal of source
through another path is referred as electric circuit. The main parts of an ideal electric circuit are:-

1. Electrical Sources (for delivering electricity to the circuit and these are mainly electric
generators and batteries)
2. Controlling Devices (for controlling electricity and these are mainly switches, circuit breakers,
MCBs, and Potentiometer like devices etc.)
3. Protection Devices (for protecting the circuit from abnormal conditions and these are mainly
electric fuses, MCBs, Switchgear systems).
4. Conducting Path (to carry current one point to other in the circuit and these are mainly wires
or conductors).
5. Load (The reason we want to build circuits is to make electricity do useful things for us. The
way we do that is by putting things in the circuit that use the current flow to light up, make
noise, run programs, etc. These things are called loads, because they “load down” the power
supply, just like you’re “loaded down” when you’re carrying something.)

Thus Voltage and Current are the two basic features of an Electric Element. Various techniques by
which voltage and current across any element in any electric circuit are determined is called Electric
Circuit Analysis.
 Figure 2: A basic schematic
This figure shows a simple Electric Circuit containing

• A battery of 30 V
• A carbon resistor of 5kΩ

Due to this a current I flows in circuit and a potential drop of V volts across resistor.

Basic Properties of Electric Circuits

• A circuit is always a closed path.
• A circuit always contain an energy source which acts as source of electrons.
• The electric elements include uncontrolled and controlled source of energy, resistors,
capacitors, inductors, etc.
• In an electric circuit flow of electrons takes place from negative terminal to positive terminal.
• Direction of flow of conventional current is from positive to negative terminal.
• Flow of current leads to potential drop across the various elements.

Types of Electric Circuits

The electric circuit can be categorized in three different ways
1. Open circuit
2. Closed circuit
3. Short circuit
4. Series Circuit
5. Parallel circuit

Another way of classifying circuits is to separate them by power type: direct current (DC) or
alternating current (AC). Direct current is where the electricity flows in one direction. Alternating
current is where the electricity flows back and forth in both directions, usually switching 50 times a
second (In India).

Open Circuit
If due to disconnection of any part of an electric circuit there is no flow of current the circuit is said to
be open circuited.

Figure 3: Open Circuit

Closed Circuit
If there is no discontinuity in the circuit and current can flow from one part to another part of the
circuit then the circuit is said to be closed circuit.

Figure 4: Closed Circuit

Short Circuit
If two or more phases, one or more phases and earth or neutral of AC system or positive and negative
wires or positive or negative wires and earth of DC system touch together directly or connected
together by a zero impedance path then the circuit is said to be short circuited.

Figure 5: Short Circuit

A closely related problem is accidentally letting too much current flow through part of your circuit,
causing a part to burn up. This isn’t quite a short circuit, but it’s close. This most often happens when
you use the incorrect resistor value, which lets too much current flow through another component
such as an LED (Light emitting diode).

Figure 6: Circuit with very small resistance

Series Circuit
When all elements of a circuit are connected one after another in tail to head fashion and due to which
there will be only one path of flowing current then the circuit is called series circuit. The circuit
elements are said to be series connected. In series electrical circuit same current flows through all
element connected in series.

Figure 7: Series circuit

Parallel Circuit
If components are connected in such a way that the voltage drop across each component is same is
known as parallel circuit. In parallel circuit the voltage drop across each component is same but the
current flowing through each component is different. The total current is the sum of currents flowing
through each element.
An example of a parallel circuit is the wiring system of a house. If one of the lights burns out, current
can still flow through the rest of the lights and appliances.

Figure 8: Parallel Circuit

AC & DC Circuits
Both AC and DC describe types of current flow in a circuit. In direct current (DC), the electric charge
(current) only flows in one direction. Electric charge in alternating current (AC), on the other hand,
changes direction periodically. The voltage in AC circuits also periodically reverses because the current
changes direction.

Most of the digital electronics that you build will use DC. However, it is important to understand some
AC concepts. Most homes are wired for AC, so if you plan to connect your mobile phone to an outlet,
you will need to convert AC to DC. AC also has some useful properties, such as being able to convert
voltage levels with a single component (a transformer), which is why AC was chosen as the primary
means to transmit electricity over long distances.

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically. As a result, the
voltage level also reverses along with the current. AC is used to deliver power to houses, office
buildings, etc.

Generating AC
AC can be produced using a device called an alternator. This device is a special type of electrical
generator designed to produce alternating current.

AC can come in a number of forms, as long as the voltage and current are alternating. If we hook
up an oscilloscope to a circuit with AC and plot its voltage over time, we might see a number of
different waveforms. The most common type of AC is the sine wave. The AC in most homes and
offices have an oscillating voltage that produces a sine wave. Other common forms of AC include
the square wave and the triangle wave.
 Figure 9: Sine Wave
Applications
Home and office outlets are almost always AC. This is because generating and transporting AC across
long distances is relatively easy. At high voltages (over 110kV), less energy is lost in electrical power
transmission. Higher voltages mean lower currents, and lower currents mean less heat generated in
the power line due to resistance. AC can be converted to and from high voltages easily using
transformers.

AC is also capable of powering electric motors. Motors and generators are the exact same device, but
motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy (if the shaft on a motor is spun, a voltage is
generated at the terminals!). This is useful for many large appliances like dishwashers, refrigerators,
and so on, which run on AC.

Direct Current (DC)

Direct current is a bit easier to understand than alternating current. Rather than oscillating back and
forth, DC provides a constant voltage or current.

Generating DC
DC can be generated in a number of ways:

• An AC generator equipped with a device called a “commutator” can produce direct current
• Use of a device called a “rectifier” that converts AC to DC
• Batteries provide DC, which is generated from a chemical reaction inside of the battery

DC is defined as the “unidirectional” flow of current; current only flows in one direction. Voltage
and current can vary over time so long as the direction of flow does not change. DC is defined as
the “unidirectional” flow of current; current only flows in one direction. Voltage and current can vary
over time so long as the direction of flow does not change.

Figure 10: DC voltage

Applications
Almost all electronics projects run on DC. Everything that runs off of a battery, plugs in to the wall with
an AC adapter, or uses a USB cable for power relies on DC. Examples of DC electronics include:

• Cell phones
• Flat-screen TVs (AC goes into the TV, which is converted to DC)
• Flashlights
• Hybrid and electric vehicles

Circuit Analysis
The fundamental subject of this text is linear circuit analysis, which sometimes prompts a few readers
to ask, “Is there ever any nonlinear circuit analysis?” Sure! We encounter nonlinear circuits every day:
they capture and decode signals for our TVs and radios, perform calculations millions of times a second
inside microprocessors, convert speech into electrical signals for transmission over phone lines, and
execute many other functions outside our field of view. In designing, testing, and implementing such
nonlinear circuits, detailed analysis is unavoidable. “Then why study linear circuit analysis?” you might
ask. An excellent question. The simple fact of the matter is that no physical system (including electrical
circuits) is ever perfectly linear. Fortunately for us, however, a great many systems behave in a
reasonably linear fashion over a limited range—allowing us to model them as linear systems if we
keep the range limitations in mind. For example, consider the common function

f (x) = ex

A linear approximation to this function is

f (x) ≈ 1 + x

Let’s test this out. Table 1 shows both the exact value and the approximate value of f (x) for a range
of x. Interestingly, the linear approximation is exceptionally accurate up to about x = 0.1, when the
relative error is still less than 1%. Although many engineers are rather quick on a calculator, it’s hard
to argue that any approach is faster than just adding 1.

Table 1: Comparison of a Linear Model for ex to Exact Value

Linear problems are inherently more easily solved than their nonlinear counterparts. For this reason,
we often seek reasonably accurate linear approximations (or models) to physical situations.
Furthermore, the linear models are more easily manipulated and understood—making design a more
straightforward process. The circuits we will encounter in subsequent chapters all represent linear
approximations to physical electric circuits. Where appropriate, brief discussions of potential
inaccuracies or limitations to these models are provided, but generally speaking we find them to be
suitably accurate for most applications. When greater accuracy is required in practice, nonlinear
models are employed, but with a considerable increase in solution complexity.
Linear circuit analysis can be separated into four broad categories:

(1) Dc analysis, where the energy sources do not change with time;
(2) Transient analysis, where things often change quickly;
(3) Sinusoidal analysis, which applies to both ac power and signals; and
(4) Frequency response, which is the most general of the four categories, but typically assumes
something is changing with time.

Analysis and Design

Engineers take a fundamental understanding of scientific principles, combine this with practical
knowledge often expressed in mathematical terms, and (frequently with considerable creativity)
arrive at a solution to a given problem. Analysis is the process through which we determine the scope
of a problem, obtain the information required to understand it, and compute the parameters of
interest. Design is the process by which we synthesize something new as part of the solution to a
problem. Generally speaking, there is an expectation that a problem requiring design will have no
unique solution, whereas the analysis phase typically will. Thus, the last step in designing is always
analyzing the result to see if it meets specifications.
Problem Solving Strategy
During your time as an engineering student, you are learning how to solve problems—so just at this
moment, those skills are not yet fully developed. As you proceed through your course of study, you
will pick up techniques that work for you, and likely continue to do so as a practicing engineer.

Figure 11: Problem Solving Flowchart

Charge, Current, Voltage and Power

Charge

One of the most fundamental concepts in electric circuit analysis is that of charge conservation. We
know from basic physics that there are two types of charge: positive (corresponding to a proton) and
negative (corresponding to an electron). For the most part, this text is concerned with circuits in which
only electron flow is relevant. There are many devices (such as batteries, diodes, and transistors) in
which positive charge motion is important to understanding internal operation, but external to the
device we typically concentrate on the electrons which flow through the connecting wires. Although
we continuously transfer charges between different parts of a circuit, we do nothing to change the
total amount of charge. In other words, we neither create nor destroy electrons (or protons) when
running electric circuits. Charge in motion represents a current.

Figure 12: The definition of current illustrated using current flowing through a wire; 1 ampere
corresponds to 1 coulomb of charge passing through the arbitrarily chosen cross section in 1 second.

In the SI system, the fundamental unit of charge is the coulomb (C). It is defined in terms of the ampere
by counting the total charge that passes through an arbitrary cross section of a wire during an interval
of one second; one coulomb is measured each second for a wire carrying a current of 1 ampere (Fig.
12). In this system of units, a single electron has a charge of −1.602 × 10−19 C and a single proton has a
charge of+1.602 × 10−19 C.

Current

The idea of “transfer of charge” or “charge in motion” is of vital importance to us in studying electric
circuits because, in moving a charge from place to place, we may also transfer energy from one point
to another.The current present in a discrete path, such as a metallic wire, has both a numerical value
and a direction associated with it; it is a measure of the rate at which charge is moving past a given
reference point in a specified direction.

We define the current at a specific point and flowing in a specified direction as the instantaneous rate
at which net positive charge is moving past that point in the specified direction. This, unfortunately, is
the historical definition, which came into popular use before it was appreciated that current in wires
is actually due to negative, not positive, charge motion. Current is symbolized by I or i, and so

i = dq/dt

The unit of current is the ampere (A), named afterA. M.Ampère, a French physicist. It is commonly
abbreviated as an “amp,” although this is unofficial and somewhat informal. One ampere equals 1
coulomb per second.

The arrow is a fundamental part of the definition of a current! Thus, to talk about the value of a current
i1(t) without specifying the arrow is to discuss an undefined entity.
 Figure 13: Two methods of representation for the exact same current.

Figure 14: (a, b) Incomplete, improper, and incorrect definitions of a current. (c) The correct
definition of i1(t).

Voltage

In Fig. 15, let us suppose that a dc current is sent into terminal A, through the general element, and
back out of terminal B. Let us also assume that pushing charge through the element requires an
expenditure of energy. We then say that an electrical voltage (or a potential difference) exists between
the two terminals, or that there is a voltage “across” the element. Thus, the voltage across a terminal
pair is a measure of the work required to move charge through the element.

Figure 15: A general two-terminal circuit element.

The unit of voltage is the volt, and 1 volt is the same as 1 J/C. Voltage is represented by V or v. A
voltage can exist between a pair of electrical terminals whether a current is flowing or not. An
automobile battery, for example, has a voltage of 12 V across its terminals even if nothing whatsoever
is connected to the terminals.

A voltage can exist between a pair of electrical terminals whether a current is flowing or not. An
automobile battery, for example, has a voltage of 12 V across its terminals even if nothing whatsoever
is connected to the terminals.

Power

If one joule of energy is expended in transferring one coulomb of charge through the device in one
second, then the rate of energy transfer is one watt. The absorbed power must be proportional both
to the number of coulombs transferred per second (current) and to the energy needed to transfer one
coulomb through the element (voltage). Thus,

p = vi

Fig. 16 shows that if one terminal of the element is v volts positive with respect to the other terminal,
and if a current i is entering the element through that terminal, then a power p = vi is being absorbed
by the element; it is also correct to say that a power p = vi is being delivered to the element.
 Figure 16: The power absorbed by the element is given by the product p = vi. Alternatively, we can
say that the element generates or supplies a power −vi.

If the current arrow is directed into the “+” marked terminal of an element, then p = vi yields the
absorbed power. A negative value indicates that power is actually being generated by the element.

If the current arrow is directed out of the “+” terminal of an element, then p = vi yields the supplied
power. A negative value in this case indicates that power is being absorbed.

Active and passive two terminal elements

Active elements of an electrical circuit are those elements which can continuously give as well as
take energy to and from the circuit, respectively.

Figure 17: Active elements

Independent Voltage Sources

The first element we will consider is the independent voltage source. The circuit symbol is shown in
Fig. 18; the subscript s merely identifies the voltage as a “source” voltage, and is common but not
required. An independent voltage source is characterized by a terminal voltage which is completely
independent of the current through it.

Figure 18: Circuit symbol of independent voltage source

Thus, if we are given an independent voltage source and are notified that the terminal voltage is 12V,
then we always assume this voltage, regardless of the current flowing.

If you’ve ever noticed the room lights dim when an air conditioner kicks on, it’s because the sudden
large current demand temporarily led to a voltage drop. After the motor starts moving, it takes less
current to keep it in motion. At that point, the current demand is reduced, the voltage returns to its
original value, and the wall outlet again provides a reasonable approximation of an ideal voltage
source.

Independent Current Source

Another ideal source which we will need is the independent current source. Here, the current through
the element is completely independent of the voltage across it. The symbol for an independent
current source is shown in Fig. 19. If is is constant, we call the source an independent dc current source.

Figure 19. Independent current source

Like the independent voltage source, the independent current source is at best a reasonable
approximation for a physical element. In theory it can deliver infinite power from its terminals because
it produces the same finite current for any voltage across it, no matter how large that voltage may be.
It is, however, a good approximation for many practical sources, particularly in electronic circuits.

Dependent Sources
the dependent, or controlled, source, is a source in which the source quantity is determined by a
voltage or current existing at some other location in the system being analyzed. Sources such as
these appear in the equivalent electrical models for many electronic devices, such as transistors,
operational amplifiers, and integrated circuits.

Figure 20: The four different types of dependent sources: (a) current-controlled current source; (b)
voltage-controlled current source; (c) voltage-controlled voltage source; (d) current controlled
voltage source.

To distinguish between dependent and independent sources, we introduce the diamond symbols
shown in Fig. 20. In Fig. 20a and c, K is a dimensionless scaling its of A/V; in Fig. 20d, r is a scaling
factor with units of V/A. The controlling current ix and the controlling voltage vx must be defined in
the circuit.
Passive Elements of an Electric Circuit

Passive elements of an electric circuit are those elements which cannot deliver or absorb energy
continuously. As per this definition, resistance, inductance and capacitance are taken as basic passive
elements of an electric circuit.

Figure 21: Passive elements

Resistor
Resistor is taken as passive element since it can dissipate energy as heat as long as current flows
through it but in any situation a resistor cannot deliver energy to the circuit. Resistance is the property
of any substance by which it can resist the flow of current through it. An electrical conductor has very
low resistance, whereas an insulator has very high electrical resistance. The unit of resistance is ohm,
which can be represented by the symbol Ω.

Inductor
An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store energy in it as
magnetic field, and can deliver it to the circuit, but not in continuous basis. The energy absorbing and
delivering capacity of an inductor are limited and transient in nature. That is why, an inductor is taken
as passive element of a circuit.

Capacitor
For same reason, a capacitor is considered as passive element, because it can store energy in it as
electric field and deliver it to the circuit, but not in continuous basis. The energy dealing capacity of a
capacitor is limited and transient too.

Voltage-Current relations

For Resistance (DC)

The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance forms the basis of Ohm’s law. In a linear
circuit of fixed resistance, if we increase the voltage, the current goes up, and similarly, if we decrease
the voltage, the current goes down. This means that if the voltage is high the current is high, and if the
voltage is low the current is low.
Likewise, if we increase the resistance, the current goes down for a given voltage and if we decrease
the resistance the current goes up. Which means that if resistance is high current is low and if
resistance is low current is high.
Then we can see that current flow around a circuit is directly proportional ( ∝ ) to voltage, ( V↑ causes
I↑ ) but inversely proportional ( 1/∝ ) to resistance as, ( R↑ causes I↓ ).

Figure 22: Voltage and current relation for resistance

A basic summary of the three units is given below.

• Voltage or potential difference is the measure of potential energy between two points in a
circuit and is commonly referred to as its ” volt drop “.
• When a voltage source is connected to a closed loop circuit the voltage will produce a current
flowing around the circuit.
For Resistance (AC)
For Capacitor(DC)

Capacitance C is defined by the voltage-current relationship given below:-

Energy Storage in Capacitor

For Capacitor (AC)

For Inductor (AC)
For Inductor (DC)

The inductor whose inductance is defined by Eq. [5] given below is a mathematical model; it is an ideal
element which we may use to approximate the behaviour of a real device.
Energy Storage in Inductor
Ohms Law
This law applies to electric to electric conduction through good conductors and may be stated as
follows :

The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor to the current (I) flowing
between them, is constant, provided the temperature of the conductor does not change.

where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered. Put in another way, it
simply means that provided R is kept constant, current is directly proportional to the potential
difference across the ends of a conductor. However, this linear relationship between V and I does not
apply to all non-metallic conductors.

Figure 23: Ohms Law

Numerical: A potential difference of 10 V is applied across a conductor whose resistance is 25 ohm.

Find the current flowing through it?

Equivalent Resistance

The equivalent resistance of a circuit (or network) between its any two points (or terminals) is given
by that single resistance which can replace the entire given circuit between these two points. It should
be noted that resistance is always between two given points of a circuit and can have different values
for different point-pairs as illustrated in figure below. It can usually be found by using series and
parallel laws of resistances.

Figure 24: Typical circuit diagram

Resistance in Series

When some conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 etc. are joined end-on-end as in Figure
below, they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that the equivalent resistance or total
resistance between points A and D is equal to the sum of the three individual resistances. Being a
series circuit, it should be remembered that (i) current is the same through all the three conductors
(ii) but voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given by Ohm’s Law
and (iii) sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the three conductors.
There is a progressive fall in potential as we go from point A to D as shown in Figure.

Figure 25: Resistance in Series

∴ V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 —Ohm’s Law

But V = IR

where R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination.

∴ IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

or R = R1 + R2 + R3

As seen from above, the main characteristics of a series circuit are :

1. Same current flows through all parts of the circuit.
2. Different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. Voltage drops are additive.
4. Applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops.
5. Resistances are additive.
6. Powers are additive.

Resistance in Parallel

Three resistances, as joined in Figure below are said to be connected in parallel. In this case (i) p.d.
across all resistances is the same (ii) current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm’s Law and
(iii) the total current is the sum of the three separate currents.

Figure 26: Resistance in Parallel

The main characteristics of a parallel circuit are :

1. Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit

2. Different resistors have their individual current.
3. Branch currents are additive.
4. Conductances are additive.
5. Powers are additive.
Division of Current in Parallel Circuits
As shown in figure, two resistances are joined in parallel across a voltage V. The current in each branch,
as given in Ohm’s law, is

Voltage Divider Rule

Since in a series circuit, same current flows through each of the given resistors, voltage drop varies
directly with its resistance. In Figure is shown a 24-V battery connected across a series combination of
three resistors.

Figure 27: Voltage Division

NODES, PATHS, LOOPS, AND BRANCHES
A point at which two or more elements have a common connection is called a node.

If no node was encountered more than once, then the set of nodes and elements that we have passed
through is defined as a path.

If the node at which we started is the same as the node on which we ended, then the path is, by
definition, a closed path or a loop.

We define a branch as a single path in a network, composed of one simple element and the node at
each end of that element. Thus, a path is a particular collection of branches.

Figure 28: (a) A circuit containing three nodes and five branches. (b) Node 1 is redrawn to look like
two nodes; it is still one node.

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

We are now ready to consider the first of the two laws named for Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (two h’s
and two f ’s), a German university professor who was born about the time Ohm was doing his
experimental work. This axiomatic law is called Kirchhoff’s current law (abbreviated KCL), and it simply
states that

The algebraic sum of the currents entering any node is zero.

This law represents a mathematical statement of the fact that charge cannot accumulate at a node. A
node is not a circuit element, and it certainly cannot store, destroy, or generate charge. Hence, the
currents must sum to zero. A hydraulic analogy is sometimes useful here: for example, consider three
water pipes joined in the shape of a Y. We define three “currents” as flowing into each of the three
pipes. If we insist that water is always flowing, then obviously we cannot have three positive water
currents, or the ipes would burst. This is a result of our defining currents independent of the direction
that water is actually flowing. Therefore, the value of either one or two of the currents as defined
must be negative. Consider the node shown in Figure 29.

Figure 29: Example node to illustrate the application of Kirchhoff’s current law.

The algebraic sum of the four currents entering the node must be zero:

iA + iB + (−iC) + (−iD) = 0

However, the law could be equally well applied to the algebraic sum of the currents leaving the node:

(−iA) + (−iB) + iC + iD = 0

We might also wish to equate the sum of the currents having reference arrows directed into the node
to the sum of those directed out of the node:

i A + i B = i C + iD

which simply states that the sum of the currents going in must equal the sum of the currents going
out.

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

Current is related to the charge flowing through a circuit element, whereas voltage is a measure of
potential energy difference across the element. There is a single unique value for any voltage in circuit
theory. Thus, the energy required to move a unit charge from point A to point B in a circuit must have
a value independent of the path chosen to get from A to B (there is often more than one such path).
We may assert this fact through Kirchhoff’s voltage law (abbreviated KVL):

The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.

In Figure 30, if we carry a charge of 1 C from A to B through element 1, the reference polarity signs for
v1 show that we do v1 joules of work.

Figure 30: The potential difference between points A and B is independent of the path selected.
Now if, instead, we choose to proceed from A to B via node C, then we expend (v2 − v3) joules of
energy. The work done, however, is independent of the path in a circuit, and so any route must lead
to the same value for the voltage. In other words,

v1 = v2 − v3 [3]

It follows that if we trace out a closed path, the algebraic sum of the voltages across the individual
elements around it must be zero. Thus, we may write

v1 + v2 + v3 +· · ·+vN = 0
or, more compactly,

We can apply KVL to a circuit in several different ways. One method that leads to fewer equation-
writing errors than others consists of moving mentally around the closed path in a clockwise direction
and writing down directly the voltage of each element whose (+) terminal is entered, and writing down
the negative of every voltage first met at the (−) sign. Applying this to the single loop of Fig. 30, we
have

−v1 + v2 − v3 = 0

which agrees with our previous result, Eq. [3].

Numerical: What is the voltage Vs across the open switch in the circuit of Figure below?

+Vs + 10 − 20 − 50 + 30 = 0
∴ Vs = 30 V
Numerical: Find the unknown voltage V1 in the circuit.

Taking the outer closed loop ABCDEFA and applying KVL to it, we get
− 16 × 3 − 4 × 2 + 40 −V1= 0 ;
∴ V1 = − 16 V
Numerical: Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Ohm’s Law, find the magnitude and polarity of voltge V
in Figure?

Let us arbitrarily choose the directions of I1, I2 and I3 and polarity of V as shown in Fig. (b). Applying
KCL to node A, we have

Analysis of RL, RC and RLC Circuit

The analysis of circuits containing inductors and/or capacitors is dependent upon the formulation and
solution of the integral-differential equations that characterize the circuits. We will call the special
type of equation we obtain a homogeneous linear differential equation, which is simply a differential
equation in which every term is of the first degree in the dependent variable or one of its derivatives.
A solution is obtained when we have found an expression for the dependent variable that satisfies
both the differential equation and also the prescribed energy distribution in the inductors or
capacitors at a prescribed instant of time, usually t = 0.

The solution of the differential equation represents a response of the circuit, and it is known by many
names. Since this response depends upon the general “nature’’ of the circuit (the types of elements,
their sizes, the interconnection of the elements), it is often called a natural response. However, any
real circuit we construct cannot store energy forever; the resistances intrinsically associated with
inductors and capacitors will eventually convert all stored energy into heat. The response must
eventually die out, and for this reason it is frequently referred to as the transient response. Finally, we
should also be familiar with the mathematicians’ contribution to the nomenclature; they call the
solution of a homogeneous linear differential equation a complementary function.
RL CIRCUIT (DC)

Figure 31: A series RL

circuit for which i(t) is
to be determined,
subject to the initial
condition that i(0) = I0
RL CIRCUIT (AC)
RC Circuit (DC)

Circuits based on resistor-capacitor combinations are more common than their resistor-inductor
analogs. The principal reasons for this are the smaller losses present in a physical capacitor, lower
cost, better agreement between the simple mathematical model and the actual device behavior, and
also smaller size and lighter weight, both of which are particularly important for integrated-circuit
applications.
RC Circuit (AC)

RLC Circuit (DC)

There are two basic types of RLC circuits: parallel connected, and series connected. We could start
with either, but somewhat arbitrarily choose to begin by considering parallel RLC circuits. This
particular combination of ideal elements is a reasonable model for portions of many communication
networks. It represents, for example, an important part of certain electronic amplifiers found in radios,
and enables the amplifiers to produce a large voltage amplification over a narrow band of signal
frequencies (with almost zero amplification outside this band). Just as we did with RL and RC circuits,
we first consider the natural response of a parallel RLC circuit, where one or both of the energy storage
elements have some nonzero initial energy (the origin of which for now is unimportant). This is
represented by the inductor current and the capacitor voltage, both specified at t = 0+. Once we’re
comfortable with this part of RLC circuit analysis, we can easily include dc sources, switches, or step
sources in the circuit. Then we find the total response, which will be the sum of the natural response
and the forced response.

Frequency selectivity of this kind enables us to listen to the transmission of one station while rejecting
the transmission of any other station. Other applications include the use of parallel RLC circuits in
frequency multiplexing and harmonic-suppression filters. However, even a simple discussion of these
principles requires an understanding of such terms as resonance, frequency response, and impedance,
which we have not yet discussed. Let it suffice to say, therefore, that an understanding of the natural
behavior of the parallel RLC circuit is fundamentally important to future studies of communications
networks and filter design, as well as many other applications.

When a physical capacitor is connected in parallel with an inductor and the capacitor has associated
with it a finite resistance, the resulting networkcan be shown to have an equivalent circuit model like
that shown in Fig. 32. The presence of this resistance can be used to model energy loss in the capacitor;
over time, all real capacitors will eventually discharge, even if disconnected from a circuit. Energy
losses in the physical inductor can also be taken into account by adding an ideal resistor (in series with
the ideal inductor). For simplicity, however, we restrict our discussion to the case of an essentially
ideal inductor in parallel with a “leaky” capacitor.

Figure 32: The source-free parallel RLC circuit.

Obtaining the Differential Equation for a Parallel RLC Circuit

Solution of the Differential Equation

There are a number of interesting ways to solve Eq. [4]. Most of these methods we will leave to a
course in differential equations, selecting only the quickest and simplest method to use now. We will
assume a solution, relying upon our intuition and modest experience to select one of the several
possible forms that are suitable. Our experience with first-order equations might suggest that we at
least try the exponential form once more. Thus, we assume
RLC Circuit (AC)
Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents

Sinusoids
Root-Mean-Square (R.M.S.) Value
Mid-ordinate Method

Analytical Method
Average Value

Form Factor

Peak Factor

Three-phase systems
The single phase system consist of a single alternating current and voltage. But if the number of
armature windings is increased, then it becomes polyphase alternator and it produces as many
independent voltage waves as the number of windings or phases. These windings are displaced from
one another by equal angles, the values of these angles being determined by the number of phases
or windings. In fact, the word ‘polyphase’means poly (i.e. many or numerous) and phases (i.e. winding
or circuit).
In a two-phase alternator, the armature windings are displaced 90 electrical degrees apart. A 3-phase
alternator, as the name shows, has three independent armature windings which are 120 electrical
degrees apart. Hence, the voltages induced in the three windings are 120° apart in timephase. With
the exception of two-phase windings, it can be stated that, in general, the electrical displacement
between different phases is 360/n where n is the number of phases or windings.

Three-phase systems are the most common, although, for certain special jobs, greater number of
phases is also used. For example, almost all mercury-arc rectifiers for power purposes are either six-
phase or twelve-phase and most of the rotary converters in use are six-phase. All modern generators
are practically three-phase. For transmitting large amounts of power, three-phase is invariably used.
The reasons for the immense popularity of three-phase apparatus are that (i) it is more efficient (ii) it
uses less material for a given capacity and (iii) it costs less than single-phase apparatus etc.

In Fig. 39(a) is shown a two-pole, stationary-armature, rotating-field type three-phase alternator. It

has three armature coils aa′, bb′ and cc′ displaced 120° apart from one another. With the position and
clockwise rotation of the poles as indicated in Fig. 39, it is found that the e.m.f. induced in conductor
‘a’ for coil aa′ is maximum and its direction* is away from the reader. The e.m.f. in conductor ‘b’ of
coil bb′ would be maximum and away from the reader when the N-pole has turned through 120° i.e.
when N-S axis lies along bb′. It is clear that the induced e.m.f. in conductor ‘b’ reaches its maximum
value 120° later than the maximum value in conductor ‘a’. In the like manner, the maximum e.m.f.
induced (in the direction away from the reader) in conductor ‘c’ would occur 120° later than that in
‘b’ or 240° later than that in ‘a’.

Figure 39

Thus the three coils have three e.m.fs. induced in them which are similar in all respects except that
they are 120° out of time phase with one another as pictured in Fig. 40. Each voltage wave is assumed
to be sinusoidal and having maximum value of Em. In practice, the space on the armature is completely
covered and there are many slots per phase per pole.

Figure 40
Fig. 39(b)illustrates the relative positions of the windings of a 3-phase, 4-pole alternator. Assuming
full-pitched winding and the direction of rotation as shown, phase ‘a’ occupies the position under the
centres of N and S-poles. It starts at Sa and ends or finishes at Fa.

The second phase ‘b’ start at Sb which is 120 electrical degrees apart from the start of phase ‘a’,
progresses round the armature clockwise (as does ‘a’) and finishes at Fb. Similarly, phase ‘c’ starts at
Sc, which is 120 electrical degrees away from Sb, progresses round the armature and finishes at Fc. As
the three circuits are exactly similar but are 120 electrical degrees apart, the e.m.f. waves generated
in them (when the field rotates) are displaced from each other by 120°. Assuming these waves to be
sinusoidal and counting the time from the instant when the e.m.f. in phase ‘a’ is zero, the
instantaneous values of the three e.m.fs. will be given by curves of Fig. 40.

Their equations are :

It can be shown that the sum of the three phase e.m.fs. is zero in the following three ways :

(i) The sum of the above three equations

Figure 41 : Phasor Diagram

Phase Sequence
By phase sequence is meant the order in which the three phases attain their peak or maximum
values. In the development of the three-phase e.m.fs. in Fig. 42, clockwise rotation of the field
system in Fig. 39 was assumed. This assumption made the e.m.fs. of phase ‘b’ lag behind that
 Figure 42

of ‘a’ by 120° and in a similar way, made that of ‘c’ lag behind that of ‘b’ by 120° (or that of ‘a’ by 240°).
Hence, the order in which the e.m.fs. of phases a, b and c attain their maximum values is a b c. It is
called the phase order or phase sequence a→b→c as illustrated in Fig. 42 (a). If, now, the rotation of
the field structure of Fig. 19.1 is reversed i.e. made anticlockwise, then the order in which the three
phases would attain their corresponding maximum voltages would also e reversed. The phase
sequence would become a→ b→c . This means that e.m.f. of phase ‘c’ would now lag behind that of
phase ‘a’ by 120° instead of 240° as in the previous case as shown in Fig. 42 (b). By repeating the
letters, this phase sequence can be written as acbacba which is the same thing as cba. Obviously, a
three-phase system has only two possible sequences : abc and cba (i.e. abc read in the reverse
direction).

Star or Wye (Y) Connection

Values of Phase Currents
When considering the distribution of current in a 3-phase system, it is extremely important to bear
in mind that :

Voltages and Currents in Y-Connection

Delta (Δ)* or Mesh Connection
Balanced Y/Δ and Δ/Y Conversion
References
[1] Study.com
[2] Electrical4u.com
[3] Sparkfun.com
[4] Hayt, William Hart, and Jack E. Kemmerly. 1986. Engineering circuit analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[5] B.L. Theraja, 2005, A Textbook Of Electrical Technology, S Chand
[6] Engineersblogsite.com
[7] Electronics-tutorials.ws