Bgycl 138

BGYCL-138
STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University PALAEONTOLOGY:
School of Sciences
LABORATORY
BGYCL - 138
STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences PALAEONTOLOGY:
LABORATORY
EXPERIMENT 1
Morphological characters, systematic 3 c position and age of fossil genera
pertaining to brachiopods 9
EXPERIMENT 2
Morphological characters, systematic position and age of fossil genera
pertaining to bivalves 23
EXPERIMENT 3
pertaining to cephalopods 35
EXPERIMENT 4
pertaining to trilobites 55
EXPERIMENT 5
pertaining to echinoids 69
EXPERIMENT 6
Preparation of physiographic maps of India 81
EXPERIMENT 7
Preparation of lithostratigraphic maps of India 91
EXPERIMENT 8
Preparation of stratigraphic columns 105
1
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das
Former Director Department of Geology Department of Geology
School of Sciences University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. D. C. Srivastava Bhubaneshwar, Odisha
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Department of Earth Science Prof. K. R. Hari
Department of Geology Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee School of Studies in Geology & Water
University of Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Resources Management
Delhi Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. Pramendra Dev (Retd.) Prof. H. B. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Centre of Advanced Study in Geology
Vikram University Banaras Hindu University Dr. K. Anbarasu
Ujjain, MP Varanasi, UP Department of Geology
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy Prof. M. A. Malik National College
Department of Geology Department of Geology Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University University of Jammu
Hyderabad Jammu, J & K Faculty of Geology Discipline
Prof. L. S. Chamyal Prof. S.J. Sangode School of Sciences, IGNOU
Department of Geology Department of Geology
Prof. Meenal Mishra
M.S. University of Baroda Savitribai Phule Pune University
Pune, Maharashtra Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Vadodara, Gujarat
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Dr. M. Prashanth
Prof. Arun Kumar
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. Omkar Verma
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur
Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors Content Editor
Dr. Omkar Verma (Experiments 1, 2, 6, 7 & 8) Dr. S. K. Parcha (Experiments 3, 4, 5, & 8) Prof. S. K. Shah (Retd.)
School of Sciences Scientist – G (Retd.) Department of Geology
IGNOU, New Delhi Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology University of Jammu,
Dehradun Jammu
Transformation: Dr. Omkar Verma (Experiments 1 to 5)

Dr. Kakoli Gogoi (Experiments 6 to 8)
Course Coordinators: Dr. Omkar Verma and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Dr. Omkar Verma for designing cover page and Ms. Savita Sharma for assistance in word
processing and graphical work.
December, 2020
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources in this course is being used only for educational purposes
and not for commercial purposes.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office
at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director, SOS, IGNOU.
Printed at
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List of audio/video materials related to this course
1. Evolution of Himalaya
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVGZKqrjVZY
2. Himalaya – an overview
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vK5Cglisa1Y
3. Fossils in Himalaya
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLUqzsz1E80
4. Application of Palaeontology
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbDXz8dZDWY
5. Science of Palaeontology (Fossils and Fossilization)
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEN6q5CCJCU
6. Deccan Volcanism and Mass Extinction at K/T Boundary
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cxifXuAnSPE
7. Age and duration of Deccan Volcanism
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rodlNJOA-r8
8. Deccan volcanism: an inside story
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1a3glcg0oGs
Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials pertaining to the
course you may visit YouTube page of the School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Alternatively, you can visit eGyankosh website at
http://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/36575
3
IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS
• Attendance is compulsory in the Laboratory Course work

held generally at the Study Centre.
• The Laboratory Course is worth 2 credits to be completed
over 7 days duration:
 6 days of Guided Laboratory work
 1 day for the Unguided Laboratory work
• To successfully complete the laboratory course you will

have to pass (at least 35% marks) in the Guided and
Unguided components separately.
4
STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY: LABORATORY
The laboratory course titled, ‘Stratigraphy and Palaeontology: Laboratory’ (BGYCL-138) is a
laboratory-oriented course based on the theoretical aspects dealt in the course ‘Stratigraphy and
Palaeontology (BGYCT-137) of the B.Sc. (General) Programme. Stratigraphy and palaeontology
are the basic branches of geology that help in orderly arranging the rock record and knowing the
evolutionary history of life through ages on the earth. Thus, identification of various fossil genera
based on morphology is very useful in arranging rock layers in a chronological fashion,
reconstructing evolution of life and knowing their palaeoecology, palaeoenvironment and
palaeobiogeography. Therefore, hands-on training with fossil specimens is compulsory to have a
complete understanding of their morphology so that they can be identified accurately.
The experiments of the course include certain activities that need to be written in your practical
notebook/ laboratory file and the same to be reported to the academic counsellor after their
completion for evaluation. The course comprises 8 experiments worth 2 credits. You will gain
practical skills after observing, drawing, labelling characteristic morphological features and
indentifying various fossil genera of invertebrates while undertaking the experiments. You will also
learn how to prepare lithostratigraphic maps showing important geologic units of India and
lithostratigraphic columns of a geological section or site.
The experiments 1 to 5 deal with the morphological characters, systematic position,
palaeoecology and age of the fossil genera pertaining to the main groups of invertebrates such as
brachiopods, bivalves, cephalopods, trilobites and echinoids. You may refer Block 4 of BGYCT-137
for studying the morphology and age of these fossil groups.
Experiment 6 is based on Block 1 of BGYCT-137 which deals with preparation of maps of India
showing the extent of various physiographic divisions and their important features. Experiment 7
is based on Block 2 of BGYCT-137 which deals with preparation of map of India showing
important geological units/basins such as Precambrian cratons, Proterozoic sedimentary basins,
Gondwana basins and Deccan traps of India. Experiment 8 is based on Block 1 of BGYCT-137
that deals with the preparation of the stratigraphic columns of various geological sites.
Expected Learning Skills
After performing the experiments of this course, you should be able to:
 observe and examine the morphological characters of fossil genera;
 prepare line-drawing of the fossil specimens and label their morphological features;
 identify the fossil specimens and assign their geological ages;
 prepare physiographic and geological maps of India; and
 construct stratigraphic columns of geological sections.
Guidelines for Performing the Experiments

While performing the experiments, you must have the relevant blocks of the theory course
with you for reference along with this laboratory manual. In many of the experiments, you
will find references to the material given at the end.
5
This laboratory course, comprising eight experiments, involves six days (twelve sessions of four
hours each) of intense laboratory work. You would be required to perform all eight experiments
described in this laboratory manual. You have to perform these experiments under the guidance of
your counsellor. These experiments are called guided experiments. The seventh day is reserved
for the Term End Practical Examination (TEPE), in which you will have to perform one or more
assigned experiments without consulting the counsellor. The experiments assigned for this
purpose are called unguided experiments.
The details of the practical sessions according to day, session and experiment-wise for this course
are given in Table 1.
Laboratory File/Practical Notebook
Maintaining a complete and up-to-date record of laboratory work is an important part of scientific
training. You need to prepare and bring a laboratory file/practical notebook for writing and reporting
the experiments you have performed in each practical session. You may use a 100 page practical
notebook for this purpose.
Instruction: Redraw the schematics/ diagrams/ maps/ lithostratigraphic columns given
under the section “Laboratory Exercises” and their answers in your laboratory file/
practical notebook and submit the same to the academic counsellor for evaluation.
You are advised to prepare in advance for recording the laboratory exercise prior to coming to
laboratory/classroom. For each experiment, you should write down title of the experiment, date and
time of the experiment, etc. along with the results obtained and your observations.
You need to submit your practical notebook and other required items, if any to counsellor for
evaluation. Marks will be allocated based on the successful completion of the experiments and
recording the results and observations in your notebook in an appropriate manner.
Feedback form is given at the end of the course. Fill it up and send it back to us which will
help us to improve the course material.
Your feedback pertaining to this course will help us undertake maintenance and timely revision of
the course. Send your feedback to us to the address given below or e-mail to
omkarverma@ignou.ac.in or kakoligogoi@ignou.ac.in:
The Course Coordinator (BGYCL-138)
Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi
New Delhi – 110068 (India)
We hope that after studying and performing the experiments of this course you will acquire basic
practical skills to observe, record and solve various problems related to stratigraphy and
palaeontology.
Wishing you success and all the best in this endeavour!!
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Table 1: Day, session and experiment-wise details of BGYCL-138
Title(s) Day Session
GUIDED EXPERIMENT S. No.
Experiment 1: Morphological characters, systematic

1 I & II
position and age of fossil genera pertaining to brachiopods

2 III & IV
position and age of fossil genera pertaining to bivalves

3 V & VI
position and age of fossil genera pertaining to cephalopods

4 VII & VIII
position and age of fossil genera pertaining to trilobites

IX
position and age of fossil genera pertaining to echinoids
5
Experiment 6: Preparation of physiographic maps of India X
Experiment 7: Preparation of lithostratigraphic maps of

XI
India
6
Experiment 8: Preparation of stratigraphic columns XII
ASSIGNED UNGUIDED EXPERIMENT 7 TEPE
7
8
EXPERIMENT 1
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS,
SYSTEMATIC POSITION AND AGE
OF FOSSIL GENERA PERTAINING
TO BRACHIOPODS
Outline of Experiment________________________________________
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Precautions To Be Taken Before Studying Fossil
Specimens
Expected Learning Skills
1.6 Laboratory Exercises
1.2 Requirements
1.7 Results and Discussion
1.3 Brachiopods: Systematics, General
Morphology and Age Range 1.8 References
1.4 Common Genera 1.9 Further Suggested Readings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied the general morphology, systematic position and geological history of
brachiopods in Unit 13 of Block 4 of BGYCT-137. You have learnt that the brachiopods form a
major fossil group of animals. Their fossils first appeared in rocks of early Cambrian age and the
distant descendants of these ancient forms are still living in the oceans and seas.
Brachiopods are entirely marine animals; occur in all oceans at depths ranging from the intertidal
to 5000 m and till date no brachiopod has been found in the fresh water environment. All
brachiopods are sessile (non-mobile), benthic and solitary marine animals having a shell made of
two unequal valves and live on the sea floor usually in clusters. Many of them remain fixed to the
sea floor while others just lie on the sea-bed.
In this experiment, we intend to provide you with some practical experience in studying some
common fossil genera of brachiopods. It is important to note that brachiopods have around 4500
known genera, out of which merely 100 genera are surviving in today’s ocean.
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BGYCL-138 Stratigraphy and Palaeontology: Laboratory
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
The morphological study of various genera of brachiopods or any fossil group
is important to accurately identify the genera and to differentiate one form from
another. It also helps us to establish the evolutionary sequence of a group with
respect to its geological age range, which in turn, provides data to know the
diversity, palaeobiogeography, palaeoecology and geological significance of
any group or its genera.
Expected Learning Skills__________________________

After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 list the systematic positions of some common genera of brachiopods;
 identify and describe their morphological characters;
 prepare their line drawing with labeling of morphological features; and
 write their stratigraphic/geological age and palaeoecology
1.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully, following are the requirements:
 Pen, pencil, eraser, sharpener, scale, stencil and hand lens
 Practical note-book
 Fossil specimens of brachiopods
Instructions: You are required to study Unit 13 of BGYCT-137 course
(Stratigraphy and Palaeontology) before performing this experiment.
Bring this practical manual along with Block 4 of BGYCT-137 course
while attending the Practical Counselling session.
1.3 BRACHIOPODS: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

MORPHOLOGY AND AGE RANGE
1.3.1 Systematic Palaeontology/Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Brachiopoda
Subphyla Linguliformea
Craniiformea
Rhynchonelliformea
1.3.2 General Morphology
The shell of a brachiopod consists of two-valves, which are held together
either by teeth and socket (e.g., rhynchonelliformeans or articulates) or by
muscles (e.g., linguliformeans and craniiformeans or inarticluates). The two
valves of brachiopods are morphologically quite different, each valve is
bilaterally symmetrical and one valve is always larger than the other. The
larger valve is commonly known as pedicle or ventral valve. It contains an
opening known as pedicle opening or foramen at the beak. The smaller
valve is known as brachial or dorsal valve (Fig. 1.1). Each valve has a
10
Morphological Characters, Systematic Position and
Experiment 1
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...Age of Fossil Genera Pertaining to Brachiopods
pointed end which is known as beak. It represents an initial point of growth of
a valve. In brachiopod shells, the shell growth mostly occurs in the form of
concentric lines, radial ribs or corrugations on the exterior surface of the
valves. The arched part of the valve near the beak is called umbo. The beak
is considered the posterior end of the valve whereas the rounded margin
located opposite to the beak is the anterior end as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Commissure is the line where the two valves meet (Fig. 1.1b). It may be
straight or zig-zag.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.1: Shells of brachiopods showing external morphology: a) dorsal view;
and b) side view.
Fig. 1.2: Dorsal view of a brachiopod shell showing internal morphology of the
pedicle valve. (Source: simplified after Clarkson, 1979)
The pedicle valve has a deep medial depressed area described as the sulcus
that receives medial elevated portion termed as fold of the brachial valve.
Teeth are knob-like projections that are present on the posterior end of the
pedicle valve and fit into the small depressions known as sockets of the
brachial valve. The contact point where teeth and sockets of the two valves
rotate to open and close forms the hinge and the portion of the posterior end
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where both valves meet is known as hinge line (Fig. 1.2). A straight hinge line
is described as strophic, while a curved one is named as astrophic.
Brachiopod valves come in a variety of shapes like convex, concave or flat
and some forms show interesting external ornamentation of costae and plicae.
Costae are very fine radial ridges on the external surface of the valve
originating from the beak and plicae are radial ridges present on external as
well as internal surfaces of the valve. In a few forms, the valves are covered
with spines.
1.3.3 Stratigraphic Range
Brachiopods have a very long geological history. They first appeared near the
beginning of the Cambrian period and some of the forms are still alive today
on the floor of the modern oceans.
1.4 COMMON GENERA

1.4.1 Linoproductus
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Brachiopoda
Subphylum Rhynchonelliformea
Class Rhynchonellata
Order Productida
Family Linoproductidae
Genus Linoproductus
Morphological Description: It is a medium to large sized genus of
brachiopods. It has concavo-convex valves. Shell is of medium to large size
and its outline is elongated to subcircular. The ventral profile inflated
posteriorly and brachial valve gently concave. The pedicle valve convex,
brachial valve starts from flat, but becomes concave. The margins of the two
valves are often turned ninety degrees from the hinge and become very
elongated. Surface of both valves are marked with fine striations that are
slightly wavy.
Hinge commonly occurs in the widest part of shell and tends to be distorted at
spine bases, which are widely scattered ventrally. The cardinal process is
sessile and supported by lateral ridges. Adductor scars and brachial ridges are
weakly marked. The genus is also known for having some of the largest shells.
Spines are occasionally present. The genus Linoproductus is distinguished by
its strongly convex pedicle valve and its slightly concave brachial valve (Fig.
1.3).
Stratigraphic Range: Carboniferous to Triassic.
Palaeoecology: The genus Linoproductus (known originally as Productus)
was a marine animal that commonly lived as sessile, low-level epifaunal
suspension feeder.
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Experiment 1 Age of Fossil Genera Pertaining to Brachiopods
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.3: Linoproductus: a) Photograph; and b) Line drawing of the external
views of the valves of Linoproductus showing the shape and growth
lines.
1.4.2 Spirifer
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Brachiopoda
Order Spiriferida
Family Spiriferidae
Genus Spirifer
Morphological Description: This genus is triangular in shape and
characterised by having a long and straight (strophic) hinge line. It has a
biconvex shell, prominent umbo and well-developed interarea of the pedicle
valve, large delthyrium and triangular brachial valve. The external surface of
the shell is marked by strong radial ribs, sulcus and plica (Fig. 1.4).
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.4: Spirifer: a) Line drawing of the side view; b) Line drawing of the dorsal
view of Spirifer (Source: modified after Nield, 1987); and c) Photograph
showing external view. (Courtesy: Mr. A. A. Quarshi, Srinagar)
Stratigraphic Range: Silurian to Jurassic.

Palaeoecology: The genus Spirifer was a marine animal, lived as sessile and
epifaunal suspension feeder.
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1.4.3 Athyris
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Brachiopoda
Order Athyridida
Family Athyrididae
Genus Athyris
Morphological Description: It usually has a biconvex transverse shell. The
hinge line is curved. The both valves of the shell are almost equally convex.
The umbo ventrally, round foramen, small deltidial plates and teeth are
prominent on the dental plates. Long and thin dental plates are present on the
pedicle valve whereas the brachial valve contains cardinal plates. The
concentric growth lines occur on the external surface of the shell (Fig. 1.5).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.5: Line drawing of Athyris: a) External; b) Side; and c) Dorsal views.
Stratigraphic Range: Devonian to Triassic.

Palaeoecology: The genus Athyris was a marine animal that commonly lived
as sessile, low-level epifaunal suspension feeder.
1.4.4 Rhynchonella
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Brachiopoda
Order Rhynchonellida
Family Rhynchonellidae
Genus Rhynchonella
Morphological Description: This genus includes small to medium sized
forms of brachiopods. It has a triangular-shaped shell with curved hinge line. It
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has large teeth and short dental plates. Pedicle valve is slightly curved and
contains small umbo and deep sulcus. Brachial valve yields a small cardinal
process. Brachidium composed of small curved crura (Fig. 1.6).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.5: Line drawing of Rhynchonella: a) External; b) Anterior; and c) Side
views. (Source: modified after Nield, 1987)
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic.

Palaeoecology: The genus Rhynchonella was a marine animal, lived as
sessile, epifaunal suspension feeder.
1.4.5 Terebratula
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Brachiopoda
Order Terebratulida
Family Terebratulidae
Genus Terebratula
Morphological Description: The genus has a range of shell shapes, from
biconvex, elongate to oval or round (Fig. 1.6). The outer surface of the shell
contains poorly developed concentric growth lines. Anterior margin contains
two folds with corresponding ridges and sulci. Pedicle foramen is round. It has
a curved hinge line and dental plates are absent. Brachial valve has strong
adductor impressions and an indentation bounded by two folds situated on the
frontal margin of the valve. The pedicle opening is present.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.6: Line drawing of Terebratula: a) Side view; b) Dorsal view; and c)
Anterior view. (Source: redrawn after Nield, 1987)
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Stratigraphic Age: Triassic to Eocene.
Palaeoecology: The genus Terebratula was a marine animal, lived as a
stationary, epifaunal suspension feeder.
1.4.6 Terebratella
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Brachiopoda
Order Terebratellida
Family Terebratellidae
Genus Terebratella
Morphological Description: The shell is oval in shape. The pedicle valve is
strongly convex and brachial is less convex to more or less flattened (Fig. 1.7).
Hinge line is straight to slightly curved. Umbo contains a large foramen. It has
a prominent beak. The external surface of the shell is marked by the radiating
ribs. Deltidial plates are long and narrow. Shell contains small and dense
punctae.
Fig.1.7: Photograph of Terebratella. (Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University,

Chennai)
Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Recent.

Palaeoecology: The genus Terebratella is a marine animal, living as a
stationary epifaunal suspension feeder.
1.4.7 Lingulella
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Brachiopoda
Subphylum Linguliformea
Class Lingulata
Order Lingulida
Family Lingulidae
Genus Lingulella
16
Experiment 1
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…... Age of Fossil Genera Pertaining to Brachiopods
Morphological Description: The shell is elongate, oval or subtriangular (Fig.
1.8). The anterolateral margin is slightly rounded, length of the shell greater
than width. It has triangular pedicle groove and visceral areas of both valves
weakly impressed. The dorsal visceral area has low median ridge, extending
anterior to mid valve. Anterior lateral and central muscle scars closely spaced.
Beak is pointed and surface of the valve is gently convex marked by strong
concentric ribs. In some specimens faint radial striae are observed. The
genus is weakly bi-convex, tapering towards the umbones. The pedicle valve
has a distinct hinge line and is larger than that of the brachial valve. Shell
contains a distinct and subtriangular pedicle groove. Its external surface is
ornamented with fine and dense concentric growth lines.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.8: Genus Lingulella: a) Photograph; and b) Line drawing of the external
view showing the shape of the shell and growth lines.
Stratigraphic Range: Cambrian to Ordovician.

Palaeoecology: The genus Lingulella was a marine animal and lived as
mobile infaunal suspension feeder.
1.4.8 Lingula
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Brachiopoda
Subphylum Linguliformea
Class Lingulata
Order Lingulida
Family Lingulidae
Genus Lingula
Morphological Description: Shell is elongate, oval to subrectangular in
outline. Its lateral margins are sub-parallel and anterior margin is broadly
rounded to straight. Pedicle valve has a wide triangular pedicle groove and
lateral vestigial prop-areas. The dorsal interior has a visceral area extending
somewhat anterior to the mid valve. The dorsal central and anterior lateral
muscle scars are closely spaced and bisected by weak median septum.
17
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The posterior margin is rounded, with a median beak. Vascular media is
absent. The dorsal visceral area is extending somewhat anterior to the mid
valve shell with concentric growth lines, showing a low median ridge in the
brachial valve. Lingulid brachiopod is recognised by its growth lines on its shell
and it has symmetrical valves. The shell is small in size and is distinguishingly
biconvex (Fig. 1.9).
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9: Genus Lingula: a) Photograph; and b) Line drawing of the external view
showing the shape of the shell with concentric growth lines.
Stratigraphic Range: Orodovician to Recent.

Paleoecology: It is a marine infaunal and suspension feeder brachiopod. It
lives commonly in compact and stable sediments under the influence of
moderate, near-bottom currents.
1.4.9 Dalmanella
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Brachiopoda
Order Orthida
Family Dalmanellidae
Genus Dalmanella
Morphological Description: Shell is subcircular to subquadrate in outline,
with variably biconvex valves with a shallow median longitudinal depression
(Fig. 1.10). The surface of the valves is covered by strong, radial, sub-angular
and sub-equal composite ribs. The total number of ribs is varying from thirty
eight to forty including primary ribs. The primary ribs are further divided into
two to four secondary ribs. Lateral ribs curve back distinctly to the cardinal
angles. Cardinal angles are rounded. The interspaces between the ribs are
concave, usually occupied by the finer secondary ribs. The posterior margin of
the shell is slightly curved.
The beak is minute, pointed, curved and rising slightly beyond the hinge line.
The hinge line is straight, but less than the width of the shell. Hinge area is
slightly triangular. The width of the shell is greater than the length, maximum
width of the shell above the middle line of the shell. The grooves between the
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costal ribs are formed by the subdivisions of the primary ribs. The primary ribs
usually are stronger, deeper than those between the branches. The brachial
valve is sub-orbicular to convex with weak median depression.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.10: Genus Dalmanella: a) Photograph; b) Line drawing of the external
view; and c) Line drawing of the dorsal view of the valve showing the
shape and growth lines.
Stratigraphic Range: Ordovician to Silurian.

Palaeoecology: The genus was a marine stationary low-level epifaunal
suspension feeder that usually attached to substrata.
1.4.10 Syringothyris
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Brachiopoda
Order Spiriferinida
Family Syringothyrididae
Genus Syringothyris
Morphological Description: The shell of genus Syringothyris is strongly
transverse. The lateral profile is weakly convex and sulcus rapidly extends
anteriorly with borders subtend 30 to 35 degree angle. The sulcus has a flat
bottom and is dorsally elongated into a very short tongue. Ventral interarea is
distinctly flat or slightly concave apically with large open delthyrium. The
delthyrium is marked by a narrow deep groove known as syrinx that gives
name to this genus.
The dorsal valve is transversely subpentagonal in outline and gently convex in
mid sector having flattened flanks in transverse profile and maximum
convexity umbonally in lateral profile. Interarea is low and weakly concave.
Ornamentation is weak and costae are flat, increasing in size toward front
margin and laterally rapidly diminishing in size. The growth lines are finely
concentric and are more prominent. The surface of interarea bears distinct
growth lines.
Stratigraphic Range: Carboniferous.
Palaeoecology: The genus Syringothyris was a marine animal, lived as an
immobile low-level epifaunal suspension feeder.
19
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.11: Genus Syringothyris: a) Photograph; and b) Line drawing of the
external view.
1.5 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BEFORE

STUDING FOSSIL SPECIMENS
It should be noted that fossil specimens are non-renewable valuable scientific
resource. Therefore, you are advised to handle them very carefully during their
study. It is to be kept in mind that no damage will occur, in any case, to the
fossil specimens provided to you for study at the laboratory. No marking either
with pen or pencil or any other means will be allowed in any specimens.
Before leaving the laboratory, all specimens will be handed over to the
counselor or laboratory incharge.
1.6 LABORATORY EXERCISES

The fossil specimens of brachiopod, belonging to the genera described in
Section 1.4, will be provided to you for study at your study centre. You will
have to perform the following activities:
I. Draw the sketch of the specimen on your practical note-book.
II. Label its various morphological features (refer Figs. 1.1 and 1.2 for
labeling various morphological features).
III. Write its systematic position or palaeontology.
IV. Briefly, describe the morphology of the shell.
V. Write the stratigraphic range and palaeoecology of the genus under study.
Format for Studying Fossil Specimens
Fossil No.: …………….. Date: ………………
Kingdom
Subkingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
20
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
Systematic Palaeontology: It includes taxonomic hierarchy of the genus.
Morphological Description: It includes sketches of the specimen as well as
labeling and description of its morphological features.
Stratigraphic Age: It includes the age range of the genus.
1.7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the morphological study, the given fossil specimens have been
identified as Linoproductus, Spirifer, Athyris, Rhynchonella, Terebratula,
Terebratella, Lingulella, Lingula, Dalmanella and Syringothyris.
1.8 REFERENCES
 Clarkson, E.N.K. (1979) Invertebrate Palaeontology and Evolution,
Blackwell Science Ltd., USA.
 Nield, E.W. and Tucker, V.C.T. (1985) Palaeontology – An Introduction,
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
1.9 FURTHER SUGGESTED READINGS

 Shah, S.K. (2013) Elements of Palaeontology, Geological Society of India,
Bangalore.
 Woods, H. (2004) Palaeontology Invertebrate, CBS Publishers and
Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 https://paleobiodb.org/classic
21
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
22
EXPERIMENT 2
TO BIVALVES
2.1 Introduction 2.4 Common Genera
Expected Learning Skills 2.5 Laboratory Exercises
2.2 Requirements 2.6 Results and Discussion
2.3 Bivalves: Systematics, General 2.7 Reference
Morphology and Age Range
2.8 Further/Suggested Readings
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have made line drawing and described morphological characters
along with palaeoecology and stratigraphic range of various genera of brachiopods. Every genus of
brachiopods displays a set of distinctive morphological characters, on which basis they can be
differentiated from each other. You are aware that brachiopods are marine animals; hence, their
occurrence in a sedimentary bed is an indicative of marine environment of deposition for that bed.
In this experiment, you will work with some common genera of bivalves. Bivalvia is the second
largest class of molluscs. They consist of a twin-valved shell (i.e., shell made up of two almost
similar valves) that gives them a superficial resemblance to brachiopods, but varies in shell
morphology and symmetry. In many bivalves, the valves are virtually mirror images of each other,
but a very few forms like oysters and rudist bivalves have one valve larger than the other. Bivalves
have also been described as ‘pelecypods’ and ‘lamellibranchs’. They represent a wide range of
adaptation that is from marine to freshwater and from infaunal burrowers, epifaunal to active
swimmers. As a consequence, a genus of marine environment possesses different morphological
characters as compared with those of non-marine genera.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
Expected Learning Skills__________________________
 list the systematic positions of some common genera of bivalves;
 identify and describe their morphology characters;
 prepare their line drawing with labeling of morphological features; and
 write their stratigraphic/geological and palaeoecological range.
2.2 REQUIREMENTS
 Pen, pencil, eraser, sharpener, scale, stencil and hand lens.
 Practical note-book.
 Fossil specimens of bivalves.
Bring this practical manual along with Block 4 of BGYCT-137 course
while attending the Practical Counselling session.
2.3 BIVALVES: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Subclass Palaeotaxodonta
Cryptodonta
Pteriomorphia
Palaeoheterodonta
Heterodonta
Anomalodesmata
2.3.2 General Morphology
The soft parts of bivalves are covered by hard exo-skeleton, which is made up
of two valves. In most cases, the valves are equal in size, asymmetrical in
outline and essentially mirror images of each other. The two valves are named
as the right and left valves (Fig. 2.1), because they are located to the right
and left sides of the animal. Each valve has a nose-like pointed apex, which is
known as beak. Beak usually curves toward the anterior (i.e., front) end of
valves. Umbo (plural umbones) is the region of maximum curvature of each
valve close to the beak and situated on the dorsal margin of the shell (Fig.
2.1). In most of the bivalves, the two valves are joined together along their
24
Experiment 2
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...Age of Fossil Genera Pertaining to Bivalves
dorsal margin by means of elastic ligaments and by an interlocking
mechanism of teeth and sockets.
Fig. 2.1: Dorsal view of the shell showing the external morphology of a bivalve.
Orientation of the bivalve shell

If you place the beaks of the shell uppermost in your front, the valve appears
on the right side is right valve and that on the left is left valve. The margin
closest to the beak is anterior of the shell and opposite margin is posterior.
The margin of the shell near the hinge is dorsal and the opposite margin is
ventral (Fig. 2.1).
If you see the internal surface of the valves, you can find the following
features: muscle scars, pallial line, pallial sinus, teeth and sockets. Muscle
scars are one of the important features of the bivalve morphology. Indeed,
these are the impressions or attachment sites left by the soft (fleshy) adductor
muscles and commonly referred to as adductor impressions or adductor
scars. Many bivalves have two adductor scars; one on the posterior margin,
known as posterior adductor scar and the other on the anterior margin
described as anterior adductor scar (Fig. 2.2).
Fig. 2.2: Left valve of a bivalve showing internal (interior) bivalve morphology.
25
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
The portion of the dorsal margin of valves, where teeth and sockets occur is
known as hinge line or cardinal margin. The area lying between the hinge
line and the umbo of each valve is called hinge area. In some cases, the
hinge area is divided into a lunule and an escutcheon (Fig. 2.1). Lunule is a
heart-shaped area that occurs in front of the beak and escutcheon is an
elongated depression present posterior to the beak. The teeth present below
the beak are termed as cardinal teeth and those that occur in front or towards
the posterior side of the cardinal teeth are the lateral teeth (Fig. 2.2).
In bivalves, the term dentition is used to describe the arrangement of teeth,
sockets and other closely related features. There are three types of dentitions
present in the bivalves: taxodont, schizodont and heterodont (Fig. 2.3).
a) Taxodont: it is a primitive type of dentition, where teeth are numerous,
more or less equal in size and arranged in a subparallel pattern.
b) Schizodont: it includes two or three thick teeth with prominent grooves.
c) Heterodont: it comprises both cardinal and lateral teeth, which are not
uniform, and less in number.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.3: Internal view of valves of bivalves showing different types of dentition:
a) Taxodont; b) Schizodont; and c) Heterodont dentitions.
The bivalve shells lacking dentitions are termed as edentulous shells.

Turning to the outside surface of the valves, you can see that in some cases it
is smooth while in others it is ornamented with fine growth lines. The growth
lines are concentric about the umbones and show the earlier positions of the
edge of a valve. The outer surfaces may also be ornamented with other
surface features such as radial ribs, concentric ridges and spines.
2.3.3 Geological History
Like brachiopods, bivalves also have a very long geologic history. The earliest
bivalves are known from the early Cambrian, but they became diverse during
the Ordovician. The non-marine bivalves first arose in the Devonian and
became abundant in the Carboniferous. Some of the groups of bivalves are
surviving till date.
2.4 COMMON GENERA

2.4.1 Pecten
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
26
Experiment 2 Age of Fossil Genera Pertaining to Bivalves
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
Class Bivalvia
Order Pectinida
Family Pectinidae
Genus Pecten
Morphological Description: The shell of Pecten shows trigonal to subcircular
outline. The shell is gently convex and equilateral to nearly equivalve. Its right
valve is convex and the left valve is flat. It has a straight hinge line with wing-
like expansions. Well developed radial ribs and costae are present on the
external surface of the shell. It has well developed ears, a central pit for
ligament and large adductor impressions (Fig. 2.4a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.4: Photographs showing external views: a) Pecten; and b) Inoceramus.
(Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University, Chennai)
Stratigraphic Range: Carboniferous to Recent.

Palaeoecology: The genus, Pecten is a free-swimming suspension feeder
and occurs in a variety of environments ranging from marine, marginal marine
to freshwater.
2.4.2 Inoceramus
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Pterioida
Family Inoceramidae
Genus Inoceramus
Morphological Description: The shells of Inoceramus are ovate, circular,
inequivalved to inequilateral in shape. Hinge line is usually long, which may be
straight or oblique. It possesses taxodont dentition, ears and prominent
umbones. It is a monomyarian bivalve. It has transverse ligament area and
feebly present adductor scars. The external surface of shells bears prominent,
broad, rounded and curved concentric ribs. The margins of the shell are
usually rounded (Fig. 2.4b).
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Cretaceous.
Palaeoecology: The genus was a mobile epifaunal suspension feeder.
27
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
2.4.3 Ostrea
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Ostreoida
Family Ostreidae
Genus Ostrea
Morphological Description
The shells of Ostrea have various shapes, ranging from triangular, irregular,
inequilateral to inequivalve (Fig. 2.5). Ostrea is a monomyarian bivalve, which
means the genus has only a single large adductor muscle scar. Its left valve is
convex, bears prominent umbo and radiating ribs. The right valve is smooth
and its shapes vary from subquadrate, concave to flat. The hinge line is short
and bears no teeth. The shell generally has a broad triangular to elongate
ligamental pit.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.5: Photographs of genus Ostrea: (a-b) Internal views of the shells and (c)
External view of the shell. [Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University,
Chennai for (a) and Mr. A. A. Quarshi, Srinagar for( b) and (c)]
Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Recent.

Palaeoecology: The genus, stationary epifaunal suspension feeder
2.4.4 Gryphaea
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Ostreoida
Family Gryphaeidae
Genus Gryphaea
Morphological Description: It is a monomyarian bivalve. The shells of
Gryphaea are irregular, inequivalve to inequilateral. The left valve is large and
28
Experiment 2
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…... Age of Fossil Genera Pertaining to Bivalves
convex in shape. The right valve is flat and concave. The umbo of the left
valve is incurved whereas it is weakly projected in the right valve. The external
surface of the shell is smooth (Fig. 2.6a and 2.6b).
Palaeoecology: The genus, Gryphaea was a stationary epifaunal suspension
feeder.
Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Cretaceous.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.6: Photographs showing: (a-b) Gryphaea external and internal views; and
c) Alectryonia external view. (Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna
University, Chennai for a and c)
2.4.5 Alectryonia
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Ostreoida
Family Ostreidae
Genus Alectryonia
Morphological Description: It is an edentulous (no teeth) bivalve, which is
irregular, inequivalved and inequilateral in shape. The left valve is convex and
the right valve is concave. It has a simple hinge area. The external surface of
both valves is highly uneven with angular folds. The margins of the valve are
highly toothed or zig-zag (Fig. 2.6c).
Palaeoecology: The genus, stationary epifaunal suspension feeder
Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Recent
2.4.6 Cardita
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Carditoida
29
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
Family Carditidae
Genus Cardita
Morphological Description: The shell possesses various forms, ranging from
oblong, elongated to trapezoidal and is inequilateral. The radial ribs and typical
radiating lines are present on the external surface of the shell. The shell has
prominent anterior umbones. Dentition is heterodont with oblique cardinal
teeth and small anterior lateral teeth. It is an anisomyarian bivalve, i.e., the
posterior muscle scar is larger than the anterior muscle scar. It has a simple
pallial line and external ligament (Fig. 2.7).
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.7: Photographs of genus Cardita: a) External; and b) Internal views of the
shell. (Courtesy: Mr. A. A. Quarshi, Srinagar)
Stratigraphic Range: Palaeocene to Recent.

Palaeoecology: The genus is a mobile infaunal suspension feeder.
2.4.7 Arca
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Arcoida
Family Arcidae
Genus Arca
Morphological Description: The shells of Arca are equivalved, inequilateral,

elongate to sub-rectangular in shapes. They have taxodont dentition and
straight hinge line. The shell has prominent anterior umbones and simple
pallial line. Hinge line bears many small and transverse teeth. Arca is an
isomyarian bivalve. Shell margins are usually smooth, but sometimes, they
may be dentated. The radiating ribs and concentric lines are present on the
external surface of the shell.
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Recent.
Palaeoecology: The genus is a stationary epifaunal suspension feeder.
30
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.8: Photographs of genus Arca: a) External; and b) Internal views of the
shell. (Courtesy: Mr. A. A. Quarshi, Srinagar).
2.4.8 Unio
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Unionoida
Family Unionidae
Genus Unio
Morphological Description: The shells of Unio are transversely oblong,
inflated, subequilateral, oval to elongate in shapes. Unio shells are thick and
their external surface is either smooth or ornamented with striae, tubercles,
and ridges. They have anterior umbones and elongated ligament. They usually
have a simple pallial line, heterodont dentition and deep anterior adductor scar
(Fig. 2.9).
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.9: Photographs of genus Unio: a) Internal; and b) External views of the
shell. (Courtesy: Mr. A. A. Quarshi, Srinagar)
Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Present.

Palaeoecology: The genus lives in freshwater.
31
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
2.4.9 Trigonia
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Trigoniida
Family Trigoniidae
Genus Trigonia
Morphological Description: The shell is trigonal to slightly inequilateral in
shape. It has gently rounded anterior margin and angular posterior margin. It
possesses schizodont dentition, anterior umbones, strong teeth and deep
adductor impressions. The external surface of the shell is ornamented with
concentric costae. The shells of Trigonia usually posses transversely ridged to
smooth escutcheon area and simple pallial line (Fig. 2.10).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.10: Shell of Trigonia: a) Dorsal; and (b-c) External views. (Source: modified
after Pugaczewska, 1976)
Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Cretaceous.

Palaeoecology: The genus Trigonia was a mobile infaunal suspension feeder.

The fossil specimens of bivalves, belonging to the genera described in Section
2.4, will be provided to you for study. You will have to perform the following
activities:
i. Draw the sketch of the specimen on your practical note-book.
ii. Label its various morphological features (refer Figs. 2.1 to Fig. 1.3 for
iii. Write its systematic position or palaeontology.
iv. Briefly, describe the morphology of the shell.
v. Write the stratigraphic range and palaeoecology of the genus under study.
32
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
Fossil No.: …………….. Date: ………………
Kingdom
Subkingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Systematic Palaeontology: It includes taxonomic hierarchy of the
genus.
Morphological Description: It includes sketches of the specimen as
well as labeling and description of its morphological features.

identified as Pecten, Inoceramus, Ostrea, Gryphaea, Alectryonia, Cardita,
Arca, Unio and Trigonia.
1.7 REFERENCE
 Pugaczewska, H. (1976) Trigoniidae of the Dogger of Leczyca (Central
Poland), Acta Paleontologica Polonica, 1: 79-96.

Bangalore.
33
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
34
EXPERIMENT 3
TO CEPHALOPODS
Outline of Experiment_______________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction 3.5 Common Genera of Ammonoids
3.3 Cephalopods: Systematics, General 3.8 References
3.4 Common Genera of Nautiloids
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have made line drawings and described morphological characters
along with palaeoecology and stratigraphic range of various genera of bivalves (pelecypods). Every
genus of bivalves displays a set of distinctive morphological characters, on which basis they can be
differentiated from each other. You know that bivalves show a wide range of adaptation, from marine
to freshwater and from infaunal burrowers, epifaunal to active swimmers. Therefore, marine bivalves
possess different morphological characters as compared with those of non-marine forms.
In this experiment, you will work with some common genera of cephalopod molluscs. They are
exclusively marine animals and are more active, quick movers, intelligent carnivorous predators with
varied shell morphology. They occupy the same ecological niche as fishes. The Class Cephalopoda
consists of three subclasses: Nautiloidea, Ammonoidea and Coleoidea. Among which Nautiloidea
and extinct Ammonoidea are commonly found as fossils. The third subclass, Coleoidea, comprises
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…...
primarily soft bodied animals. Like fishes, cephalopods are equipped with highly
developed eyes and sensory organs. They are adapted to fast swimming and
have developed more efficient mechanisms to locate their prey, detect
predators and to escape from them. Nautilus is the only living cephalopod that
has an external shell. The genus Nautilus is the only survivor among the
nautiloids, which is a very ancient group of cephalopods.
Expected Learning Skills____________________________

 list the systematic positions of some common genera of nautiloids and
ammonoids;
 prepare their line drawings with labeling of the morphological features; and
 write their stratigraphical and palaeoecological range.
3.2 REQUIREMENTS
 Fossil specimens of nautiloids and ammoniods.
3.3 CEPHALOPODS: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Subclass Nautiloidea
Characteristic features: Straight, curved or coiled external
shell with simple suture; simple surface sculpture. Four gills
are present.
Example – Nautilus
Age range – Late Cambrian to Present
Subclass Ammonoidea
Characteristic features: Coiled external shell with complex
surface sutures; complex surface sculpture. Gill count is
unknown. It is an extinct subclass of cephalopods
Example - Ammonites
36
Experiment 3 Age of Fossil Genera Pertaining to Cephalopods
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
Age range – Early Devonian to Late Cretaceous
Subclass Coleoidea
Characteristic features: Mostly soft bodied animals but some
forms may have a straight or coiled internal shell. The
organisms bear two gills.
Examples – squid, cuttlefish, octopus and extinct Belemnites.
Age range – Carboniferous to Present.
3.3.2 General Morphology of Nautiloids
Nautiloids are a large and diverse group of cephalopods. They have a
chambered external shell. The shell is tabular in form and may be straight,
curved or spirally coiled. It is a hollow cone with two main parts – body or living
chamber and phragmocone (Fig. 3.1a). Each chamber is formed when an
animal living in the body chamber grows and widens the shell, and moves
forward towards the ever-growing aperture. Each time this process leaves a
space behind the body, which is repeatedly walled off by a septum thus
forming a series of chambers (Nield and Tucker, 1985). Shell consists of a tube,
which is open at the larger end and closed at the smaller end. The opening
present on the larger end is termed as aperture and the tip of the smaller end
is the apex of the shell (Fig. 3.1a). The aperture has a small notch cut on its
ventral margin which is termed as hyponomic sinus (Fig. 3.1a).
The shell chambers increase in size from the apex (for embryonic shells it is
termed as protoconch) towards the aperture. In the coiled forms, the inner
whorls are partly or fully covered by the outer whorls (Fig. 3.1a). Whorl is a
single complete turn of the shell coiling and shells may have several whorls.
The space enclosed on both sides by the last whorl is described as umbilicus
(Fig. 3.1a). The gap between two successive whorls is termed as whorl gap.
Orientation of the shell
The margin of the shell towards aperture is anterior and towards the apex is
posterior. The side of the shell near the mouth and hyponome is ventral and
opposite side is dorsal. Dorsum is the dorsal side and venter is the ventral side
of the shell.
Turning to the interior or internal surface of the shell, you can see that the shell
is divided into a number of chambers or camerae by transverse partitions
known as septa (Fig. 3.1a). As already mentioned, the chambered portion
(except last chamber) of the shell is known as phragmocone (Fig. 3.1a). In
fact, phragmocone is the only part of the shell which is commonly preserved as
fossil. The last chamber of the shell is described as living or body chamber.
All chambers except the body chamber are filled with gas and they are also
known as gas chambers. A thin calcareous tube which runs through the centre
of each septum and connects all chambers is known as siphuncle (Fig. 3.1a).
Siphuncle is composed of septal necks and connecting rings (Fig. 3.1a). Septal
necks are short funnel-like structures, which are developed around the opening
in each septum. Connecting rings are the shelly tabular structures, which
37
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…...
connect the septal necks. The line where each septum joins the external
surface of the shell is termed as suture line (Fig. 3.1b). The suture lines are
either straight or slightly curved (Fig. 3.1a). The simple suture of nautiloids is
also known as nautiloid suture. You can see suture lines only after the
removal of the shell wall or in well preserved casts of nautiloids. It is important
to note that siphuncle, suture line and septal necks are important morphological
features, which distinguish nautiloids from ammonoids. In nautiloids, siphuncle
passes through the centre of each septum, suture line is usually simple or
sometimes, it may be straight or undulating and septal neck lies on the convex
side of each septum and is projected towards the apex (protoconch) of the
shell. The shells of nautiloids display a variety of forms as shown in Table 3.1.
Fig. 3.1: Shell of a nautiloid: a) showing internal morphology, and b) enlarged

part showing the suture lines.
Table 3.1: Types of nautiolids shells.

Shell name Shell form Line drawing
Orthoceracone Straight conical Fig. 3.2a
Cyrtoceracone Slightly curved Fig. 3.2b
Gyroceracone Loosely coiled Fig. 3.2c
Traphyceracone Shell having all whorls in contact Fig. 3.2d
Trochoceracone Eccentric coiled Fig. 3.2e
Involute nautilicone Body whorl covers all other Fig. 3.2f
38
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
whorls
Evolute nautilicone Earlier formed or older whorls are Fig. 3.2g
all visible
Exogastric Curved or straight shell with Fig. 3.2h
ventral side convex (curving
outside) and dorsum on the
inside
Endogastric Dorsal side convex (curving Fig. 3.2i
outside) and venter is on the
inside
Fig. 3.2: Shells of a nautiloids showing various shell forms: a) Orthoceracone, b)

Cytoceracone, c) Gyroceracone, d) Traphyceracone, e) Trochoceracone,
f) Involute nautilicone, g) Evolute nautilicone, h) Exogastric and i)
Endogastric shell forms. Note that figures 11.3h and 11.3i are similar to
figures 11.7g and 11.7h; the position of siphuncle helps us to determine
whether the shell belongs to nautiloid or ammonoid. (Source: redrawn
after Shrock and Twenhofel, 1987)
3.3.3 Geological History of Nautiloids

The nautiloids include the oldest known cephalopods. They first appeared in the
fossil record during the late Cambrian having a simple curved shell. They
rapidly diversified during the Ordovician and most of the groups arose during
this time. Ordovician nautiloids are marked by the presence of straight or
curved shells, which are much larger than the Cambrian nautiloids. The order
Nautilida, consisting of the living genus Nautilus, appeared in late Silurian or
early Devonian times. Nautiloids began to decline during the late Palaeozoic.
Most of the Palaeozoic nautiloids became extinct by the end of Permian and
only the order Nautilida having coiled shell, survived from Mesozoic to the
present.
39
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…...
3.3.4 General Morphology of Ammonoids
Ammonoids are an extinct group of marine cephalopod molluscs. The
morphology of ammonoids is very similar to that of nautiloids. However,
ammonoids can easily be differentiated from nautiloids on the basis of location
of siphuncle, suture patterns and nature of septal necks. The ammonoid shells
are either tightly coiled on a single plane (i.e., planispiral) or open helical and
irregular coiled as well as straight. The planispiral coiled shells are known as
homomorph ammonoids (Fig. 3.3) whereas straight, helical or irregular coiled
shells are known as heteromorph ammonoids (Fig. 3.5a-c).
All ammoniods had an external chambered shell, which was divisible into three
parts, namely, a) protoconch, b) phragmocone and c) body or living chamber.
The earliest or the first formed chamber, located in the centre of the shell, is
termed protoconch (Fig. 3.3). The chambered portion of the shell is known as
phragmocone (Fig. 3.3). The last and largest is termed as living or body
chamber (Fig. 3.3). The opening present on the body chamber is termed
aperture. The margin of the aperture is described as the peristome (Fig. 3.3).
A single complete turn of the shell coiling is called a whorl and ammonoid
shells may have several whorls. The hollow cone shaped space enclosed on
both sides by the last whorl is described as umbilicus (Fig. 3.3). The gap
between the two successive whorls is termed whorl gap.
Fig. 3.3: Shell of an ammonoid showing morphological features.
In the interior or internal surface of the shell, phragmocone comprises a number

of chambers or camerae (Fig. 3.3). Each chamber is marked by the
successive occupation of the animal and separated by a septum (plural septa)
(Fig. 3.3). A thin calcareous tube running through the ventral margin of septum
that connects all chambers is known as siphuncle (Fig. 3.3). Siphuncle is
composed of two parts, namely, septal necks and connecting rings (Fig. 3.3). In
ammonoids, the septal necks are directed towards the aperture of the shells
and connecting rings are placed towards the outer margin of the shell. The
external surface of ammonoid shells show various kinds of ornamentation such
as growth lines, ribs, knobs, spines, tubercles and keels.
40
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The line where a septum joins the external surface of the shell is termed as
suture line (Fig. 3.4). The suture pattern is very complex in ammonoids. It
forms one of the most important characteristic features on the basis of which
one can differentiate ammonoids from nautiloids. The nautiloids have a very
simple suture without having any ridges (saddles) and grooves (lobes),
whereas ammonoids have a complex suture pattern, in which suture line is
composed of ridges and grooves (Fig. 3.4). The ridges pointing upwards (i.e.,
towards the aperture) are known as saddles and grooves pointing downwards
(i.e., opposite direction of the saddles) are described as lobes. Three important
types of sutures are recognised in the ammonoids, which are: a) Goniatitic, b)
Ceratitic and c) ammonitic sutures (Fig. 3.4).
Fig. 3.4: Suture patterns in nautiloid and ammonoid cepahalopods; a) Simple

suture line also known as nautiloid suture, (b-d) are complex sutures,
which are commonly present in ammonoids; b) Goniatitic suture; (c)
Ceratitic suture; and d) Ammonitic suture (redrawn and modified after
Matthews, 1960)
The ammonoid shells display a variety of forms. Some common shell forms are
shown in Table 3.2.
41
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…...
Table 3.1: Types of ammonoids shells.
Shell name Shell form Line drawing
Bactriticone Straight conical Fig. 3.5a
Gyroceratiticone loosely coiled Fig. 3.5b
Dactylioceracone Shell having all whorls in contact Fig. 3.5c
Turriliticone Eccentric coiled Fig. 3.5d
Involute Body whorl covers all other whorls Fig. 3.5e
ammoniticone
Evolute Earlier formed or older whorls are all Fig. 3.5f
ammoniticone visible
Exogastric Curved or straight shell with ventral Fig. 3.5g
side is convex (curve outside) and
dorsum is curved on the inside
Endogastric Dorsal side is convex (curved outside) Fig. 3.5h
and venter is curved on the inside
Fig. 3.5: Shells of ammonoids showing various shell forms: a) Bactriticone, b)

Gyroceratiticone, c) Dactylioceracone, d) Turriliticone, e) Involute
ammoniticone, f) Evolute ammoniticone, g) Exogastric and h)
Endogastric. (Source: redrawn after Shrock and Twenhofel, 1987)
3.3.5 Geological History of Ammonoids

Ammonoids first evolved probably from the bactritid cephalopods during the
early Devonian.During the early Devonian, ammonoids with goniatitic suture
appeared and became nearly extinct at the end of the Permian. In the
Carboniferous, the ammonoids with ceratitic suture appeared and they became
common in Permian. Ammonoids with ammonite suture appeared at the close
of Permian or at the start of Triassic. At the end of Cretaceous all ammonoids
became extinct along with the dinosaurs. Their fossil record shows their global
distribution. They had a short geological range (i.e. Devonian to Cretaceous),
rapid rate of evolution and are considered as excellent index fossils.
42
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
3.4 COMMON GENERA OF NAUTILOIDS

3.4.1 Nautilus
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Order Nautilida
Family Nautilidae
Genus Nautilus
Morphological Description: Shell is coiled planispirally. It has a chambered
cone and few whorls. It bears simple septa that turned back along the
siphuncle. Some Nautilus shells show complex curved septa. The suture lines
that mark the traces of septa on the external surface are usually simple to
wave-like (Fig. 3.6). The apex of the shell is rounded. Septal necks and
connecting rings are present in the siphuncle. The septal neeks are short and
pointing backward. The siphuncle is narrow and centrally located. It has a small
umbilicus and simple aperture. Body chamber is larger than the chambers of
the phragmocone. External surface of the shell is smooth, but may occasionally
bear ribs.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 3.6: Photographs of Nautilus: a) External, b) Ventral and c) Dorsal views of a
recent shell (Source: after Seuss et al., 2015) and d) External view of a
fossil specimen. (Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University)
Stratigraphic Range: Cambrian to Recent.

Ecology: It lives in the deep ocean water and is a slow-moving scavenger or
carnivorous.
3.4.2 Orthoceras
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
43
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…...
Order Orthocerida
Family Orthoceratidae
Genus Orthoceras
Morphological Description: Shell is long, straight, slightly curved and
elongate to conical in shape. Shell shows an orthocone form. Body chamber is
long. The siphuncle is ventrally cylindrical and central to sub-central in position.
The septal necks are simple and straight. The connecting rings are cylindrical to
weakly inflatten. It has concave septa and straight suture lines. Aperture is
circular in shape (Fig. 3.7). It shows varied ornamentation.
Fig. 3.7: Line drawing of Orthoceras. (Source: modified after Nield, 1987)
Stratigraphic Range: Devonian to Triassic

Palaeoecology: The genus was a nektonic carnivore that may have swum near
the sea bed with their buoyant shell resting horizontally in the water or rested
on the sea-floor.
3.4.3 Endoceras
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Order Endocerida
Family Endoceridae
Genus Endoceras
Morphological Description: The shell is straight like that of Orthoceras. It is
cylindrico-conical to elongated in outline (Fig. 3.8). The shell is tapering towards
the posterior margin. It shows an endocone (i.e., cone in cone) form. Sutures
are transverse and straight. Siphuncle is very large and situated close to the
ventral margin. Septal necks are very long intruding backward into the previous
septum. External surface contains distinct transverse striae.
44
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.8: Photographs of Endoceras. [Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoceras
#/media/File:Endoceras.JPG for (a) and https://upload.wikimedia.org/
Wikipedia /commons/d/d0/Endoceras.jpg for (b)]
Stratigraphic Range: Ordovician

Palaeoecology: The genus was an active marine predator and may have lived
near the ocean floor.
3.4.4 Actinoceras
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Order Actinocerida
Family Actinoceratidae
Genus Actinoceras
Morphological Description: The shell is long, cylindrical and straight (Fig.
3.9). The siphuncle is large and situated towards the ventral margin. Chambers
are short. Protoconch is large. Septa are closely spaced. The septal necks are
long and strongly re-curved. The connecting rings are thin and slightly inflated.
Sutures are largely transverse. The shell has well developed cameral deposits.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.9: Actinoceras: a) Line drawing, and b) Photograph of a broken specimen.
(Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/
Actinoceras_cochleatum.jpg for b)
45
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…...
Palaeoecology: Actinoceras was probably a predator of shallow to deep ocean
water.
3.5 COMMON GENERA OF AMMONOIDS

3.5.1 Macrocephalites
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Subclass Ammonoidea
Family Macrocephalitidae
Genus Macrocephalites
Morphological Description: The shell is loosely coiled and inflated. It is broad,
convolute to discoidal in outline. The umbilicus is small and the shell has a
constricted aperture. The shell is strongly ribbed and whorls are compressed.
The whorls are more high than wide. The early whorls are highly ribbed as
compared to the later ones. The body chamber is almost smooth. The external
surface bears fine and dense ornamentation. Primary ribs are concave. The
umbilical wall is vertical and is delimited by a sharp umbilical margin. Sutures
are ammonitic and deeply impressed (Fig. 3.10).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.10: Macrocephalites: (a-b) Photographs showing external and ventral views
(Source: modified after Majidifard, 2018), and c) Line drawing.
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Cretaceous

Palaeoecology: It was probably a fast-moving marine offshore nektonic
carnivore.
3.5.2 Otoceras
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
46
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
Subclass Ammonoidea
Order Ceratitida
Family Otoceratidae
Genus Otoceras
Morphological Description: The shell is coiled, moderately involute,
compressed to discoidal in outline. The umbilicus is deep, shallow to broad.
The umbilical margin is rounded to distinct and rimmed. The suture is simple
and ceratitic. Sometimes the suture is weakly present. Whorls are high.
External surface of the shell is smooth, but some shells bear ornamentation
consisting of striae and ribs. Venter margin is rounded. The umbilical wall is
steep and high (Fig. 3.11).
Fig. 3.11: Line drawing of the genus Otoceras.
Stratigraphic Range: Permian to Early Triassic.

Palaeoecology: The genus Otoceras was probably a nektonic carnivore that
may have lived in the shallow marine subtidal environment.
3.5.3 Ptychophylloceras
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Subclass Ammonoidea
Order Ammonitida
Family Phylloceratidae
Genus Ptychophylloceras
Morphological Description: The shell involute (i.e. body whorl covers all other
whorls) in shape. It has a smooth surface. The whorls are oval, flat, arched to
round. The umbilicus is deep, sometimes it is narrow. Shell shows fine growth
lines. Strong ridges are present on the venter. Suture lines are complex and
well developed. It has thick septa (Fig. 3.12).
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.
Palaeoecology: The genus was probably a marine shallow nektonic carnivore.
47
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…...
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.12: Ptychophylloceras: a) Line drawing and b) Photograph. (Source:
modified after Majidifard, 2018)
3.5.4 Phylloceras (= Holcophylloceras)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Subclass Ammonoidea
Order Ammonitida
Family Phylloceratidae
Genus Phylloceras (= Holcophylloceras)
Morphological Description: The shell is smooth and involute (i.e. body whorl
covers all other whorls). The whorls are high, slender and involute. Shell bears
fine gentle fold and striae. The umbilicus is normally small but sometimes it may
be broad and large. The umbilical wall is low and steep. It has many saddles
and lobes. The saddles are simple. The external margin of the shell is rounded.
The suture is complex, well preserved and consisting of shallow lobes. The
ventral margin is narrow and rounded (Fig. 3.13).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.13: Photograph of Phylloceras: (a-b) external view and c) Dorsal view.
(Source: modified after Waagen, 1872 for b and c); (Courtesy: Prof. R.
Nagendra, Anna University for a)
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Cretaceous.
Palaeoecology: The genus was probably a marine shallow nektonic carnivore.
48
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
3.5.5 Placenticeras
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Subclass Ammonoidea
Order Ammonitida
Family Placenticeratidae
Genus Placenticeras
Morphological Description: The shell is discoildal, involute and compressed.
The shells of Placenticeras occur in both smaller (microconch) and larger
(macroconch) forms. The umbilicus is narrow to deep. Umbilical wall is slanting.
Umbilical shoulder is rounded. The external surface of the shell is weakly to
strongly ornamented by ribs, spines and tubercles. The venter is smooth,
narrow to slightly concave. The whorls are inflated and sometimes they are
compressed to involute. It has distinct suture that consists of blunt and rounded
saddles and lobes (Fig. 3.14).
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.14: Photographs of Placenticeras. (Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna
University for a); (Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/
4/40/Placenticeras_sp.%2C_ammonite_with_sea-lizard_bite_marks%
2C_Late_Cretaceous%2C_Bear_Paw_Shale_Formation%2C_Canada_-
_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01887.JPG for b)
Stratigraphic Range: Late Cretaceous.

Palaeoecology: The genus was probably a marine fast moving nektonic
carnivore.
3.5.6 Ceratites
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
49
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…...
Subclass Ammonoidea
Order Ceratitida
Family Ceratitidae
Genus Ceratites
Morphological Description: The shell is flat, discoidal, planispiral and involute.
The umbilicus is small, deep to wide. The external margin of the shell is convex,
broad and flattened. Body chamber is short. It has a typical ceratitic suture
consisting of rounded saddles and finely divided to undivided lobes (Fig. 3.15).
The external lobe is short and wide. The marginal fluting is present to the septal
surface. The surface near the umbilicus contains tubercles. The minor folds are
present in the body whorls.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.15: Ceratites: a) Photograph (Source: modified after Waagen, 1872), and (b)
Line drawing. (Source: modified after Nield and Tucker, 1985)
Stratigraphic Range: Triassic.

carnivore.
3.5.7 Goniatites
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Subclass Ammonoidea
Order Goniatitida
Family Goniatitidae
Genus Goniatites
Morphological Description: The shell is highly involute, discoidal, depressed,
flat, globular and fully chambered. The umbilicus is small, deep, open, but
sometimes it is closed. The siphuncle is situated at the ventral margin. The
whorls are wide and the external margin is rounded. It has strongly fluted septa.
The septal necks are short. The connecting rings are cylindrically long. Its
50
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
suture is typically of goniatitic type consisting of rounded saddles and sharp
lobes (Fig 3.16).
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3.16: Goniatites: (a-b) Photographs showing external and dorsal views.
(Source: modified after Titus et al. 2015) and c) Line drawing of external
surface (Source: redrawn after Nield, 1987)
Stratigraphic Range: Devonian to Triassic.

carnivore.
3.5.8 Perisphinctes
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cephalopoda
Subclass Ammonoidea
Order Ammonitida
Family Perisphinctidae
Genus Perisphinctes
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.17: Perisphinctes: a) Photograph (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Perisphinctes_colubrinus_-_Fossils_in_the_Arppeanum_-
_DSC05518.JPG) and (b) Line drawing of the external surface.
51
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…...
Morphological Description: The shell is discoidal, planispiral, symmetrical and
advolute. The external margin is rounded. The umbilicus is large. Umbilical wall
is short. The whorls are depressed, quadrate and consist of ribs of variable
size. Peristome is simple. The external surface has straight ribs. The ribs are
continuous and bifurcating near the external margin of the shell. It has
ammonitic suture consisting of finely divided saddles and lobes. The suture
lines are thinly divided (Fig. 3.17).
Stratigraphic Range: Late Jurassic.
carnivore.

The fossil specimens of nautiloid and ammonoid cephalopods, belonging to the
genera described in Sections 3.4 and 3.5 respectively, will be provided to you
for study at your study centre. You will have to perform the following activities:
i) Draw the sketch of the specimen on your practical note-book.
ii) Label its various morphological features (refer Figs. 3.1 and 3.5 for labeling
various morphological features).
iii) Write its systematic position or palaeontology.
iv) Briefly, describe the morphology of the shell.
v) Write the stratigraphic range and palaeoecology of the genus under study.

Fossil No.: …………….. Date: ………………
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Subclass
Order
Family
Genus


identified as Nautilus, Orthoceras, Endoceras, Actinoceras, Otoceras,
52
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
Macrocephalites, Ptychophylloceras, Phylloceras (= Holcophylloceras),
Placenticeras, Ceratites, Goniatites and Perisphinctes.
3.8 REFERENCES
 Majidifard, M.R. 2018. Callovian ammonites from northeastern Iran. Revista
Brasileira de Paleontologia, 21(1):17–46.
 Matthews, W.H. (1960) Texas fossils: An amateur collector’s handbook;
Bureau of Economic Geology, the University of Texas, Austin, Texas
 Nield, E.W. (1987) Drawing and Understanding Fossils, Pergamon Press,
Oxford.
 Seuss B, Wisshak M, Mapes RH, Landman, NH (2015) Syn-vivo bioerosion
of Nautilus by endoand epilithic foraminiferans (New Caledonia and
Vanuatu). PLoS ONE 10(4): e0125558. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0125558.
 Shrock, R.R. and Twenhofel, W.H. (1987) Principles of Invertebrate
Palaeontology, CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (First
Indian edition)
 Titus A.L., Korn, D., Harrell, J.E., Lambert, L.L. 2015. Late Viséan (late
Mississippian) ammonoids from the Barnett Shale, Sierra Diablo
escarpment, Culberson County, Texas, USA. Fossil Record 18: 81–104.
 Waagen, W. 1872. On the occurrence of Ammonites, associated with
Ceratites and Goniatites in the Carboniferous deposits of the Salt Range.
Memoir Geological survey of India 9(4): 351-358.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoceras#/media/File:Endoceras.JPG
 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Endoceras.jpg
 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Actinoceras_cochleatu
m.jpg
 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Placenticeras_sp.%2C
_ammonite_with_sea-lizard_bite_marks%2C_Late_Cretaceous%2C_
Bear_Paw_Shale_Formation%2C_Canada_-_Houston_Museum_of_
Natural_Science_-_DSC01887.JPG
 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Perisphinctes_colubrinus_-
_Fossils_in_the_Arppeanum_-_DSC05518.JPG
3.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Ray, A. K. (2008) Fossils in Earth Sciences, Prentice-Hall of India, New
Delhi.
Bangalore.
 Woods, H. (2004) Palaeontology Invertebrate, (Reprinted) CBS Publishers
and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
53
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54
EXPERIMENT 4
TO TRILOBITES
Outline of Experiment_________________________________________
4.2 Requirements 4.6 Home Work
4.3 Trilobites: Systematics, General 4.7 References
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have made line drawing and described morphological characters
along with palaeoecology and stratigraphic range of various genera of cephalopods. Every genus of
cephalopods displays a set of distinctive morphological characters, on which basis they can be
differentiated from each other. You know that cephalopods are entirely marine animals.
In this experiment, you will work with some common genera of trilobites. Trilobites are an extinct
group of marine Palaeozoic arthropods. They belong to the Class Trilobita and the Subphylum
Trilobitomorpha. The name Trilobite is derived from the two Greek words Tri meaning three and
Lobos meaning lobes, referring to three lobes or trilobation of trilobite’s external skeleton. It is
believed that they are the primitive arthropods. Trilobites are one of the most diverse classes of
extinct invertebrates, comprising more than 20,000 species. Like other arthropods, the exoskeleton of
trilobites has numerous segments and paired appendages. It is mainly chitinous in composition and is
made up of three lobes. The size range of average trilobites is 50 to 75 mm in length. The smallest
known trilobite is about 1 mm long, while the longest known is 70 cm.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........

 list the systematic positions of some common genera of trilobites;
 prepare their line drawing with labeling of morphological features;
and
 write their stratigraphic/geological range
4.2 REQUIREMENTS
 Fossil specimens of trilobites.
Bring this practical manual along with Block 4 of BGYCT-137 course while
attending the Practical Counselling session.
4.3 TRILOBITES: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

4.3.1 Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Trilobitomorpha
Class Trilobita
Order Agnostida
Polymerida
4.3.2 Morphology
Trilobites had a hard external skeleton composed of organic material chitin
which further strengthened with crystals of calcite. Since Trilobita is an extinct
group of animals, very little is known about their soft morphology. It may be
noted that the dorsal side (also known as dorsal shield) of trilobites is the only
part of their exoskeleton which is commonly preserved as fossils. Therefore, we
will focus mainly on the dorsal morphology of trilobites.
The exoskeleton of trilobites is divisible into three parts both longitudinally and
transversely. In longitudinal position or along the body, the skeleton is divided
into one axial lobe and two pleural or lateral lobes. The central lobe is known as
axial lobe (Fig. 4.1a) where as pleural lobes are situated on either side of the
56
Experiment 4 Age of Fossil Genera Pertaining to Trilobites
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
skeleton. The pleural lobe on the right side is described as right pleural lobe
and that on the left side is left pleural lobe (Fig. 4.1a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.1: Trilobation of a trilobite skeleton: a) Longitudinal; and b) Transversal.
The exoskeleton of trilobites is also divided transversely or across the body into
following three parts (Fig. 4.1b):
i. Cephalon or head shield
ii. Thorax
iii. Pygidium or tail
The cephalon and pygidium which lie on anterior and posterior sides of the
skeleton, respectively, have fused segments. On the other hand, thorax that lies
between cephalon and pygidium has numerous unfused segments which are
articulated with each other (Fig. 4.1b). Let us now discuss each part of a
trilobite skeleton in the same order as given above one by one in the following
section.
Orientation of trilobite skeleton: In a trilobite skeleton, the commonly
preserved surface is the dorsal side, which is the upper or back side of the
animal; the underside or belly portion is referred to as ventral side; cephalon
region is known as its anterior side and pygidium end is the posterior side.
i. Cephalon or Head Shield
The dorsal part of the trilobite skeleton that covers the head is known as
cephalon or head shield. It lies on the anterior side of the skeleton, has a
semi-circular outline and is formed by fusion of five to seven segments. It is
made up of glabella and cheeks. The raised axial (central) area of cephalon is
called glabella, whereas the portion of cephalon that surrounds glabella
comprises cheeks (Fig. 4.2). There are two axial furrows which separate
glabella from cheeks. Glabella is divided by short transverse furrows into an
anterior lobe and lateral glabellar lobes. Transverse or lateral furrows are
basically the segments present on the left and right margins of the glabella. In
some forms, transverse furrows do not join each other across the median line
and form a median lobe. The last fused segment of glabella close to the
posterior margin of cephalon is known as occipital lobe and is separated from
the rest of glabella by an occipital furrow (Fig. 4.2). It may be noted that
57
…………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
cheeks comprise the portions on either side of the glabella and are divided
along a facial suture into free cheek and fixed cheek.
Fig. 4.2: Line drawing of a trilobite showing the various morphological features.
(Source: simplified after, Shrock and Twenhofel, 1987; Moore et al., 1997;
Benton and Harper, 2009)
Facial sutures are lines of weakness present on the cheeks. The part of cheek
which is in contact with glabella is termed as fixed cheek and the one on the
outer side is known as free cheek. The combined central portion of cephalon
bounded by glabella and two fixed cheeks (on both sides of the glabella) is
known as cranidium. The angle formed by meeting the lateral and posterior
margins of cephalon is known as genal angle. In some forms, genal angle is
very acute and produces a posterior lateral extension in the form of a spine,
which is described as a genal spine (Fig. 4.3). It is interesting to note that
trilobites commonly split their exoskeleton during moulting. On the basis of the
position of facial suture with respect to the genal angle, the trilobites can be
divided into four types as given below and shown in Fig 4.3:
a. Marginal facial Suture: This runs along the margin of the cephalon with the
result that there is no free cheek on the dorsal side (Fig. 4.3a).
b. Proparian Facial Suture: It cuts the margin on the lateral side in front of
the genal angle (Fig. 4.3b).
c. Gonatoparian Facial Suture: This suture cuts the margin at the genal
angle (Fig. 4.3c).
d. Opisthoparian Facial Suture: It cuts at the posterior side of the cheek (Fig.
4.3d).
58
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(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 4.3: Cephalons of trilobites showing various types of facial sutures: a)

Marginal; b) Proparian; c) Gonatoparian; and d) Opisthoparian. (Source: simplified
after Nield and Tucker, 1985)
ii. Thorax
Thorax is the central portion of a trilobite’s skeleton, which lies in between
cephalon and pygidium. It is made up of a series of nearly identical segments,
which are usually two to forty two in number and not fused together. The
segments are movable. It may be noted that transversely, each segment is a
single piece, but it is easily divisible into three lobes such as an axial lobe and
two pleural lobes by two axial furrows. The median or central portion of each
segment is known as axial lobe and its lateral lobes lying on either side of the
axial lobe are termed as pleura or pleural lobes (singular, pleuron) (Fig. 4.2).
Each pleuron at some distance from the axial lobe is curved forming a fulcrum.
The lateral end of each pleuron may be rounded or pointed. If the end is
rounded then it gives rise to an angle known as pleural angle; on the other
hand, if it is pointed then it is termed as pleural spine. The horizontal grooves
present on external surfaces of segments are known as pleural furrows (Fig.
4.2).
iii. Pygidium
Pygidium is a tail piece, which lies at the posterior margin of the trilobite. It is
triangular to semi-triangular in shape and composed of a variable number of
segments, which are fused together, immovable and may be one to thirty in
number. Pygidium may be larger or smaller than the cephalon. Like the
segments of thorax, it is also divided into an axial lobe and two pleural lobes. In
some forms, the posterior end of pygidium has an extension of an axial spine,
which is termed as telson. The spines occurring in the pygidium region are
known as pygidial spines (Fig. 4.2).
Based on the size of pygidium, trilobites may be defined as given below and
shown in Fig. 4.4:
a. Micropygous: When pygidium is small.
b. Macropygous: When pygidium is larger than cephalon.
c. Isopygous: Pygidium and cephalon are equal in size.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.4: Schematics of trilobites showing: a) Micropygous; b) Macropygous; and
c) Isopygous trilobites.
59
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Trilobites first appeared in the early Cambrian. During the Middle Cambrian and
Ordovician, they underwent a dramatic diversification, which led to the
appearance of many new forms. After the end of Ordovician, trilobites began to
decline during Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous, and they completely
disappeared at the end of Permian. It is reasonable to conclude that trilobites
were a dominant group of invertebrates during the early Palaeozoic, as
maximum numbers of species were present in the Cambrian and Ordovician.
After that, they became less dominant and vanished at the close of Palaeozoic.
4.4 COMMON GENERA

4.4.1 Paradoxides
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Trilobita
Order Redlichiida
Family Paradoxididae
Genus Paradoxides
Morphological Description: The exoskeleton is large, oval, elongated to flat
and inverted egg-shaped. It is narrowed posteriorly. The cephalon is broad and
largely semicircular in shape, having strong genal spines. The spines of the
cephalon are situated at its corners. Thorax is long and contains numerous (21
to 26) spiny thoracic segments. The thoracic spines are longer. The glabella is
broad in the front and extends towards anterior border furrow. It has
opisthoparian facial suture. Eyes are of medium size and crescent-shaped. It is
a micropygous trilobite. Pygidium is very small and its axis contains few
segments (Fig. 4.5).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.5: Paradoxides: a) Photograph (Source:https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Paradoxides_davidis.jpg); and b) Line drawing.
60
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Stratigraphic Range: Middle Cambrian.
4.4.2 Phacops
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Trilobita
Order Phacopida
Family Phacopidae
Genus Phacops
Morphological Description: The genus Phacops is easily identified by its
rounded rather than angular outline. The cephalon is nearly semicircular in
outline. It is moderately to strongly inflated near to its front and more or less
flattened on the top. The corners of the cephalon are well rounded. The genus
has large compound eyes. Glabella is well developed, inflated and bears
distinct tubercles. It has proparian facial suture. The genal angle is well
rounded. The thorax is usually made up of 11 thoracic segments. The pygidium
is short, well segmented and semicircular in outline. The pygidial axis has 9 to
11 rings. The furrows between the ribs are deep, but sometimes they are very
shallow. The surface of the exoskeleton is covered with tubercles (Fig. 4.6a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.6: Line drawing of the genera of trilobite: a) Phacops; and b) Illaenus.
Stratigraphic range: Silurian to Devonian.

4.4.3 Illaenus
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Trilobita
Order Corynexochida
Family Illaenidae
Genus Illaenus
61
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Morphological Description: The exoskeleton is suboval in shape. The
cephalon is smooth, sub-semicircular and moderately convex. The axial
furrows are broad and shallow. It extends forward about half the cephalic
length from the posterior margin. The free cheeks are sub-triangular in outline
and they are declined steeply outward. The genal angle is rounded. The eyes
are semicircular in shape and are situated nearer to the edge. Thorax consists
of 8 to 10 segments. It has opisthoparian facial suture. The pygidium is broad,
strongly convex and subelliptical in outline. It is an isopygous type of trilobite.
The cephalon has a high profile and re-curved genal spines (Fig. 4.6b).
4.4.4 Olenellus
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Trilobita
Order Redlichida
Family Olenellidae
Genus Olenellus
Morphological Description: The exoskeleton is flat. It has a well developed,
large, semicircular cephalon. The genal spines are strong. It has a faint facial
suture which is almost marginal. Dorsal suture is absent. The occipital ring is
smooth and occipital spine is rare. The eyes are large and crescent shaped. It
is a polymerid trilobite and its thorax is made up of 14 thoracic segments. The
pleurae are merging into spines at the end. The glabella is long and bears
rounded frontal lobes. The pygidium is small and poorly developed. Lateral
lobes are absent in the pygidium (Fig. 4.7).
Stratigraphic range: Early Cambrian
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.7: Olenellus: a) Photograph (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Olenellus_gilberti.JPG); and b) Line drawing.
62
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4.4.5 Oryctocephalus
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Trilobita
Order Corynexochida
Family Oryctocephalidae
Genus Oryctocephalus
Morphological Description: This form has a prominent glabella and width of
the cranidium is greater than its length. The glabella is parallel sided and
extends to the anterior border. Glabellar furrows are well impressed as pits.
These pits are often connected by shallow furrows across the top of the
glabella. The facial suture is straight and divergent on the posterior side. Free
cheeks are narrow and their margins are evenly rounded and borders are well
defined by marginal furrow and extending posteriorly into the genal spine. The
width of the fixed cheeks is one-half or more than the width of the glabella. The
eye ridges have a strong relief. Occipital ring has longitudinal furrows from pit
to the posterior marginal furrow (Fig. 4.7).
Thorax has 12 to 15 segments. The axial lobe is prominent. The pleural lobe of
each segment is with deep diagonal pleural furrow. Distal spines are of
variable length. Pygidium is semicircular in outline with 5 to 7 segments and a
terminal portion. The pleural furrows and grooves are impressed and are not
parallel to each other. Each pleural segment extends into a marginal spine
(Fig. 4.8).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.8: Microphotographs of Oryctocephalus: a) Cephalon; b) Pygidium.
4.4.6 Hundwarella
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
63
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Class Trilobita
Family Proasaphiscidae
Subfamily Asaphiscinae
Genus Hundwarella
Morphological Description: Cranidium is convex in outline. Its anterior border
is strongly developed and is curved to slightly transverse. The preglabellar
area is short and wide. The glabella is subcyclindrical in outline and glabellar
furrows vary from three to four. The posterior pair of furrows makes a
triangular tract and is sometimes effaced in the middle. The outer ends of the
rear pair are directed anteriorly. The thoracic segments vary from 11 to 13 in
number and the axis of thorax is convex, gradually tapering posteriorly.
Thoracic axial furrow is shallow. Pygidium comprises five segments with the
axis tapering towards the posterior end and nearly extending to the marginal
furrow. The pleural furrows are strong (Fig. 4.9a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.9: Microphotographs of trilobite’s genera: a) Hundwarella; and b)
Kunmingaspis.
4.4.7 Kunmingaspis
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Trilobita
Family Ptychopariidae
Genus Kunmingaspis
Morphological Description: The cranidium with slightly straight anterior
border. The glabella is conical in shape and has moderately deep glabellar
furrows. Suture is incised and running postero-axially from the axial furrow. The
64
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anterior border furrow is incised with inflated border and bluntly rounded frontal
lobe. The eye ridges are meeting at the axial furrow near the anterolateral
glabellar corners. There are 13 thoracic segments with truncated tips. Pleural
furrows are deep while free pleural posterior margin is sigmoidal in anterior
segments. Pygidium is semi-elliptical in outline and yields three to four rings
and a terminus. Pygidial postaxial region is short. Pleural furrows are deeply
incised and terminate before the border (Fig. 4.9b).
Stratigraphic Range: Middle Cambrian
4.4.8 Redlichia
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Trilobita
Order Redlichida
Suborder Redlichina
Superfamily Redlichiacea
Genus Redlichia
Morphological Description: This is a micropygous trilobite with gently convex
dorsal exoskeleton. The cephalon is semielliptical to semicircular with clear
genal spines that are a smooth continuation of the border which extends
backwards and outwards and curves to become near parallel at their tips. The
glabella is long and tapers forward. It is rounded in front and bears three pairs
of evenly spaced lateral glabellar furrows. The anterior lateral glabellar furrow is
faint and slightly oblique either forwards or backwards. The occipital furrow is
oblique, backward and inward. The preglabellar field is narrow. Anterior border
furrow is wide and raised. Eye lobes are arcuate, long and arising from frontal
glabellar lobe reaching the level of the occipital ring (Fig. 4.10).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.10: Microphotographs of Redlichia: a) Cephalon showing well preserved
glabella, eye lobes and anterior border; b) Partially preserved cephalon and two
thoracic segments; and c) Free cheek.
Thorax consists of 11 to 17 segments. The 11th segment from the front bears a
backward directed spine in the midline. The mesial spine may be developed on
the fourth and fifth rings. Pygidium is small with one or two segments only (Fig.
4.10).
65
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4.4.9 Xingrenaspis
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Trilobita
Order Ptychopariida
Family Ptychopariidae
Genus Xingrenaspis
Morphological Description: The cranidium is subtrapezoidal to subquaderate
in outline. The basal width of the cranidium is more than its length. The anterior
border is gently raised with a deep border furrow. The axial furrow is well
impressed. Preglabellar area is nearly twice the width of the anterior border.
Glabella is conical with rounded anterior end and tapers forward. It has three
pairs of lateral glabellar furrows. The occipital furrow is deep and the occipital
ring is convex and slightly longer in its middle part. Eye ridges are nearly
straight, prominent, with small eyes situated at the glabellar mid length. The
thorax bears 12-13 segments while the pleural furrow is wide. The pygidium
bears three rings and a terminus. The pleural region bears a deep pleural
furrow (Fig. 4.11a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.11: Genera of the trilobite: a) Microphotograph of cephalon of Xingrenaspi;
and b) Dolerolenus.
4.4.10 Dolerolenus
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
66
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Class Trilobita
Family Dolerolenidae
Genus Dolerolenus
Morphological Description: Exoskeleton is elongate and gently convex. The
cephalon is semiielliptical to semicircular in outline. Glabella is long, moderately
convex and tapering forward. The axial furrow is straight, acutely rounded
anteriorly and occupies ﬁfth-sixths of cranidial sagittal length, with three pairs of
evenly spaced, weakly incised transglabellar furrows. The lateral glabellar
furrows are normal to the axis. Occipital furrow is faint and wide and occipital
ring is gently convex. The preglabellar ﬁeld is wide and the anterior border is
convex.
The eye ridge is long and wide. The anterior branch of facial suture is diverging
forward and is strongly curved inward after crossing the anterior border. The
posterior branch is long and straight and is diverging strongly rearward,
enclosing a transverse triangular posterior area of fixed cheek. Posterior border
furrow is wide and moderately incised. Posterior border is widening distally.
Thorax has fourteen to fifteen segments and axis is narrower than the pleural
region. Pleurae ending in spines progressively curved backward. Pygidium is
small and bearing a short axis having one or two rings only. The posterior
border is wide and flat (Fig. 4.11b).
Stratigraphic Range: Early Cambrian.

The fossil specimens of trilobites, belonging to the genera described in Section
4.4, will be provided to you for study. You will have to perform the following
activities:
1. Draw the sketch of the specimen on your practical note-book.
2. Label its various morphological features (refer Figs. 4.1 to 4.4 for
3. Write its systematic position or palaeontology.
4. Briefly, describe the morphology of the skeleton.
5. Write the stratigraphic range.
Fossil No.: …………….. Date: ………………
Kingdom
Subkingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
67
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Class
Order
Family
Genus

4.6 HOME WORK

In Section 4.4, ten genera of trilobites are described. You are advised to
prepare line drawings of these genera and label them. Try to identify various
morphological characters which differentiate one from another.
4.7 REFERENCES
 Benton, M.J. and Harper, D.A.T. (2009) Introduction to Paleobiology and the
Fossil Record, John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex.
 Moore, R.C., Lalicker, C.G. and Fischer, A. G. (1997) Invertebrate Fossils,
CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 Shrock, R.R. and Twenhofel, W.H. (1987) Principles of Invertebrate
Palaeontology, CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (First
Indian edition).
 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paradoxides_davidis.jpg
 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Olenellus_gilberti.JPG
4.8 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

Delhi.
Bangalore.
 Woods, H. (2004) Palaeontology Invertebrate, (Reprinted) CBS Publishers
and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
68
EXPERIMENT 5
TO ECHINOIDS
Outline of Experiment_________________________________________
5.3 Echinoids: Systematics, General 5.7 References
5.8 Further Suggested Readings
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have made line drawings and described morphological characters
along with palaeoecology and stratigraphic range of various genera of trilobites. You know that
trilobites are extinct marine animals. Its every genus displays a set of distinctive morphological
characters, on which basis they can be differentiated from each other.
In this experiment, you will work with some common genera of echinoids. The echinoids are
marine animals and belong to the Class Echinoidea. The name Echinoidea is derived from two
Greek words Echinos meaning spines and Oidea meaning test, signifying the test covered with
spines. They include sea urchins, heart urchins and sand dollars. The soft parts of the animal are
enclosed inside a rigid calcareous skeleton, which is composed of many closely fitting plates of
calcite. The skeleton of echinoids is also known as test. The tests may be spherical, globular,
discoidal or heart-shaped and covered with the spines. Most of the echinoids show pentameral
(five-fold) radial symmetry whereas a few others show bilateral symmetry. The tests of echinoids
range in size from 3 to 10 cm in diameter or length.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
Echinoids can be divided into two main groups: regular and irregular.
 Regular or Endocyclic Echinoids: They have five-fold (pentameral) radial
symmetry and spherical to circular body.
 Irregular or Exocyclic Echinoids: They have bilateral symmetry and a
heart-shaped body.

 list the systematic positions of some common genera of echinoids;
 prepare their line drawings with labeling of the morphological features; and
 write their stratigraphical and palaeoecological range.
5.2 REQUIREMENTS
 Fossil specimens of echinoids.
5.3 ECHINOIDS: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Echinodermata
Class Echinoidea
5.3.2 Morphology
The tests of most of the echinoids are hemispherical in shape and covered with
spines. A typical test has two poles, namely, oral and aboral. The lower side of
the test is known as oral pole and it is normally flattened. On the other hand,
the upper side, which is usually convex, is termed as aboral pole (Fig. 5.1). The
mouth of the animal is situated at the oral pole and anus at the aboral pole. It is
important to note that the terms oral and aboral are used to describe the
position of poles of tests of regular echinoids. The side of the pole where the
mouth lies is known as the oral side and the opposite side where anus lies is
referred to as aboral side. In irregular echinoids which have a bilateral
symmetry, the mouth and anus are excentric (away from the centre) and the
mouth side is called the anterior side while the anal side is the posterior side.
Accordingly the lower side becomes the ventral side and upper side the dorsal.
A test consists of many interlocking calcitic plates. The plates surrounding the
mouth are collectively described as peristome, whereas those encircling the
70
Experiment 5 Age of Fossil Genera Pertaining to Echinoids
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
anus are termed as periproct. Morphologically, a test of an echinoid may be
divided into three parts:
i. Apical system or disc
ii. Corona
iii. Peristome
Fig. 5.1: Schematic diagram of a regular echinoid showing the main divisions of
the test.
i. Apical System or Apical Disc: It is a small area lying at the apex or summit
of the aboral surface (Fig. 5.1). It is composed of ten plates which form a ring
around the periproct. Out of these ten plates, five are known as genital
plates and the rest are ocular plates. The genital plates are larger and
hexagonal in outline and form the inner part of the ring. One of the genital
plates is larger than other genital plates, has many small pores, and is
known as madreporite or porous plate (Fig. 5.2). The ocular plates are
smaller than genital plates and triangular to pentagonal in outline. Each of
the genital and ocular plates is perforated by a pore. It may be noted that to
complete a ring of ten plates around the periproct, both genital and ocular
plates are attached alternatively with each other and in many cases ocular
plates partially form the outer part of the ring. In such cases, ocular plates do
not touch the periproct and this condition of the test is termed as exsert (Fig.
5.3a). However, in other cases, ocular plates separate the genital plates and
touch the periproct, this condition is known as insert (Fig. 5.3b). It may be
noted that in irregular echinoids, the apical disc is small and does not
encircle the periproct.
ii. Corona: It is the main part of the test, which starts from the apical disc and
ends at peristome. It is composed of ten pairs of columns of plates, which
are collectively described as the coronal plates. Out of these ten pairs, five
double columns which carry tube feet are known as ambulacral plates and
the other five with no tube feet are termed as the inter-ambulacral plates
(Fig. 5.2). Tube feet are small fleshy suckers which come up from the water-
vascular system of the animal through pores in the test to capture food. The
five double columns of ambulacral plates are separated by five double
columns of inter-ambulacral plates, in which each double column is
71
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described as an area. The area of ambulacral plate is termed ambulacral
area and area of an inter-ambulacral plate is known as inter-ambulacral
area (Fig. 5.2).
Fig. 5.2: Line drawing of the aboral view of a regular echinoid showing the apical
system. Note 1 to 5 are ambulacral plates and I to V are inter-ambulacral
plates.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.3: View of apical systems of regular echinoids showing: a) Exsert; and
(b) Insert tests.
In each area, plates are fixed alternatively. Each pair of both ambulacral
and inter-ambulacral columns is composed of two rows of elongated plates,
which meet along a central suture in a zig-zag pattern. The ambulacral
plates are small in size, larger in number, perforated by pores and in contact
with ocular plates of the apical disc. The inter-ambulacral plates are larger
in size, small in number as compared to ambulacral plates, bear spines and
terminate against the genital plates of the apical disc. Ambulacral plates are
said to be simple ambulacral plates if they are made up of only a single
piece and said to be compound plates when they are made up of two or
more smaller plates. In a few forms of echinoids, notably irregular echinoids,
the ambulacral plates look-like a petal and all ambulacral plates together
show a flower-like structure, which is termed as petaloid. It should be noted
that ambulacral and inter-ambulacral plates lie alternatively and run
72
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vertically between periproct and peristome. The coronal plates may be
covered by spines and tubercles. Tests of regular echinoids possess the
larger spines and tubercles whereas smaller spines and tubercles are found
on tests of irregular echinoids.
iii. Peristome: It lies on the oral side of the test. Peristome is an opening in the
test associated with the mouth and is circular to polygonal in outline (Fig.
5.4). The mouth of an animal occurs at the centre of the peristome and
represents a region where ambulacral and inter-ambulacral plates
converge. It would be of interest to you to note that both periproct (an
opening associated with anus) and peristome are rarely preserved in fossils.
Fig. 5.4: Oral view of a regular echinoid showing the peristome.
Key morphological features of echinoids: genital plates, ocular plates,

madreporite, ambulacral plates, inter- ambulacral plates, periproct and
peristome.
The earliest echinoids are known from the Ordovician. They diversified during
the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Permian periods of the Palaeozoic era.
During the Carboniferous, they suffered considerable loss in their diversity.
However, they did not emerge as a dominant group of echinoderms during the
Palaeozoic times. The majority of the Palaeozoic echinoids belong to the order
Regularia.
In Mesozoic, echinoids underwent a dramatic diversification and became a
dominant group of the phylum Echinodermata. Irregular echinoids first
appeared in the Mesozoic and most of the Mesozoic echinoids belong to order
Irregularia. During the Mesozoic, echinoids emerged as a significant element of
marine fauna. During the Cenozoic, they became less important but they
diversified during the late Cenozoic. In Cenozoic, irregular echinoids became
more important while the regular echinoids became less abundant. Echinoids
are entirely marine animals and their fossils are good indicators of marine
environment.
5.4 COMMON GENERA OF ECHINOIDS

5.4.1 Hemiaster
Kingdom Animalia
73
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Subphylum Echinozoa
Class Echinoidea
Order Spatangoida
Family Hemiasteridae
Genus Hemiaster
Morphological Description: It is an irregular echinoid with ovate, round,
subcircular inflated to somewhat wedge-shaped test. It has a weak anterior
sulcus (Fig. 5.5). Its posterior face is truncated to nearly straight. The apical
disc is large and lies in the centre. The oral surface is almost flat. The test has
five ambulacral plates and five inter-ambulacral plates. The inter-ambulacral
plates are broader than that of the ambulacral plates. The ambulacral area is
wide to hollow and contains well formed pores. The pores are arranged in
oblique fashion. The madreporite is not much larger than that of the genital
plates. The genital plates have a broad contact zone. Peristome is D to suboval
in shape. The periproct is small. The external surface of the test is granulose.
The test has well-developed petals clearly visible in aboral or dorsal view (Fig.
5.5).
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.5: Photograph of Hemiaster showing aboral views. (Courtesy: Dr. V.K.
Sharma, Department of Zoology, Govt. Holkar Science College, Indore for b).
Stratigraphic Range: Cretaceous to Recent.

Ecology: The genus, Hemiaster is a slow-moving shallow infaunal marine
feeder.
5.4.2 Micraster
Kingdom Animalia
Class Echinoidea
Order Spatangoida
Family Micrasteridae
Genus Micraster
74
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Morphological Description: The test of this irregular echinoid is heart-shaped.
It has a small excentric apical disc. The madreporite or porous plate is
extending to the centre. It has a non-petaloid ambulacrum (Fig. 5.6). The inter-
ambulacral plates are much broader than that of the ambulacral plates. The
ambulacral area is narrow and subpetaloid in outline. The inter-ambulacral area
is large. The test has small tubercles. It is also perforated and crenulated. The
peristome is located near the anterior margin.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.6: Aboral view of the genus Micraster. (Source: Schlüter, 2016 for b; Courtesy:
Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University for a)

Palaeoecology: The genus, Hemiaster was a slow-moving shallow infaunal
marine deposit feeder.
5.4.3 Holaster
Kingdom Animalia
Class Echinoidea
Order Holasteroida
Family Holasteroidae
Genus Holaster
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.7: Photographs of Holaster. (Source: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-
science/data/echinoid-directory/taxa/ specimen.jsp?id=1181 for b; Courtesy:
Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University for a)
Morphological Description: The irregular test is heart-shaped to ovoid in

outline. The oral margin is flattened and posterior margin is truncated. The
75
…………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
apical disc is elongated. The genital plates are separated by the ocular plates.
The ambulacral area is large and has a small round to elongate pores. The
inter-ambulacral area has minute granules and tubercles. Peristome is semi-
circular to transversely elliptical and located near the anterior margin. Periproct
is elongate to oval in outline and is truncated at posterior end (Fig. 5.7).
Stratigraphic Range: Cretaceous to Palaeogene-Neogene
Palaeoecology: The genus Holaster, was a marine epifaunal to semi-infaunal
living sediments feeder.
5.4.4 Conulus
Kingdom Animalia
Class Echinoidea
Order Echinoneoida
Family Conulidae
Genus Conulus
Morphological Description: The oral surface of the test is flat. The test is
conical, subconical to hemispherical in outline. It has four subequal genital
plates. All genital plates are in contact. Apical disc is small and situated at the
centre. Petals are not developed. The ambulacral area is narrow and straight. It
has continuous poriferous zones. The inter-ambulacral area has large plates. It
bears very small tubercles. The inter-ambulacral area is crenulated and
perforated. The peristome of the test is small, situated at the centre and is
decagonal to nearly circular in shape. The periproct of the test is small,
submarginal, ovate to oral in position (Fig. 5.8).
Stratigraphic Range: Cretaceous.
Palaeoecology: The genus, Conulus was an epifaunal sediment feeder.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.8: Photographs of the genus Conulus: a) aboral and b) oral views. (Source:
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/taxa/taxon. jsp?id=
1385)
5.4.5 Cidaris
Kingdom Animalia
76
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
Class Echinoidea
Order Cidaroida
Family Cidaridae
Genus Cidaris
Morphological Description: The regular tests of Cidaris are spheroidal,
rounded to pentagonal in outline. Their top (aboral) and base (oral) are equally
flattened. The apical disc is large and occasionally preserved. The ocular plates
are large. The ambulacral area is narrow to moderately broad. The ambulacral
plates are simple, showing similar form and numerous in numbers. The vertical
rows of tubercles and granules are situated between the rows of pores. The
inter-ambulacral area is wide (about three times wider than the ambulacral
area) and composed of large plates. Each plate is perforated and contains a
primary tubercle. Peristome is large and pentagonal in outline. The test bears
large spines of different forms. The spines are marked by the ornamentation of
rows of granules (Fig. 5.9).
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Present.
Ecology: They are epifaunal deposit feeders and mainly live in tropical and
subtropical oceans.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.9: Photographs of genus Cidaris: a) Lateral; b) Oral; and c) Aboral views.
(Source: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/ data/echinoid-
directory/taxa/taxon.jsp?id=1135 for b and c; Courtesy: Dr. V.K. Sharma,
Department of Zoology, Govt. Holkar Science College, Indore for a).
5.4.6 Cyphosoma (=Euporophyma)

Kingdom Animalia
Class Echinoidea
Order Phymosomatoida
Family Phymosomatidae
Genus Cyphosoma (=Euporophyma)
Morphological Description: The regular test is small, circular in outline and
has a flat base. Apical disc is small with a pentagonal opening. The ambulacral
77
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area is nearly half to the width of the inter-ambulacral area. The inter-
ambulacral plates are broader and have a central primary tubercle. The
tubercles are imperforated and crenulated. Peristome is deep (Fig. 5.10).
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.10: Photographs of Cyphosoma (=Euporophyma): a) Aboral; and b) Oral
views. (Source: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-
directory/taxa/taxon.jsp?id=1439)
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Eocene.

Palaeoecology: It was a slow moving epifaunal omnivore.
5.4.7 Echinocorys
Kingdom Animalia
Class Echinoidea
Order Holasteroida
Family Echinocorythidae
Genus Echinocorys
Morphological Description: The irregular test is characterised by high steep
sides and is very convex from the top. It has a flat base. The apical disc is
elongated, large and bears four genital plates. The ambulacral area is simple,
long and subpetaloid. The inter-ambulacral area is large and yields tubercles.
Peristome is anteriorly situated. Periproct is oval to infra-marginal (Fig. 5.11).
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.11: Photographs of Echinocorys showing: a) Oral and b) Aboral views.
(Source: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/
taxa/specimen.jsp?id=1148)
78
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Palaeoecology: The genus Echinocorys, was an epifaunal deposit feeder.
5.4.8 Ditremaster
Kingdom Animalia
Class Echinoidea
Order Spatangoida
Family Hemiasteridae
Genus Ditremaster
Morphological Description: The irregular test is subglobular, ovate to inflate in
outline (Fig. 5.12). The apical disc is slightly excentric and has two genital
pores. The ocular plates are small and perforated by a single circular pore. It
has well developed petals. The ambulacral plates are simple and perforated.
The outer surface of the test is ornamented with tubercles. Peristome is D-
shaped.
Stratigraphic Range: Eocene to Miocene
Palaeoecology: The genus Ditremaster, was a slow-moving shallow infaunal
dead organic feeder.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.12: Ditremaster: a) Photograph and b) line drawing of oral view. (Source:
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/taxa/
specimen.jsp?id=6185 for a)

The fossil specimens of echinoids, belonging to the genera described in Section
5.5, will be provided to you for study at your study centre. You will have to
perform the following activities:
i. Draw the sketch of the specimen on your practical note-book.
ii. Label its various morphological features (refer Figs. 5.1 and 5.4 for labeling
various morphological features).
iii. Write its systematic position or palaeontology.
iv. Briefly, describe the morphology of the test.
v. Write the stratigraphic range and palaeoecology of the genus under study.
79
…………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
Fossil No.: …………….. Date: ………………
Kingdom
Subkingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus

identified as Hemiaster, Micraster, Holaster, Conulus, Cidaris, Cyphosoma
(=Euporophyma), Echinocorys and Ditremaster.
5.7 REFERENCES
 Clarkson, E.N.K. (1979) Invertebrate Palaeontology and Evolution, Blackwell
Science Ltd., USA.
 Schlüter N (2016) Ecophenotypic variation and developmental instability in
the Late Cretaceous echinoid Micraster brevis (Irregularia; Spatangoida).
PLoS ONE 11(2): e0148341. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0148341
 https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/
All the websites are accessed between 1st October and 30th October 2020)

Delhi.
Bangalore.
 https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/
80
EXPERIMENT 6
PREPARATION OF
PHYSIOGRAPHIC MAP OF INDIA
Outline of Experiment____________________________________
6.1 Introduction 6.4 Laboratory Exercises
Expected Learning Skills 6.5 References
6.2 Requirements
6.3 Physiographic Divisions of India
Himalayan Mountain System
Indo-Gangetic Plains
Peninsular Plateau
Indian Desert
Coastal Regions
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous five experiments, you have performed laboratory activities on the various fossil
genera of invertebrates. The morphological study of any fossil specimen is important for its
identification at various levels, ranging from a kingdom to a species (i.e. from higher to lower
taxonomic order). Anaccurately identified fossil specimen has numerous applications in geology
and biology. In stratigraphy, fossils are used for assigning the relative dating to the rock layers
and their correlation from one to another area.
For the study of different stratigraphic units of India, references are usually made according to the
physical and structural divisions of India such as the peninsular region, Himalaya and Indo-
Gangetic plains. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce you to the physical and structural setting
of India so that you would be able to understand where the different kinds of stratigraphic units
occur. In this experiment, you will prepare physiographic maps of India representing various
physical and structural features.
…………………………………………………………....……………………………….….............….….........
Expected Learning Skills________________________

 demarcate the boundaries of Indian physiographic divisions on the map;
 locate and demarcate structural features of the physiographic divisions;
and
 locate prominent stratigraphic units/basins of India.
6.2 REQUIREMENTS
You will require the following to perform this experiment successfully:
 Pen, colour pencil, eraser, sharpener, scale andstencil.
 Blank outline map of India.
 Practical note-book/ laboratory file.
Instructions:You are required to study Unit 3 of BGYCT-137 course
6.3 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA

India is a vast country, its three sides are bounded by the sea waters and the
young Himalayan mountains system separates it from Asia on its fourth
(northern) side. As a result, it becomes an independent entity, which is broadly
known as the Indian subcontinent. India shows a huge diversity in physical and
structural features as its land comprises various natural features like snow-clad
folded mountains in the north, plateaus in the south and plains in between
them. It may be noted that all these features have evolved over a very long
geological time. For example, the Himalayan mountain system started to
develop around 50 - 35 million years (Myr) before present, when the Indian
plate started subducting beneath the Asia. Therefore, it is pertinent to consider
that the distribution of the rocks of various ages reflect the geographic setting of
different regions.
Physically, India can be divided into three broad divisions as listed below:
 Himalayan mountain system
 Indo-Gangetic plains
 Peninsular plateau
These three divisions are well marked, geologically very significant as they
correspond to the three main structural or tectonic divisions of India. These
divisions from south to north constitute the peninsular India, Indo-Gangetic
plains and Himalayan mountain system. The last two are popularly referred to
as extra-Peninsular region. India exposes rocks of many ages ranging from
Archaean to Cenozoic in all these divisions. However, the stratigraphy of these
regions is quite different. For example, the peninsular plateau comprises mostly
older rocks of Precambrian (Archaean and Proterozoic) age, whereas the
Himalayan region bears mostly younger rocks (Phanerozoic) that are
82
Experiment 6 Preparation of Physiographic Map of India
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
structurally deformed. However, a large part of the Indo-Gangetic plains is
covered by Recent (Holocene) alluvium.
India is characterised by a great diversity in its physical features and
physiographically, divided into following divisions (Fig. 6.1):
 Himalayan mountain system
 Indo-Gangetic plains
 Peninsular plateau
 Indian desert
 Coastal regions
Fig. 6.1: Map showing physiographic divisions of India.
6.3.1 Himalayan Mountain System

The Himalayan range is one of the longest systems of mountain chains in the
world. It extends for over 2500 km from Pamir in the west to Mishmi Hills in the
east (Fig. 6.1). It is an arcuate range with convexity to the south and its width
83
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ranges from 150 to 400 km. There are two major knee-bends in the range, one
to the west around Nanga Parbat and the other to the east at Namcha Barwa
and these are commonly referred to as syntaxialbends. The northern margin
of the Himalaya is marked by a lineament known as Indus-Tsangpo Suture
Zone (Fig. 6.2).
Fig. 6.2: Map showing major ranges of the Himalaya. (Source: simplified after
Kumar, 1988)
The Himalaya can be linearly divided into five parallel ranges from north to
south, which are separated by deep valleys and plateaus (Fig. 6.2). They are:
i) Trans Himalaya: It consists of southern region of Asian plate and
northernmost part of the India plate. It is located north of the Tethys
Himalaya and mainly developed in the northern Ladakh (Jammu and
Kashmir) and the northernmost Pakistan. Its height ranges from 3000 to
6000 m and consists of Kohistan, Shyok, Karakoram regions. The Trans
Himalaya is also known as the Tibet Himalaya because its major portion
occurs in Tibet.
ii) Tethys Himalaya: It is the northernmost region extending partly into Tibetan
plateau. It consists of a plateau region over 3000 m in height sloping gently
northwards. Stratigraphically, it is composed of sedimentary rocks of almost
all ages. The contact of the Tethyan and Greater Himalaya is termed as
Tethyan Thrust.
iii) Greater Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Tethys Himalaya and is the
highest part of Himalaya. It bears some of the highest mountain peaks
(ranging from 6000 to 8000 m) including the Mount Everest. Greater
Himalaya is made up mainly of deformed (crystalline) metamorphic rocks.
The Main Central Thrust demarcates the boundary between the Greater and
Lesser Himalaya.
84
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iv) Lesser Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Greater Himalaya. Its height
ranges from 1000 to 2500 m. The PirPanjal, Dhauladhar, Nag Tibba and
Mahabharat are common high ranges of the Lesser Himalaya. The terrain is
characterised by a complex structure consisting of superimposed thrust
sheets and composed mainly of Precambrian metamorphic rocks. The Main
Boundary Thrust demarcates the boundary between the Lesser and Outer
Himalaya.
v) Outer Himalaya: The southern-most part of the Himalaya is called Outer
Himalaya or Sub-Himalaya. Siwalik is one of the predominant ranges of this
part of the Himalaya. It composed mainly of sedimentary rocks of Cenozoic
age. The boundary between the Outer Himalaya and Indo-Gangetic plains is
marked by the Himalayan Frontal Fault.
6.3.2 Indo-Gangetic Plains
The major part of northern and eastern India, lies south of the Himalayan arc
comprises the Indo-Gangetic plains (Fig. 6.1). The plain are formed by the
sediments brought down and deposited by the three Himalayan river systems,
namely, the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra along with their tributaries during
the Recent (Holocene) times. The plains cover the states of Punjab, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and parts
of Rajasthan.
The Indo-Gangetic plains are a flat country comprising mainly the alluvial
sediments, which are not more than 2000 m deep. It is the most fertile region of
the country. It is bounded to north by the Himalayan Frontal Fault, to the south
by the Vindhyan mountain chain and to the southeast by the Satpura
mountains. The Vindhyan and Satpura mountains separate it from the
peninsular part of India.
6.3.3 Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular plateau is more or less a triangular area enclosed within the low
mountain ranges (Fig. 6.1). To the north, it is bounded by the Vindhyan Hills
and to the northeast by the Satpura chain. The Vindhyan Hills comprise low
mountains and plateaus that extend from Gujarat in the west to Bihar in the
east. The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats are the major mountain ranges in
peninsular region of India.
 Western Ghats: These are a continuous chain of hills extending from South
Gujarat to Kerala (Fig. 6.1). The height of the Western Ghats increases from
north to south. Western Ghats constitute the watershed for most peninsular
rivers, notably, the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery, which flow in the
easterly direction into the Bay of Bengal. Beyond the range to the west is the
western coastal area.
 Eastern Ghats: These comprise a chain of detached hills extending from
Odisha to Tamil Nadu (Fig. 6.1) and join the Western Ghats at the Nilgiri
Hills.
Structurally, the Peninsular Plateau forms the India shield consisting of five
cratons i.e.Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand and Aravalli, located in
southern, central, eastern, northern and western peninsular India (Fig. 6.3).
85
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These cratons are largely made up of granite (igneous) as well as gneisses and
migmatites (metamorphic) rocks and separated by the mobile belts, rift valleys
and shear zones.
The east-west trending Son-Narmada-Tapti (SONATA) lineament separates the
Aravalli craton from the Bastar and Singhbhum cratons (Fig. 6.3). The Aravalli
craton lies north of SONATA lineament whereas the Bastar, Singhbhum and
Dharwar cratons lie to its south. The Mahanadi rift separates the Singhbhum
craton from the Bastar craton and Godavari rift separates the Bastar craton
from the Dharwar craton. The Chitradurga Shear Zone separates the West
Dharwar craton from East Dharwar craton. The Satpura Mobile Belt lies to the
north of the Bastar and Singhbhum cratons separating them from the
Bundhelkhand craton. The Aravalli Mobile Belt lies to the west of the
Bundhelkhand craton and separates it from the Aravalli craton. The
Chhotanagpur-Singhbhum Mobile Beltforms the northern boundary of the
Singhbhum craton. The Chhotanagpur Granite-Gneiss Complex is located to
north of the Chhotanagpur-Singhbhum Mobile Belt.
Fig. 6.3: Map of peninsular India showing major cratons and mobile belts.
(Source: simplified after Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008; Sharma,
2009)
86
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
6.3.4 Indian Desert
The Thar Desert occupies a substantial area on the north-western margin of
peninsular India. It lies to the west of the Aravalli mountain chain (Fig. 6.1). The
desert sand occupies a substantial area of western Rajasthan. The sand dunes
of aeolian (wind) origin constitute the main topography of the region. The desert
region also extends into parts of Pakistan. Below the desert sand there are
sedimentary rocks of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age.
6.3.5 Coastal Regions
India has a long coastline of over 5700 km. The coastal regions constitute
mostly the areas beyond the Western and Eastern Ghats. In addition, they also
include Saurashtra coast of Gujarat and Bengal coastline. They can be divided
into two coastal regions:
 Western Coastal Region: It lies along the Arabian Sea and extends from
the Rann of Kachchh in the north to Kanyakumari in the south (Fig. 6.1). The
Rann of Kachchh is a depressed area that gets submerged under sea during
the high tide.
 Eastern Coastal Region: It lies along the Bay of Bengal and extends from
Ganga delta in the north to Kanyakumari in the south (Fig. 6.1). This
coastline is boarder than the western coastline. It is a region of low-lying
area, where sediments derived from the Ghats are deposited. Accordingly, it
bears some depositional landforms of varying thicknesses like deltas of the
Mahanadi, Krishna and Cauvery rivers.

Instructions: Perform the following exercises on your laboratory file/ practical
note book and submit to the counsellor. You canuse the following
mapsprovided in the exercise or take a blank outline map of India from the atlas
and paste it in your practical note book. Alternatively, you can also draw neat
sketch ofthe maps in your practicalnote book.You may use colour pencil for
showing different physiographic and tectonics units.
Exercise 1: Perform the following activities in the blank outline map of India
(Fig. 6.4). You may refer Figure 6.1.
i. Demarcate the five physiographic division of India on the map of India.
ii. Label each physiographic division.
iii. List the states covered by the Himalayan and peninsular divisions.
iv. List the states covered by the Indo-Gangetic plains and Indian desert.
v. Demarcate the location of the Aravalli, Vindhyan, Satpura and Sahyadri
mountain ranges and also label the same on the map.
Exercise 2: A map showing the Himalayan division is given below (Fig. 6.5).
Perform the following activities, you may refer Figure 6.2.
i. Demarcate the location of the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, Trans Himalaya,
Tethys Himalaya, Greater Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya and Outer Himalaya.
87
…………………………………………………………....……………………………….….............….….........
ii. Locate the typical tectonic features comprising the Tethyan Thrust, Main
Central Thrust, Main Boundary Thrust and Himalayan Frontal Fault.
Fig. 6.4: An outline map of India.
Fig. 6.5: Map showing northern India including the Himalayan physiographic
division.
88
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Exercise 3: Perform the following activities on the blank outline map of India
(Fig. 6.6). You may refer Figure 6.3.
i. Demarcate the boundaries of five cratons (Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum,
Bundelkhand and Aravalli) and label the same.
ii. Locate and label the tectonic features comprising mobile belts, rift valleys
and shear zones associated with the five cratons.
6.4 REFERENCES
 Kumar, R. (1988) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Ramakrishnan, M. and Vaidyanadhan, R. (2008), Geology of India Vol. 1
and 2, Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
 Sharma, R.S. (2009) Cratons and Fold Belts of India, Lecture Notes in Earth
Sciences, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Germany.
 Unit-3: Physiography of India of the course BGYCT-137Stratigraphy and
Palaeontology.
89
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90
EXPERIMENT 7
PREPARATION OF
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC MAP
OF INDIA
Outline of Experiment____________________________________
7.1 Introduction 7.3 Stratigraphy of India: An Overview
7.2 Requirements 7.5 References
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have prepared maps showing the physiographic divisions of India.
The study of the physiographic divisions is useful to understand the stratigraphicarrangement
orspatial distribution of rock record of India from Precambrian to Present (Holocene). The
Precambrian and Mesozoic rock units are extensively present in Peninsular India. You also find
the coal-rich Gondwanan rocks in the Peninsular India. The Himalayan physiographic division
contains tectonically highly deformed rock record of the whole geological time. Mesozoic rocks are
widely distributed in Indian/Thar desert comprising portions of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
The geological mapping is an essential component of stratigraphy. The stratigraphic units along
with their spatial coverage and boundaries as well as order of sequence (older to younger) are
determined during the geological mapping. Finally, a geological map shows us which stratigraphic
unit is where and its relationship to the surrounding units. In lithostratigraphy, we organise rock
strata into different lithostratigraphic units based on their lithological characters. The supergroup,
group, formation, member and bed are the main lithostratigraphic units from higher to lower ranks.
…………………………………………………………....……………………………….….............….….........
In this experiment, you will prepare lithostratigraphic maps showing main
stratigraphic units of India.
Expected Learning Skills___________________________________

 plot main stratigraphic units on the map of India;
 describe their spatial distribution;
 differentiate between lithology and lithostratigraphy;
 identify continuous and interrupted sedimentary successions; and
 recognise tectonic features controlling major Indian stratigraphic units.
7.2 REQUIREMENTS
 Pen, pencil, colour pencils, eraser, sharpener, scale, stencil and hand lens.
Instructions:You are required to study Block 2 of BGYCT-137 course
7.3 STRATIGRAPHY OF INDIA: AN OVERVIEW

The stratigraphic record of India is extensive, covering the entire span of the
geological time scale from Precambrian to Recent. Among the five
physiographic divisions of India, the three, namely, peninsular plateau, extra-
peninsular (Himalaya) region and Indo-Gangetic plains cover most of the areas
of the country and hence, the stratigraphic successions. Let us discuss
important stratigraphic units of geology of India.
The Precambrian rocks of peninsular Indiarepresent oldest rock deposits
consisting of the Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand and Aravalli
cratons. The Proterozoic sedimentary basins of peninsular India comprise the
intra-cratonic basins. The main largest Proterozoic basins are the Vindhyan,
Cuddapah, Chhattisgarh and Aravalli known as Vindhyan Supergroup,
Cuddapah Supergroup, Chhattisgarh Supergroup and Delhi Supergroup (Fig.
7.1).
Among all the cratons, the Dharwar craton is one of the classical and best-
studied terrains of the peninsular India. It is bounded to the south by the
Pandyan mobile belt (PMB), to the north by Deccan traps, to the north-east by
Karimnagar Granulite Belt (KGB), to the east by Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt
(EMBG) and to the west by Arabian Sea. It is divided into two cratons, viz.
Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) and Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC). The
WDC and EDC are separated by Chitradurga Shear Zone. The main geological
features of the Dharwar craton are shown in Figure 7.2.
92
Experiment 7 Preparation of Lithostratigraphic Map of India
……………………….…………………………………………………………………………….….............…...
Fig. 7.1: Map of India showing major Proterozoic supergroups of peninsular India.
Fig. 7.2: Essential features of the Dharwar Craton. Abbreviation: WDC- Western
Dharwar Craton and EDC-Eastern Dharwar Craton. (Source: simplified
from Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008)
93
…………………………………………………………....……………………………….….............….….........
The Vindhyan Supergroup is the spectacular, sickle shaped largest single

Proterozoic basin in the peninsularregion. It spreads over the parts of
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar extending from Sasaram
in Bihar to Chittaurgarh in Rajasthan. It has been divided into four groups,
i.e.Semri,Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander (Fig. 7.3).
Fig. 7.3: The regional geological map of the Vindhyan Supergroup. (Source: Soni
et al., 1987)
Marine Palaeozoic rocks are restricted to the Himalayan region except a few
minor marine excursions of Cambrian age occurred in peninsular India. These
marine Palaeozoic outcrops present in Umaria and Jabalpur areas of Madhya
Pradesh and Bikaner-Nagaur area of Rajasthan. The Palaeozoic marine rocks
are exposed in Kashmir and Zanskar in Jammu and Kashmir, Spiti in Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Arunachal Pradesh.
It is noted that from the Upper Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous, the

peninsular India witnessed the huge deposition of freshwater sediments in
numerous interconnected inland basins, which are collectively known as
Gondwana Supergroup. The rocks of the Gondwana Supergroup in
peninsular India mainly occur in the four isolated patches represented by linear
tracts. These tracts are Koel-Damodar basin of West Bengal and Jharkhand,
Son-Mahanadi basin of Chhatisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, Satpura basin of
Madhya Pradesh and Pranhita-Godavari basin of Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh (Fig. 7.4). In the Himalayan region, a linear belt of the Lower
Gondwana rocks occurs along the Himalayan foot-hills of Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh and also in the Kashmir valley (Fig. 7.4).
94
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Fig. 7.4: Map showing peninsular and the Himalayan Gondwanan basins of India.
(Source: simplified after Naqvi, 2005)
The Gondwana Supergroup is divided into the Lower Gondwana Sequence

(Upper Palaeozoic) and the Upper Gondwana Sequence (Mesozoic) as shown
in Figure 7.5.
Fig. 7.5: Distribution of Lower and Upper Gondwana sequences in the major
Gondwana basins of India.
95
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The freshwater Gondwana rocks extend into Mesozoic and constitute an
important element in the peninsular India. Apart from these, the Mesozoic rocks
deposited in marine conditions also occur in the peninsular India. They
constitute the coastal facies of rocks that were deposited as a result of marine
incursions or transgressions along the western and eastern coasts of the
peninsula. These marine incursions took place at different intervals of Jurassic
and Cretaceous, depositing marine rocks in Gujarat and Rajasthan constituting
the Kachchh and Jaisalmer basins. In addition, one incursion during
Cretaceous extended almost to the central part of India along the Narmada
region led to development of the marine Bagh and the overlying freshwater
Lameta formations. The volcanic rocks of Cretaceous age comprising Rajmahal
and Deccan traps occur in the eastern and central peninsular India, respectively
(Fig. 7.6).
The Rajmahal traps are located in the eastern Jharkhand and are of Lower
Cretaceous age. The Deccan traps cover a vast area of the peninsular India
including Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan and are of Upper Cretaceous to Lower
Palaeocene in age.
Fig.7.6: Map showing major Mesozoic basins of India.
The Mesozoicrocks of Jaisalmer basin are represented by the sixformations,i.e.

Lathi, Jaisalmer, Baisakhi, Bedesar, Pariwar, and Abur as shown in Figure 7.7.
It also yields Khuiala Formation of Palaeogene (Fig. 7.7).
96
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Fig. 7.7: Map of the Jaisalmer basin showing seven formations. (Source: modified
after Das Gupta, 1975)
Along the eastern coast, Cretaceous rocks are exposed in the Cauvery basin in
Ariyalur (Tamil Nadu) and Pudducherry. The rock succession of the Cauvery
basin in Tamil Nadu is divided into four groups, namely, Uttattur, Trichinopoly,
Ariyalur and Niniyur (Fig. 7.8). The Cauvery basin also yields the Niniyur
Formation (Palaeocene) and Cuddalore Formation (Miocene) of Lower
Cenozoic (Fig. 7.8).
Fig. 7.8: Geological map of the Cauvery basin showing four groups. (Source:
modified after Sundaram er al., 2001)
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In Himalaya, the Neogene successions are developed in two geographically
separated areas:
Sub-Himalaya; and
Lesser Himalaya.
The Neogene rocks of the Sub-Himalaya are termed as the Siwalik Group
whereas in the Lesser Himalaya, the Neogene sediments are known as Karewa
Formation. Among them, the Siwalik Group is one of the dominant groups of
the Neogene rocks in the northwest Himalaya. It is exposed throughout a linear
belt along the Himalayan foothills between the river Indus in the west and the
Brahmaputra gorge in the east except for a small break near Sikkim. The group
is well developed in Haritalyanagar area of Himachal Pradesh and Tawi valley
in Jammu province of Jammu and Kashmir. The Siwalik Group is a rich store
house of fossils. It is divided into three subgroups such as Lower Siwalik,
Middle Siwalik and Upper Siwalik (Fig. 7.9).
Fig. 7.9: Geological map showing three subgroups of the Siwalik Group and
Murree Group, Jammu province of Jammu and Kashmir. (Source:
modified after Rao and Rao, 1979)

Instruction: You will have to prepare the maps showing various geologic units
of India. For this purpose, you can use blank outline map of India provided in
the exercises, or take a blank map of India from the atlas and paste the same in
your practical notebook. You can also draw neat sketch of the map of India on
your practical notebook. Prepare maps given in the following exercises and
write their answers in your practical note-book and submit to the counselor. You
may use colour pencil.
Exercise 1: Plot the spatial extent of the Vindhyan, Cuddapah and
Chhattisgarh supergroups on the map of India (Fig. 7.11). You may refer Figure
7.1 for the plotting of these supergroups.
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Exercise 2: Label the essential features of the Dharwar craton in the map of
southern India (Fig. 7.12). You may refer Figure 7.2.
Answers the following questions:
i. Is there any mobile belt? If yes, writes its name.
ii. Is there any shear zone? If yes, writes its name.
iii. Name the tectonic feature that separates the Eastern Dharwar craton from
the Western Dharwar craton.
iv. Identity various geologic units of the Dharwar craton and write their name.
Exercise 3: A outline map of the Vindhyan Supergroup (Fig. 7.13) is given
below. Demarcate its four groups on the map along with the Bijawar Group,
Precambrian basement and Gondwana Supergroup. Use colour pencils to
represent these stratigraphic units.
Answers the following questions:
i. Write the name of the oldest and youngest groups.
ii. Name the group having maximum spatial coverage.
iii. Name the group having minimum spatial coverage.
99
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Fig. 7.12: Map of southern India showing outline of the Dharwar craton.
Fig. 7.13: Map showing outline of the Vindhyan Supergroup.
Exercise 4: Perform the following activities.You may refer Figure 7.5.

i. List the name of the basins and localities where you find the Gondwana
Supergroup.
ii. Plot the basins and localities of the Gondwana Supergroup on the map of
India (Fig. 7.14).
100
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Exercise 5: Perform the following activities. You may refer Figure 7.6.
Answer the following:
i. Name the two sequences of the Gondwana Supergroup of peninsular India.
ii. Draw the map of peninsular India (or use the map given in Fig. 7.15) and
locate main basinsyielding Gondwana rocks.
iii. Demarcate two sequences of the Gondwana Supergroup on the map.
iv. Name the basin which has maximum spatial coverage of the Gondwana
Supergroup.
Fig. 7.15: An outline of southeastern map of India.

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Exercise 6: Plot the prominent Mesozoic basins and volcanics of the
peninsular India such as Cauvery basin, Narmada basin, Kachchh basin,
Jaisalmer basin, Rajmahal traps and Deccan traps on the map of India
(Fig.7.16). Find out which geologic unit has maximum spatial coverage.
Fig. 7.17: An outline map of the Jaisalmer basin.

102
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Exercise 7: Perform the following activities. You may refer Figure 7.8.
i. List the seven formations of the Jaisalmer basin.
ii. Identify their spatial distribution in the map (Fig. 7.17).
Exercise 8: Perform the following activities. You may refer to Figure 7.9.
i. List the three Cretaceous groups and two Palaeocene-Miocence formations
of the Cauvery basin.
ii. Plot the areal extent of each group on the map (Fig. 7.18).
iii. Look at the contact lines shown between groups boundary, find out order of
superposition of the succession from older to younger.
Fig. 7.18: An outline map of the Cauvery basin.
Fig. 7.19: An outline map showing the Siwalik and Murree groups of the Jammu
province, Jammu and Kashmir.
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Exercise 8: Demarcate the subgroups of the Siwalik Group and Murree Group
on the map shown in Fig 7.19.You may refer Figure 7.10.
7.5 REFERENCES
 Das Gupta, S. K. 1975. Revision of the Mesozoic–Tertiary stratigraphy of
the Jaisalmer Basin Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Earth Sciences 2: 77–94.
 Naqvi, S.M. 2005, Geology and Evolution of the Indian Plate (From Hadean
to Holocene – 4 Ga to 4 Ka), Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Rao, V.V.K., Rao, R.P. 1979. Geology of the Tertiary belt of north-west
Himalaya, Jammu and Kashmir State, India. Geological Survey of India,
Miscellaneous Publication 41: 149-174.
 Sundaram, R., Henderson, R.A., Ayyasami, K., Stilwell, J.D., 2001. A
lithostratigraphic revision and palaeoenvironmental assessment of the
Cretaceous System exposed in the onshore Cauvery Basin, southern India.
Cretaceous Research 22: 743-762.
 Soni, M.K., Chakraborty, S. and Jain, V. K. (1987) Vindhyan Supergroup-A
Review. In: (B.P. Radhakrishnan) Purana Basins of Peninsular India.
Memoir 6, Geological Society of India. Pp. 87-138.
 Vaidyanadhan, R. and Ramakrishnan, M. 2010, Geology of India, Volume II,
Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
 Unit-4: Precambrian of India of the course BGYCT-137Stratigraphy and
Palaeontology.
 Unit-5: Palaeozoic of India of the course BGYCT-137Stratigraphy and
Palaeontology.
 Unit-6: Mesozoic of India of the course BGYCT-137Stratigraphy and
Palaeontology.
 Unit 7: Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps of the course BGYCT-
137Stratigraphy and Palaeontology.
 Unit-8: Cenozoic of Himalaya of the course BGYCT-137 Stratigraphy and
Palaeontology.
104
EXPERIMENT 8
PREPARATION OF
STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMNS
8.1 Introduction 8.4 Laboratory Exercises
Expected Learning Skills 8.5 References
8.2 Requirements
8.3 Basic Concepts
Stratigraphic Columns
Construction of Stratigraphic Columns
Uses
Stratigraphic Correlation
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have prepared geological maps showing various stratigraphic
units of India. The Dharwar craton, Vindhyan Supergroup, Cuddapah Supergroup,Gondwana
Supergroup, Cauvery basin, Jaisalmer basin, Deccan traps, Siwalik Group and Murree Group
were the stratigraphic units that you had worked with. Now, you are well aware about the temporal
and spatial distribution of some of the stratigraphic units of India.
It is important to note that in the field we collect stratigraphic data to know the history and nature
of the rock succession. We collect data in a systematic manner so as to know how the rocks were
deposited and what changes took place after their deposition and where similar kind of rock units
formed in other basins both at regional and global scale. The collected data also helps us to know
about the nature of basins in which deposition took place. There are various graphical methods to
represent the collected data. Among them, preparation of stratigraphic columns is one of the
basic and essential methods in stratigraphy. In this experiment, you will prepare columns of
various stratigraphic sections.
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Expected Learning Skills___________________________

 construct stratigraphic columns of rock successions;
 identify bedding contacts within the rock successions; and
 correlate the various rock successions within/between the basins.
8.2 REQUIREMENTS
 Pen, pencil, colour pencils, eraser, sharpener, scale, stencil and hand lens.
Instructions: You are required to study Units 1and 2 of BGYCT-137 course
8.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

As you are aware that Geology is a field science. Field serves as a natural
laboratory for geologists where they can observe the physical features and
understand various processes that have continuously been operating on the
Earth’s surface. The surface of the earth is made up of three types of rocks
such as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Among them, the sedimentary
rocks are main concern to many stratigraphic studies. However, it does not
mean that the igneous and metamorphic rocks do not come under the domain
of stratigraphy. For stratigraphic studies, we usually go to the field where
sedimentary rock successions are well exposed and provide ample opportunity
to observe and record various sedimentological and stratigraphical
observations as well as to make different measurements.
8.3.1 Stratigraphic Columns
In the field, we collect stratigraphic data consisting of various observations and
measurements of rock successions. Normally, we take data on six basic
aspects of sedimentary rocks in the field for almost all types of stratigraphic
purposes (Tucker, 1982). It includes the measurements of thickness of each
bed/layer/rock unit in centimeter (cm), meter (m) or kilometer (km) of the rock
succession. The thickness of a bed is measured by putting a measuring tape
perpendicularly at the lower bedding plane where the bed starts to the upper
bedding plane where the bed ends. Such measurement gives its true thickness.
Recognising lithology (i.e., rock type) likes sandstone, limestone, siltstone or
shale for each bed is the second aspect of the data collection in any
sedimentary rock succession. Other aspects include the recording texture
(grain-size), sedimentary structures, stratigraphic contacts and boundaries,
fossils and colour of each bed present within a rock succession. It should be
kept in the mind that we always start examining the rock succession from the
base then we go towards the top in the field. It is based on the fact that the rock
106
Experiment 8 Preparation of Stratigraphic Columns
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layers lying at the base are oldest and deposited first whereas those lying
above are younger and deposited later by following the order of superposition.
There are several graphical methods to represent stratigraphic data. It may be
noted that presenting stratigraphic data by preparing stratigraphic columns is a
basic and extensively used method in stratigraphy. Indeed, this method is still in
practice.
 Definition of Stratigraphic Column
Stratigraphic column is a graphical method used to represent the measured

stratigraphic section data of a sedimentary rock succession. Stratigraphic
columns are also known as graphic logs, litho-columns and columnar sections.
They depict stratigraphic relations of different beds of a rock succession in one
dimension i.e. vertical, with respect to height or depth, and commonly to be
drawn on plane or graph paper to a specific scale as per the actual thickness of
the rock succession and its constituent beds. Thus, a stratigraphic column
shows the vertical position of the different rock units, where the oldest bedlies
at the base and youngest at the top of the column. The various lithologies (rock
types) are shown by using a system of conventional globally accepted symbols,
for example, the limestone is shown by brickwork, sandstone by dots and
siltstone by horizontal broken lines and dots. The lithologic symbols for
common sedimentary rocks are shown in Figure 8.1. It is to be noted that all
stratigraphic columns are more or less similar and all are drawn against the
thickness of all beds of a rock succession measured in the field. Importantly,
stratigraphic columns may differ from one another based on scale at which they
are drawn and amount of the information they represent (Weller, 1960).
Fig. 8.1: Lithologic symbols of common sedimentary rocks for stratigraphic

columns.
8.3.2 Construction of Stratigraphic Columns

The construction of stratigraphic columns can be made by using two types of
observations;
i. actual field observations, where a geologist can actually look at the rocks in
the field and take measurements, and
ii. based on observations made from well logs during the drilling of the well.
It is to be noted that well logs come from rocks that are mostly 5 kms or more
below the surface of the earth; hence, we are not able to see actual position of
these rocks.
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The following steps are to be performed for constructing a stratigraphic column
for the rock sequence that are exposed along a cliff where the total thickness
can be measured at right angle to the bedding plane.
Step 1: Take bed-wise measured thickness data of all the beds of a rock
succession and appreciate the total thickness of the succession. For example,
we have a rock succession of 80 m thick, consisting of four beds such as shale
(16 m thick), mudstone (20 m thick), sandstone (30 m thick) and siltstone (14 m
thick) from base to top as data for the construction of column of the Section A.
Step 2: Prepare your graph paper and select the grids of the graph paper on its
left side and mark with pencil where you wish to construct the column as shown
in Figure 8.2a.
Step 3: Keeping the total thickness of the rock succession in mind, thickness of
individual beds and amount of information that can be shown in columns: you
have to choose a suitable vertical scale so that whole succession and all its
constituent beds could be shown properly in the column. Please note that the
vertical scale represents the relationship between distance on a stratigraphic
column and distance on the ground. Therefore, familiarity with vertical scale is
very important to know the thickness of the succession (including its rock units)
represented on a column and relative distances between them. During the
process of scaling down of a stratigraphic column, every part of the column
should be of same scale/amount, so that every unit/bed appears on the map is
in same proportion. Take an example of the data mentioned in Step 1 for
Section A; you can use 1 cm= 5mas a vertical scale. It means 1 cm thickness of
a bed on a column represents 5 m vertically thick rock unit on the ground. Note
that there is no set rule for selecting the scale and can be selected on the basis
of size of the data.
Step 4: Draw a vertical line of 16 cm long on the left side of the graph paper as
shown in Figure 8.2a. Take 1 cm = 5 m as a vertical scale as mentioned in Step
3. Start from the base of the vertical line, mark first point at regular intervals like
0, 5, 10, 15, 20, …… 80 as shown in Figure 8.2a. As we have taken 1 cm = 5 m
as a vertical scale, it means, the distance from 0 to 5 is equal to 1 cm on the
paper and 5 m on the ground. Therefore, the numerical values from 0 to 80 are
in m as shown in Figure 8.2a.
Step 5: Now take the data of the Section A from the Step 1, where the shale
represents the oldest bed and the siltstone is the youngest. Read the base of
vertical line as 0 m as shown in Figure 8.2c, and mark a point at 16 m. The 0 m
represents the start of shale bed and 16 m point marks its end. Similarly, the
points for other beds can be marked by using the same rule by taking their
thickness into account (Fig. 8.2c).
Step 6: Draw horizontal lines from each point where there is a lithological
change and extend them towards the right side. You may keep 2 cm length of
each horizontal line as shown in Figure 8.2c. Now, draw an irregular or a zig-
zag line joining all right ends of the horizontal lines to the right side of the
vertical line (Fig. 8.3a). The zig-zag line is drawn following the pattern of rocks
based on their hardness to erosion. The basic reason behind the drawing of
irregular or zig-zag right vertical line is that some sedimentary rocks such as
108
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sandstone and limestone are hard as compared to other soft and weaker
sedimentary rocks like shale or marl. Thus, they are more resistant and
extending forward than that of soft and weaker rocks in the field. In this way,
you can prepare stratigraphic column appropriately that will depict the real
position of the rock succession on the paper.
Fig. 8.2: Construction of a stratigraphic column on a graph paper: a) Graph

showing selection of vertical scale and drawing of a vertical line; b)
Graph showing the points representing the beginning and end of rock
units along the vertical line; and c) Graph showing the plot of horizontal
lines denoting the boundary between different rock units.
Step 7: Now, after construction of stratigraphic column, the next step is to

assign lithologic symbols for each rock unit. Refer Figure 8.1, and accordingly,
the various lithologic symbols are filled in columns (Fig. 8.3b).
Step 8: Write name of the section at the top of the sheet or paper. Prepare
legend for each rock unit as shown in Figure 8.3b.
109
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Fig. 8.3: Construction of a stratigraphic column on a graph paper: a) Graph

showing the joining of all right end points of horizontal lines by an
irregular vertical line and b) Graph showing a complete stratigraphic
column.
8.3.3 Uses
The stratigraphic columns are primarily prepared to show the actual thickness
of the rock succession and its consistent beds. They are preparedin order to
systematically and orderly describe the lithology of various beds and to locate
accurate positions from where the fossils and rocks samples are taken. In
addition, the stratigraphic columns are useful to infer the repetition of the beds,
grading of the sequence, types of depositional environments (fluvial, arid or
glacial) and making the stratigraphic correlation between various rock
successions to find whether they are geologically related.
8.3.4 Stratigraphic Correlation
Let us discuss more about stratigraphic correlation. Suppose, you have
constructed stratigraphic columns of different sites of a wide area, then next
step will be to correlate these columns. As you know the principle of lateral
continuity states that rock beds can be traced across a wide area. Therefore,
stratigraphic correlation – connecting similar rock beds, is the best means to
reconstruct the geological history of an area.
110
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Correlation is a procedure to indicate correspondence between geographically
separated geologic units of rocks. The correspondence can be in the character
and stratigraphic position of the rocks. The correspondence can be of various
types like correspondence in lithology, fossil content and time of deposition.
Thus, correlation is dependent on what kind of equivalence can be established
according to the character of the rocks to be equated. The scope of correlation
is different in different sequences and the interpretation depends on the type of
correlation undertaken.
 Lithostratigraphic Correlation: The methods that to be applied for
correlation depends on what type of correlation is needed or possible in
various stratigraphic sequences. The easiest correlation is the
lithostratigraphic correlation whereby similar rock units or key beds are used
to determine the correspondence between two separated sequences. Key
beds are the marker beds with a characteristic lithology that may extend for
considerable distances and may help in marking a stratigraphic position. In
lithostratigraphic correlation, it is the usual practice to classify one sequence
on the basis of lithology into formations and even members if possible, and
to identify the key beds or marker beds and unconformities if any. Then
these marker horizons are located in the other sequences. Accordingly, the
correspondence between the first sequence and the second sequence is
established. The correspondence may not be necessarily identical because
lithological units are known to thicken or thin out or sometimes even vanish
as we follow them laterally. But a general correlation is possible while
registering the lateral changes.
While lithological correlation is relatively easy, it has to be understood that this
correlation is only of a local nature and may not be applicable or useful for long
distances. The lithological similarity can be possible only if the deposition has
taken place in a single basin (Fig. 8.4). If the basins of deposition are different
then the lithological similarity may not be there nor can the same key beds exist
in different basins.
Fig. 8.4: Lithostratigraphic correlation of three sites namely A, B and C. Dotted

lines indicate correlation. Note that shale bed is absent at sites A and B,
but it is present at site C. Unconformity above the conglomerate bed
marked by wavy line can represent a marker bed. The distance between
sites A and B and sites B and C is 10 kms
111
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 Biostratigraphic Correlation: Biostratigraphic correlation is based on the
fossil content of the rocks. It is more a precise and accurate correlation that
can be applied for long distances or even widely separated sequences that
may have been deposited in different basins. In biostratigraphic correlation,
we use index fossils or an assemblage of fossils to correlate sedimentary
sequences (Fig. 8.5). Index fossils may be useful within a region or may also
be applicable for long distance correlation, which is called intercontinental
correlation.
Fig. 8.5: Biostratigraphic correlation between two sites A and B. Here the beds
are correlated on the basis of similar fossils. Dotted lines indicate
correlation. In this figure, biozone 1 is characterised by the occurrence of
trilobites and biozone 2 by ammonoids. Note that top of both sites have
different fossil content hence and they cannot be correlated. The wavy
line in site B indicates a depositional break (unconformity)

Instruction: The following exercises involve thickness of beds and rock
successions. You will have to construct their stratigraphic columns. This section
also contains some exercises for correlating various stratigraphic columns
based on their lithology and fossil content. For representing various types of
lithologies in the columns, use standard lithological symbols shown in Figure
8.1.
Exercise 1: Prepare a stratigraphic column for data given below:
Rock Succession Bed Thickness (in meters)

Conglomerate 20
Shale 8
A Siltstone 12
Marl 8
Mudstone 10
Sandstone 20
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Answer the followings:
i) What is the total thickness of the rock succession?
ii) Write the total number of beds the succession contains.
i) Name the oldest and the youngest beds of the succession.
ii) Which stratigraphic principle has helped you to find out your answer?
iii) Is there any repetition of beds in the succession? If yes, write their names.
Rock Succession Bed Thickness (in meters)

Limestone 25
B Shale 15
Limestone 30
Shale 12
Sandstone 18

i) What is the total thickness of the rock succession?
ii) Name the oldest and the youngest beds of the succession.
iii) Is there any repetition of beds in the succession? If yes, write their names.
iv) Is there any similarity between rock succession A and B?
Rock Succession Bed Fossil Thickness (in meters)

Content
Dolostone No fossil 15
Siltstone Gastropods 18
C and dinosaurs
Sandstone Dinosaurs 40
Shale Bivalves and 15

brachiopods
Limestone Foraminifers 20

i) What is total thickness of the rock succession?
ii) Name the oldest fossil-bearing beds.
iii) Is there any repetition of beds in the succession?
iv) Based on fossil content infer the environment of deposition for each bed.
Exercise 4: Prepare two separate stratigraphic columns for data given below
and perform the lithostratigraphic correlation:
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Rock Succession D Bed Thickness (in meters)

Limestone 28
Siltstone 16
Section 1
Shale 10
Sandstone 18
Conglomerate 22
Limestone 24
Siltstone 18
Section 2
Shale 8
Sandstone 16
Conglomerate 20
Note: The distance between the Section 1 and Section 2 is 12 kms.

i) Do both sites have the same thickness? If no, what is the difference?
ii) Write the name of the oldest and the youngest beds for each site.
iii) Is there any bed missing in Site 2, which is present in Site 1?
Exercise 5: Prepare three separate stratigraphic columns for data given below
and perform the lithostratigraphic correlation:
Rock Succession D Bed Thickness (in

meters)
Limestone 28
Section 1 Siltstone 16
Shale 10
Sandstone 18
Conglomerate 22
Section 2 Limestone 24
Siltstone 18
Shale 8
Sandstone 16
Conglomerate 20
Section 3 Limestone 22
Siltstone 15
Sandstone 15
Conglomerate 18
Note: The distance among the Section 1, Section 2 and Section 3 is 12 kms.
114
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i) Have you found any missing bed in any section? If yes, write the name of
the section and the missing bed.
ii) Was the deposition in three sections continuous?
Exercise 6: Prepare two separate stratigraphic columns for data given below
and perform the biostratigraphic correlation:
Rock Succession Bed Fossil content Thickness (in

E meters)
Shale Foraminifers 28
Section 1 Siltstone No fossil 16
Limestone Trilobites 10
Sandstone brachiopods 18
Conglomerate No fossil 22
Section 2 Shale Foraminifers 24
Siltstone No fossil 18
Sandstone brachiopods 16
Note: The distance between the Section 1 and Section 2 is 500 kms.
i) Name the beds containing fossils.
ii) Which correlation (biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic) you find more
accurate and why?
Exercise 7: Prepare three separate stratigraphic columns for data given below
and perform the biostratigraphic correlation:
Rock Succession E Bed Fossil content Thickness

(in meters)
Shale Foraminifers 28
Section 1 Siltstone No fossil 16
Sandstone Brachiopods 18
Sandstone Brachiopods 16
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Note: The distance between the Section 1, Section 2 and Section 3 is 500 kms.
i) Have you found any missing bed in any section? If yes, write the name of
the section and the missing bed/s.
ii) At which level (oldest/intermediate/youngest) beds are missing.
iii) What would you infer after performing biostratigraphic correlation about age
and deposition of the beds?
7.5 REFERENCES
 Tucker, M.E. 1982. The Field Description of Sedimentary Rocks. Open
University Press, England.
 Weller, J.M. 1960. Stratigraphic Principles and Practice. Harper & Brother
Publishers, New York.
 Unit-1: Principles of stratigraphy of the course BGYCT-137Stratigraphy and
Palaeontology.
 Unit-2: Stratigraphic Classification of the course BGYCT-137Stratigraphy
and Palaeontology.
116
NOTES
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NOTES
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NOTES
119
NOTES
120
NOTES
121
Dear Learner,
While studying the laboratory course BGYCL-138 (Stratigraphy and Palaeontology: Laboratory),
you may have found certain portions of the text difficult to comprehend. We wish to know your
difficulties and suggestions, in order to improve the course. Therefore, we request you to please
fill out and send us the following questionnaire, which pertains to this course (i.e., BGYCL-138).
If you find the space provided is insufficient, kindly use a separate sheet.
Please mail to:

Course Coordinator BGYCL-138
Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi
New Delhi – 110068 (India)
Questionnaire
1. Name: ______________________________________________________________________
2. Enrolment No.
3. Regional centre code and name: __________________________________________________
4. Study centre code and name: _____________________________________________________
5. How many hours did you spend for performing the each experiment?
Course BGYCL-138 (Stratigraphy and Palaeontology: Laboratory)

Experiment
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
no.
No. of hours
6. Please give your reactions (by ‘√’ mark) to the following items based on your reading of the
laboratorycourse:
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poor
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(Diagrams, Tables
etc.)
Conceptual Clarity
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Questions (SAQ)
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7. Your specific comments on the course BGYCL-138

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Bgycl 138

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BGYCL-138

Block Preparation Team

Transformation: Dr. Omkar Verma (Experiments 1 to 5)

• Attendance is compulsory in the Laboratory Course work

• To successfully complete the laboratory course you will

Guidelines for Performing the Experiments

Title(s) Day Session

GUIDED EXPERIMENT S. No.

Experiment 1: Morphological characters, systematic

Experiment 2: Morphological characters, systematic

Experiment 3: Morphological characters, systematic

Experiment 4: Morphological characters, systematic

Experiment 5: Morphological characters, systematic

Experiment 7: Preparation of lithostratigraphic maps of

ASSIGNED UNGUIDED EXPERIMENT 7 TEPE

Expected Learning Skills__________________________

1.3 BRACHIOPODS: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

1.4 COMMON GENERA

(a) (b) (c)

Stratigraphic Range: Silurian to Jurassic.

(a) (b) (c)

Stratigraphic Range: Devonian to Triassic.

(a) (b) (c)

Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1.7: Photograph of Terebratella. (Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University,

Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Recent.

Stratigraphic Range: Cambrian to Ordovician.

Stratigraphic Range: Orodovician to Recent.

(a) (b) (c)

Stratigraphic Range: Ordovician to Silurian.

1.5 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BEFORE

1.6 LABORATORY EXERCISES

1.7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1.9 FURTHER SUGGESTED READINGS

2.3 BIVALVES: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

Orientation of the bivalve shell

(a) (b) (c)

The bivalve shells lacking dentitions are termed as edentulous shells.

2.4 COMMON GENERA

Stratigraphic Range: Carboniferous to Recent.

(a) (b) (c)

Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Recent.

(a) (b) (c)

Stratigraphic Range: Palaeocene to Recent.

Morphological Description: The shells of Arca are equivalved, inequilateral,

Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Present.

(a) (b) (c)

Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Cretaceous.

2.5 LABORATORY EXERCISES

i. Draw the sketch of the specimen on your practical note-book.

iii. Write its systematic position or palaeontology.

iv. Briefly, describe the morphology of the shell.

1.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1.8 FURTHER SUGGESTED READINGS

Expected Learning Skills____________________________

3.3 CEPHALOPODS: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

Fig. 3.1: Shell of a nautiloid: a) showing internal morphology, and b) enlarged

Table 3.1: Types of nautiolids shells.

Fig. 3.2: Shells of a nautiloids showing various shell forms: a) Orthoceracone, b)

3.3.3 Geological History of Nautiloids

Fig. 3.3: Shell of an ammonoid showing morphological features.

In the interior or internal surface of the shell, phragmocone comprises a number