Terminal moraine

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Terminal moraine of Wordie Glacier, Greenland

Map of the Salpausselkä terminal moraines in

Southern Finland
A terminal moraine, also called end moraine, is a
type of moraine that forms at the terminal (edge)
of a glacier, marking its maximum advance. At
this point, debris that has accumulated by
plucking and abrasion, has been pushed by the
front edge of the ice, is driven no further and
instead is deposited in an unsorted pile of
sediment. Because the glacier acts very much like
a conveyor belt, the longer it stays in one place,
the greater the amount of material that will be
deposited. The moraine is left as the marking
point of the terminal extent of the ice.[1]
Contents
1 Formation
2 History
3 Effects on landscape
4 Effects on vegetation
5 Examples
6 See also
7 References
Formation

Terminal moraine of Penny Ice Cap, Baffin

Island, Nunavut, Canada
As a glacier moves along its path, the
surrounding area is continuously eroding. Loose
rock and pieces of bedrock are constantly being
picked up and transported with the glacier. Fine
sediment and particles are also incorporated into
the glacial ice. The accumulation of these rocks
and sediment together form what is called glacial
till when deposited.

Push moraines are formed when a glacier

retreats from a previously deposited terminal
moraine, only to push proglacial sediment or till
into an existing terminal moraine. This process
can make the existing terminal moraine far
larger than its previous size.[2]

Dump moraines occur when rock, sediment, and

debris, which accumulate at the top surface of
the glacier, either slide, fall, or flow off of the
snout of the glacier. The accumulation of till will
form a terminal moraine as the glacier retreats.
[3]

Ablation moraines form when a large piece of ice,

containing an accumulation of sediment and
debris, breaks from the snout of the glacial. Once
it is separated and begins to melt, the debris
found throughout this glacial piece is deposited
to form a new terminal moraine. It is important
to note that the more debris that is found within
the ice, the longer it will take for complete
melting to occur.[4]

Climate plays an important role in the formation

of terminal moraines. As temperatures increase,
glaciers begin to retreat faster, causing more
glacial till to be deposited in the form of terminal
moraines. However, when temperatures
decrease, zone of accumulation goes into
overdrive. This starts a process where the
accumulation of snow, in the zone of
accumulation is greater than loss due to melting
or ablation.

History
During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the
Northern hemisphere began its modern ice-age.
Most of what is now Canada and northern
portions of the United States was covered in ice
sheets or mountain driven glaciers during the
last stage of the Pleistocene Epoch.[5][6] In the
last 400,000 years there have been roughly four
major glacial events.[7] Evidence of these
separate events is found not only in ice cores, but
also in the glacial till that was deposited.

Rocks and sediment not native to one area could

be found in a region completely foreign to that
from which they were formed. This is the result
of a prior terminal moraine being picked up and
deposited by a newer glacial event. The terminal
moraines resulting from the Last Glacial
Maximum are the most informational features
about glacial advance still present today.

Effects on landscape

Davidson Glacier, AK. There is a glacier-fed lake

in addition to the formation of a small channel
heading in the southeast direction.
During glacial retreat, meltwater flows in the
opposite direction of the retreat, causing braided
streams and channels to form. A terminal
moraine creates a barrier helping to trap water in
a newly-formed glacial lake. The positioning of
the lake resulted from not only subsidence, but
also the terminal moraine providing the
foundation for the wall that holds the water in
place. While the terminal moraine consists of a
long mound of rock and sediment which forms a
structure that appears to be a barrier for water,
there are still ways for the water to flow through.
Water makes its way through glacial till to form
streams and channels.

Another landscape feature formed by terminal

moraines would be kettle lakes. These are
produced during glacial recession when boulders
or blocks of ice are left in place as the glacier
recedes from the newly deposited terminal
moraine. As the ice boulders melt, they begin to
pool to form kettle lakes in the glacial outwash
plain.

Effects on vegetation
The terminal moraine is the furthest point of
disturbed sediment, which is formed into a long
mound outlining the front edge of the glacier.
This mound typically consists of a large quantity
of rocks and boulders along with sediment, and
can combine to reach a height of multiple
meters.[8] The process of uplifting and moving
these large rocks and boulders negatively affects
the local vegetation by either crushing them or
contributing to the process of the glacier plowing
the topsoil, which removes the vegetation from
the soil completely, including the root systems.
In this area of disturbed land, it is difficult for
new vegetation to grow. Immediately beyond the
terminal moraine is the glacial outwash plain,
covered in a layer of sediment, with braided
streams formed from the meltwater. Here, old
vegetation is buried by the sediment, but new
vegetation can still survive relatively well as long
as it can acquire meltwater from the now
receding glacier.

Examples
Terminal moraines are one of the most
prominent types of moraines in the Arctic. One
notable terminal moraine is Trollgarden in
Norway, once thought to be magically
constructed by trolls.

In North America, the Outer Lands is a name

given to the terminal moraine archipelago of the
northeastern region of the United States (Cape
Cod, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Block Island
and Long Island). According to geologist George
Frederick Wright some of the most prominent
examples of terminal moraines on Long Island
are "the most remarkable in the world".[9] Other
prominent examples of terminal moraines are
the Tinley Moraine and the Valparaiso Moraine,
perhaps the best examples of terminal moraines
in North America. These moraines are most
clearly seen southwest of Chicago.

In Europe, virtually all the terrain in the central

Netherlands is made up of an extended terminal
moraine. In Switzerland, alpine terminal
moraines can be found, one striking example
being the moraine at the end of the valley of the
Forno Glacier in the south-eastern canton of
Graubünden near St. Moritz and the Italian
border.

In New Zealand the Franz Josef Glacier on the

West Coast has created the terminal moraine
called the Waiho Loop.