SELF-LEARNING HOME TASK (SLHT)

Subject: General Biology I     Grade Level:11      Quarter: II      Week: 3 

MELC: Distinguish major features of glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle, electron transport

system and chemiosmosis.

Competency Code:  STEM_BIO11/12-lla-j-8

Learning Objective:
Knowledge: Identify the major features of glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle, electron transport
system and chemiosmosis. 
Skill: Compare features of glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle, electron transport system
and chemiosmosis with each other.
Attitude: Manifest understanding in determining reactions that produce and
consume ATP.
Name JESTON MAR BAYOG Section   STEM B  Date   ________

School  LILOAN NATIONAL HIGHSCHOOL District  LILOAN

 
A. Readings and Discussions

Glycolysis –
Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular
metabolism. Glycolysis can be defined simply as the lysis, or splitting, of sugar. More
particularly, it is the controlled breakdown of glucose, a 6-carbon carbohydrate , into pyruvate, a
3-carbon carbohydrate. Organisms frequently store complex carbohydrates, such as glycogen
or starch, and break these down into glucose units which can then enter into glycolysis.

Two features of glycolysis suggest that it has an ancient evolutionary origin. First, the
same series of reactions occur in virtually all cells, including bacteria, plants, fungi, and animals.
Second, glycolysis does not require oxygen, making it appropriate for primeval cells which had
to live in a world with very little atmospheric oxygen.

Glycolysis has several important features:

1. It breaks down one molecule of glucose, a 6-carbon molecule, into two molecules of
pyruvate, a 3-carbon molecule, in a controlled manner by ten or more enzymatic
reactions. The oxidation of glucose is controlled so that the energy in this molecule can
be used to manufacture other high energy compounds.
2. It makes a small amount of ATP, a process known as substrate-level phosphorylation.
For each glucose molecule that is broken down by glycolysis, there is a net gain of two
molecules of ATP.
3. It makes NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), a high energy molecule
which can be used to make ATP in the electron transfer chain (see below). For each
glucose molecule that is broken down by glycolysis, there is a net gain of two molecules
of NADH.
 4. It makes compounds which can be used to synthesize fatty acids. In particular, some of
the carbohydrate intermediates of glycolysis are used by other enzymatic reactions to
synthesize fatty acids, the major constituents of lipids, important energy storage
molecules.

Kreb’s Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle

The citric acid cycle, shown in —also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle)
or the Krebs cycle—is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate
energy through the oxidation of acetate—derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins—into
carbon dioxide. The cycle provides precursors including certain amino acids as well as the
reducing agent NADH that is used in numerous biochemical reactions. Its central importance to
many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest established components of
cellular metabolism; it may have originated abiogenically.

The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from citric acid, a type of tricarboxylic acid that is
first consumed and then regenerated by this sequence of reactions to complete the cycle. The
cycle consumes acetate (in the form of acetyl-CoA) and water, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and
produces carbon dioxide. The NADH generated by the TCA cycle is fed into the oxidative
phosphorylation pathway. The net result of these two closely linked pathways is the oxidation of
nutrients to produce usable energy in the form of ATP.
Components of the TCA cycle were derived from anaerobic bacteria, and the TCA cycle itself
may have evolved more than once. Theoretically there are several alternatives to the TCA
cycle, however the TCA cycle appears to be the most efficient. If several alternatives
independently evolved, they all rapidly converged to the TCA cycle.
Oxidative Phosphorylation

You have just read about two pathways in glucose catabolism—glycolysis and the citric acid
cycle—that generate ATP. Most of the ATP generated during the aerobic catabolism of glucose,
however, is not generated directly from these pathways. Rather, it derives from a process that
begins with passing electrons through a series of chemical reactions to a final electron acceptor,
oxygen. These reactions take place in specialized protein complexes located in the inner
membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic organisms and on the inner part of the cell
membrane of prokaryotic organisms. The energy of the electrons is harvested and used to
generate a electrochemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The potential
energy of this gradient is used to generate ATP. The entirety of this process is called
oxidative phosphorylation.

ELECTRON Transport chain

The electron transport chain (Figure 4.19 a) is the last component of aerobic respiration and is
the only part of metabolism that uses atmospheric oxygen. Oxygen continuously diffuses into
plants for this purpose. In animals, oxygen enters the body through the respiratory system.

Electron transport is a series of chemical reactions that resembles a bucket brigade in that
electrons are passed rapidly from one component to the next, to the endpoint of the chain where
oxygen is the final electron acceptor and water is produced. There are four complexes
composed of proteins, labeled I through IV in Figure 4.19 c, and the aggregation of these four
complexes, together with associated mobile, accessory electron carriers, is called the electron
transport chain. The electron transport chain is present in multiple copies in the inner
mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes and in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes. In each
transfer of an electron through the electron transport chain, the electron loses energy, but with
some transfers, the energy is stored as potential energy by using it to pump hydrogen ions
across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the intermembrane space, creating an

electrochemical gradient.
Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed to protein complexes in the electron transport
chain. As they are passed from one complex to another (there are a total of four), the electrons
lose energy, and some of that energy is used to pump hydrogen ions from the mitochondrial
matrix into the intermembrane space. In the fourth protein complex, the electrons are accepted
by oxygen, the terminal acceptor. The oxygen with its extra electrons then combines with two
hydrogen ions, further enhancing the electrochemical gradient, to form water. If there were no
oxygen present in the mitochondrion, the electrons could not be removed from the system, and
the entire electron transport chain would back up and stop. The mitochondria would be unable
to generate new ATP in this way, and the cell would ultimately die from lack of energy. This is
the reason we must breathe to draw in new oxygen.

In the electron transport chain, the free energy from the series of reactions just described is
used to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane. The uneven distribution of H+ ions across
the membrane establishes an electrochemical gradient, owing to the H+ ions’ positive charge
and their higher concentration on one side of the membrane.

Hydrogen ions diffuse through the inner membrane through an integral membrane protein called
ATP synthase (Figure 4.19 b). This complex protein acts as a tiny generator, turned by the force
of the hydrogen ions diffusing through it, down their electrochemical gradient from the
intermembrane space, where there are many mutually repelling hydrogen ions to the matrix,
where there are few. The turning of the parts of this molecular machine regenerate ATP from
ADP. This flow of hydrogen ions across the membrane through ATP synthase is called
chemiosmosis.

Chemiosmosis

The actual production of ATP in cellular respiration takes place through the process of
chemiosmosis . Chemiosmosis involves the pumping of protons through special channels in the
membranes of mitochondria from the inner to the outer compartment. The pumping establishes
a proton (H+) gradient. After the gradient is established, protons diffuse down the gradient
through a transport protein called ATP synthase. The flow of hydrogens catalyze the pairing of a
phosphate with ADP, forming ATP.

The energy production of cellular respiration is substantial. Most biochemists agree that 36
molecules of ATP can be produced for each glucose molecule during cellular respiration as a
result of the Krebs cycle reactions, the electron transport system, and chemiosmosis. Also, two
ATP molecules are produced through glycolysis, so the net yield is 38 molecules of ATP. These
ATP molecules may then be used in the cell for its needs. However, the ATP molecules cannot
be stored for long periods of time, so cellular respiration must constantly continue in order to
regenerate the ATP molecules as they are used. Each ATP molecule is capable of releasing 7.3

kilocalories of energy per mole..

 Chemiosmosis (Figure 3) is used to generate 90 percent of the ATP made during
aerobic glucose catabolism; it is also the method used in the light reactions of photosynthesis to
harness the energy of sunlight in the process of photophosphorylation. Recall that the
production of ATP using the process of chemiosmosis in mitochondria is called oxidative
phosphorylation. The overall result of these reactions is the production of ATP from the energy
of the electrons removed from hydrogen atoms. These atoms were originally part of a glucose
molecule. At the end of the pathway, the electrons are used to reduce an oxygen molecule to
oxygen ions. The extra electrons on the oxygen attract hydrogen ions (protons) from the
surrounding medium, and water is formed.

An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular Respiration

Efficiency of ATP production

The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized
into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron
transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.

The rest of the energy stored in glucose is lost as heat. We humans use some of this heat to
maintain our relatively high body temperature (37°C), and we dissipate the rest through
sweating and other cooling mechanisms.

Surprisingly, perhaps, it may be beneficial under certain conditions to reduce the efficiency of
cellular respiration. A remarkable adaptation is shown by hibernating mammals, which
overwinter in a state of inactivity and lowered metabolism. Although their internal body
temperature is lower than normal, it still must be kept significantly higher than the external air
temperature. One type of tissue, called brown fat, is made up of cells packed full of
mitochondria. The inner mitochondrial membrane contains a channel protein called the
uncoupling protein that allows protons to flow back down their concentration gradient without
generating ATP. Activation of these proteins in hibernating mammals results in ongoing
oxidation of stored fuel stores (fats), generating heat without any ATP production. In the
absence of such an adaptation, the buildup of ATP would eventually cause cellular respiration to
be shut down by regulatory mechanisms.

B. Exercises
Exercise 1:

Krebs Cycle at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O6bInBQXtmM (5:30)

1. Which types of cells have mitochondria?

Plant and Animal Cells Have Mitochondria
2. What is the cristae? Where does it occur? Why is this structure important?
Cristae is a folded inner membrane of the mitochondria, it occurs inside the mitochondria,
this structure is important because this is where the Krebs Cycle takes place
3. What high energy electron carriers are produced by the Krebs cycle? Where do they carry
their electrons?
NADH and FADH2 are high energy electron carries produced by the Krebs cycle, they carry
their electrons through the electron transport system
4. What is the role of acetyl-CoA? Where does it fit into the Krebs cycle?
Role of acetyl-CoA is that two carbon acetyl group joins to a four carbon molecule called
oxaloacetate right at the beginning of the Krebs cycle forming a six carbon molecule citric
acid, as that happens that the coenzyme-a it goes back to pick up another carbon group from
a broken down pyruvate and it just keeps going back and forth shuttling in the two carbon
groups that came ultimately from the glucose that entered the cell, you pluck off a couple
more carbon dioxides and every time you do that you pull out some high energy electrons
putting them onto high energy carriers called NAD+ turning them into NADH
5. How much ATP is made by the Krebs cycle for every molecule of Pyruvate that enters the
cycle?
From every pyruvate that enters the cycle, it generates one ATP, so because every glucose,
six carbon molecule creates two pyruvates, you group from one ATP group another one ATP
group
Exercise 2:
Please watch the video to answer the following questions.

Electron Transport Chain at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xbJ0nbzt5Kw (3:50)

1. What is the name of the protein complex that makes ATP?

ATP synthase is the protein complex that makes ATP
2. What is the final electron acceptor at the end of the electron transport chain?
Oxygen
3. What is a "mobile transfer molecule"? What is their function?
 Ubiquinone and cytochrome c are called mobile transfer molecule, because Ubiquinone
moves the electrons to the cytochrome b-c1 complex each electron is then passed from the
cytochromeb-c1 complex to cytochrome. Cytochrome c accepts each electron one at a time,
one hydrogen ion is pumped through the complex as each electron is transferred
4. How is the hydrogen ion gradient formed?
The next major step occurs in the cytochrome oxidase complex, this step requires four
electrons, and these four electrons interact with a molecular oxygen and eight hydrogen ions.
The four electrons, four of the hydrogen ions, and the molecular oxygen, are used to form
two water molecules. The other four hydrogen ions are pumped across the membrane
5. What is the purpose of the proton (hydrogen ion) gradient?
The potential energy for this (hydrogen ion) gradient is used by ATP synthase to make ATP
from ADP and inorganic Phosphate.

C. Assessments/Applications/Outputs
1. Is it possible for humans to decrease the efficiency of cellular respiration like those of
hibernating animals? If no, why? If yes, how?

Human hibernation doesn't exist for many reasons, but the reason why is not quite as immediately
obvious as you might think. Hibernation is a response to cold weather and reduced food availability. ...
That's not quite long enough to evolve all the metabolic adaptations we would need to be able to
hibernate. Because If the temperature is too low, the enzymes slow down, just like molecules slow down
when temperature decreases. If the enzymes used in cellular respiration are too cold, they don't work as
fast, and thus cellular respiration won't go as fast either. Lowering body temperature and metabolism
mean cells need less oxygen, enabling their survival in conditions when oxygen cannot be delivered. This
process of artificial cooling in humans appears similar to spontaneous torpor in animals in that it
includes reduced breathing, heart rate and metabolism.

Direction: Write the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.

1. When one six-carbon molecule of glucose is oxidized, what is created? Letter B
a. Citric acid b. Pyruvic acid c. Lactic acid d. Glucose
2. The first step in the breakdown of glucose molecule is __________. Letter A
a. Glycolysis b. Kreb’s cycle c. Electron transport chain

3. Important features of glycolysis are EXCEPT: Letter D

a. It breaks down one molecule of glucose, a 6-carbon molecule, into two
molecules of pyruvate, a 3-carbon molecule
b. It makes a small amount of ATP, a process known as substrate-level
phosphorylation.
c. It makes NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), a high
energy molecule which can be used to make ATP in the electron transfer
chain
d. None of the above
 4. The final electron acceptor in cellular respiration is LETTER C
a. Carbon dioxide b. Nitrogen c. Oxygen d. NAD+
5. Where are the electron transport chains in eukaryotic cells? LETTER C
a. Vacuole b. Cytoplasm c. Inner walls of mitochondria
6. Once no more electrons enter the ETC, what happens? LETTER B
a. Two times more ATP is synthesized than before
b. ATP synthesis slows down
c. ADP is no longer produced.
d. ATP synthesis stops
7. The________ is when the oxidation of glucose that began with glycolysis is completed
LETTER C
a. Electron transport chain b. Calvin cycle c. Kreb’s Cycle
8. Which of the following describes chemiosmosis? LETTER D
a. Chemiosmosis is used to generate 90 percent of the ATP made during
aerobic glucose catabolism;
b. The method used in the light reactions of photosynthesis to harness the
energy of sunlight in the process of photophosphorylation.
c. Chemiosmosis produces of ATP in mitochondria.
d. All of these
9. Unlike photosynthesis, cellular respiration occurs in LETTER D
a. Animal cells only
b. b. Plants only
c. c. All, but plants cells
d. d. eukaryotic cells
10.  Which of the following is the correct sequence of events in AEROBIC cellular
respiration? LETTER C
a. Krebs cycle > electron transport chain > glycolysis
b. Krebs cycle > glycolysis > electron transport chain
c. Glycolysis > Krebs cycle > electron transport chain
d. Glycolysis > fermentation > Krebs cycle

References:

Hoefnagels, Marielle. General Biology (Books I and II). McGraw-Hill Education, 2016.
Miller, Kenneth R., and Levine Joseph S. Biology. 23-35 First Lok Yang Road, Jurong
Singapore 629733: Pearson Education South Asia Pte. Ltd., 2003
Mosley, Lambert. Cellular Respiration- An overview. Retrieved from 
https://docplayer.net/20817712-Cellular-respiration-an-overview.html
Ramos, Anna Cherylle M., and John Donnie A. Ramos. Exploring life through Science Series
General Biology 1. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House Inc., 2017.

GUIDE

For the Teacher:

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module. You
also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage their own
learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners as they do the
tasks included in the module. 
For the learner:

Welcome to the General Biology I Self-Learning Home Task!

This learning home task was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful
opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be
enabled to process the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner through
following these simple instructions below.

 Follow carefully all the contents and instructions indicated in every page of this learning
home task.

 Write on your notebook or any writing pad the concepts about the lessons. Writing
enhances learning, that is important to develop and keep in mind.

 Perform all the provided activities.

 Let your facilitator/guardian assess your answers.

 Analyze the concepts and apply what you have learned.

 Enjoy studying!

For the Parent/Home tutor:

As a home tutor you should see to it that students are able to comprehend the
objectives, the framework and the activities of each lesson. Please make time to check on the
child regularly to ensure they are progressing well.