CHAPTER 14: Urban Drought Management through Water Conservation: Issues,

Challenges and Solutions

Kapil Gupta and Vinay Nikam

Abstract Urban water conservation efforts have begun in times of water shortage due
to drought or other calamities. Increasingly many cities in India are now drawing water
through large diameter water pipelines by pumping from water sources further and
further away from the city. The rate of augmentation works have been overtaken by the
rapid increase in population in urban areas due to migration. Moreover, new supplies
are now becoming increasingly difficult to find. Thus, to cater to the increasing urban
population, demand reduction through water conservation as a long-term measure
offers a way out of the present crisis. The poor living in slums are already managing
with limited water and so the population having access to piped water and bathrooms
are the target group for urban water conservation measures. The various water
conservation measures viz: water conservation devices, leak detection and repair, water
reuse, metering and incremental rates are briefly described and discussed. Two
applications of rainwater harvesting and wastewater reuse in Thane City in Mumbai
Metropolitan Region have been described as an outcome of drought/ water shortage.

Keywords Urban• Drought• Conservation• Reuse• Rainwater harvesting

____________________

Kapil Gupta (1)

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India
Vinay Nikam
EnviroTech Consultants, Thane
e-mail: kgupta@iitb.ac.in

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14.1 Introduction

Rapid urbanization in India has resulted in increased demand for water in urban areas.
However, the very process of urbanization has resulted in rapid paving of urban
surfaces thereby impeding groundwater recharge and depleting the groundwater table.
The urban water managers can no longer depend on the groundwater sources and they
are forced to look for alternate water sources. Increasingly many cities in India are now
drawing water through large diameter water pipelines by pumping from water sources
further and further away from the city. This process has it's own challenges and
drawbacks - as rainfall occurs in India mostly during June to September with very little
rainfall occurring in the remaining eight months, most cities are struggling for water
during March to June. The cities now have to conserve water during the four months
preceding the monsoon. This chapter looks at the existing and potential water
conservation measures to alleviate urban drought with examples from the Mumbai
Metropolitan Region.

14.2 Need for water conservation as a long-term strategy

Most urban water conservation efforts have begun in times of water shortage due to
drought or other calamities. These efforts were ad hoc measures aimed at saving water
on a short-term basis. While these were successful to varying degrees in reducing water
use substantially, but water use increased again after the crisis was over.
The rate of augmentation works have been overtaken by the rapid increase in
population in urban areas due to migration. Moreover, new supplies are now becoming
increasingly difficult to find. Thus, to cater to the increasing urban population, demand
reduction through water conservation as a long-term measure offers a way out of the
present crisis.

14.3 Water consumption per capita

In the 1990s, the Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization
(CPHEEO) under the Ministry of Urban Development had recommended 135 liters per
capita per day (lpcd) with the break up as shown in Table 14.1. However, this figure
dates back to the time when toilet flushing tanks were designed using 12.5 liters per
flush. Many of the old buildings still use the older flush tanks which use as much as
12.5 liters per flush. Nowadays low volume flush tanks (3.5 liters per flush or less) with
the same flushing efficiency are available. Many utilities are now even shifting towards
waterless toilets. Retrofitting the buildings with such devices and installing the latest
water conservation devices in the new buildings offers the safest and surest way of
reducing water consumption without any loss of flushing efficiency or causing any
inconvenience or change in the lifestyle of the individual. This has also been
recognized in a study carried out by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in which
they reworked the water demand for individual use as shown in column 2 of Table 14.1
and identified the total as 86 lpcd. However, during the water crisis in Mumbai during
April 2016, a water consumption survey was carried out by the authors’ amongst 150
students at IIT Bombay and the conservative water use for various purposes is shown in
column 5 of Table 14.1. It is seen that even after including an additional 10 % for
contingency, the requirement works out to 62 lpcd. Thus a saving of just over 50%

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from the estimates prepared by CPHEEO can be achieved through improved practices
without any inconvenience to the individual.
However, in emergencies, research indicates that 20 lpcd is the minimum quantity of
safe water required to realize the minimum essential levels of health and hygiene"
(WHO-WEDC, 2013).

Table 14.1 Per capita water consumption.

S. No. Category Consumption (in lpcd)
CPHEEO MoEF IIT Bombay
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 Human consumption* 7 7 5
2 Bathing 20 20 20
3 Flushing 45 21 10
4 Washing 40 15 10
5 Misc** 23 23 11 + 10 %
Total 135 86 62
* Drinking and cooking; **Contingency

14.4 Water Conservation Measures

The poor living in slums are already managing with limited water and so the population
having access to piped water and bathrooms are the target group for urban water
conservation measures. The various water conservation measures are briefly described
and discussed.

14.4.1 Water conservation devices

The maximum saving in urban water use would be achieved by retrofitting the toilets
with low volume toilet flushing cisterns as already discussed. Other measures would
include pressure reducing valves and faucet aerators so that less amount of water is
consumed per wash.

14.4.2 Leak detection and repair

The most common leakages in buildings are from partially closed taps, toilet cisterns or
float operated self-closing valves malfunctioning due to a defective float or the float
coming loose in the water storage tanks. A slow steady drip from a tap can waste
around 45 lpd of water while a leaking cistern can waste 45 liters per hour. A
preventive annual replacement will go a long way in reducing leakages and prevent
wastage of valuable water.

14.4.3 Water Reuse

Water recycling and reuse is now being increasing adopted by large utilities for non-
potable purposes. For example, many airports now treat the wastewater and reuse the
treated water for non-potable purposes. Similar measures are being adopted by railways
and roadways for washing the coaches.

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14.4.4 Metering and incremental rates

Demand reduction can be adopted through installation of water meters and appropriate
pricing policy, incentives and penalties. It should be mentioned that in most cities,
water rates are highly subsidized and water rates should be increased rationally towards
a price that reflects the real cost of water and to make consumers lower their water use
to the desired level. Changing from a flat rate schedule to an increasing block rate
requires metering if it does not already exist. Metering can be expensive in terms of the
cost of the meter and the cost of reading and billing. Even though it takes time for
meters to save enough water to offset their high initial cost, metering with incremental
pricing is a cost effective water conservation measure.

14.5 Modifications in byelaws for recycling and reuse of waste water

Application of byelaws for recycling and reuse of wastewater can have a significant
role in reducing dependence on municipal water supply.
For example, to meet flushing and gardening water requirements, the Thane Municipal
Corporation has approved following modifications in byelaws for recycling and reuse
of wastewater from 30th July 2016:
Types of wastewater is defined as
1. Black water: Wastewater from toilets,
2. Grey water: Wastewater from bathrooms, sinks and floor washing,
3. Non-residential wastewater: Wastewater from industrial, medical, commercial uses
shall also be treated.

14.5.1 Applicability
These regulations shall be applicable to all developments/redevelopments, part
developments on plots having an area of 4000 sq. m. or more as well those mentioned
under (C-1) to (C-6) shall have the provision for treatment, recycling and reuse of
wastewater. The applicant shall along with his application for obtaining necessary
layout approval/building permission shall submit a plan showing the location of
wastewater treatment plant, furnishing details of calculations, references,
implementation, etc. This plan shall accompany with the applicant’s commitment to
monitor the system periodically from the date of occupation of the respective building."

14.5.2 Regulations

14.5.2.1 for layout approval/building permission

1. In case of residential layouts, areas measuring 4000 sq. m. or more, in addition to

the open space prescribed in the bye-laws, a separate space for wastewater
treatment and recycling plant should be earmarked in the layout.
2. The recycled water shall be used for gardening, car washing, toilets flushing,
irrigation, etc., and in no case for drinking, bathing, washing utensils, clothes, etc.

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3. On the layout plan, all chambers, plumbing lines which are a part of wastewater
treatment should be marked a different color while submitting the layout for
approval to the concerned Municipal Corporation/Council/Approving Authority.
4. Only provision for the basic civil work and required machinery will be proposed to
the concerned Municipal Corporation/Council/Approving Authority. Other than this
provision for additional machinery, pipes, tanks, landscape should be provided by
the owner/developer at his own cost.
5. A Clause must be included by the owner/developer in the purchase agreement that
the purchaser/owner of the premises/organization/society of the purchasers shall
ensure that:
a. The recycled water is tested every six months either in municipal laboratory or
in the laboratory approved by the Municipal Corporation or by the State
Government and the result of which shall be made accessible to the competent
authority of the respective ward office.
b. Any recommendation from the testing laboratory for any form of corrective
measures that are needed to be adopted shall be complied, copy of any such
recommendation and necessary action taken shall be sent by the testing
laboratories to the competent authority of respective wards.

14.5.2.2 Group housing/ apartment building

In case of group housing if the built up area is 2000 sq. m. or above or if consumption
of water is 20,000 lit/day or more, or if a multi storied building which has 50 tenements
or more, then wastewater treatment and recycling plant as mention in (14.5.2.1) should
be constructed.

14.5.2.3 Educational, industrial, commercial, Government, Semi-Government

organization, hotels, lodging, etc.

For all buildings in this category having built-up area of 1500 sq. m. or more and if
water consumption is 20,000 lit/day or more, then provision for wastewater treatment
and recycling plant as mentioned in (14.5.2.1) is mandatory.

14.5.2.4 Hospitals

All hospitals having 40 beds or more, must provide a wastewater treatment and
recycling plant as mentioned in (14.5.2.1).

14.5.2.5 Vehicle servicing garages

All vehicles servicing garages shall ensure that the wastewater generated through
washing of vehicles is treated and recycled back for the same use as mentioned in
(14.5.2.1).

14.5.2.6 Other hazardous uses

All other establishments/buildings where chances of wastewater generated containing

harmful chemical, toxins are likely and where such water cannot be directly led into
municipal sewers, the concerned competent authority may direct the owners, users of

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such establishment, buildings to tread their wastewater as the directions laid in
(14.5.2.1).

14.5.3 Penalty

1. Any owner/ developer/ organization/ society violating the provisions of these bye-
laws, shall be fined Rs. 2500 on the day of detection and if the violation continues,
than shall be fined Rs. 100 for every day as concrete action after written notice from
the concerned competent authority.
2. If the result of the test as mentioned in (14.5.2.1, 5. a. b.) are not satisfactory, then
the concerned owner/ developer/ organization/ society shall be charged a penalty of
Rs. 300 per day till the necessary preventive action is taken and disconnection of
water connection also.

14.6 Implementation

Establishing a program for long-term urban water conservation measures requires a

different, more carefully planning approach than setting up a temporary emergency
conservation program. Urban bodies can choose from a variety of water conservation
options including water saving devices, water restrictions, water reuse, landscaping
charges and incremental water rates. Implementation can be successful only when there
is a firm commitment by the people themselves, the urban bodies and the elected
representatives to conserve this valuable and limited natural resource is required.

14.7 Case Studies

Two case studies from Thane city incorporating urban water conservation measures are
presented. Thane city is one of the hubs of Mumbai Metropolitan Region on the West
coast of India (Figure 14.1). Case I demonstrates micro level planning to optimize the
use of rainwater and reduce the peak flow while Case II describes the measures
initiated by the municipal authorities to recycle treated wastewater for gardening and
flushing.

14.7.1 Case-I: Micro level planning to optimize the use of rainwater and reduce the
peak flow

14.7.1.1 Rainwater harvesting

The Bombay State Provincial Municipal Corporation Act (1949) lays the onus of
developing and implementing urban runoff and flood control strategies on Municipal
agencies. The Thane Municipal Corporation (TMC) has taken up integrated urban
design with the objective of developing a comprehensive rainwater harvesting program
aimed at providing water, reducing contributions from building to drains and thereby
reducing water logging and flooding in Thane. The development plans involves a pro-
active process which recognizes the opportunities for urban water conservation,
landscape architecture and stormwater management infrastructure are intrinsically
linked. Rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory.
The water management scheme is being financed through internal resources of TMC
with additional funding from the Central and State Governments.

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Figure 14.1. Location of Thane (CDP, 2006).

14.7.1.2 Rainwater harvesting system flow path

This section describes the flow path of rainwater falling on a building within the
catchment area and the processes involved. The rainwater schematic has been shown
in Figure 14.2 and 14.3.

Figure 14.2. Rainwater harvesting system schematic.

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Figure 14.3. Representative schematic of sedimentation tank and collection tank
provided at a residential premise in Thane.

The rainwater reuse and recharge system has been designed for daily rainfall for
100 mm. The area breakup and runoff generated is shown in Figure 14.4 while the mass
balance of stormwater has been shown in Figure 14.5. Calculations show that 185.75
cum/day runoff is generated and can be conserved from an area of 2200 sq.m.

Roof top area, sq.m. Runoff, cum/day

16.77, 9%
335.44, 15% 826.13, 38%
74.35, 40%

1038.43,
93.46, 51%
47%
Roof top Open area Garden Roof top Open area Garden

Figure 14.4. Area breakup and runoff generated

14.7.1.3 Rainwater harvesting components

Following are the rainwater harvesting components proposed to be installed in the

premises:

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14.7.1.3.1 Flush valve

Flush valve has been proposed to flush first rainwater to prevent silt and other
impurities coming into rainwater harvesting system.

14.7.1.3.2 Sedimentation tank

Rainfall falling within the rooftop catchment area is directed toward a single downspout
and collected through drain. The water is collected in a sedimentation tank (Figure
14.6). The sedimentation tank has been proposed to trap light and heavy impurities
without having any filter media. The rainwater is allowed to flow through a series of
small tanks and by providing an entry and exit for water at strategic positions,
impurities can be trapped in the sedimentation tank for subsequent cleaning. Heavier
impurities will get trapped in the first two tanks as the water flows out at a higher level.
Periodic cleaning of these tanks is required to remove the impurities.

14.7.1.3.3 Collection tank

Rainwater from sedimentation tank is collected in collection tank to reuse for

flushing.
Total runoff @ 100 mm/day
(185.72 cum/day)

Roof top Open area Garden area

(74.35cum/day) (94.60 cum/day) (16.77 cum/day)

Collection Bore well (35.85

tanks recharge pit cum/day) Recharge pit Grass Swale
(25.00 (13.50 (137.25 cum/day (19.69 cum/day)
cum/day) cum/day)

(Total capacity of 38.50 cum/day) (Total capacity of 156.94 cum/day)

(Total capacity of 195.44 cum/day)

Figure 14.5. Stormwater mass balance.

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Figure 14.6. Sedimentation tank (dimensions in meter).

14.7.1.3.4 Surface rainwater recharge though grass swale and infiltration pit within
stormwater drain

Surface rainwater from garden area is used for recharging ground water table
though grass swale and infiltration pit within stormwater as shown in Figures
14.7 and 14.8 respectively.

Figure 14.7. Typical details gravel swale.

Figure 14.8. Stormwater drain cum infiltration pit.

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14.7.1.3.5 Bore well recharge pit.

Excess rainwater from collection tank is collected in bore well recharge pit for
recharging ground water table as shown in Figure 14.9.

Figure 14.9. Details of bore well recharge pit.

Table 14.2. Design of rainwater harvesting

Roof top
Roof top area (sq.m.) 826.13 Sq.m.
Coefficient of runoff 0.9
Rainfall per day 100.0 mm
Rain water collection (cu.m./day) 74.35 cu.m./day
Open area
Area (Sq.m.) 1051.10 Sq.m.
Coefficient of runoff 0.90
Rainfall per day 100.0 mm
Rain water collection (cu.m./day) 94.60 cu.m./day
Garden area
Area (Sq.m.) 335.44 Sq.m.
Coefficient of runoff 0.50
Rainfall per day 100.0 mm
Rain water collection (cu.m./day) 16.77 cu.m./day
Water conservation from roof top in a collection tank per year
Rainwater collection tank 10 cu.m./day
Flushing tank 15 cu.m./day
Total capacity of tank proposed 25 cu.m./day
Design of bore well recharge pit
No of pit (nos) 1.00 nos
Width of the pit 3.00 m
Length of the pit 3.00 m

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Depth of the pit (m) 1.50 m
Total collection capacity in cu.m. per day 13.5 cu.m./day
Design of recharge pit for surface stormwater
No of pit (nos) 1 nos
Length of the pit (m) 122.00 m
Width of the pit (m) 1.50 m
Depth pf the pit (m) 1.50 m
Total collection capacity per day in cum 137.25 cu.m./day
Design of grass swale
No of pit (nos) 1 nos
Length of the pit (m) 35.00 m
Width of the pit (m) 1.50 m
Depth pf the pit (m) 0.75 m
Total collection capacity per day in cum 19.69 cu.m./day

Total rainwater generated per day in cu.m. 185.72 cu.m. / day

Total rainwater conservation capacity per day in cu.m. 195.44 cu.m. / day

14.7.2 Case Study-II: Recycling treated wastewater for gardening and flushing

Assessment of the modifications in the Development Control Plan (DCR) on water

demand and wastewater disposal has been carried out for sector 6, which is one of the
rapidly developing sectors of Thane. The index map of sector 6 is shown in Figure
14.10. The area under residential zone is 477.34 Ha which is 17.90 % of total
residential zone of Thane. The broad categorization shows that 40.18 Ha. (8%) is rural,
160.14 Ha. (34%) is developed, ongoing development is of 78.15 ha (16 %) whereas
198.89 ha (42 %) is yet to be developed as depicted in Figure 14.11.
The wastewater generation (grey and black) has been computed for different
categories of development and given in Table 14.3. After implementation of modified
bye-laws, 13.96 Mld grey water will be treated and reused for gardening and flushing.

Table 14.3. Wastewater generation (Grey and black) for different categories of
development.
Category Wastewater (Mld)
Black Grey Total
Rural 1.23 2.02 3.25
Completed development 4.90 8.07 12.97
Ongoing development 2.39 3.94 6.33
Future development 6.09 10.02 16.11
Total ongoing and future development 8.48 13.96 22.44

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Figure 14.10. Planning sector 6 of Thane Municipal Corporation.

Figure 14.11. Breakup of development in Sector 6 of Thane Municipal Corporation

14.7.2.1 Application of amended DCR for residential project

Separate grey and black wastewater treatment system has been implemented for one the
project at Kasarvadavali located in Sector 6 in Thane. The entire project is proposed to
be developed in two phases. Phase I comprises of three buildings. A separate grey water
treatment system has been proposed for each phase. Separate grey and black
wastewater treatment system of 57 kld and 99 kld capacity respectively for Phase I as
shown in Figure 14.12 has been completed. Treated wastewater is proposed to be used
for gardening and flushing.

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Figure 14.12. Separate grey and black wastewater treatment system for residential
project in Thane.

14.8 Conclusions
This chapter has discussed various methods of water conservation which may be
implemented without affecting the present lifestyle, mainly by retrofitting efficient
plumbing fixtures in old buildings and installing better ones in the new buildings. Two
applications of rainwater harvesting and wastewater reuse in Thane City in Mumbai
Metropolitan Region have been described.

References
Thane Municipal Corporation (TMC) (2007) Detailed project report of integrated
drainage development.
Thane Municipal Corporation (TMC), Town Planning Department, Notice Dated
30th July 2016.
S.O.2910. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Order, 2016,
Published in the Gazette of India (extraordinary) Part-II, section 3, sub-section
(ii) vide S.0. 2910, dated, 9th December, 2007.
WHO-WEDC (2013) Technical note on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in
emergencies-how much water is needed in emergencies.

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