IGNOU

BGYET – 141
ORE GEOLOGY AND

Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
Block
4
MINERAL EXPLORATION AND MINERAL ECONOMICS
UNIT 13
Basics of Exploration 151
UNIT 14
Exploration Methods 169
UNIT 15
Mineral Economics 203
Glossary 221
145
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. Pankaj Kumar Srivastava Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Former Director University of Jammu, Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences Jammu School of Sciences, IGNOU
IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. R. Krishnamurthy Dr. M. Prashanth
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Indian Institute of Technology Discipline of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Roorkee School of Sciences, IGNOU
Prof. R. Pavanguru (Retd.) Prof. Kiran Pal Verma (Retd.) Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Osmania University Geological Survey of India Discipline of Geology
Hyderabad Faridabad School of Sciences, IGNOU
Prof. D. Venkat Reddy Prof. Meenal Mishra Dr. Omkar Verma

NIT, Surathkal, Discipline of Geology Discipline of Geology
Mangalore School of Sciences, IGNOU School of Sciences, IGNOU
Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Prof. Pankaj K. Srivastava (Units 13 & 15) Mr. Nilanjan Konwar (Unit 14) Dr. Kakoli Gogoi (Unit 14)
University of Jammu, Selan Exploration Technology Ltd. Discipline of Geology
Jammu Haryana School of Sciences, IGNOU
Content and Language Editor
Prof. J.P. Shrivastava (Retd.)
Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Transformation: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Course Coordinators: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi and Dr. M. Prashanth
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: We gratefully acknowledge Prof. Meenal Mishra, for thoroughly reading the course material and
providing her valuable suggestions to improve the course. Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of CRC and some of the
figures. Ms. Sujang Khiamniungan for preparation of the maps of Units 9, 10, 11 and 12.
September, 2021 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021

ISBN:
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permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
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Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.
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146
BGYET-141: ORE GEOLOGY AND
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
Unit 1 Basics of Ore Geology
Unit 2 Classification of Ore Deposits
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
Unit 4 Mode of Occurrence of Ore Bodies
Block 2 Ore Genesis

Unit 5 Magmatic and Metamorphic Processes
Unit 6 Hydrothermal Processes
Unit 7 Volcanogenic and Sedimentary Processes
Unit 8 Weathering Processes
Block 3 Metallic and Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits

Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
Unit 10 Non-Ferrous Ores
Unit 11 Industrial Minerals
Unit 12 Mineral Fuels
Block 4 Mineral Exploration and Mineral Economics

Unit 13 Basics of Exploration
Unit 14 Exploration Methods
Unit 15 Mineral Economics
147
BLOCK 4: MINERAL EXPLORATION AND MINERAL
ECONOMICS
The Earth’s crust is made up of different kinds of rocks which vary in their physical
properties. Most of the deposits which were exposed to the crust or which were close to near
the surface of the crust have been already discovered and are either mined or being mined.
It has become increasingly more difficult to find out a new mineral deposit as most of them
are expected to be deep-seated and concealed. The discovery of new mineral deposit is
very important not only to compensate depletion of resources due to mining, but also to add
new resources of the nation. Geological exploration is carried out in many steps with each
step followed by a sequence of different activities and geological concepts. The purpose of
geological exploration is to find out an economic mineral/fuel deposit at minimum cost and
minimum time-frame. Properties of earth such as magnetism, compressibility, density,
rigidity, etc. can be measured by the use of suitable instruments on the earth surface and
from the results recorded, the arrangement and distribution of the underneath rocks can be
ascertained.
Block 4: Mineral Exploration and Mineral Economics comprises three units. The block
will acquaint you with principles and stages of mineral exploration. We will discuss various
exploration methods viz. geological, geophysical, geochemical, geobotanical and remote
sensing methods. We will also discuss the national mineral policy and mineral conservation
laws.
This block consists of 3 units.
In Unit: 13 Basics of Exploration, you will get acquainted with the basics of geological
exploration, principles and stages involved in the mineral exploration along with the major
methods of exploration in brief.
In Unit: 14 Exploration Methods, we will familiarise you about different surface and sub-
surface mineral exploration methods that involve various activities to identify/ quantify and
extract economically hidden deposits to the surface. We will also discuss their importance
and limitations in various stages of each mineral exploration methods.
In Unit: 15 Mineral Economics, you will get aware with the principles of mineral policy and
development. Further we will also discuss the salient features of India’s Mineral
Conservation Rules and define Sea bed mining laws in India.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this block, you should be able to:
 explain the prospecting guides which lead to the discovery of buried ore deposits;
 discuss principle of mineral exploration;
 identify various stages involved in the mineral exploration;
 discuss various exploration methods viz. geological, geophysical, geochemical,
geobotanical and remote sensing methods;
 appreciate concepts of National Mineral Policy of India; and
 define Sea Bed Mining laws in India.
148
In order to evaluate your learning while reading the self-learning material of this block, we
have provided self-assessment exercises under the caption “Self Assessment Questions
(SAQ)” at a few places and at the end “Terminal Questions” in all units of the block, which
invariably end with answers to the questions, set in these exercises. You should attempt the
exercises yourself and not be tempted to look up the answers given under the caption
“Answers” beforehand. It should be noted that the check your progress is provided as study
tools to help you keep on the right track as you read the units.
We advise that as you read the units, jot down important points in the space provided in the
margins of each page. In fact, broad margins in the booklet are provided for you to write your
notes on. Make your notes as you work through the materials. This will help you prepare for
the term end examination (TEE) and also in assimilating the content.
Your feedback pertaining to this block will help us undertake maintenance and timely
revision of the block. Send your feedback to us to the address given below or e-mail to
kakoligogoi@ignou.ac.in or mprashanth@ignou.ac.in:
The Course Coordinator BGYET-141
Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi
New Delhi – 110068
India
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.
Wishing you success and all the best in this endeavour!!
149
150
UNIT 13
BASICS OF EXPLORATION
Structure____________________________________________________
13.1 Introduction 13.4 Principle of Mineral Exploration
Expected Learning Outcomes Brownfield Exploration
13.2 Prospecting and Exploration Greenfield Exploration
13.3 Classification of Geological Guides 13.5 Stages of Mineral Exploration

Physiographic Guides 13.6 Activity
Mineralogical Guides 13.7 Summary
Stratigraphic and Lithological Guides 13.8 Terminal Questions
Structural Guides 13.9 References
Geobotanical and Biogeochemical Guides 13.10 Further/Suggested Readings
13.11 Answers
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The economic growth as well as security of any nation, depends upon the availability of continuous
flow of minerals, metals and fuels. Therefore, the discovery of new mineral deposit is very important
not only to compensate depletion of resources due to mining, but also to add new resources of the
nation. The scientific method for locating or finding new mineral deposit is called exploration. The
main aim of the geological exploration is to discover mineral deposits of appropriate size and grade
which can be profitably mined from the Earth. The exploration, however, is expensive with high risk
and often takes several years before an ore body can be defined and potentially mined.
Till now, you have understood that finding a new mineral and or fuel deposit as well as finding out
extension of the existing deposits are important to sustain industrial growth. You are already aware
that a mineral deposit is a natural concentration of one or more than one mineral or metal
assemblage within the host rock in a limited area and is too small in size in comparison to the Earth
………………………………………………………………….……………………………………….….............….…......
crust. The ore body in a deposit generally contains a definite shape with finite
quantity (tonnes) and average quality (grade) The shape varies according to the
complex nature of the deposit such as layered, disseminated, veins, pockets/
lenses and folded/deformed. The deposit may be exposed on the surface or can
be hidden below the overburden of sediments or barren rock cover, alluvium.
Most of the deposits which were exposed on the crust or which are close or
near to the surface of the crust have been already discovered and are either
mined or being mined. It has become increasingly more difficult to find out a
new mineral deposit as most of them are expected to be deep-seated and
concealed. Geological exploration is carried out in many steps with each step
followed by a sequence of different activities and geological concepts. The
purpose of geological exploration is to find out an economic mineral/fuel deposit
at minimum cost and minimum time-frame. Various geological features and
concepts provide clues that guide these efforts in locating a deposit are varied.
In this unit, we will try to understand the basics of geological exploration,
principles and the stages involved in the mineral exploration along with the
major methods of exploration in brief.
Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After reading this unit you would be able to:
❖ explain the prospecting guides which lead to the discovery of buried ore
deposits;
❖ discuss principle of mineral exploration; and
❖ identify various stages involved in the mineral exploration;
13.2 PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION

Let us discuss the two terms prospecting and exploration which are very
frequently used for the process of discovering mineral deposits. In literature,
these two terms are almost used interchangeably or synonymously with each
other. In many of the text books and discussions, you will find that these two
terms are not really very distinctly differentiated.
Prospecting involves searching an area for mineral deposits, fossil fuels,
precious metals with the view to mine it profitably. A geologist prospecting an
area is looking for surface exposure of minerals by observing irregularities and
variations in colour, shape or rock composition. The success of any mineral
exploration depends on the experience of geologist/s involved. Exploration is
similar to prospecting. It is the term used for systematic examination of an ore
deposit. There are many aspects which overlap between the prospecting and
exploration. Former transgresses into the latter’s domain is very common. After
area of your interest is chosen, an application for exploration permit is made.
Approval by officials is needed before exploration activities commence.
Prospecting is very often followed immediately by exploration. Exploration can
be defined as the science of prospecting in which modern and sophisticated
instruments and equipment/tools are used in the search of mineral deposit
and qualitative assessment of the mineral/ ore deposit while prospecting a
known well-defined area.
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13.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL GUIDES

The geologists engaged in the geological exploration (known as Exploration
Geologists) must have a good understanding of the basic geological concepts.
The geologist should also have understanding about the geological
mechanisms by which metals are transported from large regions of the Earth’s
crust to a smaller region of the crust where they get concentrated to form a
deposit. It helps the exploration geologists to know where to look for a mineral
deposit. Geological studies for mineral exploration form the base for
identification of a mineral deposit and rely on the identification of rock types,
structure, alteration pattern and delineation of mineralised zones on the
surface. A good geological map on large scale has a significant role in the
geological exploration.
Most of the mineral deposits present near the surface or deep inside the Earth
exhibit some signatures on the surface. These surface signatures range from
the weathering effects, remnants of ancient mining, stratigraphy, shear zone
and lineament and alteration zones etc. These features can be easily identified
during field surveys and may guide exploration and may lead to the discovery of
significant mineral deposits. In earlier blocks, we have already read that some
mineral deposits are hosted by some specific rock types, for examples chromite
deposit is typically associated with ultramafic or mafic igneous rocks, similarly
coal and lignite are associated with sedimentary sequences. Further, we have
also studied that many geological structures like shear zones and lineaments
are favourable locals for the deposition of mineral deposits. These initial clues
are helpful to the exploration geologists to understand where to look for a
specific mineral deposit. These clues which lead to the discovery of the mineral
deposits are known as geological guides.
Based on the nature of the geological features, the guides have been broadly
classified into five major categories (Mckinistry, 1962). They are:
• Physiographic guides
• Mineralogical guides
• Stratigraphic and Lithological guides
• Structural Guides
• Geobotanical and Biogeochemical guides
13.3.1 Physiographic Guides
Physiography of an area may be considered as a guide in the search of ore/s.
Although, many a times, it does not by itself indicate the presence of ore. Some
ore deposits are topographically related to structures/rock types or surficial
deposits that are exposed. Major topographic eminences and depressions
include ridges, mountain ranges, fault scarps, hogbacks, pots and sink-holes
etc. are sometimes useful in locating large ore bodies. We have studied in
earlier units that banded iron ore deposits, bauxite deposits etc. occur in large
masses in many parts of the world. For examples, iron ores of the Lake
Superior region, USA and Western Australia, iron ores of Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar, Karnataka states of India etc. They are present as hills, ridges, and
ranges and can be seen from distance.
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The surface expression of an ore body is direct indication of presence of

deposit, although there may be valuable indirect evidences. In many regions,
the ore outcrops are seen as a conspicuous feature. The presence of quartz
reefs in some regions stand out as ridges in otherwise weathered unsilicified
sequences. On the other hand, some ore deposits are associated with
alteration. The alteration may give rise to chemically unstable or soft, easily
weathered minerals and rocks. This result in a depression which may later filled
with gravel and lava flows and are usually densely vegetated. The shrinkage in
the volume of sulphide ore (Fig. 13.1) bodies during oxidation may also cause
subsidence. Further, the favourable areas for the deposition of placer minerals
(e.g., gold, platinum, diamond etc.) are determined by the stream velocity and
the stream gradient and are normally represented by rock bars, rock holes, ox-
bow lakes, terrace levels, etc. An analysis of physiography provides significant
information related to placer deposits. Direct and indirect evidences for
presence of ore bodies, therefore, can be found from the physiographic
features.
Fig. 13.1: Sulphide ore deposits. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)
13.3.2 Mineralogical Guides

A mineral present near or in an ore body and is related to the processes of ore
deposition may serve as a very much practical guide in ore search. Such
mineralogical guides may constitute targets for ore search. These minerals may
indicate presence of a specific mineral deposit, alteration or rock lithology and
sometimes referred to indicator minerals. Their physical and chemical
characteristics allow them to be easily recovered from the geological samples
(e.g., rock, stream, alluvial, glacial or aeolian sediments or soils).
The presence of oxidised minerals on the surface gives clue as to what lies
beneath it. For example, the sulphide minerals, on coming in contact of water
get oxidised very easily and their metal content is carried away in solution or
else fixed as stable compounds in the form of oxides, carbonates, silicates
elsewhere, leaving behind iron rich rock on the surface. Limonite is the term
used for rock/ore containing several hydrous iron oxide minerals which often
predominate the weathered outcrop of the ore deposit. Under favourable
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conditions, colour, texture and structure of the limonite can furnish valuable
clues about the nature of unweathered mineralisation lying beneath it.
Gossan: The extreme oxidation and leaching of the sulphide body produces
exceedingly ferruginous rock, the product is known as gossan (Figs.13.2a and
13.2b). The gossans are characterised by different honeycomb patterns called
as boxwork structure/texture (Fig. 13.3) and colours. The boxwork texture vary
from brecciated, banded, diamond mesh, triangular, cellular, contour, sponge,
and colloform textures (Fig. 13.4). The colours of a gossan significantly varies
from red, yellow, brown to black. This colour is due to the iron hydroxide and
oxide mineral phases. The depth of gossan may extend up to hundreds of
meters. The interpretation of gossans and leached capping of rocks is one of
the earliest recognised guides to the sulphide ore deposit and has led to the
discovery of many of the important deposits. The Zn–Pb deposit of Rajpura-
Dariba (Rajasthan) was discovered through gossan. Some of the diagnostic
features of gossans are listed in Table -13.1.
Fig.13.2: a) Illustration of a simplified gossan structure; and b) Field photograph

of thick gossan, Rajpura-Dariba, Rajasthan. [Source: for (a) adapted from
Harris et.al. (2015) and (b) Ganga Prasad Bhartiya]
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Fig. 13.3: Field Photograph showing box work structure. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)
Fig. 13.4: Boxwork structures developed after leaching/weathering of primary ore

minerals: (a-c) galena; (d and e) sphalerite; f) chalcopyrite; (g and h)
bornite; (i and j) and tetrahedrite. (Source: modified after Blanchard and
Boswell,1934)
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Table 13.1: Nature of gossan developed by different ore minerals.
Sulphide Gossan Colours Boxwork Textures/Structures

Deposits
Chalcopyrite Deep brown/brick Coarse, cellular with blebs,

red, yellowish masses with angular walls
Bornite Chocolate Triangular, crusted, curved
Bornite- Yellow, brick red Fine, cellular, thin, small, friable

chalcopyrite walls, blebs
Chalcocite Deep maroon Porous/ Pitchlike limonite, no

cells
Sphalerite Tan to brown Cellular, siliceous, thin, rigid

angular walls
Galena Orange Diamond mesh/

Pyramidal/cleavage
Molybdenite Black or gray Foliated
Wall Rock Alteration: There are two main divisions of wall rock alteration:
hypogene and supergene.
• Hypogene alteration is caused by ascending hydrothermal solutions.
• Supergene alteration is caused by descending meteoric water reacting with
previously mineralised ground.
Noticeable mineralogical changes might take place laterally within hydrothermal
(epithermal and mesothermal) deposits. In case of a primary mineralisation at a
depth, one may find a zone of enrichment which may serve as a guide. In case
of a deposit resulting wall rock alteration involving introduction of certain
chemical elements and at the same time removal of others may exhibit
mineralogical changes in the pre-existing rocks. These mineral assemblages
may form alteration haloes starting from ore body to outwardly which are
characteristic of the deposit. The appearance of an altered rock may be the first
sign of approaching ore body. Wall rock alteration is widely used effectively as
a guide to hydrothermal ores and porphyry copper deposit. Such alteration
zones associated with the porphyry copper deposit are shown in Figure 13.5.
13.3.3 Stratigraphic and Lithological Guides
Some mineral deposits are hosted exclusively by specific rock types. Such
litho-units/rocks constitute an ideal stratigraphic guide and lithological guide. If
the stratigraphic unit/ sedimentary beds host ore body, it is called as
stratigraphic guide. If the igneous rock hosts the ore body, the term
lithological guide is used instead of stratigraphic guide.
The syngenetic mineral deposits are formed by the same process and at the
same time of the geological time frame as the enclosing rocks. Such sequences
act as the stratigraphic/lithological guides. This includes many sedimentary
mineral deposits of coal, petroleum, bauxite, phosphorite (Fig.13.6), iron and
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manganese ores. Deposits of chromite and vanadium associated with the

mafic/ ultramafic igneous rocks also belong to this category. The width and
thickness of these deposits range from a few meters to a few hundred meters
and strike length running to several kilometers in length.
Fig. 13.5: Hydrothermal alteration zones associated with the porphyry copper
deposits. Chl- chlorite, Epi- epidote, Carb- carbonate, Q- quartz, Kaol-
kaolinite, Alun- alunite, Ser- sericite, py- Pyrite, K-feld- potassium
feldspar, Bi- biotite, mag- magnetite, anh- anhydrite.
Fig.13.6: Phosphorite deposit of Jhamarkotra, Udaipur, Rajasthan.
13.3.4 Structural Guides

Many structures like shear zones, faults, joints and folds act as channel ways
for the movement of the ore bearing solutions and provide suitable site for the
deposition of ore. Hence, they can act as guides for searching a mineral
deposit. Intersection points of a lineament is one of the favourable loci for ore
deposition. For example, the Olympic Dam IOCG type deposit in Australia,
Rampura - Agucha giant Pb-Zn deposit and Khetri Cu deposit in India are
located at the intersection of faults. Formation of vein type deposits is
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predominantly due to fractures present in ore which have noteworthy influence

on the form of the ore bodies. Generally, the shapes of the fractures and
fracture systems are reflected in the structure of many ore deposits.
“Enechelon” veins, “ladder veins”, “braided vein system,” etc. are some of the
examples for the of the structurally controlled hydrothermal vein type deposit.
Many replacement type deposits are localized by faults, fractures, or breccia
zones. Contact between two litho-units is another most favourable place for ore
deposition. Hence are important guides for regional/ local scale of
mineralisation. Similarly crusts, troughs and intervening limbs also act as the
site of ore deposition as the folds influence the flow of ore bearing fluid.
13.3.5 Geobotanical and Biogeochemical Guides
Specific plants or toxic element effects in different parts of the plants may
sometimes act as guide to the mineralisation. Such guides are classified as
geobotanical guides. Such plants are called as “indicator plants”. The
presence of indicator plants provides signals for the existence of a particular
element in the soil in which they grow. Those plants that point to the presence
of specific element are called “universal indicators”. The Ocimum
centraliafricanum or Becium homblei is one such indicator plant for copper. It
is also called as copper plant or copper flower and is the only copper (and
nickel) rich soils in Africa.
Learners, you have learnt the fundamental concept of exploration and
classification of geological guides. Before discussing about the principles and
stages of mineral exploration, spend a few minutes to perform an exercise to
check your progress.
SAQ 1
a) What is prospecting?
b) What do you mean by geological guides?
c) What do you mean by gossan?
d) Give examples of indicator plants.
13.4 PRINCIPLE OF MINERAL EXPLORATION

By now, you must have understood that the main objective of the mineral
exploration is to discover and acquire new mineral deposits at a minimum cost
and within a minimum time. This may lead to mining operation immediately after
its discovery or in future for a major new source of mineral supply. The
discovery of a mineral occurrence or a deposit is characterised by a
measurable quantity and grade. This indicates an estimated amount of
contained minerals/metals and accordingly classified as resources/ reserves.
Gandhi and Sarkar (2016) defined as “all the activities and evaluation
necessary before an intelligent decision can be made about establishing size,
initial flow sheet, and annual output of new extractive operation.” The process
of mineral discovery and its exploitation from inception of exploration through
the investment in mine facilities takes a long period of gestation is of about 10-
15 or more years. Mineral exploration, is of high risk and high-cost venture.
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You have already studied that the mineral exploration is the process to find out
economic mineral/fuel deposit hosted in the surrounding rocks at a minimum
cost and a minimum time-frame. The general principle of mineral exploration is
to collect various geological data from several places, and extrapolating
this data-set over a larger area to develop a conceptual model for the mineral
deposit. Exploration is progressed in various stages with each stage having
increased sophisticated and advanced techniques. However, it is very rare to
find out sufficiently enriched ore bodies, and so most exploration programmes
stop after the first/couple of stages. The exploration pyramid shows that with
every increasing step from the initial desk study research chances of getting
economic deposit becomes less and less likely (Fig. 13.7).
Fig. 13.7: Exploration pyramid.
There are two types of resource exploration activities generally known as

“brownfields” and “greenfields”. These terms are widely used and loosely
defined, hence are used with variable meaning in small or global companies.
These terms come from the building industry, where undeveloped land is
described as greenfield and previously developed land is described as
brownfield. Based on these terms the exploration programme is known as
brownfield exploration and greenfield exploration. Let us discuss them in
details.
13.4.1 Brownfield Exploration
Brownfield exploration is done in a geological terrain where a mineral deposit is
already known and exploration is done near or adjacent to an already
operating mine for further possible extension of the ore body. For example,
the Dharwar Craton in-houses deposits from a wide spectrum of metals like
gold and iron and so on which are produced from different localities. The mining
company would like to continue its exploration efforts with the objective to find
out several such deposits in that particular area. As already we have some idea
about broad mineralisation aspects of the area, this is known as brownfield.
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The exploration geologist uses existing geological data from the known ore
body by enhancing the reserve in strike and dip continuity of a known ore-body
or in the vicinity of an existing mine. The risk in brownfield exploration is
considerably lower than in the greenfield exploration. The Indian example of
the brownfield type is the rediscovery of world-class largest and richest zinc-
lead ore body at Rampura-Agucha during 1977. The other successful examples
of this exploration type are the discovery of the Ridgeway porphyry Cu-Au
deposit below 450 m of overlying sediment in Australia and Merlin Cu-Mo-Au
prospect in Australia in 2009.
13.4.1 Greenfield Exploration
Greenfield exploration essentially comprises of a terrain where the existence of
any ore deposit is not known. These areas are also called virgin areas as they
have never been subjected to any exploration activities before. Greenfield
exploration is carried out in the virgin geological terrain where no pre-existing
mines or prospects (in contrast with the brownfield exploration), is conducted in
the vicinity of existing mines. In other words, this type of exploration is a result
of a broad based grassroot conceptual model-based exploration programme
well away from the known ore-bodies or known mineralised belts. The world’s
largest and richest Pb-Zn deposit in the Broken Hill (Australia) was discovered
through greenfield exploration in 1883. Another example is the discovery of
knowledge-based basin model for the Kanpur-Maton-Jhamarkotra rock
phosphate deposit in the Lower Aravalli Formation in Rajasthan during 1968.
13.5 STAGES OF MINERAL EXPLORATION

In the above section you have learnt about principles of mineral exploration.
Now, let us discuss about the stages involved in the mineral exploration.
Once a prospect has been identified, and the right to explore is attained,
assessing and evaluating it involves a progressive series of definable
exploration stages. Exploration activity is undertaken in a series of steps. Each
step is followed by a sequence of different activities which involves increasing
expenditure and decreasing risk (Fig. 13.8). Each stage of exploration is
designed with a combined specific objective to generate resource data with a
well-defined degree of geological assurance. It also encompasses to achieve
within a limited time schedule and minimum cost. The terminology used to
describe these stages is highly varied. The widely accepted terms used in the
early stages of exploration are planning and reconnaissance phases. These
phases cover stages leading to the selection of an area for detailed ground
work. The success of each stage depends upon the inputs for the next
successive stage an escalation of the exploration effort. Negative results mean
that the prospect will be discarded.
An exploration programme is classified that typically includes some or all of the
following four stages:
• Reconnaissance Stage
• Prospecting Stage
• General Exploration Stage
• Detailed Exploration Stage
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Fig.13.8: Stages of an exploration project. (Source: Redrawn from Charles et.al.

2006)
1. Reconnaissance Stage
Reconnaissance is the preliminary step in any of the mineral exploration
programme for virgin area. It is a regional stage study of already identified
areas to study enhanced mineral potential or targets on a regional scale.
Various activities in the reconnaissance survey include:
• regional geological mapping on 1:50,000 or 1:25000 scale;
• remote sensing and airborne geophysical survey;
• preliminary geochemical survey by chip/grab sampling of rocks: and
• weathered profile and pitting/trenching to expose mineralised zone/s an at
ideal location.
The petrographic and ore mineralogical studies help to determine rock types
and ore mineral assemblages. The regional scale favourable features and
magnetic anomalies/ gravity anomalies etc. can be delineated with the help of
remote sensing and airborne geophysical methods.
The main objective of this reconnaissance survey is to explore the entire larger
area within stipulated time frame and to reduce it by identifying the target area
(probable mineralised area) for further exploration in the next stage. The targets
are ranked on the basis of its geological evidences worth for further
investigation towards identification of deposits. Normally, the reserve
calculation is not required at this stage.
2. Prospecting Stage
Next stage after reconnaissance survey is the prospecting stage and is
generally conducted for smaller areas (up to few tens of sq. kms.). The
prospecting is the systematic searching process carried out for a mineral
deposit by narrowing down areas of promising enhanced mineral potential
identified during reconnaissance stage. Different activities at this stage include:
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• outcrop identification;
• detailed geological mapping on 1:25,000 or 1:12,500 scale;
• ground geophysical; and
• geochemical orientation survey/studies.
The sampling of rock/soil/stream sediments/debris is carried out at closer
intervals (Fig. 13.9). The pitting and trenching, and limited drilling may also be
done at this stage to expose the ore- body. The diamond drilling on wide
spaced section lines (at 100-1000 m depending upon mineral types),
petrographic, and ore mineralogical studies and borehole geophysical logging
may also be part of this stage.
The main objective is to be more definitive exploration to identify a deposit as
the target for further definite exploration. Based on interpretation of geological,
geophysical and geochemical results, reserve calculation is done to assess the
ore deposits.
Fig.13.9: Field photograph of soil survey. (Photo credit: Nilanjan Konwar)
3. Preliminary Exploration
Preliminary exploration is the initial delineation of an identified deposit over a
comparatively very small area (less than a sq.km to a few sq.kms). At this
stage, the large-scale geological mapping on 1:5000 to 1:1000 scale is
executed. This is done by linking of prepared maps with topo-grid and
assessment of lithology, structure, mineralisation. Detailed litho-geochemical
survey, pitting, trenching and fresh bed rock and channel sampling on all
outcrop sections is done. Drilling on systematic pattern up to 50 to 120 m depth
and at an interval of 50 m – 500 m strike length (e.g., 50 m for gold, 200 m for
base- metals and 400 m – 500 m for limestone) and borehole geophysical
survey is also done. Geophysical survey may also be done, if needed. The
detailed chemical analysis of samples for important trace elements with high
precision, bulk sampling for laboratory and bench scale beneficiation tests are
some of the important aspects of this stage.
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The main objective of this stage is to establish the major geological features of
the mineral deposit like economically viable zones, their strike length, width and
depth. These are identified on the basis of surface studies and drilling data.
These studies provide a reasonable indication of continuity of an ore-body. It
also provides useful information about shape, size, structure and grade of an
ore body.
4. Detailed Exploration
Detailed exploration is conducted before the start of mining or mine

development. Boreholes are drilled at closer intervals along the strike and
depth-wise for core samples and borehole logging. Exploratory openings e.g.,
trial pit in case of surface mining and sub-surface entry with mine development
at one or more levels in case of underground mining is also done. This helps to
delineate three-dimensional outline/ contacts of the ore-body. They also
accurately determine the shape, size, disposition and grade of the ore body.
Beneficiation test is carried out and processing of databases are done. The ore
reserves are estimated and are categorised as Developed, Measured, Indicated
and Inferred with degree of accuracy.
The main objective of the detailed exploration stage is to delineate a detailed

three-dimensional ore body through closely spaced sampling from outcrops,
trenches, boreholes, shafts and tunnels. Assessment of reserves & average
grades of ores up to the measured categories is also done.
We have learnt in the stages of exploration that the exploration generally starts
with low impact activity, including desktop research and field inspections, to
determine whether signs of minerals/ fuel deposits are present. This is followed
by more intense and costly techniques like geochemical sampling, drilling and
geophysical surveys. Every deposit has its own special features which control
the choice of exploration methods.
Various important methods of exploration can be broadly categorised as:

Geological, Geophysical and Geochemical methods depending on what
properties of the rocks/ ore bodies are measured. Remote sensing and
imagery interpretation are also necessary for the reconnaissance survey. The
choice of exploration methods for any particular area depends upon the natural
factors, specific needs, cost, time and objectivity. In concealed areas, reliable
results are obtained by combining geophysical measurements with drilling, but
not by geological methods. On the other hand, in uncovered fold mountain
areas, geological prospecting methods can be used successfully. Geochemical
prospecting provides the most reliable results in folded, slightly dissected areas,
covered with eluvium and colluvium.
You will study about types of exploration methods in details in Unit 14.
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Learners, you have learnt about the principles and stages of mineral
exploration. Now, spend a few minutes to perform an exercise to check your
progress.
SAQ 2
a) What is the difference between Brownfield and Greenfield
explorations?
b) Write different stages of mineral exploration.
c) List out various activities that are carried out in reconnaissance survey.
13.6 ACTIVITY
• Make a poster, showing various activities carried out in physiographic and
structural guides.
13.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed various aspects of mineral exploration. Let us
summarise it now.
• The scientific method for locating or finding new mineral deposit is called
exploration. The major aim of the geological exploration is to discover
mineral deposits of appropriate size and grade which can be profitably mined
out from the Earth.
• The clues which lead to possible discovery of the mineral deposits are called
as geological guides. There are different types of guides like physiographic,
lithological and stratigraphic guides, mineralogical guides, structural and
geobotanical guides etc.
• Gossan is extremely oxidised weathered ferruginous rock, formed due to
oxidation and leaching of the sulphide body. It is characterised by different
boxwork textures as well as colours.
• Exploration activity is broadly undertaken in four stages, however with each
stage following a sequence of different activities.
• A reconnaissance survey is to explore the entire larger area within the
stipulated time frame and to reduce it by identifying the target area (probable
mineralised area) for further exploration in the next stage.
• Prospecting stage is more definitive exploration to identify a deposit as the
target for further definite exploration.
• Preliminary exploration stage is to establish the major geological features of
the mineral deposit such as economically viable zones, their strike length,
width and depth.
• Detailed exploration stage is to delineate a detailed three-dimensional ore
body through closely spaced sampling from outcrops, trenches, boreholes,
shafts and tunnels.
13.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by prospecting and exploration?
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2. Describe different types of geological guides used in the prospecting.

3. Discuss the principle of mineral exploration.
4. Describe in detail the stages of mineral exploration.
13.9 REFERENCES
• Blanchard, R and Boswell, P.F. (1934) Additional limonite types of galena
and sphalerite derivation: Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society
of Economic Geologists, 29(7), 671–690p.
• Charles J., Whatley Michael K.G. and Evans K.M. (2006) Introduction to
mineral exploration, Blackwell publishing, 499p.
• Gandhi, S.M and Sarkar, B.C. (2016) Essentials of Mineral Exploration and
Evaluation, 1st edition, Elsevier Cambridge, 410p.
• Harris, J.R., Williamson, M.C., Percival, J.B., Behnia, P., Macleod, R. (2015)
Detecting and Mapping Gossans Using Remotely-Sensed Data. In
Environmental and Economic Significance of Gossans; Geological Survey of
Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 7718p.
• McKinstry, H.E. (1962) Mining Geology, second ed, Asia Publishing House,
680p.
• Roonwal, G.S. (2018) Mineral Exploration: Practical Application Springer
Geology Singapore, 298p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5604-8
• https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.29.7.671 (accessed between 10th May
and 20th July 2021)
13.10 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Roonwal, G.S. (2018) Mineral Exploration: Practical Application Springer
Geology Singapore, 298p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5604-8
13.11 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Prospecting involves searching an area for mineral deposits especially by
drilling and excavation with the view to mine it at a profit. A geologist
prospecting an area is looking for surface exposure of minerals by
observing irregularities in colour, shape or rock composition. Prospecting is
very often followed immediately by exploration.
b) Many geological structures such as shear zones and lineaments are
favourable locales for the deposition of mineral deposits. These are the
initial clues which help the exploration geologists to understand where to
look for a specific mineral deposit. These clues which lead to the possible
discovery of the mineral deposits are called as guides.
c) When the extreme oxidation and leaching of the sulphide body produce
exceedingly ferruginous rock, the product is known as gossan. The gossans
are characterised by different honeycomb patterns called as box work
texture and colours.
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d) Ocimum centraliafricanum or Becium homblei is indicator plant for copper.

SAQ 2
a) Greenfield exploration is done in virgin geological terrain, where there is no
pre-existing mines or prospects, whereas the brownfield exploration is
conducted in vicinity of existing mines.
b) Different stages of mineral exploration include: reconnaissance,
prospecting, general exploration and detailed exploration stages.
c) Various activities in the reconnaissance survey include: regional geological
mapping on 1:50,000 or 1:25000 scale, remote sensing and airborne
geophysical survey, preliminary geochemical survey, weathered profile
study and pitting/trenching to expose mineralised zone at ideal locations.
Terminal Answers
1. Please refer to section 13.2.
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168
UNIT 14
EXPLORATION METHODS
Structure______________________________________________
14.1 Introduction Self-Potential Method
Expected Learning Outcomes Telluric Current Method

14.2 Exploration Methods Magnetotelluric Method
14.3 Surface Exploration Resistivity Method
Geological Exploration Induced Potential Method
Photogeology, Remote Sensing Electromagnetic Method

and Geographic Information
Seismic Method
System
Pitting, Trenching, Drilling and
Geochemical Exploration
Borehole Logging
Geobotanical Exploration
14.5 Activity
Biogeochemical Survey
14.6 Summary
14.4 Subsurface Exploration
14.7 Terminal Questions
Methods
14.8 References
Gravity Method
14.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Magnetic Method
14.10 Answers
Electrical Method
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have studied about basic principles and stages of mineral exploration.
Mineral exploration has its own characteristic and is dominated by “High Risk-High Reward”
proposition as the occurrence of mineral deposit is not uniform worldwide. In this unit, you will learn
about different mineral exploration methods that involve various activities to identify/ quantify and
extract economically hidden deposits to the surface. The physicochemical properties of the minerals
like specific gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, radioactivity, propagation of
seismic waves and mode of occurrence of minerals enables in locating ore deposits of economic
interest.
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Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After reading this unit you should be able to:
❖ outline different exploration methods for mineral exploration;
❖ learn principles and practices of exploration methods;
❖ discuss their importance in various stages of mineral exploration; and
❖ explain limitations of each exploration method.
14.2 EXPLORATION METHODS

In the previous Unit 13, you have been introduced to prospecting and
exploration. Now, let us discuss about exploration methods. Different types of
exploration methods are essential to find out and estimate volume of a
commercially viable mineral concentration as it involves high capital-intensive
operations. The exploration methods are divided into two main groups, namely:
A) Surface exploration; and
B) Subsurface exploration.
Involvement of different surface and subsurface exploration methods during
various stages of mineral exploration projects is shown in Figure 14.1. Surface
exploration methods includes: geological, geochemical, geobotanical,
photogeology & remote sensing. Subsurface exploration methods include:
gravity, magnetic, electrical, self-potential, telluric current, magnetotelluric,
resistivity, induced potential, electromagnetic, seismic. We will discuss the
surface and subsurface exploration methods in details in the following sections.
Fig. 14.1: Types of mineral exploration methods.
14.3 Surface Exploration

The surface exploration method includes preparation of geological maps based
on data collected through field survey (including elevation data). Incorporation
of aerial photos, satellite imagery, geochemical and vegetation data into these
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maps provide useful details regarding rock outcrops and their boundaries,
vegetation, geomorphology, lithology and lithological variations of the area
under investigation. Various surface exploration methods viz. geological,
geochemical, geobotanical, photogeology and remote sensing are carried out
during preliminary & detailed survey.
Let us discuss them in the following sections.
14.3.1 Geological Exploration
The occurrence of ore bodies are mainly controlled by geologic setting with
specific structural and tectonic setting and their spatial distribution over a wide
area.
Selection of most prospective area for exploration requires a sound geological
knowledge which includes structure of the area, age of the rocks, rock types
and basin modelling etc. Good acquaintance is required to make perfect
predictions and draw parallels between an established ore deposit and the
unknown potential mineralisation sought after exploration. The broad activities
involved in geological exploration are:
• to prepare a field database from different sources; and
• plot in geological base map.
The detailed activities include:

i) Review of existing data and field work: The exploration begins with the
regional appraisal of large area through available geological information,
review of literature, earlier published maps, survey and reports from different
sources. After preliminary findings from the review, the exploration team
visits the field to gather information related to geological, mineralisation, host
rock and hunting for the surface guides to incorporate and prepare the
geological base map for next phase of exploration.
ii) Geological / Surface Guides: During geological traverse, the exploration
team explores the existence of various types of surface signatures of mineral
deposits called geological or surface guides. You have read about
geological / surface guides in the previous Unit 13.
iii) Study of Topographic Maps: A topographical map (toposheets or

topomaps) commonly shows quantitative and precise representation of
physical and cultural features of the Earth’s surface. They represent a
symbolic picture of the natural and man-made features of small areas which
are drawn at relatively large scale (Fig.14.2). As a result, these maps serve
as indispensable tool for city and regional planners, natural resources
managers, and for engineering, environmental and geological studies. Earlier
a topographic survey is conducted with tape and compass. Now a days, it is
being done using electronic total stations to capture 3D observation data on
the field to prepare digital terrain model that is transformed into a high quality
geological map.
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Fig. 14.2: Topographic maps (a) 1:250000; (b) 1: 50000 and (c) 1: 25000 scales.
(Source: www.surveyofindia.gov.in)
The activities carried out during geological exploration can be subdivided into
three main categories namely regional scale, belt scale and deposit scale.
• Regional Scale: Surface features, like broad geological contacts,
existence of shear zones and weathering features are regionally plotted in
the base map. Study of aerial photographs, satellite images, airborne
geophysical data acquisition, wide spaced soil sample, grab and chip
sampling of surface exposures for broad geochemical surveys and
weathering profiles are collected and recorded.
• Mineral Belt Scale: Geological base map survey is scaled up to 1:25000
or 1:10000 scales using theodolite and GPS survey instruments. Detailed
study of geological structural setting such as stratigraphy and
identification of host rock, surface shows of mineralisation, existence of
ancient mining and smelting signatures are recorded and plotted in the
base map. Additionally, ground geophysics, geochemistry, pitting,
trenching data are acquired for data integration.
• Mineral Deposit Scale: After integrated study of the area, maximum
information of the mineral deposit is acquired by triangulation station
survey. Thereafter, base map in larger scale of 1:5000 or 1:1000 is
prepared. Additionally, closely spaced surface drilling, trenches, pits and
boreholes is carried out along and across the mineral body to delineate
and extension of the mineral deposit (Fig. 14.3).
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Fig. 14.3: Surface map of the Zawar deposits showing Balaria, Mochia Magra,
Baroi, and Zawarmala mining blocks, India. (Source: Haldar, 2018).
iv) River and glacial floating: River float tracing consists of finding and tracing
the ore bearing rock fragments by estimating travel distance of the float on
the basis of degree of wearing along the traverse line of the river. If the float
is absent in the alluvium, and then the search will continue towards up slope
direction. Shallow pits / trenches are dug at the spot where the last float was
traced (Fig. 14.4).
Similarly, in glacial float tracing, a systematic search of ore bearing boulders
along the direction of glacier movement are traced. This is done by observing
the orientation of terminal moraines, eskers and drumlins.
Fig. 14.4: River Float Tracing.
Panning of alluvial and colluvial material is conducted at a regular interval along

the rivers, streams and sides of the valleys. [Panning is a method of separating
particles of greater specific gravity from soil or gravels by washing in a pan with
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water]. This is done for tracing of metal pieces and fragments of ore minerals,
which have been migrated from the outcrops in the up slope area of the river.
Systematic panning helps to trace the primary mineral deposit based of the
concentration of ore fragments in each panning spot (Figs.14.5a and 14.5b).
Fig. 14.5: a) Photograph of panning of samples; and b) Map showing panning of

heavy mineral concentration. [Source: for (a) www.gsi.gov.in]
14.3.2 Photogeology, Remote sensing and Geographic

Information System
Geologists has always been fascinated by the bird’s eye view of Earth’s surface
to understand its geomorphology, structures, lithology and vegetation which are
considered as useful guides for mineral exploration. However, the physical
approaches for exploration have been replaced by photogeology and remote
sensing techniques. These techniques are helpful in exploration of minerals in
remote, hazardous terrain at less time and cost.
i) Photogeology
Photogeology is the elementary technique to derive geological information from
the interpretation of aerial photographs during reconnaissance survey for
mineral exploration. The aerial photos are most commonly panchromatic black
and white (B&W), B&W (Infrared), colour and colour (Infrared) photographs.
Infrared photos are extensively used to differentiate vegetation in dense
forested areas for mineral exploration. Aerial photographs are acquired from a
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camera above the ground with specific technique and can be interpreted in the
laboratory using certain optical instrument.
Aerial photographs are generally classified into two types: (a) vertical and (b)
oblique; Vertical photographs are taken by a camera pointing vertically
downward in most of the cases. Whereas oblique photographs are taken at an
angle to obtain permanent record of cliffs and similar features which are difficult
to access.
During acquisition of aerial photographs, a camera mounted airplane takes a
series of photographs in its flying directions on regular parallel lines over the
interested area (Fig. 14.6).
Fig. 14.6: Typical aerial photography survey to obtain full stereo coverage.
(Source: Redrawn from Roger, 2010)
Broadly two types of optical equipments are used for aerial photo interpretation,
namely:
• Pocket field stereoscope for quick view of the field survey data (Fig.
14.7a), and
• Mirror stereoscope (Fig. 14.7b).
These instruments have binocular eyepieces to get enlarged image view.
These interpreted photo data are transferred into a scale corrected geological
base map for generation of a photogeological map. Now a days, multi-image
interpretation using satellite images with air photos have been carried out in
mineral exploration. Additional equipment, such as image analyser and colour
additive viewers are utilized in the exploration program to analyse multispectral
photos.
Fig. 14.7: a) Pocket Stereoscope; and b) Mirror Stereoscope.

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ii) Remote Sensing

As discussed in the above section, photogeology is the elementary technique to
derive geological information from the interpretation of aerial photographs.
Photogeology is the use of aerial photographs in geological studies and is one
of the most important techniques used in remote sensing. Remote sensing
implies data acquisition by electromagnetic radiation from sensors flying on
aerial or space platforms and interpretation of physical attributes of the ground
objects (Campbell, 2007). Based on the increasing wavelength and decreasing
frequency, electromagnetic radiation can be divided into cosmic, gamma, X-ray,
ultraviolet, visible, IR, terahertz and, microwave radiations, and radio waves, as
shown in Fig. 14.8.
Fig. 14.8: Electromagnetic spectrum. (Source: modified after Sabins, 1997)
In remote sensing technique, the sensors capture the electromagnetic

radiations that are reflected or emitted by an object. They are in contact with
rays of different ranges of wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum,
depending on their physicochemical properties. The spectral response of an
object or a pattern is stored which can be analysed for the identification of the
object.
Two types of sensors, namely passive and active sensors have been used for
procuring remote sensing data. They are:
• Passive Sensors: They use reflected or transmitted portion of
electromagnetic spectrum of solar radiation and thermal radiation from the
target area. Some of these sensors are Multispectral Scanner (MSS),
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission
and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) etc.
• Active Sensors: They emit energy and measure the intensity of energy that
gets reflected from the object or area under investigation. A few examples of
active sensors are Radar (microwave) and Lasers (Fig. 14.9).
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Fig.14.9: Schematic diagram showing active and passive sensor position with
respect to Sun and Earth for data collection.
The digital data is processed and converted into an image with the help of
software, giving rise to imagery for interpretation and decision making. After
acquiring raw satellite images, the processes viz. image restoration, image
enhancement and data extraction are carried out before their interpretation and
integration with other geological data. After digital processing of satellite
images, extraction of geological information is carried out by two approaches,
namely spectral approach and photogeological approach.
1) In spectral approach, unique spectral reflectance characteristics of every
identical unit in the image data are used to separate them from each other.
2) In the photogeological approach, different photogeological elements like
topography, erosion, tone, texture, drainage pattern, vegetation, and land
use are captured to infer the presence of topographical expression,
geological structure or lithology.
iii) Geographic Information System (GIS)
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system that can handle a wide range
of spatial and georeferenced data. It can collect, store, organise, integrate and
analyse geological, geobotanical, geophysical, geochemical, remote sensing
and cultural data of same area. GIS system can model the acquired data to
produce a composite map required for geological interpretation (Fig.14.10).
Data received from various sources are directly entered into GIS system using
DBMS, RDBMS and SQL software. They can be stored and can provide ways
to modify, revise, refine, update the database. It can also export the data to
other systems in a common (ASCII) format as per requirement.
• GIS for Mineral Exploration
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a robust technique for identification of
the target of mineralized zones based on the modelling using overlay analysis.
This kind of analysis analyzes and interpolate multiple data received from
various sources pertaining to same area or similar object either in vector or
raster mode. They are stored in GIS system as individual data file or a layer. A
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new information on the object or area can be created by overlying of related

individual layers one above another with common georeferences that generates
a specific model as per project requirement.
Fig. 14.10: GIS application in mineral exploration.
Figure 14.11 is an example of overlay analysis of Rajpura-Dariba mineral

deposit of India. It contains different layers like hydrology, elevation, surface
signature, geology and geochemistry collected from different sources that have
been georeferenced in each cell in the surface grid of individual layers.
Fig. 14.11: Overlay analysis with multilayer data of Rajpura- Dariba base metal
belt for identification of drill targets by GIS application. (Source:
Redrawn from Haldar, 2018)
GIS manipulates and overlays the information derived from different data files
simultaneously and interrelate all geocoded source data files during
interpretation. This generates a thematic map for identification of the target area
for exploration of sulphide deposits in Rajpura-Dariba mineral belt.
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14.3.3 Geochemical Exploration

Geochemical exploration is employed in the search of economic mineral
deposits. It primarily deals with the unusual concentration or depletion of certain
chemical elements in soil, rocks, streams, lake sediments, water, air and
vegetation in the vicinity of mineral deposits other than barren regions.
The geochemical environments of the Earth can be categorised mainly into two
groups, viz. primary and secondary.
• The primary environment comprises of deep seated igneous and
metamorphic processes.
• The secondary environment involved surface processes, which includes

weathering, transportation, and sedimentation.
Geochemical cycle is partly a closed cycle of the movement of constituents of
the Earth from one environment to another (Fig. 14.12).
Fig. 14.12: Typical geochemical cycle. (Source: Redrawn from Gandhi and Sarkar,
2016)
• Geochemical Prospecting
Prospecting is the first stage of any geological analysis followed

by exploration. Geochemical prospecting is done by systematic
measurements of one or more chemical components of naturally occurring
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material in the Earth's crust, usually in traces. We will discuss geochemical

prospecting under the following headings: elemental dispersion, background
and threshold value and pathfinder elements.
a) Elemental dispersion: Elemental dispersion pattern can be due to

distribution of elements disseminated in rocks, which occurred during ore
forming process. This may also occur by migration and redistribution of
elements in solution during oxidation, weathering and erosion of mineral
deposit.
Elemental dispersion can give rise to two types of haloes: primary and
secondary. Halo is a region surrounding an ore deposit in which the ore
concentration is intermediate between that of the ore and that of the country
rock.
• Primary dispersion halo is an expression of alteration and zoning

conditions surrounding metalliferous deposit, which is synchronous to
mineralisation. The halos are either enriched or depleted in several
elements because of introduction or redistribution related to ore forming
phenomena (Fig.14.13a).
• Secondary dispersion halo is the dispersed remnants of mineralisation

caused by surface processes of chemical and physical weathering and
redistribution of primary patterns. Minerals are often unstable in
secondary environment.
b) Background and Threshold value: Background values are characterised

by the normal range of concentration of elements in regional perspective
rather than localised mineral occurrences. It is significant to establish the
background value of the area against the anomalies due to economic
mineral accumulations, if any, can be identified.
Threshold value is defined as the probable upper or lower limit of the

background value (Fig. 14.13b) at some statistically precise confidence level.
Any sample that exceeds this threshold is considered as possibly anomalous
and belongs to a separate population. The negative anomalous threshold
defines the lower limit of background fluctuation.
c) Pathfinder elements: Pathfinder or indicator elements/minerals are

characteristic parameters in geochemical prospecting to detect hidden ore
bodies. The pathfinder elements generally form large haloes and are
relatively mobile due to physicochemical conditions of the solutions or may
be in a gaseous state in which they are found. They can be detected easily
by simpler and inexpensive analytical methods. The types of deposit and
their pathfinder elements as per Rose et al. (1979) are given in the table
below.
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Fig.14.13: Diagram shows: a) concealed copper deposit with primary dispersion

halos; b) geochemical profile of soil samples viewing background,
threshold values, and anomalous zone; and c) histogram of Cu values.
(Source: Haldar, 2018)
Table 14.1: Pathfinder elements and type of deposits.
Pathfinder Elements Types of Deposits
Au-Ag vein type; Au-Ag-Cu-Co-Zn complex

As
sulphides
W-Be-Zn-Mo-Cu-Pb skarns; Sn-W-Bo veins or

B
gneisses
Hg Pb-Zn-Ag complex sulphide deposits
Mo W-Sn contact metamorphic deposits
Mn Ba-Ag vein deposit, porphyry copper
Se, V, Mo U, sedimentary type
Mo, Te, Au Porphyry copper
Pd-Cr-Cu-Ni-Co Pt in ultramafic rocks
Rn U, all types
Zn-Cu Ag-Pb-Zn; Cu-Pb-Zn sulphide deposits
SO4 Sulphide deposits of all types
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Geochemical Exploration Methods are broadly divided into two subgroups,

viz. conventional and non-conventional.
A) Conventional Methods
Systematic measurement of one or more key or path finder elements in
different sample media (like soil, rock, stream sediments, glacial debris, water,
plants etc.) is conducted under conventional technique.
Different conventional geochemical exploration techniques i.e.,
pedogeochemical, stream sediment, lithogeochemical glacial drift,
hydrogeochemical surveys are described below:
i. Pedogeochemical (soil) survey: You have read about soil in unit 5 of

BGYCT-131 course. The soil is the unconsolidated weathering product that
lies over or close to the parent material from which it was is derived is called
residual soil or may be transported over a long distance forming alluvial soil.
Soil sampling is carried out at regular intervals following straight traverse
lines, along topographic, cultural features, or ridge tops/roads (Fig. 14.14a).
Samples are taken from the “B” horizon of soil profile is enriched with trace
elements. Samples are collected from small pits, generally 70-80 cm from
the surface, laid in a grid pattern (Fig. 14.14b).
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Fig.14.14: a) Field photograph of soil survey, and b) Data interpretation of soil

and pit geochemical samples by contouring copper values to identify
target for drill testing. [Source: for b) Redrawn from Halder, 2018]
ii. Stream sediment surveys: Stream sediment sampling is the most widely
used tool in reconnaissance geochemical survey. The survey is based on
the chemical analysis of samples of stream sediments from drainage course
that led to discover mineral bodies at a greater distance. The stream
sediments comprise of clays, detrital fine grained rocks, organic matter,
inorganic colloidal and clast with iron and manganese coatings. All these
components of the sediments exhibit different mobility (ability to move
freely). The detrital grains enriched in ore(s) and indicator elements are
deposited downstream. However, following the path of increasing the
elemental concentration(s) upstream lead to locate the mineralisation target.
This is the simple technique that allows rapid evaluation of areas at
relatively low cost (Fig. 14.15).
iii. Lithogeochemical survey: This survey is conducted to collect samples
from unweathered host rock to identify primary dispersion and trace
elements, association which are different from country rock. Samples are
collected from fresh outcrops, wall rocks and drill holes.
iv. Glacial drift survey: The drift survey is conducted to collect samples of
debris deposited by moving ice in a glaciated terrain. The drift sequence is
examined for the presence of heavy minerals, mineralised clasts, relative
abundance of major, minor and trace elements. This is helpful in tracing
back to the original place of the source by estimating the distance travelled
from the sampling point.
v. Hydrogeochemical survey: Sampling of ground water, surface water and
hot spring water are conducted in this method. Ground water provides
information about occurrence of Cu, Zn, Pb, S, Mo, Sn, Ni and Co caused
by chemical weathering, oxidation and leaching of overburden. Hot spring
water are characterised by probable locations of B, Li and Hg
mineralisation. Changes of elemental values of acquired water sample
depend on time and season.
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Fig. 14.15: Distribution of samples from the Sonapet Valley area, Jharkhand,
showing gold contents. (Source: Redrawn from Talapatra, 2006)
B) Non-conventional Methods
Non-conventional geochemical exploration techniques are used in areas where
the conventional exploration techniques are not applicable especially for deeply
buried deposits covered by transported soil, desert sands, talus or debris etc.
Some of the non-conventional geochemical exploration techniques are:
1) Vapour or gas survey,
2) Electrogeochemical,
3) Radiogenic isotope geochemistry,
4) Polymetallic poly nodule survey,
5) Hydrocarbon geochemical survey, etc.
Following are the major components of the geochemical survey:
• Sampling and preparation of samples: The field procedure covers the

collection of various types of samples (solid, liquid and gas) for geochemical
analysis with accurate location data. Different geological materials like rocks,
ores and minerals differs in their constitution, weathering features, size etc.
Therefore, their sample preparation method employed must have the
flexibility to get good results. The samples are collected from stream
sediments, soils, rocks, groundwater, and volatile matter (gas). During field
survey, unconsolidated soil sample of fine size (-80 mesh), weighing
between 250 and 1000 gm., is collected by hand, or with a plastic or
aluminium scoop. Rock chips are collected by chisel and hammer at
specified grid intervals. The unconsolidated soil samples are kept in plastic
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bags. The rock chips are kept in cloth bags with code numbers indicating
project name, location, and sample type with description. Geological
observations and sketches are recorded in a field notebook. The sample is
further reduced to 50g by drying, screening, grinding, coning, and quartering
at the camp site. Each sample of quantity of 1-5 gm. is sent to laboratory for
chemical analysis and remaining sample is preserved for future reference.
Water is collected in a specialised clean, hard, polyethylene sampling bottle.
The quantity of surface water and groundwater sample varies between 100
and 1000ml depending upon the number of elements and type of analysis
(as per requirement).
• Geochemical data interpretation: Geochemical samples yield a huge

volume of analytical data in ppm level, seldomly at percentage level. The
location coordinates and analytical data of each sample with other geological
parameters are stored and conducted for different statistical analysis as per
requirement. The population of data undergoes statistical evaluation and
varying types of graphical plots are prepared for the assessment of
threshold. In exploration geochemistry, other statistical analysis tool like
principal component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis (FA) are also
adopted to separate the element associations inherent to number of groups
from the acquired survey database. PCA is variance oriented, while FA is
correlation oriented. For geochemical data, PCA works in situations in which
the range of variation of the elements is characteristics of the geochemical
environment (Fig. 14.16), whereas FA is favourable in situations in which
element associations characterise the geochemical environment.
• Anomaly enhancement technique: It is one of the major techniques used

for deep seated mineral deposits, particularly showing weak anomalies.
Physical, chemical and statistical methods are employed for anomaly
enhancement. The physical method includes enrichment of metallic,
magnetic, and heavy minerals by panning, magnetic, and heavy media
separation. The chemical method employs dilute acid leaches of iron and
manganese oxides in the host environment.
• Generation of Geochemical maps: Geochemical maps are generated from

both regional and local surveys which can be subdivided into two broad
categories viz.:
i. the point symbol maps showing the concentration of elements at the

sample locations; and
ii. the maps emphasise the regional elemental distribution pattern at local or
regional scale.
The regional maps generally show distribution of individual elements by point

symbol map, smoothed grey level map using filters or principal component map
with colour combination.
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Other kinds of maps are:

i. Filtered anomaly map that emphasises departures of data value from the
general background trend;
ii. Trend surface maps which show regional compositional variations for
individual elements with contour lines based on the value of sampled data
points; and
iii. Multicomponent maps that show simultaneous variation of number of
elements of interest.
Fig. 14.16: Principal component analysis (PC1 vs PC2) of Scotty Creek sandstone
samples from Kim ore body drill fan dataset. (Source: Redrawn from
Fisher et.al. 2014)
14.3.4 Geobotanical Exploration

The use of plants in mineral prospecting is very useful tool which aid as a guide
to the nature. The changes found in the vegetation in mineralised area indicate
that distinct plant species, either there appear or vanish. These plant species
are called indicator plants. The morphological changes in the plants are
possibly due to excesses or paucity of certain elements in the soil.
Geobotanical mapping is employed after ground and aero-visualisation on the
characteristics of vegetation. This is done to demarcate the mineralised zone
from the non-mineralised zone (Fig.14.17). Though, this method is not directly
helpful to locate ore bodies, but successful results come out by integration with
other exploration methods. Various nickel, copper, iron, manganese, uranium,
lead and zinc deposits in India have been located by geobotanical prospecting
method. Common indicator plants available in India are listed in Table 14.2:
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Table 14.2: Common indicator plants (Source: Sen and Guha, 1993).
Indicator (Index) Plant Mineral deposit
Combretum decandrum (Atandi), Terminalia tomentosa

Nickel
(Asan)
Polycarpes spirostylis, Vermonia cinerea, Eugenia
jambolana (Jainun), Rhus occidentalis (Sims),
Calicarpa arborea (Makihi), Diospyros tomantosa Copper
(Kendu), Pulicaria wightiana, Bacium homblei(Basil),
Lychnis alpine (Campion)
Acacia patens, Burtonia polyzyga, Calythrix longiflora,
Iron
Goodenia scaevolina
Amorpha canencens, Amorpha canenscens Lead
Viola cala mineria, Calicarpa arbarea (Mekshi),
Zinc
Impatience balsania (gulmehsli), Viola calaminaria
Pinus cembroides (Pinyon), Borreria articularis,
Uranium
Juniperus monosperma (Juniper)
Oryzopsis bymenoides, Astragalus preussi(Milkvetch) Selenium
Hepatis sauveolens (Bantulsi) Tungsten
Fig. 14.17: Geobotanical survey in a Zinc deposit accumulation.
14.3.5 Biogeochemical Survey

This technique is adopted under vegetation survey by sampling of leaf, bark
and root of the trees in areas with thick laterite overburden or where the
overburden is too deep. The samples are dried and burnt to ashes. Ashes are
sent to laboratory for analysis of different trace elements. Different plant
samples are taken in one particular season and the age of the plant is also
taken into account during sampling of its parts.
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Learners, you have learnt about the surface exploration methods. Before
discussing about the subsurface exploration methods, spend a few minutes to
perform an exercise to check your progress.
SAQ 1
a) List the broad activities of geological exploration.
b) What do you mean by passive and active sensors?
c) What are the pathfinder elements?
14.4 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

In the above section you have read about surface exploration methods. Now,
let us discuss about subsurface exploration methods. After preliminary or
reconnaissance survey by applying surface exploration techniques, the study
area is narrowed down and the target area is focused for subsurface
exploration. There are two methods such as direct and indirect.
i. The direct methods involve collection of samples from subsurface rock
strata by digging drill holes, trenches, pits, exploratory tunnels and the rock
samples are examined and tested in the laboratory.
ii. The indirect methods are extensively used in the subsurface exploration by
applying different geophysical techniques to locate mineral ore bodies.
Let us discuss them briefly in the following sections.
1. Gravity Method
Gravimetric method implies the techniques of measuring the gravitational fields
at different points on the surface using gravimeters, expressed in milligals. They
can detect minute changes in gravity caused by crustal density differences. The
anomalous gravity readings are calculated by deducting the regional gravity
field from the measured fields on the basis of anomalous densities of the
subsurface materials. Shallow high density materials like barite, chromite,
hematite shows positive gravity anomalies while shallow low density bodies like
halite, weathered kimberlite etc. yield gravity lows (Fig. 14.18).
Different types of gravity surveys like airborne, gradiometry are conducted as

per requirement. Airborne gravity survey is more appropriate to map deep
seated rock masses, whereas, gravity gradiometry survey is used to map the
subsurface closer to the ground surface.
2. Magnetic Method
Magnetic method employs the natural magnetic field of the Earth. Magnetic
surveys not only detect changes in magnetic concentration of near surface
mineral bodies, but also help to estimate the size, shape, strike and depth of
the ore bodies. The magnetic elements composing the Earth’s magnetic field
are declination angle (d), dip angle of the resultant field (v) due to horizontal (H)
and vertical components (Z) of the magnetic field (Fig.14.19)
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Fig. 14.18: Sketch showing an excess mass in the crust that locally enhance the
gravity field producing gravity high (positive anomaly).
Fig. 14.19: Schematic diagram of geomagnetic elements showing the declination

(d) and inclination (i) of the total field vector F.
The magnetic survey uses high precision magnetometer that measures the dip
and the declination, which is operable in air (airborne), sea (marine) and land
(ground). Different types of magnetometers like, fluxgate, proton-precision,
overhauser are used in exploration survey. Airborne is cost effective and is
applicable to cover large area. Marine magnetic survey is used for investigation
of ocean floor polymetallic nodules and the ground magnetic survey is suitable
for small area coverage.
For example, the zinc-lead mineralisation across Rampura-Agucha supergiant
deposit is shown in Fig. 14.20, wherein the conductors that fall in the vicinity of
structurally favourable locales endorsed by gravity and magnetic anomalies.
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Fig. 14.20: Gravity and magnetic profiles over Rampura-Agucha mineral belt,
India. (Source: Gandhi and Sarkar, 2016)
3. Electrical Method
All electrical methods are dependent primarily on the properties of resistivity
and conductivity of subsurface rock masses to propagate electric current. Wide
variety of method includes either due to naturally occurring electrical field within
the earth or by inducing artificially generated current through the ground.
Different techniques of electrical methods are available that employ different
instruments and procedures as shown in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3: Different techniques of Electrical Methods.
Electrical Methods and their uses

Employing natural electrical
Employing artificial electrical source
source
Self Induced
Telluric Magnetotelluric Resistivity Electromagnetic
Potential Potential
Method Method Method Method
method Method
Sulphide
veins, Mining, geothermal, Large sulphide
Groundwater, Sulphide ore,
Graphite, petroleum, ground water disseminations,
Sulphide ore graphite deposits
ground exploration graphite
water
4. Self-Potential Method (SP)

Self-potential method is also known as spontaneous potential method. It
involves measurement of natural electrical potential due to electrochemical
reactions between the solutions and the surrounding subsurface rocks. These
reactions take place in a different order throughout the body of rock masses.
Thereby creating a potential difference which source flow of current from one
end to the other end. This method is useful in locating elongated magnetite and
sulphide ore deposits. The sulphide ores are very good conductors of electricity
(Fig. 14.21).
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Fig. 14.21: Self-potential method showing anomalous zone.
5. Telluric Current Method

Telluric current is an alternating electrical current with available frequency of
1Hz or less, flowing horizontally in the upper part of the Earth’s crust. It is
generated due to induction effect owing to the electric current in the ionosphere
formed mainly by solar magnetic storms.
The basic idea of telluric current survey is to measure difference in potential at
a base station where thickness and resistivity of the sedimentary basin are
known.
Fig. 14.22: (A) Telluric Current flow lines in a lava of low resistivity resting on a
zone of high density; and (B) the potential difference produced by
these currents L= Electrode spacing, Zs = thickness at satellite station,
Z0= thickness at base station.
Figs.14.22a and 14.22b illustrates that the change in the thickness (ΔZ) is
approximately proportional to the change of current density (Δµ) between the
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base station and the satellite station. The telluric current survey is done in the
initial stage of oil exploration in areas where there is less information known
about thickness of the sedimentary rock strata.
6. Magnetotelluric Method
According to the principle of electromagnetic induction, an alternating electric
current has an associated alternating magnetic field. Measurement of the
intensity of components of this field in the same direction as the component of
voltage provides another means of determining the thickness and apparent
resistivity of a layered sequence of rocks. Magnetotelluric surveying combines
these measurements. The depth of investigation is from 300 m below the
ground down to the 10,000 m or much deeper by detecting higher frequencies
with long period soundings. This method is useful to know basement structures
for oil & gas prospecting (Fig.14.23).
Fig. 14.23: Typical layout for a standard magnetotelluric recording station,

indicating relative electrode line and induction magnetometer
positions. (Source: Redrawn from https://openei.org/wiki/Magnetotellurics)
7. Resistivity Method
Resistivity surveys are conducted by putting electric current directly into the
ground and measure the resistance of the rocks through which the current
passes by means of arrays of receiver electrodes. For example, metallic
sulphides can conduct electric current by movement of charged ions and these
ions can be easily detected by an anomalous low resistance zone (Fig.14.24).
The conventional practice in this survey is to use source and sink electrodes
connected to an electric power source to compel current to flow into the ground.
An ammeter is placed in this circuit to measure the input current. Two other
electrodes connected to a voltmeter are placed in other positions to measure
the difference in potentials. This depends on the resistivity in the zone bounded
by the two equipotential surfaces that reach to the land surface at potential
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electrodes. Usually, four electrodes, i.e., current electrodes (A & B) and

potential electrodes (M & N) are placed in a line (Fig.14.25).
Fig. 14.24: Electrical properties of naturally occurring minerals. (Source: Redrawn

from http://zonge.com/rock-properties-lab/ore-minerals-physical-properties/)
Fig. 14.25: Array of electrodes & equipotential surfaces.
8. Induced Potential Method

Induced potential (IP) or polarisation method is an imaging technique used to
identify electrical chargeability of subsurface ore bodies. Like resistivity survey,
IP method is also applied on the ground using four electrodes which measures
capacitive properties of the subsurface materials in addition to resistivity. It
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provides additional information about the spatial variation in the lithology and
grain surface chemistry measurement. Two different modes of survey being
conducted, i.e., time domain and frequency domain IP. In the former, the
measurement of decaying voltage over a certain time period is measured after
injection of current into the ground. In the later mode, apparent resistivity of
subsurface bodies is measured when a variable low frequency alternating
current is injected into the ground (Fig.14.26).
Fig. 14.26: Schematic sketch map how Induced Polarisation works. (Source:
adapted from Bleil, D.F., 1953)
9. Electromagnetic Method
This method directly measures the magnetic field associated with the low
frequency alternating current flow, generated in a loop of wire called transmitter
suspended either on or above the ground surface.
Fig. 14.27: Electromagnetic method. (Source: Grant and West, 1965)
The primary alternating magnetic field, created by the current flow from
transmitter coil can be detected with minor deflection in amplitude by means of
a receiver coil in a homogeneous subsurface material. However, if there is a
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conductor material below the ground, the primary magnetic field will induce a
set of alternating current called eddy current to flow within it. It will generate its
own secondary electromagnetic field which distorts the primary field. The
receiver will detect the response from both arrivals of primary and secondary
fields. It differs in amplitude, phase and direction that reveal the presence and
geometry of subsurface conductive materials associated with the sulphide ore
bodies (Figs.14.27 and 14.28).
Fig. 14.28: Aeromagnetic survey configuration.
10. Seismic Method

Seismic method is based on the difference in the propagation velocity of
artificially induced elastic or seismic waves through various strata in the
subsurface. The source generates shock waves by means of explosives,
mechanical vibrators or compressed air gun, which travel down into subsurface.
Primary (P) and Secondary (S) seismic waves move uniformly from the source
to the subsurface and reflect and refract simultaneously on the boundary of a
second medium with different elastic properties. Accordingly, the travel time of
reflected or refracted wave is recorded on sensitive instrument called geophone
placed on the surface. In the refraction technique, the waves travel along a
boundary between rocks of different elastic properties. While the reflection
technique uses the waves reflected from such boundaries (Fig.14.29). Seismic
methods are comparatively less used in mineral exploration due to high cost.
More especially because most ore bodies associated with igneous or
metamorphic rocks lack coherent layering like sedimentary rocks. In general,
the reflected seismic data is used for exploration of coal, oil & gas. Refracted
data is used in mineral investigation to map low velocity alluvial deposits that
may contain gold, tin, sand or gravel.
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Fig.14.29: Method of seismic reflection and refraction profiling by time versus

distance curve. (Source: Redrawn from Halder, 2018)
11. Pitting, Trenching, Drilling and Borehole Logging

Quantitative information at various points of the confirmed mineralisation as
indicated by indirect methods can be obtained by pitting, trenching, boring and
drilling.
Pitting is employed to test shallow flat lying extensive ore bodies. Samples are
taken from single wall, opposite wall or all the four walls of the pit based on the
type and nature of the mineralisation and obtain a representative sample for
examination (Fig. 14.30).
Trenching: Trenches are conducted by excavation across the strike of host
rocks to look into the exposure of steep dipping mineralisation buried below the
overburden. In some cases, cross trenching is required to expose mineralised
zones. Trenches usually have a dimension of 10 m width and 3 to 5 m depth.
Channel samples are taken along the floor of trenches (Fig. 14.30).
Fig. 14.30: Pitting and trenching for gold prospects. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)
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If the depth of ore bodies is too large for pitting and trenching, then it is tested
by boring and drilling. Making a hole in the soil is referred to as boring where
as in the solid rock is referred to drilling, which can be done with the help of
light weight portable drilling machine. Drilling is the most effective means of
exploration of mineral deposit of all types and also for other geological activities
like rock types, stratigraphy, structure, wall rock alteration, geochemical zoning,
ore guides and control.
Several types of drilling techniques are available. Percussion drilling, Rotary
drilling, Diamond drilling (Fig. 14.31) and Auger drilling are the commonly used
drilling methods in mineral exploration. The choice of drilling method normally
depends upon the depth of the drill hole, location of drill site, geometry of ore
target, and the kind of sample needed.
Logging also known as well logging/ borehole logging is a technique for
systematic recording of rock properties including its fluid contents down the drill
hole. Some of the rock properties which can be logged are electrical resistivity,
self-potential, gamma ray emission, density, magnetic susceptibility, and
acoustic velocity.
Fig. 14.31: Schematic diagram of surface diamond drilling unit. (Source: Redrawn
from Haldar, 2018)
Learners, you have learnt about the subsurface exploration methods. Now,
spend a few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.
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SAQ 2
a) What do you mean by direct and indirect subsurface methods?
b) What is self-potential method?
c) How resistivity survey methods are conducted?
14.5 ACTIVITY
• Prepare a list of surface and subsurface exploration methods you have
studied in this unit.
14.6 SUMMARY
Let us sum up what we have learnt in this unit.
• Principles of exploration methods are based on physicochemical properties
like specific gravity, electrical and magnetic properties, velocity of seismic
waves, radioactivity of minerals
• Two broad types of exploration methods are used to locate economically
viable mineral deposits, namely surface and subsurface explorations.
• Surface exploration methods include geological, geochemical, geobotanical,
photogeology and remote sensing to prepare detailed geological maps of the
surveyed area.
• Geochemical and geobotanical surveys involve sampling of soil, rock, water,
air and vegetation to find out an anomalous value with respect to the
background value of the surveyed area. Indicator elements and plants help
to identify occurrence of near surface mineral deposit.
• Remote sensing is the collection of information about an area without
physical contact using different kind of sensors installed in vehicles,
balloons, aircraft or satellites.
• Aerial photos and satellite imageries are used in the detection of various
geological features controlling mineralisation or hydrocarbon accumulation.
• Geographic Information System (GIS) helps to identify mineral deposits
based on integration and interpolation of multiple georeferenced source data
and modelling using software and computer hardware.
• Let us summarise the main subsurface methods as given in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3: Summary of subsurface (geophysical) methods. (Abbreviation:
A: Airborne Survey; B: Bore hole Survey; & G: Ground Survey;
PGE: Platinum group of elements)
Geophysical Physical Direct and Indirect Targets

Method Properties
Gravity Density Mapping of sedimentary basins, geological

(A,B & G) structures; high-density ores and minerals like
chromite, manganese, barites, sulphide, etc.,
and low-density minerals like coal, lignite, etc.
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Massive Sulphide, chromite, Ni-Cu-PGE, salt

domes, barite, kimberlite pipes, concealed
basins
Magnetic Magnetic Mapping of igneous, sedimentary, and
(A,B & G) susceptibilit metamorphic units, geological structures;
y; natural Ground water
remnant Magnetite, ilmenite, pyrrhotite-rich Sulphide, Ni-
magnetism Cu-PGE.
Electromagnetic: Sulphide, Cr-Ni-Cu-PGE ore,
graphite
Self-potential Electrical/th Sulphide, graphite, formational contacts,
(B & G) ermal seepage, etc.
conductivity Sulphide veins, graphite, ground water, Ni-Cu-
PGE
Resistivity Electrical Groundwater, Sulphide, Ni-Cu-PGE
(B & G) conductivity
Eletromagnet Electrical Sulphide. Some oxides, mapping of conductive

ic conductivity formations, geological structure, groundwater
(A,B & G) and
inductance
Induced Electrical Sulphide, some oxides, disseminated ore
Polarization capacitance (porphyry type), groundwater
(B & G) Large Sulphide dissemination, Ni-Cu-PGE,
graphite
Seismic Seismic Mapping of sedimentary formation (coal beds),
(B & G) wave structures, bedrock and basement rock
velocity Coal, oil and gas, groundwater, layered
(elastic sedimentary basin, Ni-Cu-PGE in volcanic basal
moduli and flows
density)
Radiometric Radioactive Radioactive minerals, geological formations,
(A,B & G) decay structures
Thorium, uranium, radium
Thermal Thermal Sulphide, geological formation mapping,
(B) conductivity geothermal springs

1. Discuss surface exploration methods.
2. Discuss subsurface exploration methods.
3. Write in brief about the geochemical and geobotanical exploration methods.
4. Explain the gravimetric and magnetic exploration methods with suitable
diagram.
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14.8 REFERENCES
• Bleil, D.F., (1953) Induced polarization: A method of geophysical
prospecting, Geophysics, 18: 636–661p.
• Bhattacharya, S., Wright, A., Clayton, J., Price, W., Southern, E. and Evans,
H. (1984) Close genetic linkage between X-linked retinitis pigmentosa and a
restriction fragment length polymorphism identified by recombinant DNA
probe L1.28. Nature 309, 253–255p. https://doi.org/10.1038/309253a0
• Charles J., Whatley Michael K.G. and Evans K.M. (2006) Introduction to
mineral exploration, Blackwell publishing, 499p.
• Fisher, L., Gazley, M.F., Baensch, A., Barnes, S.J., Cleverley, J., & Duclaux,
G. (2014) Resolution of geochemical and lithostratigraphic complexity: a
work flow for application of portable X-ray fluorescence to mineral
exploration. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis, 14: 149-
159p.
• Grant, F. S. and West, G. F. (1965) Interpretation Theory in Applied
Geophysics, McGrawHill, New York, 361p.
• Haldar, S. K. (2018), Mineral Exploration Principles and Applications,
Elsevier Publications, 374p.
• Marjoribanks Roger (2010) Geological Methods in Mineral Exploration and
Mining, Springer Publications, 2nd edition, 243p.
• Sabins, F.F. (1997), Remote Sensing, Principles and Interpretation, W H
Freeman and Company, 450p.
• Sawant, P. T. (2011), Engineering and General Geology, New India
Publishing Agency, New Delhi, 486p.
• Sen, A. K. and Guha, P. K. (1993), A Handbook of Economic Geology,
Published by Modern Book Agency Pvt Ltd, Calcutta, 332p.
• Singh, Parbin (2013) Engineering and General Geology. S.K. Kataria and
Sons. ISBN: 8188458511, 9788188458516, 600p.
• Talapatra, Ashoke K. (2006), Modelling and Geochemical Exploration of
Mineral Deposits, Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, 170p.
• https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1995/ofr-95-0831/CHAP3.pdf
• http://zonge.com/rock-properties-lab/ore-minerals-physical-properties/
• https://openei.org/wiki/Magnetotellurics
• www.surveyofindia.gov.in
• www.gsi.gov.in
(Above websites are excessed between 10th and 20th June 2021)

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• Haldar, S. K. (2018), Mineral Exploration Principles and Applications,

Elsevier Publications, 374p.
14.10 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) The broad activities of geological exploration are:
• Review of existing data and field work
• Surface guides
• Topographic survey
• River and glacial floating
b) The passive sensors use reflected or transmitted portion of electromagnetic
spectrum of solar radiation and thermal radiation from the target area. The
active sensors emit energy and measure intensity of energy that gets
reflected back from the object or area under investigation.
c) Pathfinder or indicator elements/minerals are characteristic parameters in
geochemical prospecting to detect hidden ore bodies.
SAQ 2
a) The direct methods involve collection of samples from subsurface rock
strata by digging drill holes, trenches, pits, exploratory tunnels and the rock
samples are examined and tested in the laboratory. The indirect methods
are extensively used by applying different geophysical techniques to locate
mineral ore bodies.
b) Self-potential (spontaneous potential) method involves measurement of
natural electrical potential due to electrochemical reactions between the
solutions and the surrounding subsurface rocks.
c) Resistivity surveys are conducted by putting electricity directly into the
ground and measure the resistance of the rocks through which the current
passes, by means of arrays of receiver electrodes.
Terminal Questions
3. Please refer to subsections 14.3.3 and 14.3.4.
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UNIT 15
MINERAL ECONOMICS
Structure______________________________________________
15.1 Introduction 15.4 Mineral Conservation Laws
Expected Learning Outcomes Regulatory Framework for Mineral
Developments in India
15.2 National Mineral Policy
Mineral Concession System
Peculiarities associated with Mineral
Resources Mineral Conservation and
Development Rules-2017
Rationale of Mineral Policy
15.5 Exclusive Economic Zone
Objectives of National Mineral Policy
15.6 Seabed Mining Laws
Types of Policies
15.7 Summary
15.3 National Mineral Policy of India
15.8 Activity
Historical Perspective
15.9 Terminal Questions
National Mineral Policy-2019
15.10 References
15.11 Further/Suggested Readings
15.12 Answers
15.1 INTRODUCTION
You have been introduced in BGYCT-133 course that mineral resources are the backbone of the
economic growth of any country. We also know that mineral deposits are non-renewable resources,
therefore they must be used judiciously. A well-planned programme for their systematic exploration,
extraction and optimum utilisation is the basic requirement of any country guided by national goals
and perspectives. The economic principles, therefore, must be applied to the mineral resources and
related mineral-based industry for their proper governance and management.
…………………………………………………..……………………………………………………….….............….…......
The academic discipline which deals with the economic and policy issues
associated with the prospecting, exploration, extraction, production, recycling
and application of mineral commodities is studied under the subject of ‘Mineral
Economics’. The origin of the term Mineral Economics can be traced back to
about 200 years in the writings of David Ricardo. However, it has developed as
a separate discipline of Applied Economics only after World War-II. Principles
and practices based on economic theories applied to understand various
aspects of the mineral industry is studied under mineral economics
(MacKenzie, 1987). Thus, mineral economics is a multidisciplinary branch
involving geology and economics disciplines. It also focuses on the optimum
use of mineral commodities and the conservation of its resources for future use.
In this unit, we will try to understand some of the basic aspects of Mineral
Economics.
Expected Learning Outcomes__________________________

After reading this unit you would be able to:
❖ appreciate principles of mineral policy and development;
❖ comprehend concepts of National Mineral Policy of India;
❖ know the salient features of India’s Mineral Conservation Rules
❖ introduce the concept of exclusive economic zones; and
❖ define Sea Bed Mining laws in India.
15.2 NATIONAL MINERAL POLICY

The minerals are indispensable not only for the well-beings of the human being,
but also for their survivals as these minerals are used by people directly or
indirectly in the everyday life. Minerals in different forms are required almost in
all the industries, therefore, they continue to occupy a distinctive place among
all the economic resources. However, no country has adequate resources
available for all the important minerals, hence is dependent on the import of
some minerals from another country. Therefore, it is required for every country
to formulate its own policy for the sustainable usage of its mineral resources,
keeping in view their peculiarities.
15.2.1 Peculiarities Associated with Mineral Resources
The minerals are used, sold and purchased mostly as raw materials like any
other economic commodity However, many peculiarities associated with the
mineral deposits make them different from other commodities. The features that
make mineral deposits unique and different from other commodities are:
1. Non-renewable nature of minerals: Most mineral deposits are formed by
various geological processes which took a long geological time to form. They
cannot be replenished again once exploited/ extracted from the Earth.
2. Finite quantity: Unlike, other natural resources like forest and wildlife,
mineral resources occur in limited finite quantity. The economic extraction of
minerals with profits does vary with the advent of technology. The low-grade
mineral can become economically viable with the introduction of new/
advanced technology of mining and beneficiation.
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3. Uncertainty about quality and quantity: Mineral deposits occupy a very

large volume deep inside the crust of the Earth; hence the direct
measurement of quantity and quality of the entire deposit is not possible.
The actual measurement is done only at sample points through drilling,
pitting or trenching, and further extrapolated to the entire deposit. There is
always certain amount of uncertainty regarding actual quality and quantity of
the entire body, however ore reserve estimates are close to the factual
value.
4. Geological complexity: We have studied in Block 2 of this course that the
mineral deposits are formed by several processes like magmatic,
hydrothermal, sedimentary, supergene enrichment, residual concentration
etc. However, it is not necessary that a particular mineral is formed by the
similar process everywhere. For example, the iron deposits in nature
possibly formed by any of the magmatic, hydrothermal and sedimentary
processes. However, the localisation of the minerals is controlled mainly by
parameters such as structure, stratigraphy and chemistry of the rocks in any
geographical setting. Thus, it creates a situation where two similar deposits
of the same minerals are highly unlikely and possibly vary in their size,
shape, quality and depth etc. Such complexities of mineral resources are
completely controlled by geological conditions and processes; hence each
deposit is unique.
5. Locational and distributional Peculiarities: Mineral deposits are
homogenously distributed in Earth’s crust. They do not know any political or
geographical boundaries. No country in the world is self-sufficient in all
minerals. However, few countries have monopoly on one type of deposit.
Many important wars waged between different countries recorded in the
history were for conflict over natural resources. In recent times, the conflict is
mainly due to competitive attitude to acquire more and more supply of
minerals. The international trade, stockpiling and supply of some critical
minerals to friendly nations only are some of the clashes arising out of
locational and distributional peculiarities of the mineral deposits.
15.2.2 Rationale of Mineral Policy
The policy is formulated to set-up certain principles and procedures for
regulating, developing and controlling respective sectors in the country under
certain rules and regulations. It is generally directed to achieve particular
objectives that provide a framework to enhance the industry's competitiveness.
The economic development of a country depends upon the quality of its policy
framework, especially the processes involved in formulating each decision.
The mineral resources of a country are the non-replenishable assets. The
exploration and exploitation of these resources are required to be performed
systematically and rationally keeping in view their long-term perspectives for
overall growth and development plans of the country. Each nation, therefore,
formulates a policy for exploration, exploitation and consumption of their
mineral resources, depending upon:
(a) available mineral inventory,
(b) its geo-political situation, priorities and
(c) defence preparedness.
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Such policy of the government deals with the long-term strategy for the
development of mineral resources and mineral/mining industries that
constitutes the essence of the National Mineral Policy of any country. It is
essentially a broad statement of objectives of mineral development which
indicates the direction of such type of expected development. It ultimately forms
the basis to formulate legislation. The Mineral Policy of any country not only
provides guidance and advice to different authorities and the mineral industry,
but also addresses the challenges and responds to important government
commitments.
A National Mineral Policy can also be viewed as a subset of the country’s
economic, trade and industrial policy. It must be compatible to the national
policies on the environment, foreign exchange and labour. Hence, the
formulation of mineral policy also requires a broad understanding of the macro-
economic parameters and strategies.
15.2.3 Objectives of the National Mineral Policy
You have learnt about need and background for formulation of National Mineral
Policy. Now let us read about it in this section.
The specific goals and objectives of a National Mineral Policy vary with the
unique attributes and needs of the nation. For example, the Mineral policy of a
mineral-rich, highly industrialised nation (e.g., USA, Canada, Australia) may not
be appropriate for a mineral-poor industrialised nation (e.g., Japan and
Germany) which largely depends upon import for the mineral supply to their
industries. Similarly, the policy for a mineral-rich developing country (e.g., India,
Chile, Brazil) will be somewhat different as compared to minerals poor non-
industrialized country (e.g., Nepal, Bangladesh).
The Mineral Policy of any country should be an explicit and comprehensive
document and must help in serving three principal functions:
1. To guide mineral industries at the government's position regarding key
issues.
2. To guide government departments, administrators and lawmakers on the
direction and expectation of the nation about regulating the sector.
3. To act as a consensus-building tool, allowing important issues to be
identified, discussed and agreed upon before detailed legislative drafting and
administrative revisions.
The objectives of the National Mineral Policy briefly include the following:
1. To provide a fair and balanced fiscal and regulatory framework.
2. To foster a viable mineral sector for ensuring mineral supplies.
3. To improve mineral conservation and use.
4. To promote improved technical performance and increased
international competitiveness in all facets of the industry.
5. To facilitate enhanced mineral exports and access to new and
traditional markets.
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6. To strengthen overall contribution of minerals in regional and national

development.
7. To protect fragile environment and promote sustainable development.
The specific issues commonly addressed in the National Mineral Policy (NMP)
is grouped mostly within six broad categories. They are (Fig. 15.1):
• Scope,
• Sovereignty,
• Economic Considerations,
• Quality of Life,
• Regulatory Agencies, and
• Legislative Framework.
Fig. 15.1: Broad issues addressed in the National Mineral Policy.
15.2.4 TYPE OF POLICIES

In the previous section you have learnt that the mineral policy of any country
describes the strategic direction it intends to take to sustainable development
its mineral resources. This acts as the basis for the formulation of legislation/
regulations. Let us now read about the types of policies being adopted by
various countries.
Mineral policies of any country is linked to its prosperity, security, foreign policy,
financial position etc. Like any other economic policy, the National Mineral
policy can also be of the three types:
(a) Open Door Policy: In open door policy the country allows private
enterprises from any country to undertake exploration and mineral
development. Many developed countries like USA, Canada and Australia
follow such policies.
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(b) Close Door Policy: The practice of restricted business with

other countries, companies, organizations, etc. comes under such policies
and prohibits foreign direct investment. The government has the major role
to play in the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources. Many of the
sub-Saharan's countries follow the Close door Policy.
(c) Mixed type of Policy: Cautious and restrictive approaches are prevalent in
such type of policies. Some of the strategic mineral development remains
in the hands of the government, while for other minerals the private
enterprises take part in their development. India used to follow such type of
policy for the past few years, however, India have started following open-
door policy under the New Mineral Policy. Examples of mixed-type policy
are China, Afghanistan and Mongolia etc.
Apart from these policies some of the industrial countries, in which mineral
resources are not adequate and dependent on import of many minerals to fulfil
needs of their industries (e.g., Japan and Germany), a policy of recycling and
substitution of other material in place of minerals/ores are followed.
15.3 NATIONAL MINERAL POLICY OF INDIA

Let us now discuss about the National Mineral Policy of India. India produces
86 minerals, out of which four used as fuels, 10 metallic minerals, 46 industrial
minerals, 3 atomic minerals and 23 minor minerals including building materials.
The mining sector in India accounts for about 2.5% of the total GDP. Since the
time of independence, the mineral development in India evolved through
various strategies and policies, in line with the changing socio-economic
scenario within and outside the country. The Constitution of India allows the
constituent State Governments/Union Territories be the owners of the minerals
in their respective territorial jurisdiction. In the off-shore areas, the exclusive
economic zone and the continental shelf, the rights are vested in the Central
Government barring a few minerals. Recently the Government of India has
announced the new National Mineral Policy 2019 and replacing the NMP-2008.
15.3.1 Historical Perspective
Before the independence, the ores and minerals were explored and mined
mostly by the private people/ companies. Most of the raw minerals produced
from Indian mines were primarily meant to feed foreign industries’
requirements. The safety and welfare of the mine workers were governed by
the Indian Mines Act 1903 and 1923 that resulted in arbitrary and unsystematic
exploitation of Indian mineral resources. For the first time in Independent India,
the Mineral Policy Statement came in to existence as a part of the Indian
Industrial Policy Resolution-1948 and suggested regulations and control of
mines and minerals. This resolution resulted the first legal framework of
independent India in form of the Mines and Minerals (Development and
Regulation) Act, 1948. Indian Bureau of Mines was also established in 1948 to
regulate and monitor mining activities in the country.
This policy was subsequently replaced by the second Industrial Policy in 1956
which is followed by the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act,
1957 and Mineral Concession Rules 1960. According to this, the state
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governments /public sectors enterprises have exclusive rights to develop all the
major minerals, listed in Schedule A (such as coal, lignite, mineral oil, iron ore,
copper, zinc, atomic minerals, etc.). The other minor minerals listed in Schedule
B were opened for the development by the private as well as public sectors.
The minor minerals are considered to be of the local importance and are
supposed to be developed on a small scale for the benefit of local people. The
minor minerals include: building stone, marble, gravel, chalcedony, pebble,
limestone for lime burning, brick earth, fuller's earth, bentonite, clay and sand.
These minerals are used for the non-industrial purposes, road metal, slate and
shale etc. The afore mentioned Acts was amended subsequently in different
years.
A separate comprehensive National Mineral Policy (NMP) was notified by the

Government of India for the first time in March 1993 with the idea to encourage
private investments in the exploration and mining. However, the desired results
of NMP1993 could not be obtained even in a decade, the policy was further
revised in form of NMP 2008 (for non-fuel and non-coal minerals). Measures
were articulated in NMP-2008 to streamline and simplify procedures related to
grant of mineral concessions in order to develop a sustainable outline for best
utilization of natural mineral resources for industrial growth in the country.
These measures would at the same time improve the livelihood of backward
class and tribal people living in the mining areas. In 2017, the Supreme Court of
India, while delivering judgement on “rapacious” mining in Odisha (Keonjhar
and Sundargarh), directed the Government of India to revisit the NMP-2008 and
announced a fresh, more effective, meaningful and implementable policy. It has
resulted in the form of a latest New National Mineral Policy in 2019 (NMP-
2019). Each of these policies has its own salient features.
Let us now know about the latest National Mineral Policy of India.
15.3.2 National Mineral Policy - 2019

The aim of the National Mineral Policy- 2019 is to have a more effective and
meaningful policy that brings transparency, better guideline and
implementation, balanced social and economic growth and also sustainable
mining practices. Some of the changes introduced in the new National Mineral
Policy-2019 include the focus on the “Make in India” initiative, gender
sensitivity, use of coastal waterways and inland shipping and dedicated mineral
corridors to facilitate transportation of minerals. It also aims to attract private
investment through incentives. More emphasis is given to e-Governance, IT-
enabled systems, awareness and Information campaigns in NMP-2019. It also
proposes to a long-term export-import policy in the mineral sector to provide
stability and incentives for the investment in the large-scale commercial mining
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activity. It also introduces the concept of Inter-Generational Equity that deals

with the well-being of the present generation. It also deals with the well-being of
the generations to come and also advises to constitute an inter-ministerial body
to institutionalise mechanism to confirm sustainable development in mining
sector.
Salient Features: The salient features of this policy are:

1. Exploration, extraction and management of minerals need to be led by
national goals and perspectives and united to the overall strategy of the
country’s economic policy. Emphasis on the promotion of domestic
industry, reduction of import dependency has been added.
2. Natural resources (including minerals) are in shared inheritance, where the

State is a trustee on behalf of the people. So, allocation of mineral
resources must be done fairly and transparently to ensure balanced
distribution of mineral wealth to sub-serve the common good.
3. Mining needs to be carried out in an environmentally sustainable manner

keeping stakeholders participation and transfer of benefits to the mining-
affected persons.
4. Emphasis is given on the regional and detailed exploration in a systematic,

scientific and intensive manner over the entire geologically conducive
mineral bearing areas of the country, using state-of-the-art technology,
seismic interpretative systems in a time-bound manner.
5. The private sectors need to be encouraged to take up exploration activities.

Government agencies will expend funds, mostly in areas where private
sector investments are not approaching due to high uncertainties.
6. Introduction of ‘Right of First Refusal’ at the time of auction. Seamless

transition from Reconnaissance permit to Prospecting Licence to Mining
Leases. [Right of First Refusal: When a firm/company that has a
reconnaissance permit (RP) finds evidence of minerals, informs the
government. When government auction off the area, such firm/company
would be given the area for mining.]
7. Introduction of auction of composite Reconnaissance permit, Prospecting

License and Mining Lease in virgin areas on a revenue-sharing basis.
8. Establishment of a Mining Tenement System (MTS) which would primarily

involve in automating the complete concession life-cycle using state-of-the-
art IT systems.
9. The policy proposes to grant the status of ‘industry’ to mining

activity for financial boost-up of mining in the private sector.
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10. The Policy also mentions making efforts to harmonize taxes, levies and
royalty with world benchmarks to help the private sector.
Expected Outcome: The outcomes projected from these policy proposals

are an increase in the production of Mineral Conservation and Development
Rules, 2017 minerals in terms of value by 200 % in 7 years. On the other hand,
decrease the trade discrepancy in minerals sector by 50% in 7 years.
In the previous sections, we studied about the National Mineral Policy, its
objectives and salient features. Before going to the next section spend 5
minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 1
a) What are the main objectives of National Mineral Policy?
b) When was the first separate National Mineral Policy of India declared?
c) When was the latest National Mineral Policy of the country adopted?
15.4 MINERAL CONSERVATION LAWS

In the above section you have read about National Mineral Policy-2019. Now,
let us discuss about regulatory framework for mineral developments in India.
Legislations for mineral resources and mining are required for planned
economic development, strategic considerations and conservation of resources
for future use in the present day diverse socio-political system. We have learnt
in the previous section that the first industrial policy resolution - 1948
encompasses the first mineral policy statement in independent India which
resulted in the constitution of the Mines and Minerals (Development and
Regulation) Act,1948. In this section, we will try to understand some of the
mineral legislations in India.
15.4.1 Regulatory Framework for Mineral Developments

in India
The Mines and Minerals Development and Regulation Act, 1957, ('MMDR') and
the Mines Act, 1952, organised with the rules and regulations framed under
them, establish the basic laws governing mineral and mining sector in India.
MMDR Act-1957 applied to all minerals except petroleum. The MMDR Act was
revised on numerous occasions to deliver a fair concession regime to invite
private sector investments into exploration and mining sector. Government
control over mining was further expended by amending the MMDR Act in 1972.
In 1986 more stringent amendments were made by increasing the First
Schedule minerals from 27 to 38 and also making mining plan approval
compulsory. MMDR Amendment Act, 2015, substituted the first-come-first-
served/discretionary process for grant of mineral resources by a transparent
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and competitive auction process. The most recent amendment in the MMDR
Act was carried out by the Mineral Laws (Amendment) Act, 2020 to ease out
business and opening commercial mining and allowing domestic as well as
global investors to invest. Important mining regulations enacted by the
Government of India as summarised in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1: List of important mining regulations in India.
ACT Mining Regulation Basic Provision

Defines the process and timelines of
Mineral Concession the grant of mineral concessions as
Rules (MCR), 1960 per the provisions of Section 13 of
the MMDR Act, 1957.
Mineral and Prescribes guidelines for the

Mining Mineral conservation and development of
(Regulation Conservation and minerals as per the provisions of
and Development Rules Section 18 of the MMDR Act, 1957.
Development (MCDR), 2017 The rules cover procedures for
Act, 1957 carrying out prospecting and mining
operations. It covers requirement
related to the preparation of mining
and prospecting plans, filing of
notices and returns, and guidelines
for the protection of the environment.
Various State Governments have
State Minor Mineral prescribed rules for the grant of
Concession Rules mineral concessions with respect to
minerals classified as minor minerals
under the MMDR Act, 1957.
Mines Act, Mines Rules, 1955 Prescribes the laws related to the
1952 Indian Coal Mines regulation of health, sanitation safety
Regulation, 1957 and welfare for miners and their
families. Regulations for carrying out
Indian Metalliferous
mining operations, management and
Mines Regulation,
inspection of mines and procedure of
1957
reporting to be followed are part of
Oil Mines
this.
Regulations, 1963
Coal Mines Coal Mines The main function is to look after the
(Conservation (Conservation & stowing needs of mines in the
and Safety) Safety) Rules, 1952 interest of conservation.
Act, 1952
Atomic It provides wide powers to Central
Energy Act, Government for the regulation of
1962 prospecting and mining of minerals
used in the production of atomic
energy.
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Oil Field Petroleum It deals with the procedure and rules

(Regulation Concession Rules regarding grant of exploration licence
and 1949 and mining lease.
Development)
Act, 1948
Offshore Offshore Areas Provides for the development and
Areas Mineral Mineral Concession regulation of mineral resources in the
(Development Rules, 2006 territorial sea, continental shelf, EEZ,
and and other maritime zones of India.
Regulation)
Act, 2002
Mineral Laws The amendment is carried out to
(Amendment) take forward the agenda of ease of
Act, 2020 doing business & opening in the
mining sector and allowing domestic
as well as global investors to invest.
15.4.2 Mineral Concession System

In the above section we have read about important mining regulations in India.
Now, let us discuss the mineral concession system of India. In the national
structure of India, the State Governments are the owner of the minerals located
within the boundaries of the State concerned. As per Article 297 of the
Constitution of India, the Central Government is the owner of the minerals
underlying the ocean within the territorial waters or the Exclusive Economic
Zone of India. The State Governments grant the mineral concessions for all the
minerals located within the boundary of the State under the provisions of the
Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR) and
Mineral Concession Rules, 1960 (MCR). Prior approval of the Central
Government, however is required in some cases.
There are three kinds of mineral concessions:
• Reconnaissance Permit,
• Prospecting License, and
• Mining Lease.
1. Reconnaissance Permit (RP): This permit is approved for preliminary
prospecting of a mineral through regional, aerial, geochemical or
geophysical surveys and geological mapping. The reconnaissance permit for
any mineral or related minerals is granted for 3 years and a maximum area
of 5,000 sq. km, to be abandoned progressively. After 2 years, the area
should be reduced to 1,000 sq. km or 50% of the area granted, whichever is
less. At the end of third year, the area held under a reconnaissance permit
should be reduced to 25 sq km. A reconnaissance permit holder must have a
preferential right to obtain PL(s) in the area concerned.
2. Prospecting License (PL): This permit is granted to undertake exploration
operations to locate and to prove mineral deposits. A PL for any mineral or
associated minerals is granted for a maximum period of 3 years. A PL can
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be renewed for the total period for which a PL is granted that does not
exceed 5 years. In a State, a person can be granted a maximum area of 25
sq. km in one or more PLs. But if the Central Government believes that in
the interest of the development of any mineral it is necessary to do so, the
maximum area limit can be relaxed.
3. Mining Lease (ML): This lease is granted to undertake mineral winning
operations of minerals. A ML for any mineral or associated minerals is
granted for a minimum period of 20 years and a maximum period of 30
years. The ML can be renewed for a period not exceeding 20 years each. In
a State, a person can be granted a maximum area of 10 sq. km in one or
more MLs. But if the Central Government believes that in the interest of the
development of any mineral it is necessary to do so, the maximum area limit
can be relaxed.
The Mineral Concession Rules, 1960 outline the procedures and conditions to
obtain a Prospecting License or Mining Lease. The Mineral Conservation and
Development Rules, 2017 lays down guidelines to ensure mining on a scientific
basis, whereas at the same time, conserving the environment. The provisions
of MCR and MCDR, but are not applicable to coal, atomic minerals and minor
minerals. The minor minerals that come under the purview of the State
Governments are separately notified.
In the next section, we will discuss in detail the Mineral Conservation and
Development Rules.
15.4.3 Mineral Conservation and Development
Rules- 2017
The Mineral Conservation and Development Rules (MCDR) were enforced for
the first time in 1955 to lay adequate emphasis on the systematic development
of mines, leading to the conservation of mineral resources. These rules derive
power from the MMRD Act 1948. Later with the adoption of MMRD Act 1957,
the MCDR were also changed and modified to MCDR 1958. The MCDR apply
to all minerals except for (i) petroleum and natural gas; (ii) coal, lignite and sand
for stowing; and (iii) minor minerals. The MCDR-1958 was repealed in 1988
and was replaced by MCDR-1988. Further, in supersession of the Mineral
Conservation and Development Rules, 1988, the Central Government replaced
it with the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules, 2017 by exercising
the powers conferred to section 18 of the MMRD Act, 1957.
As discussed in previous sections, the Mineral Conservation and Development
Rules (MCDR) provide guidelines to ensure mining operation including mine
closer on a scientific basis. The rules also define sustainable mining. The
MCDR-2017 defines various rules divided into 12 chapters. The rules
concerning the Reconnaissance and Prospecting Operations having 6 rules
regarding the scheme of Reconnaissance or Prospecting Operations, its
inspection by the competent authority and reports to be submitted by PL holder.
Rules for Mining Operations:
Rules for Mining Operations of MCDR-2017 comprises of 21 rules related to
Mining plan, operations in Open Cast mines, Underground mining operations,
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stacking of different grade of ores/non-salable minerals, beneficiation studies,

maintenance of records for machinery and plants, opening and closure plans of
mines, abandonment of mines, responsibilities of Mining Leaseholder etc.
Type of plans and sections and their preparation details defined in the rules are
also given in MCDR-2017. While conducting prospecting, mining, beneficiation
or metallurgical operations in the area, every holder of a mining lease is bound
to take all possible precautions to undertake sustainable mining. The other
environmental aspects of mining and related operations are also covered under
these rules.
Every RP/PL/ML holder is bound to the MCDR-2017 to appoint geologists and
mining engineers (whole time/part-time depending on the type of lease and
type of mines) for scientific operations.
For these rules, the mines are divided into two types as “Category – A” mines
and “Category- B” mines.
• The category 'A' mines: These mines are fully mechanised. The work is
being carried out for deep hole drilling, excavation, loading and transport. by
deployment of heavy mining machinery.
• Category 'B' mines mean mines other than category 'A' mines.
Rules regarding all other aspects of the mining operations such as submission
of annual and monthly returns, examination of mineral deposits and sampling,
preservation of cores, geological reports, revision, penalties and maintenance
of mining regulation portal etc. are also defined in the Mineral Conservation and
Development Rules – 2017.
15.5 EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE

You must have heard about EEZ, i.e., Exclusive Economic Zone in news. Let
us read about Law of Sea before knowing about Exclusive Economic Zone.
The sea covers about 70% of the Earth’s surface. United Nations decided
unanimously in 1967 that the sea-bed and its resources are the common
inheritance of mankind and no state or person may appropriate the area or
exercise sovereignty over it. This was a landmark UN resolution in the history of
the Law of the Sea. The Law of the Sea came out in existence after very long
multilateral negotiations and several UN conventions on Law of the Sea held
since 1956. However, finally in 1982, UN conference on Law of the Sea
resulted in the Law of Sea Convention (LOSC) which came into force in 1994
upon receiving the necessary number of UN signatories. India is one of the
main signatories of the LOSC.
Broadly, the Law of Sea deals with:
• the territorial jurisdiction,
• continental shelf,
• right of navigation through the international straits,
• rights of the exclusive economic zone,
• management of resources of the international sea bed,
• marine pollution,
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• rights of landlocked countries, and

• mechanism of settling disputes.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):
In 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea defined EEZ as an
area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea under which the rights and
jurisdiction of the Coastal State and the rights and freedoms of other States are
governed by the relevant provisions accepted in this Convention. An Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ) is the area extending beyond and adjacent to the
territorial sea up to a maximum of 200 nautical miles from the baseline of the
territorial sea (Fig. 15.2). The baseline is normally measured as the low-water
line along the coast as indicated on large-scale charts (officially approved by
the coastal state). The EEZ does not include the territorial sea and the
continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles.
Fig.15.2: A sketch showing Exclusive Economic Zone.
The Coastal States have certain sovereign rights in the Exclusive Economic
Zone which include:
1. Sovereign rights to explore and exploit, conserve and manage the natural
resources, whether living or non-living, in the waters superjacent to the
seabed and its subsoil;
2. Rights in regard to other activities of the economic exploration and
exploitation of the zone, such as production of energy from water-currents
and winds;
3. Right to establish and use artificial islands, installations and structures;
4. To do marine scientific research;

5. The protection and preservation of the marine environment.
However, in exercising its rights and performing its duties under this Convention
in the exclusive economic zone, the Coastal State is bound to have due regard
to the rights and duties of other States like freedom of navigation.
216
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We must understand that the territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone
are two different zones. The difference between the two is that the territorial sea
confers to full sovereignty over the waters, whereas the EEZ is merely a
"sovereign right" which refers to the coastal state's rights below the surface of
the sea. The surface waters in EEZ are international waters.
India with its long coastline of about 2750 nautical miles and 1280 islands are
having a vast interest in the development of its EEZ. India has enacted the law
in 1976 known as The Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive
Economic Zones and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 to outline limits of the
territorial waters, continental shelf, EEZ and other maritime zones of India. As
per this act, land minerals and other resources underlying the ocean within the
territorial waters, the continental shelf or the Exclusive Economic Zone are
vested with the Union of India. It also provides the legal framework:
• Specifying the nature, scope and extent of India’s rights;
• Jurisdiction and control of various maritime zones;
• Maritime boundaries between India and its neighbouring countries; and
• The exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of natural
resources within the maritime zones.
The total area included within the EEZ of India is about 20,00,000 square
kilometers. The famous Bombay High oilfield, which is 63 nautical miles off the
western coast of India, falls in this zone.
15.6 SEABED MINING LAWS

In the above section you have read about EEZ. Now, let us discuss about
Seabed Mining Laws. The presence of polymetallic nodules lying on the deep
floor of the high seas evoked a lot of interest in Sea bed mining. As per articles
151 and 153 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS), the International Seabed Authority (ISA) is in charge of
regulating and administrating deep-sea economic exploitation. The International
Seabed Authority (ISA) has issued several Regulations on Prospecting and
Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area 2000 which later updated in
2013. ISA also issued the Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration
for Polymetallic Sulphides in the Area 2010 and the Regulations on Prospecting
and Exploration for Cobalt-Rich Crusts- 2012.
Regarding the exploitation of these resources in the areas of the seabed
beyond the continental shelf, the ISA has come up with Draft regulations
for exploitation of mineral resources in the area in April 2018, for
discussion and adoption.
In the previous sections we have studied about the mineral conservation laws,
exclusive economic zones and seabed mioning laws. Now spend 5 minutes to
check how you are progressing.
217
…………………………………………………..……………………………………………………….….............….…......
SAQ 2
a) Which is the main Act for the development of minerals and mining in
India?
b) What is Mineral Concession rule?
c) What is the difference between territorial sea and EEZ?
d) Name the international authority for regulating and administrating deep
15.7seaSUMMARY
economic exploitation.
Let us summarise what we have learnt in this unit.
• Nations formulate a policy for exploration, exploitation and consumption of
their mineral resources depending upon the available mineral inventory, geo-
political situation, priorities and defence preparedness.
• The National Mineral Policy is a subset of the country’s economic, trade and
industrial policy. It must be in tune with the national policies on the
environment, foreign exchange and labour.
• The Mineral Policy of any country not only provides guidance and advice to
different authorities and the mineral industry, but also addresses the
challenges and responds to important government commitments.
• National Mineral policy can be of the three types: Open door policy, Close
door policy and Mixed type of policy.
• In India, the Mineral Policy Statement came in to existence as a part of the
Indian Industrial Policy Resolution-1948. Indian Bureau of Mines was also
established in 1948 to regulate and monitor mining activities in the country.
• In 2017, the Supreme Court of India, announced a fresh, more effective,
meaningful and implementable policy which has resulted in the form of a
latest New National Mineral Policy in 2019 (NMP-2019).
• The Mines and Minerals Development and Regulation Act, 1957, ('MMDR')
and the Mines Act, 1952, together with the rules and regulations framed
under them constitutes the basic laws governing the mineral and mining
sector in India.
• The MMDR Act has several inbuilt rules and regulations which include the
Mineral Concession Rules (MCR- 1960) and Mineral Conservation and
Development Rules (MCDR-2017).
• In India, the State Governments are the owner of the minerals located within
the boundaries of the State concerned. The Central Government is the
owner of the minerals underlying the ocean within the territorial waters or the
EEZ as per Article 297 of the Constitution of India.
• In 1982, UN conference on Law of the Sea resulted in the Law of Sea
Convention which came into force in 1994.
218
…………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….….............….….....…
• As per articles 151 and 153 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea, the International Seabed Authority is in charge of regulating and
administrating deep-sea economic exploitation.
15.8 ACTIVITY
• Make a flow chart to organise various stages as prescribed in the
Concession system for getting the RP to ML.

1. Discuss in brief the latest NMP of India.
2. Describe different types of mineral policies.
3. Write in details about various types of Mineral Concessions.
4. Write in detail about MCDR.

5. What is the purpose of the Exclusive Economic Zone?
15.10 REFERENCE
• Chaterjee, K.K., (2008) Introduction to Mineral Economics, New Age
International, 379p.
• Ray, S.C., and Sinha, I. N., (2016) Mines and Mineral Economics, Phi
Learning Pvt Ltd. 241p.
• https://ibm.go
• https://mines.gov.in
(Websites accessed between 03/04/2021 and 10/08/2021)

• Chaterjee, K.K., (2008) Introduction to Mineral Economics, New Age
International, 379p.
15.12 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) The objectives of the National Mineral Policy briefly include the following:
i) To provide a fair and balanced fiscal and regulatory framework.
ii) To foster a viable mineral sector for ensuring mineral supplies.
iii) To improve mineral conservation and use.
iv) To promote improved technical performance and increased
international competitiveness in all facets of the industry.
v) To facilitate enhanced mineral exports and access to new and
traditional markets.
vi) To strengthen overall contribution of minerals in regional and national
development.
vii) To protect fragile environment and promote sustainable development.
219
…………………………………………………..……………………………………………………….….............….…......
b) A separate comprehensive National Mineral Policy was notified by the

Government of India for the first time in March 1993.
c) 2019.
SAQ 2
a) Mineral and Mining (Regulation & Development Act, 1957).
b) The Mineral Concession Rules, 1960 framework the procedures and
conditions to obtain a Prospecting License or Mining Lease.
c) The territorial sea confers to full sovereignty over the waters, whereas the
EEZ is merely a "sovereign right" which refers to the coastal state's rights
below the surface of the sea. The surface waters in EEZ are international
waters.
Terminal Questions
2. Please refer to sub-section 15.2.4.
220
GLOSSARY
Ammeter : An ammeter (ampere meter) is a measuring instrument used

to measure the current in a circuit and is measured in
amperes (A). An ammeter is connected in a series with the
circuit in which the current is to be measured.
Auger Drilling : In auger drilling system, rock is cut and broken with the help
of a simple blade bit mounted on the end of a rotating string
of rods. As the drill advances, extra rod sections are added to
the top of the drill string. It is a popular method when an
overburden penetration is necessary to obtain a small
bedrock sample.
Blanket Deposit : It is a flattened ore deposit whose length and width is more
than its thickness. Traditionally, this term is used by miners
and has no real scientific meaning.
Bivariate : It is used to find out if there is a relationship

Analysis between two different variables.
Caliper Log : It is used to measure the width/dia of the borehole.
Cliff : It is a vertical, or nearly vertical, rock exposure formed as

erosion landforms by the processes of weathering and
erosion. Cliffs are very common in mountainous areas, on
coasts, escarpments and along rivers.
Contact Deposit: : This term is mainly used for mineral deposit occurring
between the two dissimilar rocks. This type of ore body
occurs at the contact of sedimentary and igneous rocks.
Country Rock: : Non-mineralised bedrock enclosing an orebody.
Density Logs : The application of this tool is very similar to that of the sonic
logging tool except that it uses the emitted gamma radiation
in place of sound waves.
Desktop Surveys : Include researching the available geological information for

an area of interest. It includes analysis of previous geological
reports, exploration data, if any, etc. This process allows an
exploration company or prospector to make an informed
decision before applying for a license or starting any actual
field work.
Diamond Bit : A rotary drilling bit that uses diamonds as the cutting edge.
Diamond Drill : A drill used to collect core samples from rock.
221
Diamond Drilling : Diamond drill of rotary type is the most versatile and
extensively used tool in the mineral exploration. Diamond
drilling uses a rotating hollow diamond-encrusted drill bit to
grind or cut the rock producing a cylindrical core sample.
Disseminated : Ore deposits consisting of fine grains of ore mineral dispersed

through the host rock.
Eddy-Current : Eddy currents (also called Foucault's currents) are loops of

electrical current induced within the conductors by a changing
magnetic field in the conductor according to Faraday's law of
induction. Eddy currents flow in closed loops within
conductors, in planes perpendicular to the magnetic field.
(Source: en.wikipedia.org)
Electromagnetic : It is used to determine the amount of water/oil present in the

Propagation Log formation and can be used to distinguish between oil and
water in porous formations.
Epithermal : These are formed at shallow depths away from the surface
Deposits: and the temperature ranges from 50°C - 200°C.
Epigenetic : The ore deposit formed after the formation of host rock in
Deposit which they occur, e.g., vein. These ore minerals have been
introduced into pre-existing country rock after their formation.
Feasibility Study : The study is to confirm and maximize the value of the
preferred technical and business options identified in the pre-
feasibility study stage.
Fluxgate : It is an electromagnetic device that is used to directly sense

Compass the direction of the horizontal component of the Earth's
magnetic field. It employs two or more small coils of wire
around a core of highly permeable magnetic material.
Gamma-Ray Log : It is used to record the natural gamma-ray radioactivity in the

rocks that comes from the decay of isotopes of potassium,
uranium and thorium. The gamma-ray log is often used to
determine the ‘sand: shale ratio’ in a clastic succession.
Geological : A mapping process to produce a special-purpose map

Mapping showing distribution of geological features such as rock
types, mineralization, faults, folds, foliations, lineation, joints,
etc.
Geophone : A geophone is a device that converts ground movement

(velocity) into voltage. It may be recorded at a recording
station. The deviation of this measured voltage from the base
line is called the seismic response.
222
Geophysical : Refers to recording or mapping of physical properties of rocks
and minerals through an application of physics.
Gondites : Manganese bearing, non-calcareous rocks metamorphic

rocks that are equivalents of argillaceous and arenaceous
sediments and characterised with a mineral composition of
spessartite and quartz.
GPS Survey : GPS (or global positioning system) uses signals from
satellites to pinpoint a location on the Earth's surface.
GPS also provides data about velocity and time
synchronisation for various forms of travel.
Hypothermal : These deposits are formed at great depths near the intrusion
Deposits and the temperature ranges from 300°C - 500°C.
Kodurites : Group of rocks formed by assimilation of manganese ore and

manganese silicate minerals with the involvement of acidic
magma. These manganese rich rocks constitute minerals
such as garnet sillimanite gneiss, quartzite, garnetiferous
quartzite, calc granulites and gneisses.
Magnetometer : It is a device that measures magnetic field or magnetic dipole

moment. It also measures the direction, strength, or relative
change of a magnetic field at a particular location.
Mesothermal : These deposits are formed at a depth of 1500 to 4000 m

Deposits below the surface and the temperature ranges from 200°C -
300°C.
Mineral Deposit : Any occurrence of a valuable product or mineral that is of

sufficient size and grade that has potential for economic
development under favourable conditions.
Mineral : Refers to an exploration of geological resources such as

Exploration or minerals and rocks for various uses. It is the process of
Exploration determining grade and reserve of identified potential
geological resources for economic extraction.
Mineral : It is a permit that provides right to explore or study the

Exploration permitted area to determine the grade and reserve of the
Permit minerals for economic extraction.
Mineral : The geological study of searching and locating prospective

Prospecting or minerals, rocks, or fossils, with the use of handheld tools only.
Prospecting
223
Mineral : It is a sign of mineralisation that is well-intentioned of further
Occurrence investigation.
Mineralogical : It is a scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and

Study physical and optical properties of minerals for identification
purpose.
Multivariate : It is the analysis of three or more variables.

Analysis
Neutron Logs : The neutron log provides a measure of the porosity of the
formation.
Overhauser : Overhauser (or Overhauser effect magnetometer or

Overhauser magnetometer) is used to measure very small
variations in the Earth's magnetic field. It uses the same
fundamental effect as the proton precession magnetometer to
take measurements which can sample faster and are more
sensitive.
Percussion : It utilises rapid hammering/ percussion action to break the

Drilling rocks into chips. In percussion drilling compressed air is used
to drive a hammer unit which imparts a rapid beating action to
a drilling bit at the end of a length of steel rods.
Pillar : A volume of unmined rock left in place for structural support

or as a barrier to water and/or gas.
Pitting : It is digging of shallow depth holes in the Earth’s surface for

determination of mineralisation continuity, size and shape,
and sampling purpose.
Pleochroic : They deposits are circular little areas, characteristically

Haloes present in few minerals that tend to be strongly pleochroic.
Biotite, tourmaline, hornblende, chlorite, muscovite, cordierite
and fluorite often contain pleochroic haloes. They are
resulted due to the presence of radioactive inclusions in
these minerals.
Proton-Precision : Proton-precision [or proton magnetometer, or proton

precession magnetometer (PPM)] is used to measure very
small variations in the Earth's magnetic field,
allowing ferrous objects on land and at sea to be detected. It
uses the principle of Earth's field nuclear magnetic
resonance (EFNMR).
Reserve : Mineral resources that have been discovered, having a

known size and can be extracted at a profit at a given point of
time.
Resistivity Log : It is used to measure the electrical conductivity of the rocks

and their pore fluids. Permeability can also be assessed by
224
this method.
Rotary Drilling : In rotary drilling, the drilling results from the continuous
rotation of the bit under constant pressure. The samples are
recovered by grinding and rotation of the drill rod without
hammering.
Sampling : It is the process of taking a small portion of the target

mineral/sample such that the consistency of the part shall
symbolize the entire area.
Sonic Log : It is used to record velocity of soundwaves in the rock

formation. As the sound velocity in the rock depends on its
lithology and porosity of the rock or density of the rock, the
depth wise record of density, lithology and porosity can be
recorded by this method.
Syngenetic : The ore deposit formed by the same process and at the same
Deposit time as the enclosing rock in which it occurs is sometimes
part of a stratigraphical succession, such as an iron-rich
sedimentary horizon.
Theodolite : A precise instrument used for measuring angles in the

horizontal and vertical planes. They are described according
to the angle reading system incorporated in the instrument.
Trenching : It is digging of shallow depth trenches on the Earth’s surface

for determination of mineralization continuity, size and shape,
and sampling purpose.
Triangulation : A triangulation station (or trigonometrical point / trig) is a
Station fixed surveying station, used in geodetic survey and other
surveying projects in its vicinity. Trigonometrical stations are
grouped together to form a network of triangulation.
Topographical : It is defined as the study and mapping of the features on the
Survey surface of the land, including features such as mountains,
rivers, highways, railroads etc.
Univariate : It is the simplest form of statistical data analysis, where the
Analysis data being analysed contains only one variable. Univariate
analysis describes the data and finds out patterns that exist
within it.
Voltmeter : A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electric

potential difference between two points in an electric circuit
and is connected in parallel. It takes negligible current from
the circuit due to its high resistance.
Waste Rock : Overburden or gangue material removed from the ore/coal

during mining or mineral processing.
225
NOTES
226
NOTES
227
NOTES
228
Dear Learner,
While studying the theory course BGYET-141 (Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals), you may have
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BGYET – 141

ORE GEOLOGY AND

Prof. D. Venkat Reddy Prof. Meenal Mishra Dr. Omkar Verma

Block Preparation Team

September, 2021 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021

Unit 2 Classification of Ore Deposits

Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics

Unit 4 Mode of Occurrence of Ore Bodies

Block 2 Ore Genesis

Unit 6 Hydrothermal Processes

Unit 7 Volcanogenic and Sedimentary Processes

Unit 8 Weathering Processes

Block 3 Metallic and Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits

Unit 10 Non-Ferrous Ores

Unit 11 Industrial Minerals

Unit 12 Mineral Fuels

Block 4 Mineral Exploration and Mineral Economics

Unit 14 Exploration Methods

Unit 15 Mineral Economics

13.2 Prospecting and Exploration Greenfield Exploration

13.3 Classification of Geological Guides 13.5 Stages of Mineral Exploration

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

13.2 PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION

13.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL GUIDES

The surface expression of an ore body is direct indication of presence of

Fig. 13.1: Sulphide ore deposits. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)

13.3.2 Mineralogical Guides

Fig.13.2: a) Illustration of a simplified gossan structure; and b) Field photograph

Fig. 13.4: Boxwork structures developed after leaching/weathering of primary ore

Table 13.1: Nature of gossan developed by different ore minerals.

Sulphide Gossan Colours Boxwork Textures/Structures

Chalcopyrite Deep brown/brick Coarse, cellular with blebs,

Bornite Chocolate Triangular, crusted, curved

Bornite- Yellow, brick red Fine, cellular, thin, small, friable

Chalcocite Deep maroon Porous/ Pitchlike limonite, no

Sphalerite Tan to brown Cellular, siliceous, thin, rigid

Galena Orange Diamond mesh/

Molybdenite Black or gray Foliated

manganese ores. Deposits of chromite and vanadium associated with the

Fig.13.6: Phosphorite deposit of Jhamarkotra, Udaipur, Rajasthan.

13.3.4 Structural Guides

predominantly due to fractures present in ore which have noteworthy influence

13.4 PRINCIPLE OF MINERAL EXPLORATION

Fig. 13.7: Exploration pyramid.

There are two types of resource exploration activities generally known as

13.5 STAGES OF MINERAL EXPLORATION

Fig.13.8: Stages of an exploration project. (Source: Redrawn from Charles et.al.

Fig.13.9: Field photograph of soil survey. (Photo credit: Nilanjan Konwar)

Detailed exploration is conducted before the start of mining or mine

The main objective of the detailed exploration stage is to delineate a detailed

Various important methods of exploration can be broadly categorised as:

13.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

2. Describe different types of geological guides used in the prospecting.

13.10 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

d) Ocimum centraliafricanum or Becium homblei is indicator plant for copper.

Expected Learning Outcomes Telluric Current Method

Geological Exploration Induced Potential Method

Photogeology, Remote Sensing Electromagnetic Method

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

14.2 EXPLORATION METHODS

Fig. 14.1: Types of mineral exploration methods.

14.3 Surface Exploration

The detailed activities include:

iii) Study of Topographic Maps: A topographical map (toposheets or